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A library research paper submitted for my ENG 2 (College Writing in English) subject.
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Synthetic Diamonds:
Synthesis, Properties, and Applications
Presented by:
Mark Angelo A. Ordonio
BS Chemical Engineering
Presented to:
Prof. Ma. Sheila M. Simat
University of the Philippines Los Baños
October 2010
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Synthetic Diamonds: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications
Thesis Statement: Synthetic diamonds, upon differentiating them with natural diamonds
based on their discovery and synthesis, examination of their properties, advantages, and
the efficiency of their applications, exceed the value of the latter, making the former more
chosen by most consumers.
I. The diamond, being one of the world’s most important mineral resources, is the
hardest substance known by man on earth.
II. Today's diamonds can be classified in two general kinds: the real, natural
diamonds and the man-made synthetic diamonds.
A. Formed 100-200 km under the earth's surface about at most 3.2 billion years
ago, a natural diamond is the hardest natural material known to man.
1. Among the four polymorphs of carbon, it is the diamond which has the
most compact and strongly bonded structure.
2. The natural diamond possesses several exceptional qualities.
a. It is the only precious stone composed of a single chemical element.
b. Its extreme hardness is of great industrial importance.
c. The colored and pure ones are suitable for jewelry use.
d. In a brilliant cut gemstone, it exhibits strong dispersion and high
refractive index
e. It is not easily affected by strongest acids and bases.
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B. A synthetic diamond, as opposed to a natural diamond, is produced in a
technological process.
1. Synthetic diamonds are named depending on the production method: high
pressure-high temperature (HPHT) diamonds and chemical vapor
deposition (CVD) diamonds are among the few.
2. A synthetic diamond's properties may be inferior or superior to those of
natural ones, depending on the manufacturing process and its usage.
III.The discovery of the synthetic diamond industry started with numerous attempts
to convert cheap forms of carbon into diamonds.
A. The basic principle behind the carbon-diamond conversion involves extremely
high temperatures.
1. Hannay and Moissan heated charcoal up to 3500 °C with iron inside a
carbon crucible.
a. Hannay used a flame-heated tube.
b. Moissan used an electric arc furnace.
2. Ruff and Hershey succeeded after replicating the experiment.
3. The General Electric (GE) Company was able to heat carbon to about
3000 °C under a pressure of 3.5 gigapascals for a few seconds.
B. After the use of high temperatures for synthetic diamond production, other
methods were also discovered.
1. Being the most common and ancient method, the HPHT method involves
three main press designs to supply the necessary pressure and temperature.
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a. The belt press supplies pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell.
b. The cubic press supplies pressure simultaneously onto all faces of a
cube-shaped volume.
c. The split-sphere press involves ceramics for a more compact, efficient,
and economical press.
2. CVD is a method of growing a diamond from a hydrocarbon gas mixture.
3. Explosive detonation is a process of detonating certain carbon-containing
explosives in a metal chamber.
4. Ultrasound cavitation forms diamonds upon suspension of graphite in an
organic liquid.
C. Current development in synthesizing diamonds involves a combination of two
or more manufacturing techniques or another contemporary research.
IV. The synthetic diamond industry has various ecological, economical, and
technical advantages.
A. Ecological gains include the negligibility of the environment as a primary
resource for production and the minimal effect of pollution dispersal.
1. Synthetic diamond industry needs no deep excavations and wide land area
manipulation.
2. Synthetic diamond industry minimizes its output pollution.
B. Economical gains include the reduced minimalism of financial resources and
the reduced market price of the product.
1. Manpower would not be costly since the industries are small-scale.
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2. Most resources are available in the laboratory.
C. Technical gains include all industrial applications of the diamond.
1. Most industrial functions of synthetic diamonds are associated with
hardness, making them an ideal tool for machining and cutting.
2. Synthetic diamonds have both excellent thermal conductivity and
negligible electrical conductivity.
3. Synthetic diamonds make a good optical material.
4. In electronics, synthetic diamonds can serve as semiconductors,
transistors, electrodes, radiation detection devices, and redox reaction
detectors.
V. Various properties can be compared to differentiate a natural diamond with the
synthetic one.
A. The easiest way to differentiate diamonds is by performing simple physical
test or by observation.
1. A diamond's four C's (color, clarity, cut, and carat) are the main things to
consider when buying a diamond as a gemstone.
2. Natural diamonds can be colorless, yellow, or brown, while synthetic
diamonds usually give a tinge of blue or green.
3. Cubic faces are rarely seen in natural diamonds, while are often seen in
synthetic diamonds.
4. Depressions are easily seen with magnification in natural diamonds, not in
synthetics.
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B. A diamond can be also subjected to chemical experimentation.
1. Nitrogen-related defects are present in natural diamonds, while these are
present in substitutional sites in synthetic diamonds.
2. Most impurities are visible in natural diamonds, and a lesser amount in
synthetics.
C. The optical properties of a natural diamond are almost similar with that of a
synthetic.
D. The thermal and electric properties between the two diamonds provide less
differentiation.
VI. Synthetic diamonds, surpass the worth of natural diamonds with the latter's close
similarities with the former.
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The diamond, the gem every woman would desire to have, is the hardest
known substance on earth. From the Greek word adamas which means
―invincible‖ or ―unconquerable,‖ its extreme hardness made it one of the world's
most important mineral resources, even in antiquity. The name itself describes a
nonmetallic mineral considered as one preeminent gem stone occurring in various
crystal forms, having the octahedron as its common shape, as well as the
dodecahedron and the cube. According to Holden (1994), a diamond was thought
to make its wearer invincible in battle as it fosters courage and it protects the
wearer from various maladies.
With the progress of the advancement of technology, diamonds can be
cultivated in the laboratory in contrast to what man had known with the geological
occurrence of diamonds. With this, today's diamonds can be classified in two
general kinds: the real, natural diamonds and the man-made synthetic diamonds.
Formed 100-200 km under the earth's surface about at most 3.2 billion years
ago, a natural diamond is the hardest natural material known to man since
synthetics were discovered. Carbon as diamond has been known as agemstone for
centuries, and as the archetypal covalent solid for many decades. Carbon in its
other traditional forms such as coal has been familiar since the discovery of fire
(Field, 1992). Diamonds occur in two general deposits: volcanic pipes through
which igneous rock masses of kimberlite rose up deep within the Earth, and
alluvial deposits, both inland and marine, which were formed by the erosion of
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pipes over millions of years (Desautels, 1994). Formed at great depths at very high
temperatures and high pressures, these stones come to the earth‘s surface upon a
volcanic eruption, gradual erosion, or large-scale mining processes.
Among the four polymorphs of carbon, it is the diamond which has the most
compact and strongly bonded structure; its atoms are organized in a close -packed
cubic arrangement that gives the stone its hardness (Dana, 1949). The natural
diamond possesses several exceptional qualities. First, it is the only precious stone
composed of a single chemical element, since it is basically made of pure natural
carbon—similar to that one seen in pencil leads, only in crystal form (Wallis,
2006). Second, its extreme hardness is of great industrial importance. Its
withstanding hardness has a cutting resistance of 140 times greater than that of
ruby and sapphire. Its hardness, though different in each crystal face, enables it to
cut another diamond (Schumann, 1965). Third, the colored and pure ones are
suitable for jewelry use. Fourth, in a brilliant cut gemstone, it exhibits strong
dispersion or the ability to separate the various colors of the spectrum, which then
causes the gem to throw back the bright lashes of separated colors (Desautels,
1994) as well as high refractive index which gives its striking diamong luster
(Holden, 1991). Lastly, it is not easily affected by strongest acids and bases. A
real, natural diamond is capable of withstanding chemical reactions with the
strongest acids, e.g. hydrochloric acid, and the strongest bases, e.g. ammonia, but
will be synthesized to gaseous carbon dioxides if it is undergone to oxidation with
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air at temperatures as high as 900 C (Szenberg, 1973). With these outstanding
features, the diamond has been commonly labeled as the king of gemstones.
In appearance, the fact that the diamond can be confused with many
gemstones, can lead to fraud, although not in the legitimate retail trade. A
colorless diamond may similarly look to various crystals like beryl, sapphire,
topaz, and zircon, among the few. Synthetic diamonds may also give the buyer a
second look. A synthetic diamond, as opposed to a natural diamond created in a
geological process, is produced in a technological process. It should be
differentiated from a stimulant, a stone that assumes the imagery of a real diamond
with its different chemical composition and is made of glass or plastic, while a
synthetic is the same imitating stone but has the same chemical composition with
that of a real chemical equivalent of it (Wallis, 2006). Synthetic diamonds are
named depending on the production method: high pressure-high temperature
(HPHT) diamonds and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamonds are among the
few. A synthetic diamond's properties may be inferior or superior to those of
natural ones, depending on the manufacturing process and its usage. According to
Wallis (2006), ―a synthetic has to possess all the chemical features of a natural
stone. In fact, it is identical to the gem that was created over millions of years
under the earth. Synthetics allow the person who cannot afford that beautiful ruby,
sapphire or emerald etc., to wear one at a fraction of the price.‖ Gemstone
counterfeiting, a more vulgar term for the synthesis of gemstones, is not generally
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intended for fraud but to supplement the relatively small supply of naturally
obtained gemstones. For authenticity‘s sake, buyers are advised for a gemologist‘s
consultation then (Desautels, 1994).
The discovery of the synthetic diamond industry started with numerous
attempts to convert cheap forms of carbon into diamonds. Lavoisier‘s discovery that
diamond was simply carbon brought the scientific community to synthesize diamonds.
The basic principle behind the carbon-diamond conversion involves extremely
high temperatures. The earliest successes were reported by James Hannay and
Henri Moissan, wherein they heated charcoal up to 3500 °C with iron inside a
carbon crucible: Hannay used a flame-heated tube from hydrocarbons, bone oil, and
lithium whereas Moissan used an electric arc furnace from hot molten mixtures of
iron and carbon (Wentorf, 2001). The cooling iron exerted tremendous pressure on
the dissolved charcoal which is mostly carbon, forming tiny diamonds (Keen,
1987). Otto Ruff and Williard Hershey followed succeeded after replicating the
experiment, and after them, no one was unable to repeat the experiment. However,
the General Electric (GE) Company devised a new strategy by heating carbon to
about 3000 °C under a pressure of 3.5 gigapascals for a few seconds. Effective
catalysts used to hasten the procedure were the molten forms of chromium,
manganese, iron, cobalt, and all that, including their alloys and compounds
(Wentorf, 2001).
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After the use of high temperatures for synthetic diamond production, other
methods were also discovered. Being the most common and ancient method, the
HPHT method subjects graphite to conditions similar to those which natural
diamonds undergo (Portsmouth, 1995). It involves three main press designs to
supply the necessary pressure and temperature: the belt press which supplies
pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell; the cubic press supplies pressure
simultaneously onto all faces of a cube-shaped volume; and the split-sphere press
involves ceramics for a more compact, efficient, and economical press. Small and
industry-suitable diamonds are synthesized from graphite after subjecting it to a
temperature of 1400 C and pressures up to 60,000 atm. As a result, more carbon
atoms are dissolved from the carbon source located at the hotter region and transported to
the cooler region that then precipitates on the seed crystal — located at the bottom of the
vessel — to form a new synthetic diamond crystal. Larger diamonds were also
synthesized but are done expensively (Holden, 1991). Another scheme is the CVD
method, which is the growing a diamond from a hydrocarbon gas mixture. In
contrast to the conventional HPHT synthetic process, CVD synthetic diamonds are
produced at much lower pressure, typically in the region of one-tenth of atmospheric
pressure from carbon-bearing gases such as CH4. It considers the following for
synthesizing single-crystal diamonds: temperature, pressure, and gas composition;
otherwise, small innumerable diamond crystals will grow (Davis, 2003). Physical
and chemical analysis of the composition of stones would ratify this claim since both
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stones are basically made of the same element, carbon, only that the former is laboratory-
made, has undergone a different environment to achieve ideality, and the latter is
naturally granted from the earth. The activation of methane in CVD, as well as a vast
option of precursor gases containing carbon such as alcohols and halides yields to
the diamond mineral (Spear and Frenklanch, 1994). Contrary to HPHT researches,
CVD diamond researches are more open and encourage systems development, as
research and development is done at low costs, has highly diversified systems
development efforts, and will infuse substantial knowledge into the industry
(Russell, 1994). These characteristics require a lesser economic subsidy as
compared to naturally-obtained diamond industry.
Other methods considered rare include explosive detonation and ultrasound
cavitation. Explosive detonation is a process of detonating certain carbon-
containing explosives in a metal chamber, wherein during the explosion, the
temperature and pressure inside the chamber elevates, converting carbon to
diamond. On the other hand, ultrasound cavitation forms diamonds upon
suspension of graphite in an organic liquid. Following atmospheric pressure and
room temperature, this technique may require minimal equipment and procedures
but has not had industrial use at present. However, a combination of two or more
manufacturing techniques or another contemporary research has been utilized for
the current development in synthesizing diamonds. As methods for growing diamond,
both at high pressure and by chemical vapor deposition, improve, and as science finds
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ways to take advantage of diamond's properties, the potential applications of diamond's
superlative properties appear boundless. From super electronics, to indomitable optical
windows, to unscratchable surfaces - maybe the next watch bezel - diamond is an obvious
choice.
Generally, an object‘s imitation has always had a lesser value in comparison
with the real one. By analysis, the function and purpose of existence of these
imitations are not as much as what the imitated objects are, or are as satisfying as
the latter are. However, these idealities do not hold true for some gemstones, more
specifically, synthetic diamonds, whose characteristics are more than what is
expected with the natural ones. The rise of the number of researches intended for
studying the synthesis of these laboratory-made diamonds has, in fact, disturbingly
increasing as technology and development is concerned. This ascend lead the
scientific community to choose the synthetic diamond over its mimicked
counterpart, the real diamond.
The synthesis of such diamonds has emerged basically for the need of the
diamond market to sell diamonds at a reduced price without reducing the quality.
For an economic thought, laboratory-made diamonds may require the latest
technology to make such but it is not as expensive as extracting diamonds from the
earth considering the equipment, manpower, market trade, and the like. The
winning of diamonds from the host rock is done today with a great deal of
machinery. Around 90% of industrial diamonds are synthesized at high pressures
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because its price is relatively low, and can be tailor-made for efficiency in each
application (Wentorf, 2001). De Beers Diamond Trading Company, the world‘s
largest company in industrial diamond mining: open-pit, underground, large-scale
alluvial, coastal and deep sea, maintains huge stockpiles of mined stones and
strongly controls supply (Davis, 2003), as well as influences the prices of the
brokers through its selling scheme (Schumann, 1965). This is to keep the value of
the diamond high and to stop the hesitant exercises in the diamond trade. By Law
of Supply and Demand, a decrease in supply would give the lower level producers
an option to increase their products prices since the market is very competitive,
and manufacturers are reluctant to disclose detailed sales information. There has
never been a fixed and reliable supply of large and pure diamonds. However, there
has been a situation which focused on finding new sources of supply for gems for
which demand is increasing, and on finding new uses for the industrials whose
supplies are growing (Suits, 1960). Nevertheless, diamonds has been a dependable
investment through all political and economical inconsistencies.
For a social side, another is to lessen, or at its maximum, to avoid cases of
insurrection (in particular, African rebellion, giving the famous name ‗blood
diamonds‘) and exploitation of mining workers (Davis, 2003). For example, the
use of artisanal mining, a small-scale type of mining which involves manual
digging and sifting through mud or gravel river-bank alluvial deposits with bare
hands or small tools, is essentially a misuse of manpower. However, according to
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Jewelers Circular Keystone magazine senior editor Rob Bates, diamond mining
can be neglected as one human rights issue since the diamond industry has been
discovering innovations of its practices of geodetic searching of stones with the
Kimberly process. ―When you‘re buying mined diamonds, you‘re helping
communities in Africa. When you‘re buying them from a machine, you‘re helping
20 guys in Florida,‖ he added (Wenzel, 2007).
Another is the continuous desecration of the environment since real diamonds
are obtained via extraction. Mining is one of the main causes of deforestation;
trees and vegetation are to be cleared and burned. With the ground completely
bare, large scale mining operations use bulldozers and excavators to extract the
metals and minerals from the soil. In order to amalgamate the extractions,
chemicals such as cyanide, mercury, or methyl mercury are used. These chemicals
go through pipes and are often discharged into bodies of water, which
contaminates all living organisms within it and ultimately the people who depend
on the marine animals for source of food and economic livelihood.
Various properties can be compared to differentiate a natural diamond with the
synthetic one. The easiest way to differentiate diamonds is by performing simple
physical test or by observation. One way of distinguishing a diamond as a gem
from another is by observing its four C‘s: color, clarity, cut, and carat; these four
general categories decide the value of a diamond and usually vary between the
same size diamonds. Grading a diamond upon its color is based on how colorless it
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is: natural diamonds can be colorless, yellow, or light brown, whereas synthetic
diamonds usually give a tinge of blue or green. Brown and black diamonds may
also occur. Due to the fact that terms and definitions in grading for color were not
uniform and often confusing, experts had arrived with the use of a standard sample
collection for consistency in color grading. Clarity then refers to the amount, size,
type and location of internal flaws or surface imperfections visible in a diamond
via magnification; the ―cleaner‖ a diamond is, the higher the value. Enclosed
minerals, cleavages, and growth lines affect clarity; they are collectively called
inclusions, but formerly were called ―flaws‖ or ―carbon spots‘ (Schumann, 1965).
Depressions are easily seen with magnification in natural diamonds, not in
synthetics, as cubic faces are rarely seen in natural diamonds, while are often seen
in synthetic diamonds. Next, cut or proportion, being the only property that is
dependent on human involvement, is highly considered since it gives the gem‘s
brilliance. To grade for it, the type and shape of cut, proportions, symmetry, and
outer marks are taken into consideration; the best proportioned ones throw back
the most light. The first and simplest cut of the crystal is referred as ‗point cut,‘
which is basically the octahedral shape with all eight facets polished. Lastly, the
carat determines the relative size and weight of the diamond. Carat is recognized
international standard for weighing gems other than pearls, wherein a gram is
equivalent to 5 carats (Wallis, 2006). The more a stone weighs the more valuable it
will be. It does not apply to gems as their weight varies with their density.
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A diamond can be also subjected to chemical experimentation. Nitrogen-
related defects are present in natural diamonds, while these are present in
substitutional sites in synthetic diamonds. In addition, most impurities are visible
in natural diamonds, and a lesser amount in synthetics (Portsmouth, 1995).
However, the optical, thermal and electric properties of the two diamonds provide
less information since these quantities are almost the same in both diamonds.
Upon observing the thermal and electrical conductivities at room temperature,
diamonds synthesized in the laboratory can acquire the thermo-electrical
properties of a natural diamond via ion implantation (Portsmouth, 1995).
A synthetic diamond's usage is comparatively similar with that of a natural
one, not before that they only serve scientific purposes. One commonly known
application is for gem production. Gem-quality diamonds grown in a laboratory
are identical to naturally-occurring ones, for both satisfies the diamond being a
‗girl‘s best friend.‘ Generally, diamonds of good color and perfection are used for
gem purposes. Again, a diamond's four C's are the main things to consider when
buying a diamond as a gemstone. Various grades and criteria were tabulated and
are to be satisfied for a diamond to pass a gemstone level. A set of distinguishing
tips are presented by Wallis (2006):
1. Place an unmounted stone, table up on a piece of printed paper. A print
seen through the table is not a diamond.
2. A line made with a black felt tip pen on the table of a diamond shall break
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if the diamond is not genuine.
3. On a 10x loupe, if the facets are rounded, not sharp, and show signs of
shipping, the stone is probably not genuine.
4. A diamond is singly refractive. A careful study of the stone through the
kite facets will show a doubled image of the opposite facet edges.
5. In the absence of a thermal conductivity tester, a cheap diamond shall feel
colder upon touching it with the tip of the tongue as well as a breath on its
face will clear slower than that of a diamond.
Experimental techniques were also presented by Portsmouth (1995):
1. Absorption spectrometry – White light is shone on a diamond and certain
frequencies in the infrared region of the spectrum excite impurities in the
lattice, causing vibration of inter-atomic bonds.
2. Cathodo-luminescence – A vacuum is used to impose electrons on a
diamond crystal, exciting the atoms to higher energy states, causing an
emission of monochromatic radiation.
3. Ultraviolet fluorescence – Higher energy photons are imposed rather than
electrons to excite the atoms.
4. Microscopy – An optical technique that aids the use of a microscope to
provide surface features of the crystal.
5. Magnetic tests – The test of responsiveness of a diamond to a very powerful
magnet or any magnetic field.
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Treatments on the diamond shall be also observed or noted. These shall be
declared on the sales receipt or certificate upon the issuance of the stone. On the
other hand, various names for synthetic stones were also developed for ease in
distinguishing, based on the gem‘s composition.
A more productive way of synthesizing diamonds is for industrial use.
Diamonds for industrial applications, in contrast to gemstones, are off -color and
flaw- and inclusion-dominant that disables them to be used as jewelry. Most
industrial applications of synthetic diamonds are associated with hardness, making
them an ideal tool for machining and cutting. Nonetheless, their extreme hardness
offers them a vast stage of applications in the industry (Kraus, et al., 1959).
Diamond-studded rotary bits for drilling oil wells and boring tunnels, abrasive
powder for grinding wheels and cutting and polishing gems, diamond-tipped glass
cutters, glass-etching pencils, and other similar tools are among the few
(Desautels, 1994). In addition, synthetic diamonds have both excellent thermal
conductivity and negligible electrical conductivity. The diamond itself as an
electronic material observes a material‘s electrical and thermal properties to note
their relative capability at the limits to handle speed and power. Its basic
properties encompass an electronic potential‘s characteristics (Davidson, 1994). In
electronics, synthetic diamonds can also serve as semiconductors, transistors,
electrodes, radiation detection devices, and redox reaction detectors, but to obtain
a semi-conducting diamond, the addition of boron, beryllium, and aluminum are
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employed (Wentorf, 2001). One example is an electricity-conducting device for
microchip circuits: real diamonds are intrinsic insulators, but an injection of boron and
similar elements upon the carbon‘s lattice gives it a positive charge, and most probably, a
semiconducting apparatus. Lastly, synthetic diamonds make a good optical material.
Its optical transparency is one property that makes it valuable for a gem, but is
also of great importance for the science and technology community as a good
material for optical components, largely as windows for infrared instrumentation
(Seal, 1994). Consequently, the thermal conductivity, stiffness, and transparency
of diamonds attract experts for the next-generation optics, digital data storage, and
in nanotechnology-inspired medical devices (Wenzel, 2007).
Yoder (1994) concluded: ―Choose virtually any characteristic property of a
material—structural, electrical or optical—and the value associated with a
diamond will almost always represent an extremist position among all materials
considered for that property. The driver of the diamond vision is the combination
of its superlative properties.‖ No matter what a diamond‘s classification maybe,
real or synthetic, does not affect a consumer‘s preference on what to use as gem or
for industrial application, since both types have undeniably almost the same
characteristics ranging from the tiniest atom existing on every facet of the stone to
the genuine appearance of the gem. Thus, synthetic diamonds do surpass the worth
of natural diamonds with the latter's close similarities with the former. ―Man-made
diamonds will be with us in many different ways we can only begin to imagine
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right now that will materially affect everybody on the planet,‖ Apollo Diamond‘s
chief executive Bryant Linares stated.
Synthetic diamonds are as much a threat to the diamond industry as they are a
threat to the way people think about the diamond industry. As technology surges forward,
consumers all over the world will be buying synthetic diamonds, cultured diamonds or
whatever name the legal and marketing people agree upon. Ultimately, a large two-tier
market will develop; undoubtedly, natural and synthetic diamonds will equally coexist,
sharing a fast-growing market for diamond jewelry. With enough facts stated, it is, with
no uncertainty, the synthetic diamond which should be more considered whether for
consumer‘s or for a scientific community‘s use for it has surpassed even the qualities of a
real diamond without risking the social, political, economic, and environmental
considerations of the planet.
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Davis, J. (2003, September). The New Diamond Age. Wired, pp. 35-41.
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