SyntaxTests for constituent structure

LING 200

Spring 2006

Constituent structure

phrase structure rule: VP V (NP) (PP)tree: VP V NP PP put Det N P NP the car in Det N the garage

Constituent structure

• Where do the PS rules come from?

• Some tests– Structural ambiguity – Coordination– Substitution– Movement

Compositionality

• Meaning of complex expressions is compositional– Meaning of morphologically complex words,

phrases is determined by:• morpheme meaning

• morphological or syntactic structure

Structurally ambiguous words

Adj Adj un Adj V Adj V Adj un V able fold able fold 2 readings (interpretations) of unfoldable:‘not capable of being folded’ ‘capable of being unfolded’

un- negative: Adj[___Adj[ un- ‘reverse’: V[___V[

Announcements and reminders• Syntax homework posted after class, due

next Thurs in section

• Clicker data will be tabulated and posted as soon as possible

• Midterm next Friday– multiple choice– material covered in text, lecture, section

through morphology– review in sections next week

The idea behind compositionality is that

the

mea

ning o

f a c

o...

the

mea

ning o

f a c

o...

the

mea

ning o

f a c

o...

none

of the

abov

e

0% 0%0%0%

1. the meaning of a complex expression is essentially unpredictable

2. the meaning of a complex expression < solely the meaning of its parts

3. the meaning of a complex expression < the meaning of its parts + the way the parts are structured

4. none of the above

Structurally ambiguous headlines

• DEALERS WILL HEAR CAR TALK AT NOON• 2 SISTERS REUNITED AFTER 18 YEARS AT

CHECKOUT COUNTER• HOSPITALS ARE SUED BY 7 FOOT

DOCTORS • SQUAD HELPS DOG BITE VICTIM • HERSHEY BARS PROTEST • ENRAGED COW ATTACKS MAN WITH AXE

‘long vowels or diphthongs in accented syllables have falling tone, high to normal.’

Note: Sahaptin has both long and short diphthongs. Short: [j w iw uj]. Long: [j w iiw uuj].

‘long v

owels

or d

iph...

2 p

ossi

ble m

eanin

gs:...

2 p

ossi

ble m

eanin

gs:...

2 p

ossi

ble m

eanin

gs: ..

.

0% 0%0%0%

1. ‘long vowels or diphthongs’ is not ambiguous

2. 2 possible meanings: ‘long vowels or long diphthongs’, ‘diphthongs or long vowels’

3. 2 possible meanings: ‘vowels or long diphthongs’, ‘diphthongs or long vowels’

4. 2 possible meanings: ‘long vowels or diphthongs’, ‘diphthongs or long vowels’

Structural ambiguity and constituency

“Enraged cow attacks man with axe.”

the real world reading: S NP VP Adj N V NP enraged cow attacks N PP man P NP with N axe

“Enraged cow attacks man with axe.”

the humorous(?) reading:  S NP VP Adj N V NP PP enraged cow attacks N P NP man with N axe

Structural ambiguity and constituency

• “The nomination of Dr. Henry Foster to the Surgeon General’s office appears to be in trouble after he admitted that he had performed at least 39 abortions on TV last night.”

• “he admitted...last night” vs. “he performed abortions…last night”

• More phrase structure rules

– VP V (NP) (PP) (Adv) (CP)• CP = “Complementizer phrase”

– CP Comp S• Comp = “Complementizer”

– Comp that, if, whether

Structural ambiguity and constituency

Structural ambiguity and constituency ‘he performed last night’ reading: S NP VP N V CP he admitted Comp S NP VP N V NP Adv that he performed N last night

abortions

‘he admitted ... last night’ reading  S NP VP N V CP Adv he admitted Comp S last night that NP VP N V NP he performed N abortions

Structural ambiguity

• Adverb placement– Adverbs are an optional VP constituent– Ambiguity results < 2 VPs in this sentence,

multiple possibilities for Adv placement

Summary of structural ambiguity

• Meaning is compositional: meaning of whole < meaning of parts + structure of parts

• Structural ambiguity as a test for syntactic structure– Reading1 < Structure1

– Reading2 < Structure2

Coordination test for constituency

Only identical categories, lexical or phrasal, can be conjoined.

• PS rule schema for conjoined (coordinated) categories– X X Conj X – XP XP Conj XP – Conj (= Conjunction) and, or, but, as well

as, etc.

Conjoined lexical categories

PP P NP

P Conj P Det N PP above and beyond the call P NP of N duty

Conjoined phrasal categories

NP NP Conj NPNP (Det) (Adj) N

NP[Adj[so-so] N[coffee]]

NP[Adj[excellent] N[desserts]]

They have NP[NP[Adj[so-so] N[coffee]] Conj[but]

NP[Adj[excellent] N[desserts]]].

“The student wrote a message and to the professor.” Native speakers, is this a grammatical

sentence?

The

sente

nce is

gra

...

The

sente

nce is

un...

0%0%

1. The sentence is grammatical.

2. The sentence is ungrammatical.

Ungrammatical coordination 1. If conjoined elements do not belong to the same category:

write: V: ___ (NP) (PP)Julia wrote NP[a memo].

Julia wrote PP[to the dean].

*Julia wrote NP[a memo] and PP[to the dean].

Ungrammatical coordination

2. If conjoined elements are not constituents:

Julia wrote NP[a memo].

Julia wrote PP[to the dean].

*Julia wrote NP[a memo] and *[to the].

“John sings badly but plays the guitar beautifully.” Native speakers, is this a

grammatical sentence?

The

sente

nce is

gra

...

The

sente

nce is

un...

0%0%

1. The sentence is grammatical.

2. The sentence is ungrammatical.

Coordination and constituency

Virginia loves syntax. Virginia listened enthusiastically. Virginia loves syntax and listened enthusiastically.

Conclusion: [loves syntax] and [listened enthusiastically] are the same kind of constituent (VP):

VP VP Conj VP V NP and V Adv loves N listened enthusiastically syntax

Coordination and constituency

• I wanted a green truck.• I wanted the same kind of canopy that Virginia

bought.• I wanted a green truck and the same kind of

canopy that Virginia bought.

• Conclusion: [a green truck] and [the same kind of canopy that Virginia bought] are the same kind of constituent:

S NP VP N V NP I wanted NP Conj NP

a green truck and NP CP the same kind of canopy Comp C that Virginia bought

NP NP CP (relative clause)

Coordination and constituency

Virginia wants dinner.Virginia wants Dave to start cooking. *Virginia wants dinner and Dave to start cooking. Conclusion: [Dave to start cooking] is not an NP

NP[dinner]

CP[Dave to start cooking]

Summary of coordination test

• Only like categories can be conjoined.

• Coordination test reveals information about– whether a grouping of words is a constituent– what kind of constituent it is

Substitution test for constituency•Do you know Virginia? No, I haven’t met her yet.

Only constituents can be substituted for with shorter expressions.

•Words that substitute: pro-forms.

NP: substitute with pronoun

A: Old Betsy here just won’t start any more and my wife says to get her out of here.B: Why don’t you donate her?A: My wife?

•her is a pronoun (or anaphoric pronoun, or anaphor) that substitutes for the NP Old Betsy. The antecedent of her is Old Betsy.•pronominal substitution normally involves third person pronouns•pronouns are one type of pro-form

Pronominal paradigms

subject object possessor

1sg I me my

2sg you you your

3sg he, she, it him, her, it his, her, its

1pl we us our

2pl you (guys) you (guys) your (you guys’s)

3pl they them their

PP: substitute with there

Last night I dreamed I was in the HUB, but I was the only one there.

Did you check on the memory stick for your file? Yes, and it wasn’t there.

Adjective Phrase: substitute with so

• Virginia is anxious for Dave to cook dinner and so am I.

• The students are tired of waiting for the projector to work. So are the TAs.

Sentence (/CP): substitute with it, that, so

•[p] and [ph] are in complementary distribution in English. Can you believe it? (Can you believe that [p] and [ph] are in complementary distribution in English?) •[p] and [ph] are in complementary distribution in English. I understand that. •Are [p] and [ph] in complementary distribution in English? Yes, I think so.

Verb Phrases and the substitution testVerb phrases: substitute with as, so, and so, do so: Joyce has studied Arabic, as has Julia.Joyce has studied Arabic, and so has Julia.Joyce has studied Arabic. So has Julia.

Joyce has studied Arabic, and Julia has done so as well.

If pro-forms substitute for constituents, then studied Arabic in has studied Arabic must be a constituent.

Verb Phrases and the substitution testWhat is leftover after VP substitution?

Joyce is studying Arabic, and so is Julia.

Joyce will study Arabic, and so will Julia.

S NP (Aux) VP (textbook: S NP Aux VP)

Aux have, be, will, can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should

Joyce Aux[is] VP[studying Arabic],

and VP[so] Aux[is] Julia.

so substitutes for VP

if so substitutes for entire VP:Joyce Aux[has] VP[studied Arabic],

and VP[so] Aux[has] Julia.

if so substitutes for part of VP:*Joyce has studied Arabic, and so has Stephen

Khmer.

(Joyce has studied Arabic, and Stephen Khmer.)

Some properties of Aux

positive negative negative (contracted form)

has studied has not studied hasn’t studied

is studying is not studying isn’t studying

will study will not study won’t study

studies *studies not *studiesn’t

Aux have, be, will, can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should

1. Negation follows Aux:

Some properties of Aux

2. In yes/no questions, only Aux is “moved” to the beginning of the sentence:

Is Joyce studying Arabic?Has Joyce studied Arabic?Will Joyce study Arabic?

result of “moving” Aux and V to beginning of sentence:

*Will study Joyce Arabic?

VP substitution test again

• (again) pro-forms which can substitute for VP

Joyce Aux[has] VP[studied Arabic], VP[as] Aux[has] Julia.

Joyce Aux[has] VP[studied Arabic], VP[and so] Aux[has] Julia.

Joyce Aux[has] VP[studied Arabic]. VP[So] Aux[has] Julia.

Joyce Aux[has] VP[studied Arabic], and Julia Aux[has]

VP[done so] as well.

Aux has structure

Julia Aux[has] VP[studied Arabic],

and Joyce Aux[has] VP[done so] too.

Julia Aux[has been] VP[studying Arabic],

and Joyce Aux[has been] VP[doing so] too.

Julia Aux[must have been] VP[studying Arabic],

and Joyce Aux[must have been] VP[doing so] too.

The do so pro-form again. What can it substitute for?

Aux-less sentences • “Do-support”: Aux do

Has Aux Lacks Aux

declarative Julia is studying. Julia studies.

Inserted Aux

negative Julia isn’t studying.

Julia doesn’t study.

yes/no question Is Julia studying? Does Julia study?

Caveat on do: Aux vs. V

do in do the homework is V

declarative Stephen did the homework.

negative Stephen didn’t do the homework.

yes/no question

Did Stephen do the homework?

pro-form He did do so.pro-formAux

V

Summary of substitution test

• Pro-forms can substitute for other constituents

• Substitution reveals information about constituency– There is a VP constituent.– There is an Aux constituent.

• Properties of Aux, do as Aux

Movement test Only single constituents can be “moved”.• promise, V: __ NP NP (a ditransitive verb)

S NP VP

V NP NP

|

N Det N

Dave promised Virginia a latte.

• A latte, Dave promised Virginia.

• Virginia, Dave promised a latte.

• *Virginia a latte, Dave promised.

Aux and movement test

• In questions, Aux is “moved” to the beginning of the sentence.– Aux Modal have be– Aux do– Modal will, can/could, may/might,

will/would, shall/should, must

Modal vs. non-modal Aux

1. Non-modal Aux require special form of verb

BE + -ing form (‘gerund’): ‘progressive’ constructionis going: present progressivewas going: past progressivewill be going: future progressive

HAVE + -ed form (‘past participle’): ‘perfect’ constructionhas gone: present perfecthad gone: past perfectwill have gone: future perfect

Modal vs. non-modal Aux

2. Non-modals have 3.sg.present, infinitive, gerund, and past participle forms

has, to have, having, had is, to be, being, been Modals lack these forms:

*shoulds, *to should, *shoulding, *shoulded*musts, *to must, *musting, *musted

Joyce Aux[Mod[will] have] studied for it by then.[Will]Mod Joyce [have] studied for it by then?

Joyce Aux[Mod[will] have been] studying for it.[Will]Mod Joyce have been studying for it?

*[Will have]Aux Joyce been studying for it?

• In questions, the leftmost constituent of Aux is moved to the beginning of the sentence.

More on Aux movement in questions

• In questions, the leftmost constituent of Aux is moved to the beginning of the sentence.

• What about:– The person who is studying Arabic has left the room.– *Is the person who studying Arabic has left the room?– Has the person who is studying Arabic left the room?

• How to predict which Aux?– The person who is studying Arabic has left the room.

1 2

The (subject) NP constituent

• In questions, the leftmost constituent of the Aux which follows the (subject/leftmost/highest) NP is moved to the beginning of the sentence.– [The person who is studying Arabic]NP [has]Aux

[left the room]VP

Movement delimits subject NP constituent

Summary

• Tests for constituency– Structural ambiguity: structure determines meaning

– Coordination test: only constituents of same category can be conjoined

– Substitution test: pro-forms can substitute for constituents

– Movement test: only constituents can be moved

• Using these tests to identify more constituents– VP, Aux, Subject NP

• The Seattle Times, 4-27-06

Gentner et al. (2006) ‘Recursive syntactic pattern learning by songbirds’. Nature 440:1204-1207.

Question: is this evidence that starlings have recursive grammar?