System and Issues in Indian Education F

IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction 11111

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In order to understand the history of education of a country,it is very necessary to comprehend the various factors, currentsand cross-currents which effect the onward march. And of allthese, civilization and culture play a very dominant role. Theyare closely associated, rather inter-linked, with education.Anything that causes their rise or decline also has an impacton the growth of education or vice-versa. India is known to bea very ancient country. Indian traditions prove this contention.Even modern historians of the world admit that India is oneof the most ancient of nations with rich legacies of culture andliterary pursuits which very few nations can boast of. It hashad its own vast reservoir of literatures which, again, provesas to how this country had achieved progress even in those dayswhen many parts of the world were still in the primitive stages.

History of Education in India according to many historiansstarts with the creation of ‘Rigveda’ which broadly narrates thephilosophy of life and the practices in the realm of learning.Thus history of education in India according to modern thinkersis nearly 5000 years old. For a comprehensive and systematicstudy, it can be classified as following :

1. Vedic Era 3000 B.C. to 500 B.C.

2. Buddhistic Era 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D.

3. Muslim Era 1200 A.D. to 1700 A.D.

4. British Era (the Pre-Independence Era) 1800 A.D. to 1947

5. Post Independence 1947 onwards

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction22222 33333

OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESAfter going through the Unit you will be able to develop

a historical perspective. It will help you

• To be acquainted with the development of educationalsystem in India in a chronological order

• To appreciate the evolution of rich legacies in education.

• To understand and appreciate the various importantfeatures of ancient systems of education and theirimplications and impact on future.

• To enthuse to learn and fathom deep into the ancientVedic and Buddhistic scriptures in order to get a clearview of their philosophy of life.

• To understand and appreciate in depth and details aboutthe functioning of ancient and Buddhic centres oflearning.

• To appreciate the place, status and role of teachers andcompare them with the present position.

• To appreciate the basic characteristics and contributionsof Muslim education which have enabled it to survive.

• To understand the processes of evolution of modernsystem of education in India.

• To know and appreciate in details about the factorswhich influenced the development of modern system ofeducation in India.

• To grasp the problems in Indian education in depth andthink of their remedies with open mind.

• To understand the multi-linguistic multi-ethniccomposition of the Indian population and their needs ofeducation.

• To think of educational contributions in the globalperspectives.

• To appreciate the efforts made to improve educationand its opportunities to one and all by variouseducational commissions and reports.

To motivate learners to undertake research on any aspectof history of education of India.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIAEDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIAEDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIAEDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIAEDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIAIndia is a very ancient country. It has a very rich social,

cultural and philosophical heritage. The rich traditions of thiscountry have attained the status of legends. The ocean ofliteratures is unfathomable. The Vedas are regarded as theoldest among the literatures of the world.The Vedas are notonly the original source of philosophy of life in this part of thesub-continent since times immemorial but also of the systemof education in ancient India.

‘Vedas’ :‘Vedas’ :‘Vedas’ :‘Vedas’ :‘Vedas’ : As for the derivation of the word ‘Veda’, it isfound in the four roots-viz., “Vid Sattaym”, “Vidire Labhe”,“Vid Vichare” and “Vid Gyane”. Generally speaking, the word‘Veda’ means “to know”. This meaning has deeper implications.Knowledge did not mean merely the knowing of some literaturesin the general sense of the term but it connoted knowledge ofoneself, knowledge of universe, knowledge of ‘Bramha’ or God.The meaning thus had very wide philosophical ramifications.Vedas have not only been the repositories of spiritual knowledge,but also embody in themselves the sublime, religious feelingof human beings as well as the foundational knowledge of themanifesto universe.

Aspects of Indian life are represented by four Vedas, viz‘Rigveda’, ‘Yajurveda’, ‘Adharvaveda’, and Samveda’. Theyalso represent religions, materialistic, conjugal and spiritualinstincts and pursuits through Brahmacharya, Grihastha,Vanprastha and Sanyas ashrams. Hence the Vedas are notmerely the books of philosophies or knowledge but the booksof life. The Vedas denote a graphic account of education. Whatan individual should know and what not is the essence ofeducation for life. That is why, it laid down four ashrams oflife. The Vedas have also planned out the four levels of existence,viz., of knowledge of action, of devotion, and of wisdom foran ardent seeker of knowledge. Education of a beginner couldonly commence after the thread ceremony of or ‘UpnayanSanskar’, conferring him the status of ‘Dwij’ or Dwijanma’.


This ceremony symbolises the entrance of an individual to newor second life in the pursuit of ‘gyan’ or knowledge through the‘Brahmacharya Vrata’-life of celibacy. On this occasion, thepreceptor declares him, “Thou art a Brahmachari” and explainshim the supreme goal of life to realize one’s identity with‘Brahma’-the Ultimate and the divine source of this universe.The preceptor also explains that knowledge (Gyan), action(Karma) and devotion (Bhakti) are the means of realising theultimate objective. The ‘Brahma-chari’ or the celibate wouldbid farewell to his home and reside in the hermit/ashram/kutiof his preceptor. By renouncing worldly and material pleasuresand comforts of life, he would gradually realize that the onlyreality is the “Brahma” and the rest or the world is just anillusion.

Vedas lay great stress on action (Karma) which decides thedestiny. The doctrine of ‘Karma’ occupies an important placein the Indian system of life. According to the Vedic philosophy,“Karmas” (Actions) should lead to the ultimate objective ofattaining salvation (Moksha), i.e., the union of ‘Atma’ with‘Parmatma’. It also means that the ‘Karma’ should not lead anindividual to attaining materialistic happiness or instincts butits main aim should be to keep him free from worldly bondages.Education, according to this philosophy, makes an individualjudicious, highly spiritual and unattached to greed, lust forattaining the high degree of individuality. The preceptor leadshim to meditation and ‘tapas’ (Penance).

Thus the philosophy is built upon the tenets of spiritualitywhich is the corner stone of the ancient system of education.The main characteristic of ancient Indian education is theinculcation of the spirit of plain living and high thinking, ofbrotherhood, (Vasudheo Kutumbakam) and constant awarenessof the omni-presence and omni-science of the ‘Brahma’ (God).The ancient system of education lays great stress on strictadherence to various aspects of life, a high degree of moral andspiritual values. Ideal ways of life emanated from the actualliving of the preceptor under whose feet the ‘Brahmachari’ orthe pupil leant the lessons. The Guru lived in his hermit in asolitary place on the bank of a river or near the mountains

away from the maddening crowd and worldly strifes. The vicinityprovided an ideal setting for learning through meditation andrigorous ‘Tapas’. It is through the nature’s bountiful environmentthat the pupil leant to discard ignoble thoughts and deeds. Insuch an environment the pupil could learn the first lessons ofduty, devotion, dedication and discipline. The life of the Gurusused to be the role model for his disciples. He was an ideal Guruin the real sense of the term.

Vedic EraVedic EraVedic EraVedic EraVedic EraIn the preceding paragraphs, it has been made amply clear

that the ‘Vedas’ were the real source of Indian philosophy andeducation. Rightly it is, therefore, called the Vedic era in thehistory of Indian education. We have already seen that theVedas symbolized the chief objective of human life-thedeliverance from the world of births and deaths and reunionwith the supreme power. Hence the main aim of educationduring the era has been the attainment of this goal. The otheraims of education may be short listed in the following words:

Aims of EducationAims of EducationAims of EducationAims of EducationAims of Education

(i) To ensure the preservation of the rich legacies of theVedas, Vedic literature, Vedic rituals and also ensuretheir smooth transition to the next generations;

(ii) To ensure strict adherence to Vedic rituals and ways oflife and to strive for the enrichment of Vedic traditions;

(iii) To enable to lead one’s life in accordance with the Vedicphilosophy of life in which spiritual values and moralprinciples should be the sheet-anchor and

(iv) To ensure an all round development of personality-physical, mental, moral, and spiritual.

Gurukulas : Gurukulas : Gurukulas : Gurukulas : Gurukulas : The system of education during this periodrevolved round the Gurukulas. The Gurukulas were the centresof learning. The hermits or the abodes of the sages and saintswere known as Gurukulas where the pupils also resided withtheir gurus and lived an austere life after leaving their house.

The Gurukulas also known as Rishikulas were situated inisolated and lonely places far away from the crowded localities


or townships, on the banks of rivers or amidst the woods, thenatural settings provided an ideal environment for pursuinglearning. There was no distinction between the rich and thepoor, the royals and the downtrodden. The gurukulas did notdepend upon the benedictions of the State, they were free fromtheir control. They depended on their own resources.

The Gurukulas were not only the covetted seats of learningbut also of great “Yagnas”. Gurus enjoyed a unique position inthe society. They used to be the most revered persons. Theywere immensely respected not only from their disciples but alsofrom the entire society, even the kings bowed their headsbefore them and sought their wise counsel. They enjoyed thisstatus due to their sharp intellect, chaste character, highmorals and great wisdom.

Upnayan Ceremony : Upnayan Ceremony : Upnayan Ceremony : Upnayan Ceremony : Upnayan Ceremony : The pupil was admitted in theGurukula only after the initial sacred ceremony of ‘Upnayan’.The ceremony had a great importance from the educationalpoint of view, for the teacher used to purify his physical selffor the new enlightened body. After this ceremony only, thepupil was entitled to receive learning.

The word ‘Upnayan’ means, “to come” close. In the contextof education this word signifies that the student should comenear the teacher for receiving education. Later on this ceremonybecame very important for Brahmins. On this occasion theGuru used to give him his “Mantras”. In Atharva Veda, wefind elaborate description of the sanskar. The teacher used todecide the kind of education to be given to him after keepinghim close for three days. In vedic tradition, human life wasdivided into four ashrams-viz. Brahmacharya, Grihastha,Vanprastha and Sanyas.

Antewasi : Antewasi : Antewasi : Antewasi : Antewasi : During the period of stay in the Gurukula thepupil was known as “Antewasi” or ‘Acharyakulavasi’. At thetime of his induction, in the gurukula, he was instructed witha number of “do’s and dont’s” by the teacher. These areelaborately scripted in ‘Gobhil guhya/sutras’. The daily routineprescribed for the student was well organized and life in thegurukuls was disciplined and orderly.

The Curriculum : The Curriculum : The Curriculum : The Curriculum : The Curriculum : Various subjects formed part of thecurriculum such as grammar rhetorics, astrology, logic, nirukti(etymological interpretation of words) and kalp. The study ofthe Vedas was compulsory. Upanishhads, Sutras and Samhitasalso formed part of curriculum.

These elaborate rules for the construction of altar led to thedevelopment of the sequences of geometry and algebra. Thedesire to find out propitious times gave rise to astrology, fromwhich astronomy developed.

Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : There were mostly two methodsof teaching practised during this period. The first was oral andthe other was ‘chintan’ (thinking or reflecting). Oral methodmeans memorisation of Vedic hymns, mantras, richas andslokas, the various lines of the verses, with correctpronunciation and meanings. The success of the method lieson the fact that the Vedas, their mantras and richas could bepreserved in their original form down to the ages. ‘Thinking’was another method which promoted self-understanding andself-confidence. Thinking led to ‘manan’-a high form of thinking.Through this, the meaning and implications or the ‘mantras’were further developed, elaborated and preserved in one’s ownmind. This method of teaching was specially adopted for highlyintelligent students.

Place of Women : Place of Women : Place of Women : Place of Women : Place of Women : During the Vedic age, women enjoyedequal status with men not only in education but also in social,religious and other programmes. Education of women duringthis period was at its peak. There had been many eminentwomen during this era who enjoyed important place in thesociety. Women like Ganga, Lopa Mudra, Apala Ghosh, Sitaand Vishwara were some examples.

Place of Teacher : Place of Teacher : Place of Teacher : Place of Teacher : Place of Teacher : The teacher (Guru, Acharya) enjoyeda very predominant place during this and the later post-vedicperiods not only in his Gurukul but also in the entire society.Every one looked up to him for guidance and blessings. He wasa friend, philosopher and guide in the real sense. Therelationship between the teacher and the pupil was ideal andcordial. The Guru was the protector of his students and in turnstudents accorded more respect to him than even the father.


The teacher shouldered the responsibility of the students duringthe period of his study in the gurukulas.

Daily Routine of Student : Daily Routine of Student : Daily Routine of Student : Daily Routine of Student : Daily Routine of Student : The student had to adhereto the Gurukul rules of discipline, punctuality and conduct.No distinction was made in this regard between students.Observance of celibacy, performance of daily sacred rituals likeyoga, mediatation, Yagya recitation of vedic richas were aninseparable aspect of education. Besides this practical educationformed an integral part of the system-viz., collecting fire woodsfor yagya kundas, begging alms and looking after the cattle.Students were also supposed to help the Guru and his wife indaily and domestic chores.

Duration of Education : Duration of Education : Duration of Education : Duration of Education : Duration of Education : There was no fixed or rigidduration of education. It depended solely on the caliber anddesire of the students to pursue their education and also on theGuru who had the final say in the continuance or discontinuanceof education. There are examples of students who continued tostay in the Ashrams for an indefinite period. But in most othercases the duration was of twelve years. There used to be holidays,known as ‘Anadhyay’. These were given on the importantfestivals or on days like Ashhtmi, Chaturdashi and naturaldisasters like heavy rains and floods.

Buddhist EraBuddhist EraBuddhist EraBuddhist EraBuddhist EraIn the post-vedic age, though the system of education of

ancient times continued to hold its ground steadfastly, someof its features started showing signs of decline. In Vedic periodpeople started giving place to Brahmanic religion. The castesystem spread its vicious influence leading to discriminationin education. Yajnas became the main activities of Gurukulasand Ashrams besides education. Violence, both human and in-human, became the order of the day. In the name of ‘Karmakand’ or ‘Yagnas’, many excesses were committed. Under theseconditions there was a need of reforms. The society found itsreformer in Lord Buddha who propounded, founded andpropagated the real and the time meaning of life. His sayingsrapidly overlook the sub-continent. The teaching of GautamBudha gave birth to the Budhistic philosophy of life andeducation. Siddharth, as he was known, was upset and much

distressed right from early age to see people in the old age,deaths and sufferings. He renounced his comforts and took topenance for years and was in search of the ways to get rid ofgriefs and sufferings. Ultimately he got enlightenment.

Monasteries : Budhist movement led to the establishmentof monasteries known as Viharas and Maths. His discipleslived in them. These institutions functioned on democraticlines and were open to all without any discrimination of casteand even sex. The inmates in these monasteries were called‘Bhikhus’ (males) and ‘Bhikhunis’ (females). They led a simpleand austere life under the supervision of Gurus.

Monasteries became the centres of learning during thisperiod. Only Bhikhus and Bhikhunis could get education here.There was no place for Yajnas or religious rituals as it wasprevalent in the Vedic period.

Pabbajja Ceremony : Admission in these monasteries wasgiven to a prospective disciple only after going through certainformalities. For admission the student was to present himselfbefore the teacher and request him for giving education. Afterthe teacher’s willingness to admit a student in the monastery,he had to go through an initiation ceremony called ‘Pabbajja’.Pabbaja was an accepted and important ceremony of admissionin the monastery.

‘Pabbajja’ meant ‘going out’. According to this ceremony thestudent had to renounce all his worldly and family relationships.The minimum age for admission was eight years of age. Afterthis ceremony he had to change clothes and old style of living.For this ceremony, he had to get his head shaved clean andput on yellow robes. Then he would bow before the Guru(Bhikshu) and pray to him for admission. He would recite asfollows :

“I take refuge in Buddha” (Budhham SharanamGachhami)

“I take refuge in religion” (Dharmam SharanamGachhami)

“I take refuge in the order” (Sangham SharanamGachhami)


After his admission he was called ‘Shraman’. He was givenfew advices to follow, such as speaking truth, shunning violence,preaching non-violence and celibacy, renouncing wealth andcomfortable life. Admission was not given to those who weresuffering from tuberculosis, leprosy and contagious diseases.Parent’s consent was necessary for admission.

‘Up sampda Ceremony’ : During the Vedic and the Post-vedic periods the students, after the completion of education,could join their families and lead Grihastha Ashram but underthis system a ‘Sharaman’ after 12 years of education or at theage of 20 years had to undergo another ceremony, the UpsampdaCeremony.

This ceremony was different from the ‘Pabbajja’. After 12years of education, the Shraman had to present himself beforeall other monks. Ceremony was performed to declare himcomplete monk. This symbolized the end of his relationcompletely with his family and relations. Now he was a monkof the monastery, completely devoted to Buddhism.

Curriculum : Curriculum : Curriculum : Curriculum : Curriculum : The main aim of education in this era wasto attain salvation (Moksha). The curriculum was mainlyspiritual in nature. The study of religious books on Buddhistreligion and the philosophy of Buddha formed an integral partof curriculum. There were two types of curriculum, one formonks and the other one for common people. The first oneincluded such subjects like ‘Vinaya, Dhamma and Suttanta’.The second one included subjects like spinning, weaving,printing, medicine, surgery and accountancy.

Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of Teaching : Methods of teaching were not verydifferent from the Vedic Age but special emphasis was laid onpersonal purity and probity of conduct. During the lectures ofthe teacher, the student was supposed to hear him with raptattention.

Women education suffered a great setback during thisperiod. During his life time he discouraged their admission inthe monasteries. But after some time, women were admittedwith many reservations and restrictions. Strict rules wereimposed for women Bhikhunis and monks. They were not

allowed to meet any male in loneliness. They lived separatelyfrom the male counterparts.

During this period of education many institutions becamevery famous not only in India but also in other parts of theworld. Buddhism as a religion was propagated and accepted inSri Lanka, China, Afghanistan, Thailand, Combodia, Vietnam,Japan and flourished there. In many parts of India severaldynasties were great followers of Lord Buddha.

Famous Centres of Learning in Ancient IndiaFamous Centres of Learning in Ancient IndiaFamous Centres of Learning in Ancient IndiaFamous Centres of Learning in Ancient IndiaFamous Centres of Learning in Ancient India

Taxila : Taxila : Taxila : Taxila : Taxila : Takshila was an ancient city in India on the north-west frontier region, now in Pakistan. Even today it is famouswith the name of Taxila. It is widely believed that the city wasfounded by Lord Ram’s brother-Bharat’s son, Taksha. At thattime it was the capital city of Gandhar Kingdom.

Although there was no institution on a very organisedsystem, the Acharyas provided education in their hermits onthe Vedic pattern and attracted a large number of studentsfrom far and wide. Taxila had been a centre of higher learning.

Students used to go there for education after 16 years oftheir age. From the old literature it is found that there weretwo types of curriculum, literary and scientific. Under the first,religious education on Buddhism was imparted while underthe second, 18 shilps, auyrveda, Military science, agriculture,commerce, medicines, etc. were taught. Emphasis was givenon practical training.

This centre of learning started to decline from the 5th centuryonwards. Eminent people like Panini, Jeevak, Koutilya andmany others received education in Taxila.

Nalanda : Nalanda : Nalanda : Nalanda : Nalanda : Nalanda was also a famous centre of educationduring the Buddhistic era. It is situated 60 kms from Patnaand 10 kms from Rajgir in Bihar. Nalanda was the birth placeof Lord Buddha’s dear discipline Somputta. Emperor Ashokabuilt a Vihara here.

Nalanda became famous as a centre of learning during firstcentury. Acharya Nagarjuna Dev was an Acharya of Nalanda.Many rulers received their education at Nalanda. Rulers fromthe Gupta dynasty did everything to develop Nalanda into an


international institute of learning. Foreigners used to come toreceive education there. Nalanda University had a huge building,a large hostel fully equipped with kitchens and other facilities.

About ten thousand students received education at Nalandafree of cost. The university had two hundred villages as grantsfrom which the expenses were met. Fifteen hundred teachersworked here.

Vallabhi : Vallabhi : Vallabhi : Vallabhi : Vallabhi : Vallabhi was situated in Kathiawad (Gujarat).It was a famous centre of Buddhistic education. When Tsanghad described about one hundred Maths here. Vallbhi could becompared with Nalanda. Besides religious education, economics,political science and medicine were taught.

Vikramshila : Vikramshila : Vikramshila : Vikramshila : Vikramshila : This centre was established in the eighthcentury. King Sharanpat had built a large Vihara at Vikramshilawhich was the centre of education. Deepshanker was the famousteacher of Vikramshila. Curriculum consisted of education onBuddhism, Vyakarana, Philosophy, Logic, Astrology. Manybooks of Pali and Sanskrit were translated here in Tibetanlanguage. This great institution was destroyed by BakhtiarKhilji.

Other centres of learning were Kashi, Ujjayini, Amravati,Mithila, Odantpuri and Kanchi. It is thus evident from theabove description that the ancient system of education in Indiahad deep roots. That is why it survived and continued forseveral hundred years. Even the foreigners who visited thiscountry highly acclaimed the merits of the system.

These included Megasthnes, Strabo, Huen Tsang, MarcoPolo and Ibn Batuta. The principles, ideals and philosophywhich ancient Indian system of education followed are stilluseful today.

EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA A new religion was propounded by Prophet Mohammed

called Islam in Arabic. Its followers, known as Muslims, arespread it in many parts of the world. India was soon acquaintedwith this religion after successive Muslim invasions during themedieval period. The first to invade India was in 712 AD wasMohd. Bin Kasim, an Arab, but he could not move beyond

Sindh. After this there was no external invasion for about twohundred and seventy five years till the Moghuls came andestablished rule in India.

Muslims were greatly influenced by Indian Literature, Arts,Culture and above all its fabulous wealth. From eleventh centuryonwards there were spates of external invasions by hordes ofMuslim tribes and rulers. Some of them made deep inroads intoIndia and established their dynasties which ruled for a numberof years. Among these were the Slave dynasty (1206 AD to 1286AD) the Khilji dynasty (1290 AD to 1316), the Tuglaq dynasty(1322 AD to 1389), the Sayyad dynasty (1414 AD to 1451), theLodi dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD) the Mugal dynasty (1526AD to 1707 AD).

The Muslims established mosques, makbaras and madarsasfor giving education in Islam. In short, external invasionssowed the seeds of Muslim education in medieval India, whichtook shape under these rulers and depended for its progressmostly on the attitude and enthusiasm of the individual rulers.

Salient Features of Muslim Education Salient Features of Muslim Education Salient Features of Muslim Education Salient Features of Muslim Education Salient Features of Muslim Education

1. Replacement of ancient institutions of Indian education:When the Muslims invaded and started their rule, thesystem of ancient Indian education was at its peak anda number of institutions attracted the foreigners fromfar off countries. Rulers like Bakhtiyar, MohammedGazni and Aurengzeb dealt fatal blow to them. Theydestroyed the old systems and built Maktabs andmadarasas in place of Gurukulas, Ashrams and Maths.

2. Predominant place to Persian : Persian foreign languagewith the State patronage replaced Sanskrit and Pali-the oriental languages of India. Persian became theState language of administration and education.Literature was produced in Persian and Arabiclanguages.

3. Education at the mercy of rulers : For the first time inthe history of Indian education, freedom in the field ofeducation was replaced by the ruler’s gross interference,fancies and whims. The rulers had the final say and


educational system changed forms from ruler to ruler.This proved to be great setback in the progress ofeducation.

4. Imparting education in Mosques : With the establishmentof Muslim rule in India, a large number of mosqueswere built primarily for offering prayers butsubsequently they became the place of dissemination ofIslamic knowledge.

5. Religious bias to Education: Religious education wasthe core of Muslim education. Strict adherence to theways of life enshrined in holy Quran formed part ofMuslim education. The object of education was to tailorone’s life according to Islamic principles.

Organisation of Islamic education in India Organisation of Islamic education in India Organisation of Islamic education in India Organisation of Islamic education in India Organisation of Islamic education in India After the establishment of their rule in India, Muslim

ruler’s agenda was to draw people of other religions to the foldof Islamic religion by preaching or by force. The primary formof education in this era was fully religious. In the early period,education was provided in the mosques but subsequently“Maktabs” were started which were attached to mosques.

Maktabs : Maktabs : Maktabs : Maktabs : Maktabs : Maktabs provided elementary education tochildren of general public. Children of rich people did not goto the Maktabs, their education was arranged privately in theconfines of their homes. The main emphasis in these institutionswas to acquaint the children with the verses of holy Quranwhich was compulsory as an integral part of instruction. Besides,the religious education, they were also taught reading, writingand arithmetic.

The Bismillah Ceremony : The Bismillah Ceremony : The Bismillah Ceremony : The Bismillah Ceremony : The Bismillah Ceremony : Like the Vedic and Buddhistsystems, admission in the Maktabs was given only after thefirst ceremony. On the occasion of admission, the child wastaken to the Maktab in new clothes. He was required to repeatsome verses of the “Quran”. If he could not do this, he wasjust asked to pronounce “Bismillah” and thus started hiseducation. The “Bismillah” ceremony heralded his educationalcareer. The ceremony was held when child was 4 years 4months, 4 days old. After a few days of this ceremony the child

was required to write a few words. At this time, his relativeswere invited.

Besides reading, writing and arithmetic, the children werealso taught Persian literature, grammar, letter writing,accountancy. Children of the royal families, princes andprincesses were taught in palaces by old Moulvis. The curriculumfor them consisted of various subjects, like Persian and Arabicliterature, political science, law, science, jurisprudence,military science, etc. Practical training in war fare was alsoimparted.

Madarsas : Madarsas : Madarsas : Madarsas : Madarsas : Maktabs essentially provided elementaryeducation, madarsas were established to give higher educationduring this period. Madarsas became the centres of higherlearning. These institutions subsisted often on the royalbenedictions, who gave them lands, jagirs, financial grantsetc. The madarsas were generally well managed. The kingstook interest and did not interfere in their working.

The curriculum in madarsas was broad based and cateredto various needs. It was religious as well as comprehensive.Under the religious curriculum, intensive study of holy Quran,its philosophy, Islamic history and Islamic law were included.The other parts of the curriculum had subjects like Persian andArabic literature, their grammar, history, mathematics,geography, Unani medical science. Agriculture, philosophy,law, jurisprudence, astrology, economics, accountancy etc.The period of education was 10 to 12 years. Arabic was generallythe medium of instruction, libraries used to be attached withbig madarsas.

Stress was given on memorising. The students used tomemorise verses of holy Quran. Generally the method of learningwas oral, writing work was also done, but there was noscientific method of teaching. In madarsas lectures were given.Some practical training was also imparted.

There was no formal examination system as such. TheMoulvis or Mullahs who were generally the teachers decidedas to whether the student was competent to go ahead. Theyhad his own method of assessing the capacity of the student.They used to be examined form time to time in practical


situations of life. Their intelligence was put on test in solvingsome difficult problems.

Pupil-teacher Relationship : Pupil-teacher Relationship : Pupil-teacher Relationship : Pupil-teacher Relationship : Pupil-teacher Relationship : During the Muslim periodalso the teachers enjoyed great respect as they were supposedto help the pupil in developing his personality. Even the kingsrespected the teachers. The teachers enjoyed complete obedienceof their pupils, hence their relations were very cordial asduring the ancient period. As the number of students was notvery large, it was easy for the teacher to know each and everystudent thoroughly well. This solved many unknown situationsand problems of indiscipline or disobedience. The teacher hadimmense power to punish indisciplineed students. But goodstudents used to be rewarded also.

Women Education : Women Education : Women Education : Women Education : Women Education : Women were not supposed to comeout of their homes uncovered. They had to cover themselvesfrom head to toe. Purdah system has been a part of Muslimculture. During the Muslim rule, it was very strictly andrather ruthlessly imposed. Hence, girls particularly grown upswere not allowed to attend madarsas. However, they werepermitted to go to maktabs. During the Muslim period, a largesection of Muslim women population remained withouteducation. Higher education for women was a rare experience.Some exceptions were there. Princesses and women folk or richand well-to-do people received their education in their homes.Women like Razia Sultan, Princess Gul Badan (daughter ofBabar), Zebunissa, Noorjehan and Mumtaz Mahal were notonly noted women of their times but also they earned theirplace in history by dint of their contributions in several fields.But such women were very few in number. Development ofLiterature and Arts : Muslim literature made great progressduring this period. Later on the Arts became part of educationalcurriculum. Similarly the era saw rapid strides in art andarchitecture, designing, painting, drawing, etc. These alsofound their place in education during this period. Mugal rulersencouraged the study of arts in education and encouraged theartists.

Military Training : Military Training : Military Training : Military Training : Military Training : Military training formed a veryimportant part of Muslim system of education. The main

objective of Muslim rulers in India was to expand territoriesof their rule, which required to fight battles. Training in warfare to them was essential to keep the kingdom safe as wellas annexing other kingdoms. It is no secret that Muslim rulersestablished their rule in India due to their supremacy in warfareskills and military prowess. The armed forces required newequipment and military training. Muslim rulers placed greatemphasis on this aspect of education.

Role of the StateRole of the StateRole of the StateRole of the StateRole of the StateEducation during the Vedic and Buddhist periods were

completely independent in every respect. The state had no roleto play and exercised no control. Unlike these, the Muslimsystem of education enjoyed the patronage of the state. Muslimrule was generally monarchical; hence the monarchs exercisedimmense control on the system. There were instances ofeducational progress only when the rule was stable and if itwas unstable, education suffered much. Rulers of Slave dynastylike Iltumush, Razia Sultan and Balban took keen interest ineducation and built madarasas. Similarly, the founder of Khiljidynasty, Jalaluddin was interested in the development ofeducation, so were some rulers of Tughlaq dynasty.

Muslim education made great strides during the reign ofMughal dynasty, as almost all the rulers were dedicated to thecause of education. Akbar the great left an infallible impressionin the field of education by propounding harmonious relationshipbetween Hindu and Muslim cultures. He laid stress on secularsystem of education. Many institutions of repute wereestablished during the mughal reign. Centres of learning atAgra, Delhi, Jaunpur, Beedar, Golkunda, Rampur, Lahore,Sialkot, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Luknow were some ofthe examples. Jaunpur was regarded as a very important centreof Muslim learning. It was also known as “Shiraz-e-Hind”.

EDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIAEDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIAEDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIAEDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIAEDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIAMughal Empire started crumbling in the post-Aurangzeb

period. The weak political administration gave way to anarchy,tyranny, misrule and instability. In such prevailing conditions,Europeans came to India. First primarily with trading interests,


they established their companies. Among the visiting Europeansthe British were very clever. They successfully exploited thesituation in their favour and meddled in Indian politics onlyto establish themselves firmly. They established East Indiacompany which was originally a trading company. During thisperiod of transition, the Indian systems of education viz, theVedic and the Buddhist and the Muslim existed but they weredecaying due to constant instability and anarchy. The Britishdescribed the Indian system as “indigenous system of education”.Instead of lending it a helping hand they did every thingpossible to allow it to die. In order to gain political sympathiesof the local populace, “The Calcutta Madarsa” (1780) for Muslimsand the “Benaras Sanskrit Vidyalaya” (1791) for Hindus wereestablished.

The Charter of 1813 The Charter of 1813 The Charter of 1813 The Charter of 1813 The Charter of 1813 Their design to dabble in the Indian education field became

clear from Charles Grant’s famous essay “Observation”. Hedescribed the prevailing Indian educational scene as deplorableand emphasized the need for reforms. The East India company’scharter of 1813 paved the way for the British education in Indiaby the company’s charter placing rupees one lakh for thereconstruction of literature. The charter of 1813 created abitter controversy known as “the occidental-oriental controversy”in the history of Indian Education. Protagonists of both thesides stuck to their guns. Oriental view was in favour of oldIndian system of education and wanted to develop and enrichIndian literature through Indian languages. The advocates ofthis view were Warren Hastings, H.T.Princep, Lord Minto,H.H. Wilson etc. The Occidental view ridiculed the Indiansystem, its literature and its languages. Lord Macaulay, whoplayed important role in resolving this controversy, was verybitter and sarcastic. About the Indian literature he said, “Asingle shelf of European library was worth the native literatureof India”. He also ridiculed Indian religions, its practices,ultimately, Lord Macaulay’s views (which were made clear inhis famous minutes known as Macaulays Minutes) prevailed.

Downward Filtration Theory : Downward Filtration Theory : Downward Filtration Theory : Downward Filtration Theory : Downward Filtration Theory : Thus, the ground for theBritish system of education was laid. The British were not

primarily interested in the education of masses and, therefore,they propounded the theory of “Downward filtration” ineducation. Only the Indian elite or top class people would beeducated and through them the lower class would also bebenefited. The masses will follow the elite gradually andeducation will reach down to common citizens.

Wood’s Despatch of 1854Wood’s Despatch of 1854Wood’s Despatch of 1854Wood’s Despatch of 1854Wood’s Despatch of 1854Charles Wood was then the Chairman of the Board of

control of the Company. A charter was issued on July 19, 1854.Charles Wood was the main architect of this despatch ofeducation. Hence, it is known as Wood’s Despatch of 1854. Thisdespatch was a landmark in the education of India. Manythings in education even today, owe their genesis to it.

A brief summary of the main recommendations of thisdespatch are listed below :

1. The aim of Education : The aim of education was todevelop a man wit useful knowledge to raise hisintellectual, moral and economic status. He should begiven such an education which would be useful forgovernment.

2. The Curriculum : The curriculum should consist ofSanskrit, Arabic and Persian along with English,Western Literature, Science and Law.

3. Medium of Instruction : It should be English along sidewith Indian languages, which are necessary foreducation of the masses.

4. Department of Public Instructions : Setting ofDepartment of Public Instructions in every state withthe Director, as its head was a very importantrecommendation.

5. University Education : To establish two universities ofCalcutta and Bombay was also recommended. Theorganisation of administration was to be modelled onthe pattern of London University.

6. Graded Education : The despatch recommended theimportance of graded education. With this


recommendation a well structured system of educationcame into existence.

7. System of Grant-in-aid : This recommendation had afar-reaching impact n the field of education. The mainpurpose of this recommendation was to encourageprivate and individual efforts in education. Expansionof education could not be done by the Government andhence other philanthropic, non-governmentorganisations were required to come in the field. By asystematic grant in aid regime, different kinds ofinstitutions could provide education besides thegovernment.

8. Teachers Training : This recommendation led to theestablishment of Training Colleges, Training schools(Normal schools) for teachers of different categories.Prior to this there was not arrangement for trainingof teachers. It was not realised before thisrecommendation that the teachers also needed wellorganised training in the art of teaching.

The despatch also made recommendations for theexpansion of general women’s education, vocationaleducation and publication of books in Indianlanguages.

The despatch according to many educationists andhistorians is the ‘Magna Carta’ of Indian Education. Forthe first time a well organised, structured and gradedsystem of education and administration came intoexistence. The process of institutionalisation of educationalso began. Sir Philip Hartog made this point when hesaid, “As a result of Wood’s despatch an educationalpolicy was evolved as a part of general policy ofGovernment of India in the interest of India and todevelop her intellectual resources to the utmost for herown benefits”. The despatch was undoubtedly the mainimportant document of Indian education policy, whichhad far-reaching impact. A new era in education beganwith this.

The Indian Education Commission 1882The Indian Education Commission 1882The Indian Education Commission 1882The Indian Education Commission 1882The Indian Education Commission 1882After the Wood’s despatch the country rose against the

British empire in 1857 as a sequel to the transfer of power fromthe Company to the British Monarch. At many places theBritish faced the wrath of the people but the mighty empirequelled the revolt. By 1882 it was thought necessary to assessthe development of education in the country and to removedefects, a commission of education was set up under thechairmanship of Willaim Hunter on February 3, 1882. Besideshim, there were other twenty members in the commission. Itis also known as the ‘Hunter Commission of education, 1882’.Among other things the main purpose of the commission wasto study the problem of primary education and to suggestremedial measures for the reform. It was also asked to assessthe utility of the grant-in-aid system.

The Commission chose to study the affairs of secondary andhigher education also. It submitted a volurninous reportconsisting of 700 pages. The main recommendations of thecommission are summarised below :

1. Primary Education : It stressed on the importance ofprimary education. It should be related to life, practicaland useful. Medium of instruction should be the mothertongue of the students. The Government should givemore attention to primary education. But themanagement of primary education should be entrustedto local bodies, such as District Board, Municipalitiesin town areas. Primary school teachers should be suitablytrained. Normal schools should be established for theirtraining.

2. Secondary Education : The commission recommendedthat the responsibility of Secondary education should beentrusted to the Indians and it should only give grant-in-aid. Medium of instruction at this level should beEnglish. Its curriculum should be divided into two parts.In the first part subjects of general education andvocational courses in the second part should be framed. The Commission also emphasised the training ofgraduate teachers to improve the teaching standards at


the secondary school level. Grant-in-aid should haveuniformity throughout the country.

The Commission also made recommendations forstrengthening higher education, Indianisation of resources,women’s education and other aspects of education.

The recommendations of the commission have a specialplace in the history of education. It is worth while to note thatit was the first ever commission to look into educationalproblems. It drew attention to the growing problems of educationin the country.

Progress of Education in the 19th Century : Indian systemsof education of the Vedic, the Buddhist and the Muslim periodswere still surviving within the country when the British peopledecided to make a break from the prevailing systems. The 19th

century saw the end of a bitter controversy between theoccidental and oriental points of view. A new system of educationwas formulated by Wood’s despatch of 1854, which gave fillipto the establishment of new institutions. During the earlyperiod of 19th century not much progress was noticed exceptin the Madra, Bombay presidencies and also in Bengal. Anumber of schools started functioning in these areas.

In the wake of the recommendations of Wood’s despatchmany initiatives were taken, notable among them were theestablishment of Directorate of public instructions in provinces,evolution of the system of grant-in-aid, establishment ofuniversities, expansion of primary and secondary schoolsthrough local efforts, but the problem of finance did not helpin the expansion of primary education as desired.

Missionaries were working in the field of education fromthe days of their companies. They were rendering their servicesin other fields also. But their policy of proselytisation came infor severe criticism. In the field of education they establishedsome very good institutions.

Political scene had also been volatile and surcharged firstdue to the first abortive freedom movement in 1857 and secondlydue to the formation of Indian national congress in 1885.Education did not receive priority. Lord Curzon came to India

in 1899 as the Viceroy and earnestly endeavoured to improveIndian education.

Indian Universities Act 1904 Indian Universities Act 1904 Indian Universities Act 1904 Indian Universities Act 1904 Indian Universities Act 1904

It was the effort of Lord Curzon that for the first time theIndian Universities Act was passed in 1904. Some of theimportant aspects of the Act are detailed below :

1. Universities should provide teaching. They should notbe merely the examining bodies.

2. Number of members and their tenure was fixed.

3. The executive power of the university would be vestedin the syndicate, which would also have professors.

4. Role and power of the Senate were also defined.

The beginning of the 20th century saw the rise of “Swadeshi”movement. This motivated several Indians like Gopal KrishnaGokhale to initiate reforms in education. His demand for reformsin education was presented in the form of a bill before theGovernment. Demand of reforms in other fields also becamestrong but the outbreak of the first world war in 1914 madethe pace somewhat slow.

The Calcutta University Commission 1917 : The commissionwas appointed in 1917 under the chairmanship of Sir M.F.Sadler.It is also known as the Sadler Commission. Though the purposeif the appointment of the commission was to look in to theproblems of Calcutta University it was also asked to study theconditions of other universities as well. The mainrecommendations of the commission are given below :

1. The universities should be given enough freedom andautonomy in their functioning. Its powers should bewidened.

2. The VC’s should be salaried official.

3. Courses should be redesigned and honour’s course shouldbe introduced.

4. University court should be more representative. Thisshould make the place of Senate.


5. There should be a broad and an academic committee,which would prescribe the curriculum.

The commission also made recommendations aboutsecondary education, which according to it had several defects.It recommended for admission in colleges and universities onlyafter the Intermediate examinations.

The graduate course should be of three year’s duration.Board of High school and Intermediate examination should beestablished in each province. They should function free ofDepartment of education.

The commission looked in to other fields, such as womeneducation, teachers training, vocational education, etc. Therecommendations of the commission served as guidelines fornot only Calcutta University but also for other universitiesalso. Its recommendation for an independent body forexamination at the secondary level was timely and useful. TheCommission was criticized also for learning too much on thepatterns of Cambridge and Oxford Universities of England formodeling Indian Universities.

Education Under DiarchyEducation Under DiarchyEducation Under DiarchyEducation Under DiarchyEducation Under DiarchyWith the end of the First World War in 1919, the demand

for freedom dominated the political scene in the country. Inorder to assuage Indian feelings, the British governmentintroduced Diarchy in the British India. Under the diarchy,some subjects of administration were reserved for the membersof the executive council and some were transferred to theelected members. Reserved subjects were important subjectslike home, law and order, justice and finance while under thetransferred subjects, those subjects were classified which wereof public welfare, such as, education, health, local bodies,etc. The reforms proved to be great illusion as no fruitful workcould be done due to artificial compartmentalization ofadministration.

Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Simon Commission was appointedin 1927 to look into political conditions in the country. ThisCommission was authorised to appoint a committee oneducation, so a committee was appointed under Sir Philip

Hartog to study the various aspects of education. It submittedits report in 1929. Its recommendations with regard to primaryeducation were very important.

The committee emphasized the importance of primaryeducation and blamed the provincial governments for its neglect.The main causes of poor progress of primary education werelack of financial support, poor curriculum and standards, lackof local efforts, etc. It pointed out that primary education wasreceiving setback due to two inherent weaknesses in the system-wastage and stagnation. By wastage it meant the leaving of theschool without completing education and by stagnation it meantthe retention of a child in a class for more than one year. Theother findings of the committee on primary education are givenbelow:

1. University education was progressing at the cost ofprimary education.

2. Most of the areas remain unconnected due to lack oftransport and other facilities.

3. Superstitious and social beliefs are hindrances to thegrowth of primary education.

4. Need to encourage single teacher schools.

5. Lack of proper inspection, guidance and supervision.The committee also stated the position of secondary

education and found it better than primary education. It alsohinted at some of its shortcomings. According to it, the solepurpose of secondary school students was to receive universityeducation. It also found great wastage in secondary education,for a large number of students failed in examinations. It alsocriticised the secondary school curriculum, which was narrowand failed to help students to stand on their legs after itscompletion.

The committee had concentrated its attention on primaryand secondary education but it also gave some suggestions forhigher education. Though it praised the rise in the number ofstudents and institutions in this field, it criticised the loweringof Standards and called for its upgradation.


Provincial Autonomy (1935)Provincial Autonomy (1935)Provincial Autonomy (1935)Provincial Autonomy (1935)Provincial Autonomy (1935)It has already been pointed out that the diarchy form of

government failed to satisfy the aspirations of the Indian people.Subjugation and repression enthused the people to rise againstthe British Empire.

The Indian National Congress and its several nationalleaders under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi spearheadedthe revolution for complete independence. This led thegovernment to come forward with constitutional reforms of1935, known as Provincial Autonomy which removed some ofthe anomalies of diarchy. Representative governments of electedmembers were formed in the provinces but this also coincidedwith the outbreak of Second World War which hampered thecause of education.

The Abbott-Wood Report-1937 : During this period a two-member team constituted by the then Government of India wasinvited from Britain to propose a plan for vocational educationin the country.

In all the previous government reports it was clearly pointedout that vocational education in India had not made anyheadway for want of clear plan and perspective. With this thepublic also posed their demand for its formation. The twoBritish Experts were A.Abbott and S.H. Wood. Within fourmonths of their appointment in 1937, they submitted theirreport to the government. Its main recommendations are givenbelow:

1. Vocational education should be organised according tothe local vocational needs of the areas.

2. Vocational education should be treated at par withliterary and science education.

3. Vocational education should be considered to becomplimentary to other forms of education.

4. There should be separate schools for vocationaleducation.

5. Vocational education Advisory Board should beconstituted in each province.

6. There should be junior and senior vocational schools.Junior vocational schools after VIIIth with 3 year coursesand senior schools with 2 year courses after Xth.

7. Vocational schools should be established near vocationalcentres.

8. Certificates should be issued after passing a vocationalcourse.

Sergeant Report on Education : As the Second World Warwas coming to close and the British became hopeful of theirvictory, it directed its attention to the reforms in educationin India.

So it advised Sir John Sergeant, the then educationaladvisor to the government of India to prepare a scheme ofeducation for Indians.

He submitted his scheme in 1944. The scheme is known asthe Sergeant Report. It had covered all the stages and suggestedreforms for each of them. Some of the important suggestionsare listed below :

1. Compulsory education should be provided to all boysand girls in the 6-14 age group. This should be dividedwith juniors 6-11, and seniors 11-14 years of age.

2. Pre-primary education should be given to children in 3-6 years age group.

3. High school education should be divided into two parts.Literary high school and vocational high school.

4. The curriculum for literary high schools should haveIndian languages, Mother tongue, English, History,Geography, Civics, Mathematics, Science, Economics,Agriculture and Music, etc. In the other group appliedsciences should be taught along with wood work, metalwork, Engineering subjects, short-hand, typing etc.

5. For girls’ students the report recommended for inclusionof Fine arts, Home Science, etc.

6. The report also suggested for the abolition ofIntermediate classes.


7. To check overcrowding in the universities, the reportsuggested that only 1% high school passing out studentsshould be selected for pre-university education.

8. It also recommended for the setting up of UniversityGrant Commission.

9. It also suggested for the improvement of teachers’economic condition.

10. It also recommended for setting up part-time and full-time schools for teaching technical and professionalsubjects for in-service and other people.

The report also made recommendations about improvementof health of students.

The report is an acknowledgement of British governmentabout its utter failure in education in India. The report wasshort but very comprehensive and broad-based with some goodand worthwhile suggestions.

The government of India accepted its recommendations inprinciple and tried to implement them. For the first time adepartment of Education was set up at the centre. All Indiatechnical education committee was also established inDelhi.

Development in EducationDevelopment in EducationDevelopment in EducationDevelopment in EducationDevelopment in EducationThe freedom movement had a great impact in the field of

education. Many nationalists considered the prevailing systemcompletely alien, harmful and indifferent to Indian interests.A call of boycott led to the establishment of institutions ofdifferent variety with emphasis on ‘Swadeshi’. During thisperiod some innovative schemes were also launched.

Compulsory Education : Compulsory Education : Compulsory Education : Compulsory Education : Compulsory Education : The concept of compulsoryeducation had been relatively new in India. Gopal KrishnaGokhale was one of the first among such people who fought forthe introduction of compulsory education for the school goingchildren.

He also prepared and presented a bill in this regard. But‘Sayaji Rao Gaekwad’, the ruler of Baroda, princely state wasthe first pioneer who introduced it in 1897 in Amreli Taluka

of his state, which became an example. Compulsory educationwas finally accepted by the British Government only during thelast years of its rule. The Sergeant Report accepted the conceptand recommended for its implementation.

Basic Education : Basic Education : Basic Education : Basic Education : Basic Education : In the wake of the constitutional reformsin 1935, the Indian National Congress formed its governmentsin several provinces. This provided them with the opportunityto implement some of their own schemes of education. Onesuch scheme was the system of ‘Vidya Mandir Schools’ in oldC.P. and Barer. The father of the scheme was the then ChiefMinister Pandit Ravi Shankar Shukla.

The scheme was primarily meant for rural education. Theother scheme of ‘Voluntary Schools’ was introduced in the thenBombay Presidency. But the most outstanding was ‘BasicEducation’ propounded by Mahatma Gandhi.

Basic Education scheme is also known as ‘the Wardhascheme’. Mahatma Gandhi convened a conference ofeducationists at Wardha on October 22 and 23, 1937 to considerthe scheme of Basic Education.

A committee was formed under Dr. Zakir Hussain toformulate the working details of the scheme. Within two months,the committee submitted its report. The main features of BasicEducation are summarised below :

1. Education to be given through handicraft. The mainaim of Basic education is to make the child self reliantto enable him to use skills in later life. Through this,a healthy and direct relationship between knowledgeand life would be established.

2. Medium of education under this scheme would be themother-tongue of the child through which he can expresshimself.

3. The child is the centre of education under this scheme.The main aim of education is to develop the all-roundpersonality of the child and the handicraft is the mostsuitable medium for this. It would develop his body,mind and soil.


4. Provision of systematic and organized knowledge to thechild is important. The child will gain knowledge ofother subjects, History, Geography, Mathematics,Agriculture sciences and trade through the handicraftthat he chooses.

5. Education to be given in the natural setting. Nothingis to be imposed on the child. Flexible curriculum isanother feature of Basic education. However thecurriculum would consist of :

(a) Basic craft such as, spinning and weaving, carpentrypottery, leather work, culturing fish, etc.

(b) Mother tongue

(c) Mathematics and

(d) Social Studies (History, Civics, Geography to becombined)

(e) Painting and Music

(f) P.T. drill and sports etc.

(g) General Science.

Training of teachers : Training of teachers : Training of teachers : Training of teachers : Training of teachers : The success of the scheme dependedupon teachers who were devoted, dedicated and full of zeal andwho understood and believed in its philosophy. Hence specialtraining programmes were organised in Wardha for teachers.The training was of two types :

1. One year short duration course

2. Two year long term training course.

Basic education scheme was implemented in all theprovinces ruled by the Congress governments.

The Central Advisory Board of education had appointed acommittee under B.G. Kher, the-then Chief Minister of Bombayto suggest measures for reorganising Basic education.

Kher committee’s suggestions were accepted by the CABE.One of the important changes was the renaming of Basiceducation as ‘Nai Taleem’.

Progress of Education in the First Four Decades of theProgress of Education in the First Four Decades of theProgress of Education in the First Four Decades of theProgress of Education in the First Four Decades of theProgress of Education in the First Four Decades of the2020202020ththththth Century Century Century Century Century

Due to Lord Curzon’s interests in education and his efforts,progress was witnessed in education. He tried for bothquantitative and qualitative development of education. Due tothe persistent demand of people, several provinces enactedlaws for introduction of compulsory education but the paucityof finance was themain hurdle in its total implementation.

At the close of 1937, the number of primary schools roseto 1, 92, 244 with an enrolment of 1, 02, 24, 288 from 1, 84,829 in 1926 with 1, 30, 27, 313 students in the country. In 1947the number of primary schools was 1, 67, 700.

Secondary education made satisfactory progress. There were7530 high schools in India with 11, 06, 803 students whereasin 1905 they were only 5124 with 5, 90, 129 students. In 1947(after partition) the number of secondary schools was 11, 907(including 1733 schools for girls) with 33, 53, 856 boys and 3,56, 125 girls.

In the sphere of teachers’ training progress was noticed. In1912 then were only 15 training schools with 1400 trainees.

There was rapid and steady progress in higher educationafter the arrival of Lord Curzon in India. In 1887, AllahabadUniversity was established. For 3 years no new universitycame into being. But after this gap new universities wereestablished. They were Mysore University (1916), PatnaUniversity (1917), Banaras Hindu University (1916) AligarhMuslim University, Lucknow University (1920), DaccaUniversity (1920) (Now in Bangladesh), Osmania University(1918). The number of colleges also increased during the periods.Some new Universities Delhi (1922), Nagpur (1923), Agra(1927), Andhra (1926), Annamalai (1929), Travancore (1937),Utkal (1945), Saugor (1946), Rajasthan (1947) were establishedin the last leg of British rule. Although a number of Universitieswas established, the total number of Universities in India atthat time was merely 18 for a population of 40 crores.

Progress in other fields like vocational education, Women’seducation, education for backward classes, etc. was not very

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education3232323232 Education in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging India 3333333333

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India became free from the foreign yoke on August 15,1947 and thus started the crucial journey towards “tryst withdestiny”. A partitioned, badly battered and shattered nationneeded immediate social reconstruction. Education was one ofthe means for social upliftment.

The University Education Commission (1947-48)The University Education Commission (1947-48)The University Education Commission (1947-48)The University Education Commission (1947-48)The University Education Commission (1947-48)

The Commission was appointed under the chairmanship ofDr.S. Radha Krishnan, the eminent philospher and later thePresident of India. On November 4, 1948 Educational expertsfrom USA and UK along with Indian educational experts wereinvited to serve on the commission. It submitted its reportwithin a year.

The commission studied the problems of Universityeducation and gave important recommendations with regardto aims of university education, educational standards, teachertraining, research, women education, religious, vocational,medical and law education, medium of instruction, curriculum,examination system, students’ problems, universityadministration and finance and rural universities.

Its important recommendations are summarised below :

1. The aims of education : The aims of university educationshould be in accordance with the past cultural traditions,the present conditions and future requirements of thecountry.

satisfactory. The ray of hope in educational development wasprovided by the Sargeant report, which reflected some of theaspirations of Indians.

There were definitely certain glaring defects in the Britisheducational system in India, which the British knew very well,yet it continued. Despite the defects, the system renderedgreat service to the Indian people. It was this system thatbrought mass awakening to breathe in a free country. Thesystem did more good than harm.

It also acquainted Indians with modern knowledge andsciences. It also helped in awakening and a desire to recapturethe ancient glory. It also instilled a sense of nationalism anddemocratic way of life and above all, the system taught peoplethe art of governance.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Education in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging IndiaEducation in Post-independent and Emerging India3434343434 3535353535

curriculum should be diversified to meet the needs ofthe country. Stress should be given on practical skillsand researches.

6. Women Education : Education of women should begenerally similar but special provision should be madefor subjects of practical domestic life also. Moreinstitutions with qualified women teachers should beestablished.

7. Religious Education : The commission has dealt at lengthon religious education. According to the commission,the religious education should be in accordance with theconstitutional provisions. It should also keep in mindthe secular nature of the country. The State has no roleto play except to protect the interests of all religions.

In view of this the commission has recommended :

(a). Instruction in institutions should commence withself-mediation.

(b). Biographies of great religious leaders likeShankaracharya, Buddha, Jesus Christ, ProphetMohd, Guru Nanak, Mahavir, should be includedfor study in the first year, essentials of all thereligions should be taught in the second year andessentials of philosophers of all religions and theirproblems in the final year should be taken for criticalstudy.

8. Rural Education : India resides in villages. Therefore,rural universities should be established to promotehigher education to rural population with an emphasison rural subjects.

i. Administration : The commission deplored thedefects in university administration. It recommendedthat the universities should be brought under theconcurrent list under the state control. The centralgovernment should have minimum say in the affairsof the universities. It also suggested norms for theappointment of Visitors, Chancellors, Vice

• The aim should be to produce able citizens whowould shoulder their responsibilities in differentfields in the country.

• To preserve and develop the culture and civilizationof the country.

• To generate new ideas and discard those whichimpede growth.

• To provide opportunities for the acquisition ofknowledge and skills.

• To educate the mind and the soul.

• To promote innovations and new thinking.

• To instill moral values and sense of discipline.

• To develop the spirit of universal brotherhood.

2. Teaching Standard : The commission was anxious toraise the teaching and examination standards at theuniversity level. It recommended for the highly qualified,dedicated and good teachers in the universities whowould take up teaching work. It suggested higher scalesof pay for different grades of teaching staff. For promotingresearch in universities, scholars should be awardedstipends and scholarships.

3. The curriculum : The curriculum should be re-organised.The courses of studies for universities and intermediatecolleges should be according to the needs of the newIndia. The curriculum should not be an end but only themeans. There should be a connecting bond between thegeneral, intellectual and vocational education.

4. Teacher’s Training : More emphasis should be given onthe practical experiences rather than theoretical studies.Teachers in these institutions should have enoughexperience of teaching in schools. Innovative practicesand research should be promoted in these institutions.

5. Engineering and Technology Education : Theseinstitutions should be nationalized. It recommended forthe establishment of more colleges of engineering. Its


6. Inappropriate ratio between the teacher and numberof students in the classes.

7. The unsuitable medium of instruction.

II. Aims : Secondary education is the point of education forlarge number of students. It is the most importantconnecting link between primary and universityeducation but unfortunately it is the weakest link in thechain. Therefore the commission has emphasized theneed to lay down aims of secondary education clearlyso that it may reformed and strengthened. The followingare the aims of secondary education :

1. To produce ideal citizens for a democracy like Indiafully embedded with strong national and socialfeelings to enable them to shoulder their civicresponsibilities and duties.

2. To develop productive capacity in the students. Soafter completion of secondary education they maycontribute towards the national prosperity.

3. To develop their physical, mental, social andemotional powers for the total development of theirpersonality.

4. To develop a sense of discipline and quality ofleadership in them.

III. Duration of Secondary Education : According to theCommission secondary education should be givenbetween 11 to 17 years of age which would include threeyears of junior high school stage and four years of highschool stage. Intermediate stage should be abolished byadding one year in secondary education. Thus the degreecourse should be three years duration.

IV. Multi Purpose School : One of the importantrecommendations of the Commission has been toestablish Multi purpose Higher SecondarySchools for varied and diversified interests of students.Preferably each district should have one such school. Inrural areas, schools should have agriculture as an

Chancellors, Syndicates, Faculties Councils, etc.in the universities.

ii. Finance : The commission stressed the need toimprove the financial climate of the university. Thestate government should shoulder the entire cost ofuniversity education. Income Tax concessions shouldbe given to firms and persons who donate toeducational institutions.

The commission had a famous statesman, thinker, teacheras a chairman so it is natural that the commission’srecommendations bore the imprint of his experiences andphilosophy. The commission rightly perceived the vainness,inadequancy of university education and gave valuablesuggestions to remove them. Some of its recommendations arein line with the constitutional provisions.

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)The field of secondary education had been riddled with

several problems and many defects had crept in the system forwhich it had been criticized earlier also. In view of this, thegovernment of India appointed the secondary educationcommission under the chairmanship of Dr.A.Laxman SwamiMudaliar on September 23, 1952. A.N.Basu was appointed asthe secretary of the commission. After studying various problemsof secondary education, the commission submitted its reporton August 29, 1953.

I. Defects : The Commission has pointed out the followingdefects in Secondary Education :

1. It is not related to life.

2. It is narrow and one sided, fails to develop student’stotal pesonality.

3. It does not develop independent thinking andinitiative.

4. System of examination does not evaluate the abilitiesof students completely.

5. Curriculum and teaching methods are pedantic,mechanical and do not create interest.


VIII. Teachers : The commission also emphasized the needto improve the socio-economic status of the teachers bygiving them good pay. Other service benefits should begiven to teachers. The teachers’ retirement age shouldbe 60 years. It also recommended for improvement intheir training. The number of teaching days should notbe less than 200 in a year.

The commission made valuable suggestions to improvesecondary education though the problems in secondary educationcould not be removed in toto. But this is a good effort in thedirection.

National Education Commission (1964-66)National Education Commission (1964-66)National Education Commission (1964-66)National Education Commission (1964-66)National Education Commission (1964-66)India ushered in the era of planned development. With this

aim, five-year plans were launched. The execution of plansbrought to our knowledge the inherent weaknesses in education.The government of India appointed an Education commissionin 1964 under the chairmanship of Dr.D.S.Kothari. Thecommission is also known as “Education Commission”. It wasappointed on July 14, 1964. The Commission had eminenteducationists, experts and social activists J.P. Naik was themember secretary. The commission undertook a study of severalaspects of education. The report is divided into three parts. Thefirst part has six chapters and deals with reorganisation ofeducation and other issues. The second part has eleven chaptersand deals with different stages and areas of education. Thethird part deals with suggestions. From this it is clear that thereport is very comprehensive and touches nearly all aspects ofeducation.

1. Education and National Aims : On education andnational aims, the commission asserted that educationcan help in solving the problems of our country. Thecommission recommended the following programmes toachieve national aims. The national aims are as follows:

• Self sufficiency in food products.

• Economic development and end of unemployment.

• Social and Political unity.

• Political development.

important subject. Home science should be madecompulsory for girls.

V. Curriculum : The Commission recommended for thereorganisation of the curriculum taking into view theinterests of the students, the demands of the times andthe community.

Lower Secondary Stage : The Commission suggestedMaths, General science, languages, Social studies,Physical education, Crafts, etc. at the lower secondarylevel and diversified groups of subjects at the highersecondary level which would be as following :

1. Humanities

2. Sciences

3. Industrial subjects

4. Commerce

5. Agriculture

6. Fine Arts

7. Home Science

VI. Text Books : The Commission has recommended for theconstitution of a high powered committee for selectingtext books for secondary schools which will include-Ahigh court judge, A member of the public servicecommission, a Vice Chancellor, a principal ofgovernment institution, two educationist and Directorof public Instruction of schools.

The commission laid down the basis of selection suchas, production, printing, paper used, illustrations andpictures and above all content. The text books accordingto the commission should not be changed soon.

VII. Administration and Finance : The commission madeelaborate recommendation on school administration andfinance. It stressed the need for effective and qualitativeinspection and instead of finding fault it should guidethe teachers. On finance it suggested that the centralgovernment should give aid to the states.


The commission also gave suggestions for raising status,their chances of promotions, retirement benefits andimprovement in the working conditions. The beginningaccording to the commission is to be made from primaryschool teachers who are badly affected.

4. Teacher Education : While stressing the importance ofteacher education the commission has pointed out thedefects of vocational education. According to thecommission training institutions are in bad shape, itlacks able teachers, curriculum is lifeless anduninteresting, too much theorization and lack ofpractical experiments. The defects can be removed onlythrough the end of isolation of teacher education,improvement in training programme. Fixation ofduration of training for different category of teachers,improvement in the conditions of training institutions.

5. Enrolment and Manpower : According to the commission“One of the important programmes in nationalreconstruction is the development of human resources”.For this education can not have limits. In India thecommission noted the increase in student populationwhich requires a national enrolment policy which shouldensure seven years free and compulsory education toevery child. The commission also suggested enrolmentpolicies at different stages of education.

6. Equalisation of educational opportunities : In everydemocratic and civilized society every individual needsto be treated equally. The commission has rightlyrecommended that constitutional provision of free andcompulsory education to children of the school going ageshould be pursued. It recommended for the provision offree supply of books to poor children, scholarships andstipends to bright students. These steps according tothe commission would help the deprived class to makeprogress. It also recommended for help to physicallyhandicapped children.

7. Curriculum : The commission stressed the need forreorganisation of curriculum at all stages of education.

To achieve these national aims a programme of action hasbeen suggested. The programme of Action :

• Increase in production through education.

• Social and political integration through education.

• Strengthening democracy through education.

• Acceleration of the pace of modernization througheducation.

• Development of social, moral and spiritual valuesthrough education.

2. Educational Structure : On educational structure andraising of standards at different levels the commissiongave several suggestions but its two suggestions onsecondary education deserve special attention.

• Provision of national education at the secondarystage.

• There should be only one public examination. Onhigher education it suggested that it should beginafter 12 years i.e. general education for 10 yearsand 2 years of higher secondary education. It alsorecommended for the provision of better facilities ofeducation to students.

3. Teacher Status : The commission regretted the conditionand the status of teachers in the society and suggestedfor their improvement.

i) The government should fix minimum pay for ateacher.

ii) The centre should help the states financially so thatthey are at par with the central government teachers.

iii) There should be principle of equality in pay for theteachers.

iv) To draw good and qualified people to the profession,they should be given the same pay which people ofthe same qualifications get in other services of thegovernment.


improvement. The present system is full of defects. Thecommission recommended the use of such techniquesthrough which the students performances can beevaluated which otherwise can not be evaluated in theprevailing system. At the higher secondary level verbaland diagnostic tests should be held. The commissionsuggested that record cards should be maintained.

10. School Administration and Supervision : The commissionhas recommended a four point programme for effectiveadministration and supervision. They are :

a. Common school system of public education.

b. A nation wide programme for school improvement.

c. Supervision.

d. Separation of inspection from administration.

11 Higher Education : Objective and Improvement

The commission has recommended on different aspectsof higher education such as objectives of universities,development of major universities, improvement ofother universities and affiliated colleges, improvementof teaching and evaluation, medium of instruction,student services, students’ union, students’ disciplineetc. The commission’s recommendations on the aboveare valuable.

The commission has also recommended the introductionof part time education through correspondence orthrough evening classes. Post graduate education andresearch should be taken up only by such universities,which can provide it effectively. The commissionrecommended for rapid expansion of woman education,they should be given stipend and scholarship also.Courses should be of their choice. The commissionrecommended for the establishment of more universitiesin order to reduce over crowding. It also recommendedfor the provision of educational research. Incentivesshould be given for this. The commission was of theview that the universities should enjoy autonomy so

i) Lower Primary Stage : Language (Mother tongue orregional language or provincial language), simplemathematics study of environment, creativeactivities, work experience and health education.

ii) Higher Primary State : Languages (Mother tongueand Hindi or English, Maths, Sciences, SocialStudies, Craft work and social services, physicaleducation, Education in moral and spiritual values.

iii) Lower Secondary Stage : 3 Languages, Maths,Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Craft workexperience, Physical education, Moral education.

iv) Higher Secondary Stage : Languages, any threesubjects from any diversified group, workexperience, physical education, Craft, moraleducation.

The commission has recommended a three languageformula i.e. Mother tongue or regional language, officiallanguage of the union, a modern Indian or Europeanlanguage.

8. Teaching Methods : With regard to improvement inteaching methods, the commission recommended tomake it flexible and dynamic. This is possible only whenthe teacher comes forward. Innovation and researchshould be encouraged. The commission regretted theshortage of good textbooks particularly in sciences. Anormal programme for preparing textbooks should betaken up on the lines of N.C.E.R.T. Suitableremuneration should be paid for book writing. It alsorecommended sale of textbooks through schoolcooperatives. Radio broadcasts should be arranged forteachers and pupils. The Commission accepted guidanceand counselling as one of the essential elements ofeducation. Its aim should be to help students on differentoccasions. Guidance bureau should be set up under thecompetent people.

9. Evaluation : The commission considered evaluation asan important aspect of education but it requires


Charta” of education for teachers for it made several suggestionsfor improvement in their status. It also laid great stress on thedevelopment of modern sciences, which is the need of thepresent times. But it is deplorable that the commission did notaccept basic education. Most of the members of the commissionwere from foreign countries who didn’t understand the culturalethos of the country and that is why some of its recommendationswere found to be very ambitious.

National Policy on Education 1986 (1992)National Policy on Education 1986 (1992)National Policy on Education 1986 (1992)National Policy on Education 1986 (1992)National Policy on Education 1986 (1992)There was a rapid expansion of education and also the

country was rocked by the explosion of population. Rise ineducated and uneducated unemployment was shattering thetranquil waters of the country. Education was not helping inthe removal of defects. Besides it was lagging behind in manyaspects from the changes going on in the world educationalscene.

The world was in the grip of technological scientific andcomputer revolution. At this time the country had a very young,dynamic, charismatic and forward looking leader Shri RajivGandhi as the Prime Minister of India. He wanted to take Indiato great heights of scientific and technological progress.

The Parliament of India during the budget session in 1986discussed and adopted the National Policy on Education, 1986.The document consists of 12 parts and deals at length withseveral aspects of education. In many respects, it is innovativeand path breaking. It has recommended some radical changesin the system. In the beginning the N.P.E lays down the essenceand role of education as following :

i. “Education for All” is our national perspective. It isfundamental to material and spiritual development.

ii. Education has an acculturating role, refines sensitivitiesand perceptions.

iii. Education develops manpower for different levels of theeconomy.

iv. Education is a unique investment in the present andthe future which is the key to N.P.E.

that they may pursue academic activities properly. Withregard to finance, the commission recommended thatthe state government should provide sufficient in thisregard so that it can help the universities. Thecommission also opined about the appointment of vice-chancellors, functioning of affiliated colleges, differentkinds of colleges, Inter university Board, U.G.C. etc.

12 Education for Agriculture : The Commissionrecommended for an action plan for education foragriculture. It recommended for the establishment ofrural universities, in each state, establishment ofagriculture colleges and agriculture Polytechnics,provision of education of agriculture in primary andsecondary schools. It also recommended to take upextension programmes in order to provide informationon agriculture.

Other subjects which were also studied by the commissionare technical, Engineering and vocational education, scienceeducation and research and adult education. The commissionmade recommendations on educational administration andfinance. The commission emphasised the need of educationalplanning in a country like India. A national policy should beevolved. Role of private enterprise in education should beencouraged, as their contribution is immense. The commissionalso discussed the role of central government in education, aseducation is the state subject. It should work for the growthof scientific, technological and vocational education in thecountry. It should also plan the development of agriculture andmade some recommendations for the effective and coordinatedworking. On finance the commission recommended four andhalf times increase in educational expenditures to meet thegrowing requirements of education, it also recommended togenerate income for education through other sources also. Thecommission urged for allocation of funds on certain principlesand misuse and wastage of funds should be checked.

The commission’s recommendations as discussed above inshort are very important. Justice M.Chagla, the former ministerof education, Union government described it’s as “The Magna


Programme of Early Child Care and Education (ECCE)will be taken up. This will be child oriented, focusedon maintaining the individuality of the child. Elementaryeducation will get new thrust. It will emphasis twoaspects :

i. Universal enrolment and universal education ofchildren up to 14 years of age.

ii. A substantial improvement in the quality ofeducation. The approach will be child-oriented. Inorder to strengthen and make elementary educationmore attractive purposeful and rewarding someessential facilities like two large class rooms, toys,blackboards, maps, charts, learning materials etc.will be provided along with two teachers, one ofthem to be woman.

4. Non formal Education : A large and systematicprogramme of NFE will be launched for school dropouts,working children and girls. This will be strengthenedthrough various efforts.

5. Secondary Education : Realising the importance ofsecondary education the N P E proposes to formulatecurricula to bring about work culture to vocationaliseeducation, to provide valuable manpower for economicgrowth.

6. Vocationalisation : The N P E feels that the introductionof systematic, well planned and vigorously implementedprogramme of vocational education is crucial in theproposed educational reorganisation. According to it,the vocational education will be a distinct streamintended to prepare for occupations spanning severalareas of activities. The responsibility will be of thegovernment as well as of employers. Graduates ofvocational courses will be given opportunities forprofessional growth and career improvement. It isproposed that vocational courses should cover 25% ofhigher secondary students by 1995.

1. National System of Education : Under this system allstudents irrespective of caste, creed, sex, location haveto be ensured education upto a given level. It envisagesa common structure of education in the country of 10+2+3(Five years elementary education, five years lowersecondary, two years higher secondary and three yearsdegree course). N S E will be based on a nationalcurricular framework with a common core along withother components. Secular values will be givenweightage. Equality of opportunities will be provided toall without any discrimination. Minimum level oflearning will be laid down for each stage of education.Inter regional mobility will be facilitated in highereducation in general and technical education inparticular. In the field of research and development andeducation in science and technology special measureswill be taken. Universalization of elementary education,adult literacy, education to housewives, agriculturaland industrial workers will be taken up. Distanceeducation would be encouraged. Key educationalinstitutions will be strengthened. A better coordinationbetween states and the centre will be ensured.

The N P E has also made elaborate plans for women’seducation by removing disparities, the education ofscheduled castes and scheduled tribes, minorities andother educationally backward sections and thehandicapped.

2. Adult Education : The N P E has stressed the need andimportance of adult education to remove adult illiteracyamong Indian masses. The N P E proposes to launchmass literacy campaign with the cooperation andinvolvment of the whole society. A vast programme forthe establishment of adult education centres in ruralarea will be launched. The use of radio, TV and films,creation of learners’ groups, programmes of distancelearning etc. will be promoted.

3. Reorganisation of Child Education and ElementaryEducation : N P E gives importance to Early Child Care


12. Examination Reform : The objective should be to recastthe examination system so as to ensure a method ofassessment, a method to eliminate excessive elementof chance and subjectivity, to deemphasis memorisation.Continuous and comprehensive evaluation for scholasticand non-scholastic aspects of education should beintroduced along with semester system.

13. The Teacher : The N P E proposed to enhance the statusof teachers working conditions and training of theteachers. It recommends a plan of continuous teachereducation. It also proposes the establishment of District.Institute of education for training of teachers. In theend the N P E also deals with management of educationat different levels.

Total Impact on EducationTotal Impact on EducationTotal Impact on EducationTotal Impact on EducationTotal Impact on EducationAfter the adoption of the national policy on education,

1986, the Ministry of Human resource development cameforward with a programme of action on the N.P.E. in themonsoon session of Parliament. Programme of action documentdetails the resolve for the implementation of the N.P.E. in thecountry. Some of the important developments after theimplementation are detailed below briefly.

1. Primary Education : Under the universalisation ofelementary education (UEE), an ambitious programme“ operation black board” has been launched in the countryto strengthen primary education. Basically OBB is avery innovative programme through which essentialfacilities are provided at the primary stage. Theseincluded construction, addition, alteration, of theschool buildings in the rural areas. Provision of twoteachers, one male and the other female to each schoolhas been made. Several teaching, sports, recreational,materials have also been provided.

2. Secondary Education : (i) Navodaya Vidyalayas havebeen established in rural areas on the pattern of publicschools for the better education of rural students (ii)Vocationalisation of secondary education : Vocational

7. Higher Education : In the context of the unprecedentedexplosion of knowledge, the N P E recommends it tobecome dynamic as never before, constantly enteringuncharted areas. Looking to the vast number of collegesand universities in India it proposed to expand facilitiesin the existing institutions. Autonomy to be introducedin the departments of the colleges affiliated to theuniversities, courses will be redesigned to meet thedemands of specialisation better. Seats in theseinstitutions will be filled strictly on the basis of merit.Research in different fields will be given enhancedsupport.

8. Open Universities and Distance Learning : Educationalopportunities will be made available to large number ofpeople through Open University and distance learningwill be promoted. Indira Gandhi National OpenUniversity will be strengthened.

9. Delinking Degrees from Jobs : This is a landmarksuggestion in the N P E . Delinking will be applied inservices in which a university degree need not be anecessary qualification.

10. Reorienting the content and process of education : TheNPE opines that the pre-occupation with moderntechnologies can not be allowed to serve our newgeneration from the roots in Indian history and culture.Therefore the curriculum and process of education willbe enriched by cultural content. Children will be enabledto develop sensitivity to beauty harmony and refinement.

11. Value Education : Expressing its concern over the erosionof essential values and increasing cynicism to society,the N P E focuses on the need to readjustment in thecurriculum for the cultivation of social and moral values.

The N P E has also given due importance to workexperience, awareness of environmental problems,mathematics teaching, science and physical education.It has stressed the need to strengthen these.


Many of the past efforts to iron them out have not been veryrewarding. What should be education in the new emergingIndia is undoubtedly very difficult to say. However, somepicture of a distant future can be easily visualised.

Population Education : Population Education : Population Education : Population Education : Population Education : Since the last century, thepopulation in this sub-continent in general and particularly inIndia had been constantly rising. Before partition the undividedIndia had a population of 36 crores and the remaining Indiawas nearly 26 crore. It started quantum jumps from 1951 whenit was 51 crores. After 60 years the population of India iscrossing the figure of one billion. The situation is very muchalarming. Many reasons, such as better health conditions,improvement in nutrition, eradication of epidemics, growthin life expectancy, etc. may be assigned for the steep rise inpopulation, but its explosion is threatening development andenvironment which make up an important element in theconstruction of a new social and economic order today thatcontinues even slowly.

During the past six decades India has tried to checkmatethe growth at times forcibly and also most of the times thoughawareness programmes, results have not been satisfactory.Education plays an important role in awakening theconsciousness in developing the right kind of responses andinitiatives. So far population education has been includingunderstanding of reproduction, child nursing, health problems,advantages of small family, awareness of family planningprogrammes, etc. Now it is the time that new thrust is to begiven to population education. Population education should beextended to every home in the country, every village shouldbe educated and covered. A massive programme that too a timebound programme should be undertaken. The presentcurriculum, methods of routine and dull reaching should bereorganised.

Environment Education : Environment Education : Environment Education : Environment Education : Environment Education : It is a paradox that a countrylike India which was rich in environment, is today facing theagony of pollution of environment. The posterity will makeresearches to find out the places of mountains, rivers andvarieties of trees. We have reached this sorry state due to mad

courses have been introduced at + 2 stages in highersecondary schools in the country. These schools haveseparate staff. Provisions for workshop for each tradehave been made. Other inputs such as, libraries,practical experiences, linkages with industries etc. havebeen made.

3. Higher Education : Institutions are being strengthened,autonomous colleges have been named, open universitiesare established, facilities for distance education havebeen strengthened. Bhoj Open University in MadhyaPradesh is an example.

4. Training : At the school education level, training collegesare being strengthened, contents of training arereorganised. The most important changes in trainingprogrammes for the lower secondary and primary schoolteachers is the establishment of DIETS in each districtwhich provide continuous training to teachers in trainingand in-service. Orientation programmes for teachers onmassive scale have been organised.

5. Literary Programmes : Eradication of illiteracy hasreceived priority in the post N.P.E era. Non formaleducation, adult education centres, and other welfareprogrammes aim to literate the masses.

In short, the N.P.E has been very vigorously implementedin the country and a great progress has been noticed in areassuch as mass literacy, early child care, UEE, NFE awarenessof environment health, women education, technology education,vocationalisation etc.

Education in the Emerging IndiaEducation in the Emerging IndiaEducation in the Emerging IndiaEducation in the Emerging IndiaEducation in the Emerging IndiaToday India is emerging as a super power in the field of

information technology. It is also rated as a nuclear giant inthe world. It has advanced in the space technology and onlycomparable to a few countries, Industrially also the countryhas made astonishing progress. Indian students, technicians,engineers, medicos etc. are very bright and some have provedto be geniuses in their fields. Despite all this there arecontradictions and disparities in several sectors of Indian society.


Modernity can not be grafted on ignorance and illiteracyand the promise of building a just and egalitarian society willbe meaningless till the basic equality of educational opportunityis provided to every one irrespective of class, caste, sex andrace. The constitution of India had promised the fulfillment ofthis dream within ten years of its commencement but evenafter the end of the last century, we are not even near the 50%of the target. The new century has begun and the goal is stillnot in sight. Though the per capita income has increased andthe number of people below the poverty line has somewhatdecreased, a large number of people are still ill-clad, ill-fedand live a shelterless life, oblivious of the progress in differentfields. In this background, the country’s march towardsmodernisation vis-à-vis the role of education has to beunderstood. People are not unanimous about the concept ofmodernisation. Economists view it as man’s application of newtechnologies to acquire dominance over nature and to bringabout a marked increase in the gross national product percapita. According to political scientists, the ways used by thegovernments to increase their capacity to innovate and adaptto change led to modernisation as “the process by whichhistorically evolved institutions are adapted to the rapidlychanging functions tat reflect the unprecedented increase inman’s knowledge permitting control over his environment thataccompanied the scientific revolution”.

In some, modernisation is a revolutionary process, it isessentially a process, a movement from the traditional, quasi-traditional order to certain desired types of technology andassociated forms of social structure, value orientation,motivations and norms. In India, modernisation has led to thechange of life styles, thinking processes, a break from traditionsand cultural norms.

Education has a vital role to play. Education must layemphasis on the compromise between the past and the presentand also endeavor to a harmonious future. Kothari Commissionsaid, “Human being is dynamic and progressing, Society isalso an ever-changing phenomenon. It can not remain staticand stereotype. The structure is subject incessant change,

drive of urbanisation and industrialisation. Industries arenecessary to our economy and prosperity but it suffocates humanbeings, the end of human species is clearly in sight. Theemerging picture of India in the coming decades is of multi-storied concrete jungles of huge structures and mansions whereair for breathing would be scarce and probably sold.

We must understand that environmental problem is notlimited to a city or a state or even a country, it is a globalproblem, it is a problem of the entire humanity. Since 1915efforts for formulating human ecology are going on but todaythe entire global society is beset with this problem.

Environmental education in India is not a new concept.Even in the ancient system of education, great emphasis waslaid on the enrichment and protection of environment. Themain objective of environmental education today should be tounderstand the relationship between man and nature. Ex-President of U.S.A.-Nixon once called for the development ofenvironmental literacy’ Hom says “environmental education isthe process of recognising values and clarifying concepts inorder to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understandand appreciate the inter-relations among man, his culture andhis biophysical surroundings”.

Curriculum on environmental education should bereorganised to include resource management, ecological andenvironmental problems due to urbanisation, industrialisation,deforestation and intensive agriculture, and their remedies.Also courses in ecology, conservation, soil sciences should beintroduced at all levels of education to bring about massawareness. Methods of teaching cannot be prescribed but itshould stress more on experiences and should be activity based.Students should learn through experiences of air pollution,water pollution, soil pollution, sound pollution, mental pollutionand environmental pollution through industries.

Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : India today is on thecrossroads of modernisation. Our space crafts are revolvinground the universe, but our masses are illiterate and ignorantof these scientific and technological developments.


A new religion propounded, founded and propagatedby Lord Buddha provided panacea for the ills of Vedicera. The teachings of Lord Buddha gave birth to theBuddhistic philosophy of life and education.

3. Muslims Era : Islam came to India through severalinvasions from 11th century and onwards. With Islamcame a new religion and a new system of education. Theinvaders were greatly influenced by Indian arts andculture. But its fabulous wealth attracted them more.Many Muslim invaders came and some were successfulin establishing their dynasties of rule. Among the notabledynasties were the Slave dynasty, the Khilji dynasty,the Tuglaq dynasty, the Sayyad dynasty, the Lodidynasty and the Mughal dynasty which was lucky toretain power for about 200 years.

Education during this period was religious and basedon Islamic scriptures, religious practices and learningof Holy Quran. The Muslim rulers were ruthless anddogmatic. Hence their purpose of education was toconvert Indians to embrace Islam and increase theirnumbers. In order to spread Islam they did not hesitateto destroy and desecrate Gurukulas, Viharas,monosteries, temples, etc.

4. Pre-Independent Era : Even though the Muslim rulersdestroyed many centres of learning and establishedtheir own, the old systems of education existed side byside with the Muslim system when the British came onthe Indian scene. They described the system as“indigenous” and therefore decaying. Instead of providinghelping hand, they did everything possible to decimateit completely.

The charter of 1813 by the East India Company paved theway for a new system of education. The charter’s placing ofRs.One lakh for the reconstruction of literature created a bittercontroversy between the protagonists of Indian system and thewestern system. The controversy was known as “occidental-oriental controversy” which was resolved by Lord Macaulay.Lord Macaulay’s famous minutes criticised Indian literatures,

growing delaying, finding renewal, accommodating itself tothe … modification in the course of time”. Hence educationmust be reoriented to meet the challenged of social changes andto help in building a social order based on equality, liberty andjustice.

Education has also to take stock of the menace of growingpolarisation of the caste system. The political parties are playingthem up for narrow political ends. Indeed a large section of thepeople had been neglected and ignored but exploitation is notthe solution. It may lead to social, and communal discord anddisharmony. Education which is an effective tool ofmodernisation has to expand and cover every section of thesociety. It is only through education that the views andbehavioural changes of all sections of people can help in buildingan egalitarian society, free from mutual distrust, hatred andanimosity. Women neglected and ignored have also to bebrought, to the mainstream. The emergence of working womenand their socio-economic role in the family so far did not attractany attention but in the emerging Indian society maintenanceof family ties, harmony in the family and the society will haveto form an important agenda of education. The emancipationof women, the demand of women to have greater representationin the legislative bodies and governance of India require a freshlook.

In the end, education must be vibrant, dynamic, flexibleto meet any challenges of the future.

SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARY

1. Vedic Era : The ancient system of education was basedon the Vedic Philosophy. Vedas’ are regarded as theoldest among the literatures of the world. The word‘Veda’ means to know in general terms but it had deepermeanings. Vedas not only represented “Knowledge” butalso ways of life. The different kinds of ‘Vedas’represented various aspects of life.

2. Budhistic Era : The Vedic system of education developedsigns of decline due to over-emphasis on sacred ritual,performance of ‘Yajnas’ and the emerging caste system.


in India. It laid stress on the teaching work to be undertakenby the universities. The role of the senate was also defined.

The Calcutta University Commission (1917) : Sir N.F. Sadlarwas the chairman of the commission. It is also known as theSadler commission. Although it was asked to study the problemsof Calcutta university, but it studied the conditions of otheruniversities as well.

The commission made recommendations to make theuniversities autonomous institutions. It also suggested theestablishment of a Board for curriculum. It suggested thereorganisation of senate into court. However, it laid stress onthe modelling of Indian universities on Cambridge of the U.K.for which it was criticised.

Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : Hartog Committee : After the first world war the BritishGovernment introduced Diarchy in India to pacify the Indiandemand for ‘Swaraj’. The constitutional reform introducedthrough Diarchy proved to be illusion. The Governmentappointed Simon commission in 1927 to look into the politicalconditions of the country. It was also asked to appoint acommittee on education.

The commission appointed a committee under Sir PhilipHartog who submitted report in 1929. The committee madeimportant observations about the educational scene in Indiabut the most important was its finding about the state ofprimary education. According to him, primary education didnot make progress because of twin problems of “wastage” and“stagnation”. The committee made observation about otheraspects also.

The Abbot-Wood Report (1937) : The Abbot-Wood Report (1937) : The Abbot-Wood Report (1937) : The Abbot-Wood Report (1937) : The Abbot-Wood Report (1937) : Abbot and S. H. Wood,the two British experts were appointed in 1937 to propose aplan for vocational education in India. It made some veryimportant recommendations such as, vocational educationshould be organised according to local needs, it should be anindependent discipline in education, it should be provided injunior and senior stages of secondary education.

Sargant Report : Sargant Report : Sargant Report : Sargant Report : Sargant Report : After the end of second world war theGovernment thought of bringing reforms in education in India.

religious practices, etc. very bitterly and advocated thesupremacy of western knowledge, languages, Sciences andliteratures.

The British gradually took interest in education butpropagated “Downward filtration theory” which meant provisionof education for the elite only.

Wood’s Despatch (1854) : The Wood’s despatch is regardedas “the Magna Charta” of education. It made several importantand sweeping changes in the system of education in India. Itsrecommendations laid a sound base for the structure of educationin India.

The important recommendations of the Despatch were theestablishment of Directorate of Public Instructions under aDirector in each province, system of grants in aid, establishmentof universities, graded system of education, establishment oftraining colleges and training schools for teachers.

The Indian Education Commission (1882) : The commissionis also known as the Hunter commission of education. It is thefirst Indian Education commission in pre-Independent India.

The main purpose of the commission was to study theproblems of primary education and to suggest remedial measuresfor its reforms.

It stressed on the importance of primary education. Itrecommended to make it practical and useful. It alsorecommended to hand it over to the local bodies.

The commission also studied the conditions of secondaryeducation and recommended that its curriculum should bereorganised. Its first part should contain subjects of generaleducation and the second part should have vocational courses.

It also made recommendations on higher education, womeneducation and other aspects of education.

Lord Curzon came to India in 1899 as the Vice Roy. He tookkeen interest in education. It was due to his efforts that thefirst ever Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.

Indian Universities Act (1904) : The Act made importantprovisions for the organisation and administration of universities


Education Commission (1964-68) : Education Commission (1964-68) : Education Commission (1964-68) : Education Commission (1964-68) : Education Commission (1964-68) : The government ofIndia appointed an education Commission in 1964 under thechairmanship of Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari. The commissionundertook the study of several aspects of education looking tothe needs of the country. The report of the commission is verycomprehensive, contains three parts.

The commission dealt extensively on education and nationalaims. It asserted that education must help in solving theproblems of our country. It recommended programmes to achievenational aims viz, increase in production, through education,social and political integration through education. Strengtheningdemocracy through education, acceleration of the pace ofmodernisation through education, development of social, moraland spiritual values through education.

National Policy on Education (1986) : National Policy on Education (1986) : National Policy on Education (1986) : National Policy on Education (1986) : National Policy on Education (1986) : The Parliamentof India in its budget session in 1986 discussed and adopted.The National Policy on Education 1986. The document consistsof 12 parts. It suggests many radical changes in the system ofeducation. Keeping the national perspective in focus, the NPErecommended a national system of education for the entirecountry which would adopt 10+2+3 (five years of primaryeducation, five years of lower and secondary and two years ofhigher secondary education and three years of degree courses)N.P.E also stressed the need for achieving minimum level oflearning, universalisation of elementary education, child careand nutrition adult literacy and expansion of education throughdistance education.

N.P.E stressed the need for reforms in system of evaluation,introduction of value education and the delinking of degreesfrom jobs.

After the adoption of National Policy of education 1986,vigorous steps have been taken to implement them withenthusiasm and sincerity. Operation Black Board, NavodayaVidyalaya, vocationalisation of education at +2 stage, openuniversities. 10+2+3 are some of the schemes launched in thecountry.

Education in the Emerging India : Education in the Emerging India : Education in the Emerging India : Education in the Emerging India : Education in the Emerging India : Today India isemerging as a super power in the field of information technology.

The Sargant Report is a good document for the reconstructionof education. Its main recommendations included provision ofuniversal compulsory education to all children of 6-14 agegroup, high school education should be both literary andvocational, curriculum should be reorganised, overcrowdingin universities should be checked effectively, setting up of theU.G.C. should be taken up, etc.

The University Education Commission (1947-48) : The University Education Commission (1947-48) : The University Education Commission (1947-48) : The University Education Commission (1947-48) : The University Education Commission (1947-48) : Thecommission was appointed under the chairmanship of eminentphilosopher and teacher Dr. S. Radhakrishnan on 4 November1948 to study the problems of university education in India.

The commission made very important recommendationswith regard to aims of university education, improvement ofeducational standards, teachers training research, womeneducation, religious, vocational, medical, law education,medium of instruction, curriculum, examination system,students problems, university admission and finance and ruraleducation. The commission felt that the aims of universityeducation should be in accordance with the past culturaltraditions and the future requirements of the country. Thecommission stressed the need to improve qualitatively theteaching standards.

University education commission was the first commissionof education in the post-Independent India. Its recommendationsand observations were helpful in reorganising universityeducation in India.

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : Thesecondary education Commission was appointed under thechairmanship of Dr. A. Laxman Swami Mudaliar on 23rd

September 1952. The commission was asked to study theproblems of secondary education in India and suggest remedialmeasures.

While making recommendation, the commission noted thatthe secondary education in India was the weakest link in thechain of education. It was riddled with several defects viz,narrow, unrelated to life, fails to develop student’s personalityand independent thinking, fails to assess properly theachievements etc.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education6060606060 Radhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on Education 6161616161

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RRRRRADHAKRISHNANADHAKRISHNANADHAKRISHNANADHAKRISHNANADHAKRISHNAN C C C C COMMISSIONOMMISSIONOMMISSIONOMMISSIONOMMISSION ONONONONON E E E E EDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATION

APPOINTMENT OF THE COMMISSIONAPPOINTMENT OF THE COMMISSIONAPPOINTMENT OF THE COMMISSIONAPPOINTMENT OF THE COMMISSIONAPPOINTMENT OF THE COMMISSIONThe Secondary Education Commission appointed by the

Government of India in terms of their Resolution No. F. 9-5/52-B-1, dated 23rd September 1952, having completed itslabours, presents the following Report based on its deliberations.

The Government of India, their communique quoted above,referred to the recommendation of the Central Advisory Boardof Education made at its 14th meeting held in January 1948,that a Commission be appointed to examine the prevailingsystem of Secondary Education in the country and suggestmeasures for its re-organization and improvement. The Boardreiterated its recommendation in January 1951. TheGovernment of India had also other considerations in mindwhen appointing this Commission, such as the desirability ofchanging over from the prevailing system of secondary educationwhich is unilateral and predominantly academic in nature toone which will cater at the secondary stage for different aptitudesand interests. The Commission appointed by the Governmentof India con-sisted of the following :

1. DR. A. LAKSHMANSWAMI MUDALIARVice-Chancellor, Madras University, (Chairman)2. PRINCIPAL JOHN CHRISTIEJesus College, Oxford3 . DR. KENNETH RAST WILLIAMSAssociate Director, Southern Regional Education Board,Atlanta (U.S.A.)

It is also a nuclear giant. It has advanced in the space technology.Industrially also it has made astonishing progress but thereare contradictions and disparities also. But some picture of adistant future can be visualized.

Population Education : Population Education : Population Education : Population Education : Population Education : Population in India has beenconstantly rising. By the year 2001 it has crossed one billion.This is a cause of great worry from every point of view. Educationwill have to play a great role in this sphere.

Environmental Education : Environmental Education : Environmental Education : Environmental Education : Environmental Education : It is a paradox that a countrylike India which had been rich in environment is today facingthe agony of pollution of environment. Pollution is a multi-dimensional problem. It has assumed now the problem of entirehumanity.

Education in environment though a new concept in Indiawill have to be taken seriously and action plan will have to bemade to prepare the future citizens. Curriculum, methods ofteaching, textbooks etc. will have to redrafted and innovated.

Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : Education and Modernisation : India today is on thecrossroads of modernisation. On one side of the spectrum, ourrockets and satellites are trotting the universe, vast majorityof people are living a miserable life-ill-clad, ill-fed, ill-shelteredon the other side, Modernisation though is a revolutionaryprocess cannot sustain for long without equalising andharmonising the lives of the people in India. Education has toplay a role, not only by giving equal opportunities to one andall but also in establishing balance between the past and thepresent.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Radhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on EducationRadhakrishnan Commission on Education6262626262 6363636363

INAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSIONINAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSIONINAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSIONINAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSIONINAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSIONThe Commission was inaugurated by the Hon’ble Minister

of Edu-cation, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, on the 6th October,1952 in New Delhi. It immediately proceeded to consider itsprogramme of work. Prior to the first meeting of the Commission,the Chairman and the Member-Secretary discussed the issueof a suitable questionnaire. They had the advice of someheadmasters and others interested in education and, keepingin view the main functions which the Commission had todischarge. sent out a detailed questionnaire, a copy of whichis given in Appendix II. The questionnaire was sent to a largenumber of educationists, administrators and leaders of publicopinion interested in the sphere of education. Replies werereceived from many of them. The Commission acknowledges itsthanks to all those who-have sent their replies to thequestionnaire.

ITINERARYITINERARYITINERARYITINERARYITINERARYSoon after its inauguration, the Commission met in New

Delhi, and considered the scope of its functions with referenceto the terms under which it was appointed, the manner inwhich it was to discharge its responsibilities and the extent towhich it would be necessary for the Commission to elicit publicopinion from educationists and other citizens all over thecountry. It drew up a detailed tour programme to enable themembers to visit various States. A copy of the tour programmeis appended. The Commission regrets that within the limitedtime at its disposal it could not accept invitations to visit otherplaces but it feels that he ground covered has given it areasonable opportunity to understand and appreciate the manyproblems of Secondary Education in the various States of theIndian Union.

CO-OPTED MEMBERSCO-OPTED MEMBERSCO-OPTED MEMBERSCO-OPTED MEMBERSCO-OPTED MEMBERSIn most of the States which the Commission visited, the

Govern-ment of the State concerned nominated a member ofthe Education Department or a prominent educationist of theState as a co-opted member during the Commission’s tour in

4. MRS. HANSA MEHTAVice-Chancellor, Baroda University5. SHRI J. A. TARAPOREWALA Director of TechnicalEducation Government of Bombay6. DR. K. L. SHRIMALIPrincipal, Vidya Bhavan Teachers’ Training College,Udaipur7. SHRI M. T. VyasBombay8. SHRI K. G. SAIYDAINJoint Secretary to the Government of India Ministry of

Education (Ex-officio Member)9. PRINCIPAL A. N. BASUCentral Institute of EducationDelhi (Member-Secretary)Dr. S. M. S. Chari, Education Officer,Ministry of Education acted, as Assistant Secretary to the

Commission.

Terms of ReferenceTerms of ReferenceTerms of ReferenceTerms of ReferenceTerms of ReferenceUnder the terms of reference, the Commission was asked

(a) to enquire into and report on the present position ofSecondary Education in India in all its aspects ; and

(b) suggest measures for its reorganization andimprovement with particular reference to-

(i) the aims, organization and content of SecondaryEducation;

(ii) its relationship to Primary, Basic and HigherEducation;

(iii) the inter-relation of Secondary Schools of differenttypes; and

(iv) other allied problems. so that a sound and reasonablyuniform system of Secondary Education suited toour needs and resources may be provided for thewhole country.”


The Commission wishes to express its sincere thanks to theco-opted members who gave valuable advice and materiallyhelped the Commission by arranging for visits to educationalinstitutions and for interviews.

The Commission had largely to leave it to the Directors ofPublic Instruction and to the co-opted members in these Statesto decide on the representatives who were to be interviewed.Besides the co-opted members, certain of the State Governmentsappointed also liaison Officers whose duty it was to help inarranging for the meetings of the Commission, for theinterviews, and for visits to educational institutions andgenerally to make the work of the Commission profitable andpleasant.

The Commission wishes to express its thanks to theseofficers for the very efficient help that they gave, enabling itto discharge its duties satisfactorily. The Commission had theadvantage, of interviewing a large number of distinguishededucationists, members of Universities, representatives ofteachers’ organizations, representatives of managements, highofficials of the Departments of Education and associatedprofessions, Ministers of the States and Centre and leadingrepresentatives of the public.

A list of such persons is given in Appendix IV. To all thesepersons the Commission is greatly indebted for the opportunityof a free and frank exchange of ideas on all important subjectsconnected with secondary education.

The Commission was gratified to note that in all the Statesthat were visited, great interest and enthusiasm were evincedin problems of secondary education. In several States,Committees had already been .appointed to enquire into andreport on the working of Secondary Education in these States.

The Commission wishes to add that it is particularly gratefulto the State Governments, to the Ministers of Education andother Ministers of the States, to the Directors of PublicInstruction and to the Ministry of Education at the Centre fortheir ready willingness to assist the Commission, and for themanner 3in which every possible co-operation was extended inthe work that it had undertaken.

the particular State. The following persons were co-opted asmembers of the Commission for the States mentioned :

Shri C. L. Kapoor, Secretary,Education Department, PunjabShri A. A. Kazmi, Director of Education,Jammu and KashmirShri S. N. Sahay, Vice-Chancellor,Bihar University, Patna andShri J. C. Mathur, Secretary,Education Department, BiharShri S. C. Rajkhowa, Inspector of Schools, AssamShri A. K. Chanda, Chairman,Secondary Education Board, West BengalDr. B. Prasad, Director of Public Instruction, OrissaShri S. Govindarajulu Naidu,Director of Public Instruction, MadrasShri V. Sundararaja Naidu,Director of Public Instruction, Travancore-Cochin,Shri J. B. Mallaradhya,Director of Public Instruction, MysoreDr. D. Shendarkar,Deputy Director of Public Instruction, HyderabadDr. V. S. Jha, Secretary,Education Department, Madhya PradeshShri D. C. Pavate,Director of Education, BombayShri Nanabhai Bhatt, M. P., Gram Dakshina Murti,SaurashtraShri S. N. Chaturvedi, Director of Education,Madhya BharatShri R. G. Gupta, Assistant Director of Education,RajasthanDr. A. N. Banerjee, Director of Education, Delhi


of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce of tragedy or perhapsboth. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance, and the peoplewho mean to be their own governors must arm themselves withthe power which knowledge gives.” We should, however liketo add that it is not only knowledge that is required, but alsothe right kind of social training and the inculcation of rightideals without which knowledge by itself may be sterile orworse. Training for democracy postulates a balanced educationin which social virtues, intellectual development and prac-ticalskill all receive due consideration and the pattern of such aneducation must be envisaged on an all-India basis.

Another important question with which we were facedeverywhere was the place of the different languages moreparticularly of Hindi and English in the scheme of secondaryeducation. There is a great deal of confused thinking as wellas wide difference of opinion on this subject. If educationalprogress is to be well planned and confusion is to be avoided,the tendency to adopt divergent and even conflicting policiesin this matter has to be resisted. And it is not only in the matterof linguistic policy that this tendency to separatism has beenin evidence. There has been an accentuation in recent yearsof certain undesirable tendencies of provincialism, regionalism,and other sectional differences. This situation is fraught withserious consequences and it is as much the duty of statesmenas of educationalists to take steps to reorient people’s mind inthe right direction. if education fails to play its part effectivelyin checking these tendencies, if it does not strengthen theforces of national cohesion and solidarity, we are afraid thatour freedom, our national unity as well as our future progresswill be seriously imperilled.

We feel that in the entire planning of education and to someextent, in the matter of its financial responsibility, thereshould be the closest co-operation and co-operation between theCentre and the States. In some fields. of secondary education,the Central Government should assume greater responsibility,e.g., in the training of teachers, the formulation of educationaland vocational tests, the production and selection of bettertextbooks, and the training of technicians. The Centre has also

RAISON D’ETRE OF THE COMMISSIONRAISON D’ETRE OF THE COMMISSIONRAISON D’ETRE OF THE COMMISSIONRAISON D’ETRE OF THE COMMISSIONRAISON D’ETRE OF THE COMMISSIONIn the course of our interviews the question arose as to the

necessity for the Central Government to appoint an All-IndiaCommission on Secondary Education since, under theConstitution, education is a responsibility of the StateGovernments. This is an important issue and we consider itnecessary to state clearly the raison d’etre of such a Commission.

We recognise that secondary education is mainly the concernof the States but, in view of its impact on the life of the countryas a whole, both in the field of culture and technical efficiency,the Central Government cannot divest itself of the responsibilityto improve its standards and to relate it intelligently to thelarger problems of national life.

The aim of secondary education is to train the youth of thecountry to be good citizens, who will be competent to play theirpart effectively in the social reconstruction and economicdevelopment of their country. The Central Government is,therefore, naturally concerned about the type of education tobe given to the youth of the country. It must make sure thatsecondary education will prepare young men for the variousvocations that are open to them. Moreover, it is directly chargedwith the responsibility of maintaining proper standards inhigher education. This cannot be done, unless carefulconsideration is given to the level of efficiency attained at thesecondary stage.

All-India ProblemsAll-India ProblemsAll-India ProblemsAll-India ProblemsAll-India ProblemsThere are several other fields in which it is desirable that

a clear policy should be laid down on an all-India basis. Oneof the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution isthe right of every citizen of the Union to free and compulsoryeducation up to the age of 14. For the proper functioning ofdemocracy, the Centre must see that every individual isequipped with the necessary knowledge, skill, and aptitudesto discharge his duties as a responsible and co-operative citizen.What James Madison said about his country, the United States,many years ago, holds good today in our country also. Apopular Government without popular information or the means


the country. Not only is this interest apparent amongsteducational authorities and teachers but State Governmentshave also taken steps to have the whole problem of SecondaryEducation surveyed and examined by competent committeesappointed for the purpose. In some States their reports havealready been submitted, while in others the matter is underactive consideration. We have studied with interest and profitsuch reports as have been published and we have had theadvantage of an exchange of views with some of the membersof these committees. Because of this general awakening, thereis reason to hope that the States and the Centre would takeactive steps to implement as far as possible, the approvedrecommendations made by this Commission and the variousState Committees.

It was also pointed out that this Commission should havepreceded the University Commission established in 1948. Thisis obviously not a matter for us to discuss. Actually it has beena great advantage for us to know exactly what the UniversityCommission had to say. In fact every Commission on educationhas had necessarily to deal with Secondary Education to a verylarge extent. It cannot be otherwise. The Indian EducationCommission of 1882, the Commission of 1902 with its morerestricted terms of reference, the Commission of 1917, morepopularly known as the, Sadler Commission and the latestUniversity Education Commission of which Dr. Radhakrishnanwas the Chairman have all dealt with some aspects of secondaryeducation. Their reports have all been studied by us withinterest and profit.

IMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONSIMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONSIMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONSIMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONSIMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONSMany recommendations of previous Commissions have not

been implemented. Many responsible people have thereforequestioned the likelihood of any steps being taken to examineand implement the recommendations of this Commission. Inreply we would point out that India’s needs today are differentfrom what they were in the past. India is now free andindependent. The educational needs of a free country aredifferent and ought to be different from what, they were underforeign domination. The implementation of a report in the days

a special obligation with regard to the physical welfare of thepupils. it has already organized a National Cadet Corps forschools. Consistently, therefore. with the recognition of therole of the States in formulating educational programmes andimplementing them, we have no doubt whatever that, in viewof the crucial importance of education for the whole future andprogress of the country in every sphere-economic, industrial,social and cultural-the Central Government should vieweducation from an overall national angle and assume the dutiesof educational guidance and leadership. While there iseverything to be said for local and State autonomy in education,it should not be interpreted to justify differences in basiceducational policies and objectives.

PREVIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONSPREVIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONSPREVIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONSPREVIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONSPREVIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONSA number of Commissions has been appointed in the past

to survey Indian Education-the Indian Education Commissionof 1882, the Commission of 1902, the Sadler Commission of1917 and the recent Radhakrishnan Commission, all of whichdealt incidentally with certain aspects of Secondary Education.But no Commission has so far been appointed to survey theproblems of secondary education as a whole. We have beenentrusted with this responsibility and, in discharging it, wefound that we had also to give some consideration to primaryas well as higher education.

This in fact was enjoined on us by our terms of referencesince they are both intimately linked up with SecondaryEducation and their standards and efficiency depend largelyon the proper organization of secondary education. Referencehas, therefore, been made from time to time to these twostages. In dis-cussing the new pattern of secondary educationorganization we have indicated how it is to be linked up at oneend with Primary Education and at the other with UniversityEducation and how the total duration of education in thesethree stages will be distributed.

We have the feeling that the appointment of the Commissionhas been made very opportunely because, in our tour, wefound clear evi-dence of serious interest in this problem all over


those temporarily responsible for carrying on the democraticform of government. While we agree that experiments ineducation are to be continuous, we, feel that the general linesof reform should be such as would be conducive to a steadygrowth.

APPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING SITUATIONAPPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING SITUATIONAPPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING SITUATIONAPPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING SITUATIONAPPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING SITUATION

Origin of the Present SystemOrigin of the Present SystemOrigin of the Present SystemOrigin of the Present SystemOrigin of the Present SystemIn order to present clearly the background of the present

system of Secondary Education and to show how it has developedits various characteristic features, it seems necessary to passin quick review the various Government Resolutions as well asthe reports and recommendations of the different Committeesand Commissions which have studied this problem directly orindirectly. This will also enable us to understand on what linesthe problem of the reorganisation of Secondary Education hasbeen envisaged by educationists during the last fifty years.

The origin of the system of education which is prevalenttoday can be traced to the beginning of the nineteenth centurywhen the Government of the day had surveys made of the thenprevalent systems of education with a view to reorganisingeducation to suit the needs of the times.-Consequent onMacaulay’s minute regarding the edu-cational policy of thefuture, Lord William Bentinck’s Government issued acommunique wherein it was stated “that the great object of theBritish Government ought to be the promotion of EuropeanLite-rature and Science among the natives of India. and thatall the funds appropriated for the purpose of education wouldbe best employed on English education alone”. The Resolutionalso stated that provision should be made for the continuanceof schools and colleges where indigenous learning was beingimparted.

Important changes in the type of education to be impartedto the youth of the country were introduced in the first halfof the 18th century. The minute of Lord Macaulay andsubsequent resolutions passed by the Government (in 1835) ledto the establishment of schools teaching European literatureand science. These schools became imme-diately popular because

of foreign rule was the responsibility of an alien governmentand if nothing was done that Government was to blame. Today,however, in a self-governing democracy, the responsibility forimplementing a sound educational policy rests with the peoplethemselves and their chosen representatives. If public opinion,therefore, proclaims clearly that a new educational policy isneeded, the report which we are representing, if approved,will be preliminary to action, and not, as reports have too oftenbeen in the past, an alternative to action. We are not inclinedto take a pessimistic view of the matter and, although we areaware of the conditions under which State and CentralGovernments will have to examine this report, we believe thatthe States and the Centre are most actively interested in theproblems of education, more particularly of secondary education.

BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIOSBASIS OF RECOMMENDATIOSBASIS OF RECOMMENDATIOSBASIS OF RECOMMENDATIOSBASIS OF RECOMMENDATIOSWe are anxious to see that our recommendations are of

such a nature that they can be implemented. For this reason,we have divided them into short-term and long-termrecommendations. It is, however, essential that the generalorientation of policy should be clear from the outset so that therefashioning of the educational pattern may proceed on rightlines and, even where we are not able to put certain suggestionsand recommendations into practice immediately, we shouldknow in what direction we are moving. We realize that someof the specific recommendations that we have made may havea comparatively short range applicability, for changedconditions, social, political, economic and cultural—alwayspostulate new educational objectives and techniques. In achanging world, problems of education are also likely to change.

The emphasis placed on one aspect of it today may not benecessary at a future date. It must, therefore, be clearlyunderstood that these recommendations are not to be consideredas recommendations for all time but they must necessarily belooked upon as recommendations for a fair period. They mayhave to be reviewed from time to time in the light of experience.In any case, educational reform must be undertaken in sucha way that it remains permanent over a definite period of time.Our proposals should not be subject to frequent changes by


The establishment of Universities in the year 1857 had far-reach-ing consequences especially on the content, range andscope of Secon-dary Education. The Universities dominatedsecondary schools in every respect. Secondary Education insteadof being a self-sufficient course preparing students to enter lifeafter completing the course became merely a step towards theUniversities and University colleges with the result that schoolscould not function with an independent programme of theirown.

Certain specific defects grew out of the system of secondaryedu-cation in vogue during the years 1854-1882: the mother-tongue was completely neglected as a medium of instruction;nothing was done to train teachers for the secondary schools;and the course of study became too academic and unrelated tolife mainly because there was no provision for vocational ortechnical courses. One further defect that had now takenconcrete shape was that the Matriculation Examination beganto dominate not only secondary education but even the educationimparted in primary schools.

The Hunter Commission of 1882The Hunter Commission of 1882The Hunter Commission of 1882The Hunter Commission of 1882The Hunter Commission of 1882In 1882 an education commission, known as the Hunter

Commission, was appointed by the Government to report onthe whole question of education in the country. The followinginstructions regarding Secondary education were given: “TheCommission was directed to enquire into the quality andcharacter of the instructions Imparted in schools of this class.The great majority of those who prosecute beyond the primarystage will never go beyond the curriculum of the middle, orat farthest of the high schools. It is therefore of the utmostimportance that the education they received should be asthorough and sound as possible. There are grounds for doubtingwhether there is ‘not, in some provinces at any rate, muchroom for improvement in this respect.”

Since it was very costly for the Government to maintainsecondary schools it was thought that the Government shouldtake over the entire responsibility of primary education, leavingsecondary education to private enterprise. The Commissionrecommended that “Secondary Education as far as possible, be

of the great interest shown in English education by some of theeducated Indians and more particularly by leaders like RajaRam Mohan Roy and others.

The education imparted in these schools became a passportfor entrance into Government services. This was mainly dueto the Proc-lamation issued by Lord Hardinge in 1844 that forservice in public offices preference should be given to those whowere educated in English schools. In consequence thereofeducation was imparted with the limited object of preparingpupils to join the service and not for life. In the new HighSchools the standard of achievement in literary subjects wasfrom the very beginning high but little or no progress was madein training the pupils in the practical side of science. We may,therefore, conclude that some of the defects persisting todayowe their origin to the policy pursued in the past.

The Despatch of 1854The Despatch of 1854The Despatch of 1854The Despatch of 1854The Despatch of 1854By 1853 a number of problems had arisen which required

immediate solution. As a result of an enquiry made, a. despatch(known as ‘Wood’s Despatch’) was issued in 1854 reviewing thedevelopment of education to date, and proposing certain newschemes for adoption. Among these the following may bementioned : Departments of Public Instruction under animportant officer to be called the Director of Public Instructionwere to be created; a scheme to establish Univer-sities was tobe formulated, whose functions were to hold examinations andconfer degrees. It is interesting to note that the despatchrecommended that a number of high schools should be set up.The despatch observed: “Our attention should now be directedto a consideration, if possible still more important and onewhich has been hitherto, we are bound to admit, too muchneglected, namely, how useful and practical knowledge suitedto every station of life, may be best conveyed to the great massof the people who are utterly incapable of obtaining anyeducation worthy of the name by their unaided efforts; and wedesire to see the active measures of Government more especiallydirected for the future to this object, for the attainment ofwhich we are ready to sanction a considerable increase ofexpenditure”.


of Secondary Education which were responsible for laying downsyllabus and for conducting examina-tions at the school finalstage.

The Secondary School-Leaving Certi-ficate was expected tofurnish full information as to the progress of the pupil duringthe whole period of the school course as well as in the PublicExamination conducted at the end of that course. On the basisof these records it was left to employers and to principals ofUniversity colleges to entertain them in service or to admitthem to college for such courses of study as in the opinion ofthe Principals concerned the pupils were best fitted.

The Calcutta University Commission of 1917The Calcutta University Commission of 1917The Calcutta University Commission of 1917The Calcutta University Commission of 1917The Calcutta University Commission of 1917The next important stage was the appointment of the

Calcutta University Commission in 1917 under theChairmanship of the late Sir Michael Sadler. This Commissionwent into the question of secondary education and held theview that the improvement of secondary education was essentialfor the improvement of University education. The Commissionmade certain important recommendations among which werethe following:

1. The dividing line between the University and Secondarycourses is more properly to be drawn at the Intermediateexamination than at the Matriculation.

2. Government should, therefore, create a new type ofinstitutions called the intermediate colleges which wouldprovide for instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine,Engineering, Teaching etc.; these colleges. might eitherbe run as independent institutions or might be attachedto selected high schools.

3. The admission test for Universities should be the passingof the intermediate Examination.

4. A Board of Secondary and Intermediate Educationconsisting of the representatives of Government,University, High Schools and Intermediate colleges tobe established and entrusted with the administrationand control of Secondary Education.”

provided on the grant-in-aid basis and that the Governmentshould withdraw as early as possible from the directmanagement of Secondary Schools”.

The report of the Hunter Commission of 1882 is a valuabledocument which not only gave an excellent survey of the positionof secondary schools at that time, but made certain fundamentalrecom-mendations concerning the type of education to be givenat this stage. It anticipated what has, come to be recognisedlater as diversified courses of instruction in the secondary stageof education. With regard to vocational and technical education,the commission recommended that in a particular class of highschools there should be two avenues, one leading to the entranceexamination of the University and the other of a more practicalcharacter intended to fit the youth for commercial, vocationalor non-literary pursuits. In spite of such specificrecommendations, neither the public nor the Governmentseem to have appreciated the value of the suggestions, withthe result that the recommendations were practically ignored.

During the period 1882-1902 there was a considerableexpansion in the field of secondary education. It was due partlyto the enthusiasm of private enterprise and partly to the systemof grant-in-aid. This unwieldy expansion without properconsolidation led to certain obvious defects.

The University Commission of 1902The University Commission of 1902The University Commission of 1902The University Commission of 1902The University Commission of 1902In 1902 a University Commission was appointed, the main

purpose of which however, was to review the position of theUniversities regarding the higher grades of examination. As aresult of the re-commendations of this Commission secondaryeducation came to be even more under the domination of theUniversities, under the Indian Universities Act of 1904, schoolshad to be recognised by the Univer-sities, and rules andregulations were framed for this purpose.

Boards of Secondary EducationBoards of Secondary EducationBoards of Secondary EducationBoards of Secondary EducationBoards of Secondary EducationThe feeling that the Universities were dominating secondary

edu-cation and that an attempt should be made to see thatsecondary education was conducted independently of theUniversities, led to the creation, in certain States, of Boards


were not attracted to the teaching profession, the Committeeheld, because the best type of men cannot be attracted to theprofession so long as the general conditions remainunsatisfactory and “only too frequently the teachers have noheart in their work”, and “in no province is the pay of theteacher sufficient to give him the status which his workdemands”.

The Sapru CommitteeThe Sapru CommitteeThe Sapru CommitteeThe Sapru CommitteeThe Sapru Committee

The Sapru Committee appointed in 1934 by the U.P.Government which enquired into the causes of unemploymentin Uttar Pradesh (United Provinces) came to the conclusionthat much of the unrest was. primarily due to massunemployment and that the system of education commonlyprevalent prepared pupils only for examinations and degreesand not for an avocation in life. “In a situation like that”, theCommittee remarked, “the real remedy is to provide diversifiedcourses of study at the secondary stage and to make that stagemore practical and complete in itself and more closely relatedto the vocational re-quirements of different types of students.At the secondary stage, side by side with the general courseleading to the University, there should be parallel coursesoffering instruction in technical, commercial, industrial andother vocational subjects”.

The main suggestions made by the Committee were that-

(1) Diversified courses at the secondary stage should beintroduced, one of these courses leading to the Universitydegree

(2) The Intermediate stage be abolished and the Secondarystage be extended by one year; the secondary stage toconsist of six years to be divided into two, the higherand lower, each covering a period of three years, thewhole course thus covering 11 years, 5 for the primaryand six for the secondary ; the general course to be of8 years i.e. up to the lower secondary course ;

(3) Vocational training and education should begin afterthe lower secondary stage;

Though the Sadler Commission was appointed to enquireinto the conditions of the Calcutta University and to makerecommendations, the report was so comprehensive. that manyof the Universities in India began to implement the suggestionscontained therein. For the first time a Commission hadrecommended the attachment of Intermediate classes to thehigh schools and the setting up of a Board of Education tocontrol High School and Intermediate Education.

During the subsequent period there was a great expansionof secondary education and the number of secondary schoolsbegan to increase both in rural and urban areas largely owingto the interest evinced by the public and generous donationsof individuals and institutions.

But problems relating to the training of teachers, theirsalaries, and conditions of service were left unsolved. Theunprecedented expansion of the academic type of secondaryschools resulted in a failure to provide for technical schools orfor bifurcated courses of studies in high schools.

The Hartog CommitteeThe Hartog CommitteeThe Hartog CommitteeThe Hartog CommitteeThe Hartog CommitteeIn 1929, as auxiliary to the Indian Statutory Commission,

a Com-mittee was appointed known as the Hartog Committee,to review the position of education in the country. In the opinionof this Com-mittee, the Matriculation of the University stilldominated the whole of the secondary course. In’ order toobviate this defect, the Com-mittee recommended that a largenumber of pupils intending to follow certain avocations shouldstop at the middle school stage. There should be “more diversifiedcurricula in the schools”.

The Committee also recommended “diversion of more boysto industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle,stage, preparatory to special instruction in technical andindustrial schools.” It is interesting to note that the Committeereviewed the position of the training of tea-chers and the serviceconditions of secondary teachers and remarked “that enoughcannot be done in the short space of nine months which is allthat is usually available, to uproot the old methods of teachingto which many of the students are accustomed.” The best pupils


Government of India, visualised a system of universal,compulsory and free education for all boys and girls betweenthe ages of 6 and 14, the Senior Basic or the Middle Schoolbeing the final stage in the school career of majority of thefuture citizens. It was also recommended by this Committeethat at the Middle School stage, provision should be made fora, variety of courses extending over a period of five years afterthe age of 11. These courses while preserving an essentiallycultural character should be designed to prepare the pupils forentry into industrial and commercial occupations as well asinto the Universities. It was recommended that the High Schoolcourse should cover 6 years, the normal age of admission being11 years and that the High Schools should be of two main types(a) academic, and (b) technical. The objective of both shouldbe to provide a good all-round education combined with somepreparation in the latter stages for the careers which pupilswill pursue on leaving schools.

Recommendations of the Central Advisory Board ofRecommendations of the Central Advisory Board ofRecommendations of the Central Advisory Board ofRecommendations of the Central Advisory Board ofRecommendations of the Central Advisory Board ofEducationEducationEducationEducationEducation

The Central Advisory Board of Education at their 14thmeeting held in January, 1948, considered the question ofsecondary education in the country. In view of its importancein the educational system in the country the Board resolvedthat a Commission be appointed by the Government of Indiato:

(a) Review the present position of Secondary Education inIndia, and

(b) make recommendations in regard to the variousproblems related thereto. This resolution was endorsedby the All-India Education Confe-rence convened by theHon’ble Minister for Education in January 1948. Inpursuance of these recommendations, the Governmentof India appointed a Committee under the Chairmanshipof Dr. Tara Chand, the then Educational Adviser to theGovernment of India. This Committee made someimportant recommendations on different aspects ofsecondary education. The Report of this Committee was

(4) The Degree course at the University should extend overa period of three years.

The Abbot-Wood ReportThe Abbot-Wood ReportThe Abbot-Wood ReportThe Abbot-Wood ReportThe Abbot-Wood ReportIn 1936-37, two expert advisers, Messrs. Abbot and Wood

were invited to advise the Government “on certain problemsof educational reorganization and particularly on problems ofVocational education”. One of the basic reasons for institutingthis enquiry was “the fact that a large number of Universitygraduates were not securing employment of a kind for whichtheir education qualified them”. The terms of reference included-

“(1) Where any vocational or practical training should beimparted in primary, secondary and higher secondaryschools, and if so what should be its nature and extent?

(2) Whether the technical or vocational institutions alreadyin existence can be improved and whether newinstitutions for vocational or technical training wouldbe required, and if so, to suggest the type of institutionsrequired for the purpose; the stage at which divergencefrom the ordinary secondary schools (lower or highersecondary) to such schools should be effected ; and themeans to be adopted for effecting such diversion.”

The report of Messrs. Abbot and Wood suggested a completehierarchy of vocational institutions parallel with the hierarchyof institutions imparting general education.

One important result of their recommendations has beenthat “a new type of technical institution called the Polytechnichas come into existence.” The provinces also started technical,commercial or agri-cultural high schools conducting non-literarycourses.

The Sargent ReportThe Sargent ReportThe Sargent ReportThe Sargent ReportThe Sargent ReportIn 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education which

is an all-India advisory body set up by the Government of India,submitted a comprehensive Report on Post-War EducationalDevelopment containing certain important recommendations.The report, more popularly known as the Sargent Report afterSir John Sargent who was Educational Adviser to the


time-table, unsuitable textbooks of poor quality and the undulydetailed syllabus prescribed did not give the teachers sufficientopportunity for self-experience or for developing self-relianceand did not create the habit of independent thinking in theirpupils.

Another great handicap was the large number of pupils ineach class, making it impossible for the-teacher to establishclose personal contracts with his pupils or to exercise propereducative influence on their minds and character. On accountof the education expansion that has taken place during the lastfew decades, many children now seeking-education come fromhomes where there is little of an educational atmosphere andconsequently little or no opportunity of supplementing theeducation given at the school.

This fact adds considerably to the responsibility of theschool which it is not at present in a position to discharge. Norcan we overlook the fact that the teaching profession does notattract a sufficient number of the right type of teachers withthe requisite personal qualities and aptitudes and a spirit ofdevotion to their work. Because of large number of teachersrequired, recruitment has been haphazard and a carefulselection has been the exception rather than the rule. Againthere are inadequate facilities for those co-curricular activitieswhich provide an excellent medium for training the mind andemotions as well as the practical aptitudes of students, promotetheir physical welfare and inculcate in them social qualitiesnecessary for successful community life. Few schools makeproper provision for playing fields or for group games and otherrecreational activities which give vitality and joyousness toschool work and help in the education of the children’s totalpersonality.

One could go on adding to this list of defects enumeratedby the witnesses.. But it seems unnecessary since all who havehad any contact with these schools as teachers or parents canenumerate many other defects and handicaps of the presentsystem. It would, however, be useful to view them coherentlyand spot-light what we consider to be the basic short comingsand defects of the present Secondary school because that would

further considered by the Central Advisory Board ofEducation at its 15th meeting held at Allahabad in 1949when it was resolved that the Government of India berequested to appoint a Commission for SecondaryEducation to which the questions raised by some of theconclusions drawn in the Report be referred and thatit should, in addition to these items, go into the widerquestion of the aim, objective and purpose of secondaryeducation and the relation of Secondary Education to-Basic and University Education. The Board again at itsmeeting held in January, 1951 reiterated its convictionthat the reorganization of secondary education in thecountry was of such vital importance that the Govern-ment of India should appoint a Commission at an earlydate.

REORIENTATION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVESREORIENTATION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVESREORIENTATION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVESREORIENTATION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVESREORIENTATION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Defects of the Existing SystemDefects of the Existing SystemDefects of the Existing SystemDefects of the Existing SystemDefects of the Existing SystemDuring our tour many witnesses expressed disappointment

with the present set-up of Secondary education and referredto various defects which, in their opinion, made it wastefuland ineffective and hindered the realisation of its true aims andobjectives. They pointed out that this education was too bookishand mechanical, stereotyped and rigidly uniform and did notcater to the different aptitudes of the pupil or to pupils ofdifferent aptitudes. Nor did it develop those basic qualities ofdiscipline, cooperation and leadership which were calculatedto make them function as useful citizens. The stress onexaminations, the over-crowded syllabus, the methods ofteaching, and lack of proper material amenities tended tomake education a burden rather than a joyous experience tothe youthful mind. The unilateral scheme of studies whichconcentrated almost entirely on preparing students for entranceto the University, was not calculated to bring out the besteither in the teacher or in the pupils.

Again the failure to provide diversified courses of studymake it difficult for many students to secure suitableemployment at the end of the course. In most cases, a rigid


considerably reduced personal contact between teachers andpupils. Thus the training of character and inculcation of properdiscipline have been seriously undermined.

The situation has been further aggravated by the fact thatthe average efficiency of the teachers has deteriorated; theireconomic difficulties and lack of social prestige have tended tocreate in them a sense of frustration. Unless something is donequickly to increase their efficiency and give them a feeling ofcontentment and a sense of their own worth, they will not beable to pull their full weight.

Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tendedto curb the teachers’ initiative, to stereotype the curriculum,to promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, todiscourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stresson wrong or unimportant things in education.

In this section we have naturally focussed our attentiononly on the defects of the present system, because soundreconstruction de-pends on their proper diagnosis. It shouldnot, however, be taken to mean that it has no good featuresor that it has played no useful role at all, in the life of thenation. Its main handicap has been that it started with alimited and wrong objective.

Naturally, therefore, its later development took placewithin the limitations of that objective. Many piecemeal reformsand improvements have been introduced from time to time aswe have hinted above but they were not coherently andconsciously related to the right aims and objectives and,therefore, their total impact on the system was unimpressive.What is necessary now-and this is what we are anxious toensure—is to take bold and far-sighted measures to give a neworientation to Secondary education as a whole in which allthese individual reforms may find their proper and integratedplace.

AIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONAIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONAIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONAIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONAIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONThe aims of education have been formulated in general

terms in numerous books on education and in the reports ofcommittees and commissions and, therefore, so far as such

provide the starting point for a discussion of the methods ofreform and reconstruction.

Firstly, the education given in our schools is isolated fromlife—the curriculum as formulated and as presented throughthe traditional methods of teaching does not give the studentsinsight into the everyday world in which they are living. Whenthey pass out of school they feel ill-adjusted and cannot taketheir place confidently and competently in the community.Unless the school is itself organized as a community and is invital rapport with outside community life, this situation cannotbe remedied. Secondly, it is narrow, and one-sided and failsto train the whole personality of the student. For many decades,it has provided only academic instruction which meant teachinghim a certain number of subjects which either gave informationwhich the adults considered useful or trained him in certainskills like reading and writing.

The “non-cognitive” aspects of his personality-his practicalaptitudes, his emotions, his appreciation, his tests werelargely ignored. Recently, games, crafts and certain types ofsocial activities have been given a place in the school programme,but they are still not regarded as an integral part of thecurriculum. On the whole, it is still true that our educationcaters only to a segment of the student’s whole personality.Thirdly, until comparatively recently, English was bolt themedium of instruction and a compulsory subject of study.Students who did not possess special linguistic ability weretherefore greatly handicapped in their studies. If a student didnot fare well in English he could neither pass the School FinalExamination nor find any post in government service.

The other subjects, which were psychologically and sociallyimportant or congenial, were not given greater attention.Fourthly, the methods of teaching generally practised failedto develop in the students either independence of thought orinitiative in action. They stressed competitive success ratherthan the joy of cooperative achievement. It is a matter ofcommon complaint that lessons are imparted in a mechanicalway Living information which is relunctantly memorized bythe students. Fifthly, the increase in the size of classes has


need for reorienting the educational system in such a way thatit will stimulate a cultural renaissance.

From this necessarily sketchy analysis of the dominantneeds of the present situation, it is clear that we shall haveto formulate our aims with reference to these broad categories-the training of charac-ter to fit the students to participatecreatively as citizens in the emerging democratic social order;the improvement of their practical and vocational efficiency sothat they may play their part in building up the economicprosperity of their country; and the development of their literary,artistic and cultural interests, which are necessary for self-expression and for the full development of the humanpersonality, without which a, living national culture cannotcome into being. We propose to consider each one of thesebriefly in order to indicate their implication in more concreteterms.

Role of Education in Developing Democratic CitizenshipRole of Education in Developing Democratic CitizenshipRole of Education in Developing Democratic CitizenshipRole of Education in Developing Democratic CitizenshipRole of Education in Developing Democratic CitizenshipCitizenship in a democracy is a very exacting and challenging

responsibility for which every citizen has to be carefully trained.It involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities whichcannot be expected to grow of their own accord. In any kindof regimental social order, the individual does not need toindulge in the travail of independent thinking or of chalkingout his own lines of action.

The authorities relieve him of that onerous responsibilities! But in a democracy-if it is anything more than the thoughtlessexercise of the vote-an individual must form his own independentjudgment on all kinds of complicated social, economic andpolitical issues and, to a large extent, decide his own courseof action.

The Secondary education, which would be the end of allformal education for the majority of the citizens, must assumethe responsibility of providing the necessary training for thispurpose. The first requisite in this connection is to develop thecapacity for clear thinking and a receptivity to new ideas. Onthe intellectual side the school should perhaps accord the highestpriority to the cultivation of this quality, which is thedistinguishing mark of an educated mind.

general aims are concerned, it is not possible to add anythingsignificant to what has been re-peatedly expressed. But thereis undoubtedly room for formulating these aims in more specificterms and with special reference to the needs and the idealsof our country in its actual situation.

As political, social and economic conditions change andnew problems arise, it becomes necessary to re-examinecarefully and re-state clearly the objectives which education ateach definite stage, should keep in view. Moreover, thisstatement must take into account not only the facts of theexisting situation but also the direction of its development andthe nature and type of the social order that we envisage forthe future to which education has to be geared.

Educational Needs of Democratic IndiaEducational Needs of Democratic IndiaEducational Needs of Democratic IndiaEducational Needs of Democratic IndiaEducational Needs of Democratic IndiaThe most outstanding and educationally relevant facts that

have to be taken into account may be briefly summed up asfollows. India has recently achieved its political freedom andhas, after careful consideration, decided to transform itselfinto a, secular democratic republic.

This means that the educational system must make itscontribution to the development of habits, attitudes and qualitiesof character, which will enable its citizens to bear worthily theresponsibilities of democratic citizenship and to counteract allthose fissiparous tendencies which hinder the emergence of abroad, national and secular outlook. Secondly, though rich inpotential resources, India is actually a poor country at present;a large majority of its people have to live at an economicallysubhuman level.

One of its most urgent problems-if not the most urgentproblem-is to improve productive efficiency to increase thenational wealth and thereby to raise appreciably the standardof living of the people.

Thirdly, partly as a result of this oppressive and widespreadpoverty there is a serious lack of educational facilities and thebulk-of the people are so obsessed with the problem of makingsome sort of a living that have not been able to give sufficientattention to cultural pursuits and activities. Hence there is


or social consideration. The object of a democratic education is,therefore, the full, all-round development of every individual’spersonality. This requires that education should take intoaccount all his needs-psychological, social, emotional andpractical-and cater to all of them.

The view of education that emerges from this basic concepttranscends the narrow academic approach and broadens outinto an education for living i.e. an education to initiate thestudents into the many-sided art of living in a community. Itis obvious, however, that an individual cannot live and develop’alone.

Both for his own wholesome development and the good ofsociety, it is essential that he should learn to live with othersand to appreciate the value of cooperation through practicalexperience and free interplay with other personalities. Noeducation is worth the name which does not inculcate thequalities necessary for living graciously, harmoniously andefficiently with one’s fellow men.

Amongst the qualities which should be cultivated for thispurpose are discipline, cooperation, social sensitiveness andtolerance. Each one of them has its own special part to playin the human-ising and socialising of the personality. Disciplineis an essential condition for successful group work. Anindisciplined person can neither make any effective contributionto the completion of any corporate project, nor develop qualitiesof leadership.

For various reasons, which we have discussed elsewhere,standards of discipline have become deplorable lax in recentdecades and a special effort needs to be made to improve them.If this is done through the adoption of intelligent andpsychologically sound methods, to which we have referred inanother chapter it would be a most valuable contribution to thedevelopment of national character and would provide animportant guarantee of the success of our democraticexperiment.

This discipline cannot, however, be developed in a vaccum;it is the fruit, the valuable by-product, of cooperative work,

A democracy of people who can think only confusedly canneither make progress, nor even maintain itself, be-cause itwill always be open to the risk of being misled and exploitedby demagogues who have within their reach todayunprecedentedly powerful media of mass communication andpropaganda.

To be effective, a democratic citizen should have theunderstanding and the intel-lectual integrity to sift truth fromfalsehood, facts from propaganda and to reject the dangerousappeal of fanaticism and prejudice. He must develop a scientificattitude of mind to think objectively and base his conclusionson tested data.

He should also have an open mind receptive to new ideasand not confined within the prison walls of outmoded customs,traditions and beliefs. It should neither reject the old becauseit is old nor accept the new because it is new, but dispassionatelyexamine both and courageously reject whatever arrest the forcesof justice and progress.

We shall discuss later in dealing with educational methods,how such a mind is to be developed through education. Whatwe wish to stress here is the need for teachers to appreciatethat this is one of the most important aims that shouldconsciously inspire their educational ideas and technique. Theyshould realize that the type of lessons usually given in ourclassrooms, which only call for passive assimilation, can makeno contribution to the development of this type of mind.

Closely allied to clarity of thought is clearness in speechand in writing. This is not only an important social asset, itis also an essential prerequisite for successful living in ademocracy which is based not on force but on free discussion,persuation, and peaceful exchange of ideas. To be able to makeone’s influence felt and to assist in the formation of healthypublic opinion, an educated person should be able to expresshimself clearly both in speech and writing.

A democracy is based on faith in the dignity and worth ofevery single individual as a human being. This innate“worthfulness” cannot be eclipsed either by economic or racial


utilising the resources and opportunities provided by the factthat its students are drawn from different castes, creeds andclasses.

If they ;can first learn to live pleasantly and peacefully inthe small community of the school this training will enablethem to do so later in the larger community outside. Anotherimportant aim which the Secondary school must foster is thedevelopment of a sense of true patriotism. In the proper inter-pretation of this aim, the adjective ‘true’ is as important asthe noun.

The propriety of inculcating, through education, a deeplove of one’s own country, is too obvious to require anyjustification, but in doing so it is necessary to take care thatthis love does not degenerate into nationalistic jingoism. Truepatriotism involves three things—a sincere appreciation of thesocial and cultural achievements of one’s country, a readinessto recognize its weaknesses frankly and to work for theireradication and an earnest resolve to serve it to the best of one’sability, harmonizing and subordinating individual interests tobroader national interests.

The school must address itself to building up this rich,threefold concept of patriotism. Through a proper orientationand presentation of the curriculum it can make the studentsappreciative and proud of what their country has achieved inliterature and science, art and architecture, religion, andphilosophy, crafts and industries and other fields of humanendeavour.

This. feeling can be quickened and made more vital throughthe organization and celebration of suitable functions and extra-curricular activities. It has to be linked up, however, with acritical appraisal of the total picture of national life and-to theextent that such appraisal is within the mental capacity ofstudents at this stage-it should be inculcated and encouragedby the school.

The capacity for clear and objective thinking that we havecommended as a significant educational aim, should be broughtmore play in this connection-particularly in connection with

willingly undertaken and efficiently completed. The school mustaim at strengthening the desire for cooperation and affordstudents opportunities to translate it into practice. Thiscooperation must, however, be inspired by the faith that socialpurposes are worth striving for that life in a democratic set upis not playing for one’s own hand but calls for a strenousendeavour to equalize opportunities for all and an unremittingfight for justice for the under-privileged.

A passion for social justice, based on a sensitiveness to thesocial evils and the exploitation which corrupts the grace of life,must be kindled in the heart and mind of our people and thefoundations for it should be laid in the school. Through it thechild and adolescent should not only get a coherent picture ofthe world in which they are living but also be introduced to thestandards by which its customs, practices and institutions areto be judged.

This social sensitiveness is the ethical basis of good characterwithout it efficiency, discipline, cooperation and many otherfine qualities may either remain unfructuous or may becorrupted for baser purposes. And finally, we must stress theimportance of tolerance, without which it is impossible topreserve the health and even the existence of a democracy.

The essence of all democratic society is not only the toleratingbut the welcoming of differences which make for the enrich-ment of life. Dragooning different beliefs, ideas, opinions,tastes and interests into uniformity may possibly make forefficiency in a narrow and inferior sense but it inevitablyimpoverishes life and curbs the free expression of the humanspirit.

If a democracy like ours is to survive-a democracy whichharbours so many faiths, races and communities-educationmust cultivate in our youth an openness of mind and largenessof heart which would make them capable of entertaining andof blending into a harmonious pattern differences in ideas andbehaviour.

It is possible for every school to do so, not only throughthe proper presentation of the various schools subjects-particularly the humanities and social studies-but also by

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education9090909090 New Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary Education 9191919191

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SSSSSECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARY E E E E EDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATION

SECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONIn the description that we have given of the existing pattern

of institution catering for the different age periods, it will beseen that there is considerable diversity in the different States.This is to be taken into consideration in planning the neworganisational pattern of Secondary education. It is obviousthat for an interim period, some provisional adjustments willhave to be made so that the change-over from the existing tothe new pattern may take place without serious dislocation.

Duration of Secondary EducationDuration of Secondary EducationDuration of Secondary EducationDuration of Secondary EducationDuration of Secondary EducationWe have to bear in mind the principle already noted that

Secon-dary education is complete unit by itself and not merelya preparatory stage; that at the end of this period, the studentshould be in a position, if he wishes, to enter on theresponsibilities of life and take up some useful vocation. Theage at which the child is to begin his Secondary education andthe age up to which it should be continued is, therefore, amatter of considerable importance. It is now generally recognisedthat the period of Secondary education covers the age groupof about 11 to 17 years. Properly planned education, coveringabout 7 years, should enable the school to give a thoroughtraining in the courses of study taken up by the student andalso help him to attain a reasonable degree of maturity inknowledge, understanding and judgment which would standhim in good stead in later life. It has been repeatedly pointed

the teaching of social studies-and the students should learn thegreat truth that an appreciation of what is good in one’s heritageis one aspect of patriotism, but equally so is the rejection ofwhat is unworthy and the desire to improve it.

There is no more dangerous maxim in the world of todaythan “My country right, or wrong”. The whole world is nowso intimately interconnected that no nation can or dare livealone and the development of a sense of world citizenship hasbecome just as important as that of national citizenship. In avery real sense, therefore, “Patriotism is not enough” and itmust be supplemented by a lively realization of the fact thatwe are all members of One-World, and must be prepared,mentally and emotionally, to discharge the responsibilitieswhich such membership implies. We need not discuss here thevarious methods that can be employed to achieve this object.A number of very interesting and significant experiments havebeen, and are being, tried in many schools throughout theworld to develop international understanding and these can bestudied with profit.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education New Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary EducationNew Organisational Pattern of Secondary Education9292929292 9393939393

accordingly. In order to obviate any clash with the Basic school,we have recommended that the general lay-out and standardof syllabus in the Senior Basic, Middle and Lower Secondaryschools should be largely similar. Secondly, in formulating-ourrecommendations in this behalf, we have had to take intoconsideration the fact that the number of full Basic schools inthe country is still comparatively small and the very largemajority of schools which cater for the age-group of 11 to 14are ordinary Middle or Lower Secondary schools, which willtake a long time to be converted into Senior Basic Schools. Wehave, therefore, to provide in our proposals for the improvementand reconstruction of these schools and classes also. Ourproposals aim at bringing some of the important principles ofBasic education into the educational life of all children of thisage-group while the fully converted Basic schools will be freeto follow their own lines of natural development.

Keeping this broad outline in view, we recommend thefollowing new organisational structure for Secondary educationafter the 4 or 5 years of Primary or Junior Basic education :

(i) A Middle or Junior Secondary or Senior Basic stagewhich should cover a period of 3 years;

(ii) A Higher Secondary stage which should cover a periodof four years.

It must, however, be clearly understood that, in theplanning of the curricula at these three successive stages(including the Primary) there must be an organic continuity sothat each stage will lead on to the next and there will be noabrupt break. Particular care will have to be taken to ensurethat the education imparted during the first 8 years in thePrimary (or Junior Basic) and the Middle (or Senior Basic)stage forms an integrated and complete whole, so that whenfree and compulsory education is extended up to the age of 14,as envisaged in the Constitution, it will constitute a uniformpattern of education.

Transitional Stage of DevelopmentTransitional Stage of DevelopmentTransitional Stage of DevelopmentTransitional Stage of DevelopmentTransitional Stage of DevelopmentThe practical problem that we have to face in this connection

is how these suggestions can best be implemented, with due

out by all concerned with education that at present the standardattained by students who seek admission to the University andto other higher courses is low and that the average age ofentrance is also low. A somewhat longer period of training,before entrance to the University, is likely to be useful bothfor those who want to pursue Higher education and for thosewho finish their education at this stage. Judging by therequirements of several of the diversified courses that we havein view, we feel that a somewhat longer period of training willbe necessary if they have to be taught with thoroughness andefficiency. The various arguments that have been adduced infavour of this view have led us to the conclusion that it wouldbe best to increase the Secondary stage of education by one yearand to plan the courses for a period of four years, after theMiddle or Senior Basic stage. At the same time, we realize thatthe total period of training required at present for Highereducation cannot and should not be increased, because of thelarge financial implications for educational authorities as wellas for the students. We have, therefore, come to the conclusion-which also tallies with the view of the University EducationCommission in this connection—that it is desirable to abolishthe present Intermediate stage, to increase the period ofSecondary education by one year and to plan a three-yeardegree course at the University stage.

There is one important point which needs to be clarifiedwith reference to our recommendation that the period ofSecondary education should cover the age-group of 11 to 17 Weare fully aware that the scheme of Basic education which hasbeen accepted by Government as the approved pattern at thestage of mass education, covers the age-group of 6-14. It mayseem therefore that our scheme partly overlaps, or eveninterferes, with, the pattern of Basic education. It is, however,not really so. In the first place, the scope of Basic edu-cationas defined in the Report of the Zakir Husain Committee andsubsequent Reports of the Central Advisory Board of Education,covers not only the stage of Primary education, as generallyunderstood in India, but also a part of Secondary education.Thus the Senior Basic stage really falls within the age-groupof Secondary education and we have included it there


with a pre-University course of one year for students who passout of the High schools so that they may have a year’s specialtraining before they join the University.

Thus it is obvious that, for several years to come. therewill be simultaneously High schools from which students willtake the Secondary School-Leaving Certificate and the HigherSecondary schools where they will take the Higher SecondarySchool-Leaving Certificate. Should any of the students whopasses with the S.S.L.C. wish to follow the University course,he will have to spend one year in the pre-University course ofstudy and thus qualify himself for entrance to the University.The object of this pre-University year is to prepare the studentfor the three-year degree course or for a professional course.The scheme of studies to be covered in this year will have tobe planned, with due regard to the needs of the degree (or theprofessional) courses to be taken up by the students.

Special emphasis will have to be laid during this year onthree things-the study of English so long as it is the mediumof instruction at the University training in the technique ofindependent study required at the University and givingstudents a broad general knowledge and understanding ofcontemporary social and political situation as well as the partplayed by modern science in it.

In any case, we recommend that the scheme of studies forthis year should be carefully formulated because we areconvinced that if it is properly done, it can provide a use, fuland attractive preparatory training for Higher education andbridge the abrupt gulf which exists at present between theSecondary school and University.

We were told that, in some States where the Secondarycourse has been extended from 3 to 4 years and the HigherSecondary School Leaving Certificate examination has beeninstituted, students who have gone to the University haveproved themselves distinctly superior to those who come fromthe high schools. It is not merely the additional year’s trainingthat is in their favour but the greater degree of intellectualmaturity that they acquire during these four years compactSecondary education.

regard to the existing structure of education in the country. Wehave already referred to the different types and grades ofschools and colleges that are at present functioning in differentStates. While we expect that ultimately the duration ofSecondary education will be uniform in all States, we realisethat it is not possible to achieve this objective in the immediatefuture.

The large majority of the existing High schools are unableat present to undertake the responsibility of offering anadditional year’s education to their pupils. In fact, in view ofthe overcrowding of the classes, the large number of sectionsallowed in each form and the lack of trained teachers, werealise that it would be unsound to expect many High schoolsto take on the additional year and convert themselves into thecontemplated Higher Secondary schools. For some time,therefore, we have necessarily to envisage the likelihood of twotypes of schools-the existing High schools of the present kindand the Higher Secondary schools, which will provide anadditional year’s training and prepare the students for theHigher Secondary stage.

Future of Intermediate CollegesFuture of Intermediate CollegesFuture of Intermediate CollegesFuture of Intermediate CollegesFuture of Intermediate CollegesTurning to the Intermediate colleges, we feel that there

should be a gradual change in their structure to fit in with theproposed scheme of Higher Secondary education of four years,followed by the degree course of three years. Some Intermediatecolleges, which have also a High school under the same.management, may be in a position to convert themselves toHigher Secondary schools, eliminating the senior intermediateclass. The conditions under which such a reorganization shouldbe allowed will be dealt with later.

Such of the Intermediate colleges, as have properaccommodation and equipment, can provide staff of the requiredqualifications and can command the necessary finances, mayconvert themselves into degree colleges of three years’ duration,admitting students who have completed the Higher Secondarystage. In the case of colleges which provide a four-year course,two for the intermediate and two for the degree, we wouldrecommend the organisation of a three-year degree course,


recommendations that we have made elsewhere to reconstructthe curriculum and methods of education will apply to themalso. In other ways too, considerable improvements will beneeded to make them more efficient and to enable them to beconverted ultimately into Higher Secondary schools. Theseimprovements should include the provisions of better qualifiedand more carefully selected personnel, better equipment, betterlaboratory and library facilities and better organization of co-curricular activities. In addition, the scheme of diversifiedcourses of study, recommended by us elsewhere, should. alsobe introduced as far as possible.

A number of schools will, however, be in a position to addthe additional year to their Course and convert themselves intoHigher Secondary schools. If these schools are to develop intoefficient institutions capable of achieving the objectives in view,it is necessary that their recognition should be governed bycarefully defined and strict conditions, which must be fulfilledscrupulously before such recognition is given.

These conditions should prescribe special criteria for-

(1) Accommodation,

(2) Equipment,

(3) Qualifications of the staff,

(4) Salaries, grades, and

(5) Adequate finances to ensure that the institution willcontinue to function efficiently. Such assurance must beoffered either by the management itself or be providedon the basis of help guaranteed by the State and CentralGovernments. Suggestions regarding the nature of theseconditions have been given elsewhere.

Degree CollegesDegree CollegesDegree CollegesDegree CollegesDegree CollegesThere are two varieties of such colleges. In some States

these colleges offer a two-year degree course, in others a four-year course-two for the intermediate and two for the degreestage. In the case of two-year degree colleges, we recommendthat they should add one year to the degree course and convertthemselves into full three-year degree colleges, with necessary

A Three-Year Degree CourseA Three-Year Degree CourseA Three-Year Degree CourseA Three-Year Degree CourseA Three-Year Degree CourseThe recommendation that the degree course should consist

of three years has been reiterated by successive Commissionsbut it has not been implemented yet to any great extent. Thereare, however cogent reasons for this proposal. At present, bothin the Junior In-termediate class and in the Junior B.A. class,much time, is lost in trying to adjust and re-orient the studentsto the new institution and the new courses taken up by themas well as to change in the methods of study. The abolition ofa separate Intermediate stage and of the Intermediateexamination and the institution of a three-year degree coursewould undoubtedly lead to a considerable saving of time anda better planning of educational programmes and activitiesduring the three-year degree period. The intermediateexamination is also a handicap because it breaks up thecontinuity of the college course and makes a proper planningfor the degree course difficult. Thus the addition of one yearto the Secondary school stage will add to efficiency of thetraining given there, and also improve educational efficiencyat the University stage by providing a continuous and compactperiod of three year’s education. We are strengthened in thisrecommendation by the bulk of evidence given by the Universityrepresentatives.

We shall now deal with some of the steps that may haveto be taken to establish the proposed pattern of Secondaryeducation and also indicate how the various types of collegeswill fit into it. it is by no means our intention to encroach onthe University’s purview but it is necessary to give our viewsabout the follow-up stage of education in the hope that theUniversities which are the competent authorities in the matter,will give their consideration to our tentative proposals which,as we have already pointed out, are generally in consonancewith the views of the University Commission.

High Schools and Higher Secondary SchoolsHigh Schools and Higher Secondary SchoolsHigh Schools and Higher Secondary SchoolsHigh Schools and Higher Secondary SchoolsHigh Schools and Higher Secondary SchoolsAs already pointed out it will not be possible to convert all

existing High schools into Higher Secondary schools in the nearfuture. In the case of such schools, the problem would be toimprove their efficiency within their present structure and the


vocational persuit and in due course achieve a reasonable degreeof competence in it either through practice and experience orthrough apprenticeship training. But there would be many whowould like, and would be in a position, to pursue higherstudies. For such students, Polytechnics or Technologicalinstitutions should be available where technical courses coveringtwo or more years would be provided. They should be eligibleto take the Certificates or Diplomas awarded by the State orby the All India Council for Technical Education. Those whotake the Higher Secondary Certificate with vocational subjectsmay be exempted from the first year of the course, while thosewho obtain the High Schools Certificate should be required toput in the full period of training. These courses of studies willhave to be planned by the expert Boards of Studies set up bythe States or by the All India Council for Technical Education.

Need for Diversification of CoursesNeed for Diversification of CoursesNeed for Diversification of CoursesNeed for Diversification of CoursesNeed for Diversification of CoursesIn view of the fact that education up to the age of 14 has

been made free and compulsory under the Constitution,students with a very wide variety of talents will be seekingeducation in future. This postulates that our Secondary schoolsshould no longer be “single-track” institutions but should offera diversity of educational programmes calculated to meetvarying aptitudes, interests and talents which come intoprominence towards the end of the period of compulsoryeducation. They should provide more comprehensive courseswhich will include both general and vocational subjects andpupils should have an opportunity to choose from them accordingto their needs. It is necessary to point out clearly that thisdiversification of courses and the introduction of many practicalsubjects at the Secondary stage does not mean that somethingcalled “general” or “cultural” education is to be provided for onegroup of students, while others are to be given a narrow“practical” or “vocational” or “technical” education.

The whole modern approach to this question is based onthe insight that the intellectual and cultural development ofdifferent individuals takes place best through a variety of media,that the book or the study of traditional academic subjects isnot the only door to the education of the personality and that,

additions, by way-of staff and accom-modation. In the case offour-year degree colleges, we recommend that they shouldretain the first year as a pre-University year for those who havecompleted the High school stage and want to take up the degreecourse. The other three years will form the degree courseproper. Thus the college will be able to cater for both types ofstudents those who have passed from the High Schools andthose who have passed from the Higher Secondary schools.

Professional CollegesProfessional CollegesProfessional CollegesProfessional CollegesProfessional CollegesAt present the minimum qualification required for admission

to the colleges of Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture,Veterinary Sciences, etc. is the Intermediate. There have beencriticisms that students who passed the intermediate did notpossess adequate knowledge of, and training in, the subjectsneeded for the various professional courses. To meet thiscriticism, it seems desirable that before taking up these coursesone year of intensive study should be undertaken by all studentsin the pre-professional subjects concerned. The admission tothese pre-professional courses should be open-

(a) to those who have completed their Higher Secondarycourse, and

(b) to those who have successfully completed their Highschool course and have, in addition, put in a year’scourse at the pre-University class.

In the case of those candidates who have taken diversifiedcourses in the Higher Secondary schools, the question of thepossibility of exempting them from some portion of their studiesin the respective professional colleges in the light of theirachievements in the schools may be considered by the authoritiesconcerned. We would prefer that the pre-professional coursesshould be offe-red in the professional colleges concerned, butif they are not in a position to start these courses, they may,during the transitional stage, be given in some of the degreecolleges where necessary facilities are available.

Technical and Vocational EducationTechnical and Vocational EducationTechnical and Vocational EducationTechnical and Vocational EducationTechnical and Vocational EducationWe expect that at the successful conclusion of the Secondary

course, a majority of students will take up some suitable


Groups of LanguagesGroups of LanguagesGroups of LanguagesGroups of LanguagesGroups of LanguagesWe realise that there are five distinct groups, of languages

which have to be taken into consideration:-(1) the mother-tongue; (2) the regional language when it is not the mother-tongue; (3) the official language of the Centre, more commonlycalled the Federal Language; (4) the classical languages-Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Latin, etc.; and (5) English whichhas come to be recognised as an international language. Inthose areas where the mother-tongue and the regional languageare the same, the number of languages to be taken intoconsideration will be limited to four and in those areas wherethe regional language, the mother-tongue and the languageof the Union are the same, the number of languages to be takeninto consideration will be limited to three. So far as the Federallanguage or the official language of the Centre is concerned wefeel that the areas in the different parts of the country maybe divided into three regional groups: (1) regions where Hindiis the mother-tongue, and therefore, is the regional languageas well as the language of the Centre; (2) regions where althoughit is not the mother-tongue, Hindi is spoken by a large numberof people of the region; (3) regions where Hindi is neither themothertongue nor the regional language nor spoken orunderstood by the vast majority of the people. These aregenerally spoken of as non Hindi speaking areas.

Languages and the ConstitutionLanguages and the ConstitutionLanguages and the ConstitutionLanguages and the ConstitutionLanguages and the ConstitutionIn the course of our discussion more than one witness

referred to the provisions in the Constitution with regard tothe languages. Some held the view that the Constitution haslaid down that a particular language should be taughtthroughout India or that another language should be discardedfrom our schools in the course of 15 years. In view of suchdiverse opinions we have felt it desirable to state exactly whatis provided in the Constitution about languages. TheConstitution lays down “that the official language of the Unionshall be Hindi and that for a period of 15 years from thecommencement of the Constitution, English language shallcontinue to be used for all the official purposes of the Unionfor which it was being used immediately before Web

in the case of many-perhaps a majority of the children, practicalwork intelligently organized can unlock their latent energiesmuch more successfully than the traditional subjects whichaddress themselves only to the mind or, worse still, thememory. If this principle is clearly understood by educationists,they will see to it that these various courses are-accordedpriority of esteem and students are helped to select them withdue regard to their natural interests and talents. In view of thefact that they have all to be trained in certain basic ideas,attitudes and appreciations, which are essential for playingthe role of intelligent citizens in a democracy, there should bea certain common core of subjects of general value and utilitywhich all students may study.. But the wise teacher shouldrealize that the other special practical subjects can alsocontribute, provided they are rightly taught, to the all-roundeducation of the students, making them productive, cooperative,well-balanced and useful members of society.

STUDY OF LANGUAGESSTUDY OF LANGUAGESSTUDY OF LANGUAGESSTUDY OF LANGUAGESSTUDY OF LANGUAGESThe Secondary Education Commission was greatly

impressed with the amount of interest evinced in all States inthe study of language at the school stage. No subjects attractedgreater attention and we found not infrequently that strongopinions were expressed on the so-called language controversy.In the memoranda that were presented to us and in thediscussion that we had with witnesses in different parts of theStates, certain fundamental considerations were urged uponus. In view of the development of regional languages in thedifferent parts of the country and the languages spoken in suchareas, it may not be practicable or desirable to attempt to laydown a uniform. policy for the whole country. On the contrarysome witnesses were strongly of the opinion that there shouldbe some uniformity in regard to the study of the languages andthat there was need for a definite policy to be laid down on anall-India basis. It was claimed by some that there should beone language which will be known throughout the length andbreadth of the country and that Hindi which is prescribed asthe official language at the Centre should be studiedcompulsorily.


inferred that two objectives were kept in view. Firstly, thatHindi will eventually be used by the Union Government in allofficial correspondence with the States, and for communicationbetween one State and another, or between a State and theUnion. Secondly, Hindi should be developed so that it mayserve as a medium of expression for all the elements of thecomposite culture of India.

Study of Hindi in the StatesStudy of Hindi in the StatesStudy of Hindi in the StatesStudy of Hindi in the StatesStudy of Hindi in the StatesDuring the course of our investigation, we found that the

States had taken different steps to make Hindi a subject ofstudy at the school stage. Broadly speaking, steps taken are:(1) in some States Hindi is not merely a compulsory subject ofstudy but it is also made the medium of instruction andexamination throughout the school stage; (2) Hindi is acompulsory subject of study at the school stage and it is asubject of examination but the medium of instruction is theregional language; (3) in others Hindi is a compulsory subjectas one of the languages to be studied, but although a test isprovided, the result of the test is not taken into considerationfor promotion; and (4) in a few States the provisions for theteaching of Hindi is compulsory in all schools but Hindi as asubject of study is optional so far as the pupils, are concerned,and it is not regarded as a subject for examination. With regardto the last category, we were given to understand that althoughit was an optional subject 80 to 85 per cent of the pupils hadvoluntarily taken to the study of Hindi in these areas. It wasalso brought to our notice that in certain areas, the introductionof the study of Hindi as a compulsory subject had provokedopposition, and steps had to be taken to modify the rulesframed thereunder. When, however, it was made optional,study of Hindi was taken by a large number of students.

Position of English in the SchoolsPosition of English in the SchoolsPosition of English in the SchoolsPosition of English in the SchoolsPosition of English in the SchoolsA review of the present position of the study of English at

the Secondary school stage in the different States may be ofinterest. In most States prior to 1937, English was not onlya compulsory subject of study but also the medium of instructionin the secondary schools; the languages to be studied by the

commencement” It also lays down that Parliament may bymajority vote provide for the use, after the said period of 15years, of the English language. Under Article 345 of theConstitution it is stated that “the Legislature of a State mayby law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in theState or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for allor any of the official purposes of the State; provided that untilthe legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, theEnglish language shall continue to be used for those officialpurposes within the State for which it was being usedimmediately before the commencement of this Constitution”.

It also lays down that “the language for the time beingauthorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall bethe official language for communication between one State andanother State and between a State and the Union; providedthat if two or more States agree that the Hindi language shouldbe the official language for communication between such States,that language may be used for such communication. ThePresident may, if he is satisfied that a substantial proportionof the population of a State desire for use of any languagespoken by them to be recognised by that State, direct that suchlanguage shall also be officially recognised throughout thatState or any part thereof for such purpose as he may specify”.Under the special directives, it is stated that “it shall be theduty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi languageto develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expressionfor all the elements of the composite culture of India and tosecure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering withits genius the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustaniand in the other languages of India specified in the eighthschedule, and by drawing whenever necessary or desirable, forits vocabulary primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on otherlanguages.”

We have quoted somewhat in extenso the provisions of theCon-stitution, as time and again we found that witnesses haddiverse views on what was envisaged in the Constitution andthe manner in which education should be developed. From acareful study of the provisions in the Constitution it may be


“If, however, the number of pupils speaking a lan-guage other than the Regional or State languages issufficient to justify a separate school in any area, themedium of instruction in such a school may be thelanguage of the pupils. Such arrangements would,in particular, be necessary in metropolitan cities orplaces were large population speaking different lan-guages live or areas with a floating population of’different languages. Suitable provision should bemade by the provincial authorities for the recogni-tion of such schools. imparting education through amedium other than the Regional or State language.”

We have received a communication from the Chairman ofthe Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian Education, inviting theattention of the Commission to certain special guarantees thathave been given in Article 337 of the Constitution and also tothe Fundamental Rights, guaranteed under Article 30 of theConstitution.

Article 30 states: “(1) All minorities whether based onreligion or language, shall have: the right to establish andadminister educational institutions of their choice. (2) The Stateshall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,discriminate against any educational institution on the groundthat it is under the management of a minority, whether basedon religion or language.”

These provisions being obligatory, we have no doubt thatthe governments at the Centre and the States will adoptnecessary steps to see to the fulfilment of such obligations asare laid upon them by the Constitution.

We have given in brief the present position in regard tostudy of languages in the different States. So far as the mediumof instruction is concerned in most of the schools in the States,the present position is that either the mother-tongue or theregional language has been adopted as the medium ofinstruction. Where minorities exist provision is made to giveinstruction in the mother-tongue, if the minimum number ofpupils is available.

pupil were two, English and the mother-tongue or regionallanguage or a classical language. Subsequently the medium ofinstruction was changed and at present in practically all Statesthe medium of instruction is either the mother-tongue or theregional language.

English is, however, a compulsory subject of study at theSecondary stage in practically all the States. In this connectionit may be pointed out (i) that English is allowed to be themedium of instruction in schools where the students admittedare largely those whose mother-tongue is English, (ii) in viewof the difficulties experienced by a certain number of pupilswho had to migrate from one part of the country to the otherand who could not easily take to a new regional language,English was allowed to be continued in some schools as themedium of instruction and as a language of study.

The Position of Linguistic MinoritiesThe Position of Linguistic MinoritiesThe Position of Linguistic MinoritiesThe Position of Linguistic MinoritiesThe Position of Linguistic Minorities

The Central Advisory Board of Education considered in1949 the case of pupils belonging to certain minority groups,whose mother-tongue was different from the regional language,and passed the fol-lowing resolution :

“That the medium of instruction in the Junior Basicstage must be the mother-tongue of the child and thatwhere the mother-tongue was different from theRegional or State language, arrangements must bemade for instruction in the mothertongue by appoint-ing at least one teacher to teach all the classes,provided there are at least 40 such pupils in a school.This Regional or State language where it is differentfrom the mother-tongue should be introduced notearlier than Class 111, not later than the end of theJunior Basic stage. In order to facilitate the switch-over to the Regional language as medium of instruc-tion in the Secondary stage children should be giventhe option of answering questions in their mother-tongue for the first two years after the Junior Basicstage.”


to become the lingua franca of the country. It is thereforestressed that Hindi should be made a compulsory subject ofstudy in the school course as otherwise those who do not studyHindi may be handicapped at a later stage if they wish eitherto enter service or to communicate more freely with those partsof India where the language is commonly used. It is also statedthat a common language like Hindi if known all over thecountry, would promote national unity and solidarity. Someof our witnesses have not seen eye to eye with the statementthat language necessarily promotes unity.

They have referred to many other countries where differentlanguages have been recognised as State languages. Thus inSwitzerland four languages, German, French, Italian besidesa modified form of Latin are recognised as official languagesof the State and all correspondence is sent in the four languages;Likewise in Canada, English and French are recognised asofficial languages; while in South Africa, Afrikans, Dutch andEnglish are the three languages accepted.

Place of EnglishPlace of EnglishPlace of EnglishPlace of EnglishPlace of EnglishA great deal of controversy also exists about the place of

English in the scheme of studies. As a result of historicalcauses, English has come to be the one language that is widelyknown among the educated classes of the country. It was stressedby some of our witnesses that much of the national unity inpolitical and other spheres of activity has been brought aboutthrough the study of English language and literature andmodern Western thought by all educated Indians. They alsostated that the present position of India in the internationalsphere is partly due to the command that educated Indianshave acquired over’ English. Many eminent educationists andscientists have, therefore, expressed the opinion that underno circumstances should we sacrifice the many advantages thatwe have gained by the study of English. They hold that inmatters pertaining to education, sentiment should not be theruling factor and that what was most urgently needed was thatour youth acquire knowledge from all sources and contributetheir share to its expansion and development. In the attainmentof this objective, study of English was bound to play an important

The Purpose of Language StudyThe Purpose of Language StudyThe Purpose of Language StudyThe Purpose of Language StudyThe Purpose of Language StudyThe question has often been raised in the course of our

discussions as to the number of languages that can be learntby pupils in the Secondary schools and at what stages the studyof these languages should be commenced. Some maintain thatwe should, while considering this problem, take into accountthe purpose which is to be served by the study of each of theselanguages. We do not wish to dogmatise on such very importantissues which should be treated on the academic plane and onthe principles of pedagogy. But we agree that there should bea clear’ perspective of the purpose of study of each of theselanguages. It is ordinarily accepted that the mother-tongue isthe most suitable language as a medium of instruction for thechild beginning its study. If the same advance had taken placein regional languages as has taken place in many foreignlanguages, mother-tongue or regional languange would havebeen the medium of instruction at all stages of the educationalladder. As the regional language is likely to be the languageused by the majority in the region it is desirable to acquireknowledge of this language. In view of the difficulties inparticular regions to cater to the needs of very small groupsand the paucity of teachers of the particular language, linguisticminorities isolated in different regions who would not comeunder the provisions of the Resolution passed by the CentralAdvisory Board of Education in this behalf may have to adoptthe regional language as the medium of instruction. However,we have already referred to the provision in some States forlinguistic minorities to be given the option of having theirchildren taught through the mother-tongue, and we believethis is a wise policy in the general interests of all concerned.

Place of HindiPlace of HindiPlace of HindiPlace of HindiPlace of HindiThe importance of learning Hindi has been stressed, since

it has been adopted in the Constitution as the official languageof the Centre. Hindi will be eventually the language used forpurposes of all official correspondence between the Centre andmost of the States, and as a large number of people speak thislanguage, it may also become the language of communicationfor other than official purposes. In other words, it is expected


consideration of the place of languages in Secondary schoolshas by no means been easy. We have therefore sought light onthis subject from other countries; and we give below theinformation kindly furnished by some of the foreign embassiesin India on the position of the study of languages at theSecondary school.

In France, English is taught in all Secondary schools frombegin-ning, (i.e., from the age of 11 as an average), but itis not compulsory; a pupil may prefer to take German, Italian,Spanish, or any other language taught in that institution. infact, English and German are the only two languages whichare taught everywhere, the choice of the student being dividedmore or less equally. The teaching of a foreign language (or oftwo, if one does not study Latin) goes on until the end of theschool course, which always includes a test in foreign language.

In Japan, English is taught in the schools. it is compulsoryin the Secondary school course, and optional in High schoolsor universities.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, the problem of foreignlanguages has a different aspect in Southern and WesternGermany to that in Northern Germany. The following principles,however, seem to be prevalent where one language is taughtbesides German, it is English in general. In the Basic schools(Grundashulen) English is voluntary. Berlin and Hamburgmake English obligatory for all pupils from their tenth year oflife. Wurtemberg and Baden have French instead of English.The Middle schools, the Lower Secondary schools, and theHigher Secondary schools teach several languages. English isalways obligatory; the classical languages, Latin and AncientGreek, are obligatory in the Humanistiche Gymnasium, whileFrench is voluntary. The real Gymnasium makes Latin andFrench obligatory while Greek remains voluntary. There are.divergencies, of course e.g. Russian can be learnt in the Berlinschools. Spanish in Hamburg, both are optional.

In Egypt, both French and English languages arecompulsorily taught in schools, French being studied moreextensively than English. Both languages used to be introducedafter five years of schooling (including Kindergarten) the third

part. On the other hand, some of our witnesses have pressedthe view that it is unnatural and inconsistent with the presentposition of the country to prescribe a foreign language as acompulsory subject of study. They have also drawn our attentionto the greater importance given to English in the past and theconsequent neglect of other languages and other subjects of thecurriculum. They feel that the whole position of English in theeducational system needs to be re-examined in the new set-upparticularly at the Middle and High school level. They aredefinitely opposed to the introduction of English at the basicstage, i.e., the first 7 or 8 years of a child’s education.

Place of Classical LanguagesPlace of Classical LanguagesPlace of Classical LanguagesPlace of Classical LanguagesPlace of Classical LanguagesThe classical languages have always exercised great

attraction though for a relatively small proportion of theeducated people of any-country. To the bulk of Indians, Sanskritwhich is mother of most Indian languages has always appealedboth from the cultural and religious point of view. In thepresent state of affairs and in the light of the controversies thathave been raging round the languages to be, studied, manyhave deplored the fact that the classical language is beingcompletely ignored. The number of persons that take to classicalstudies is diminishing rapidly and if this continues it is felt thatthe, study of the classics which is of such immense value mayeventually be completely neglected. There is a great deal to besaid in favour of the view that the study of this language shouldbe promoted and that those who wish to take to it should begiven every encouragement possible. What has been statedabout Sanskrit may also be said about the other classicallanguages. Those who have delved deep in the classicallanguages of Arabic and Persian or the few who have taken toLatin or Greek have likewise a feeling that these studies maynot find a place in the future unless due provision is made fortheir study at the school stage.

Study of the Languages in Foreign CountiesStudy of the Languages in Foreign CountiesStudy of the Languages in Foreign CountiesStudy of the Languages in Foreign CountiesStudy of the Languages in Foreign CountiesIn the light of all these observations and with the conflicting

opinions that have been expressed on occasions with so muchof vehem-ence, our task in approaching dispassionately a


of Hindi and a Conference of Professors of English at NewDelhi, and we have since been favoured with a copy of theproceedings of each of these Confe-rences and the resolutionsthat were passed. At the Conference of Professors of Hindi,held at New Delhi on the 20th and 21st January 1953, whenrepresentatives from 25 universities with Departments of Hindiwere present besides the officers of the Ministry of Education,the following resolutions were passed :

“(a) The Conference was of the opinion, that no boy or girlof the Indian Republic should be deprived of anopportunity to learn Hindi, the official language of theUnion, as a part of the school curriculum. TheConference therefore resolved that, since the objectiveto be aimed at in both Hindi and non-Hindi areas is tointroduce the study of Hindi in the Secondary schoolsas a compulsory subject

(i) All institutions in the country should be required tomake compulsory provisions for instruction in thelanguage;

(ii) Steps should be taken to make Hindi a compulsorysubject forthwith in all Hindi areas and such non-Hindi areas as are ready to take this step; and

(iii) When regional public opinion is not yet prepared forcompulsion, Hindi should be made an electivesubject, in which a pass will be essential to qualifyfor promotion to a higher class.

The Conference further resolved that the standards ofattainment in Hindi in Secondary education for theHindi areas would be progressively raised and must inno case fall below the standards now obtaining in suchareas, while in the non-Hindi areas the standard wouldbe based mainly on the students’ capacity to comprehendthe language and use it in simple everyday situations.

(b) The Conference was of the opinion that the objective tobe aimed at in teaching Hindi in the schools for thetraining of administrators and Diplomats is to enablethem to use it effectively as an official language of the

year of Primary schooling, but lately it was decided to delaytheir introduction until the completion of the four years ofprimary education and to start them in the first year ofSecondary education and continued there throughout its fiveyears’ course.

In the U.S.S.R., a. foreign language is a compulsory subjectin the Soviet Middle and secondary schools. The main foreignlanguages taught in schools are English, German, French,Italian or Spanish. Other languages are also introduced insome schools. Parents have the right to send their children toany school they like with any language they choose. It is usualfor Russian children to begin to study languages in the thirdor fifth year of their studies. They continue to study it till theend of the whole of school course; some schools introduce aforeign language at the very beginning schools, i.e., in the firstgrade. In Iran English is taught in the Secondary schools, andis optional. It is introduced as an optional subject along withRussian, French and Arabic after 6 years of elementaryschooling.

In Sweden, the first foreign language in the Secondaryschools is English, this being taught from the first form (i.e.,the 5th school year, age 11 years) onwards. German is taughtfrom the 3rd form; French is obligatory in the two upper gradesonly for those who intend to continue their studies in theGymnasium. Language studies in Swe-dish Secondary schoolsextend over a long period, the English course Usually lasting8 years, the German 6, and the French 5 years. It constitutes,in point of fact, a special educational problem in this country.All studies at schools of university standard are to a largeextent, based on textbooks in English, German or French.Consequently no student can matriculate without having studiedthese three languages for some time. It will be noted from whathas been stated above that one or more foreign languages areincluded in the curriculum of Secondary schools in manycountries.

Conference of Professors of HindiConference of Professors of HindiConference of Professors of HindiConference of Professors of HindiConference of Professors of HindiDuring the course of the enquiry, we learnt that the

Central Government had called for a Conference of Professors


The Conference recommended:

(i) that English should continue to occupy an importantplace in the curriculum of Secondary schools;

(ii) that the aim should be the attainment by pupils ofa good working knowledge of English at the end ofthe Secondary stage;

(iii) that the course in English should consist of detailedstudy of texts of simple modem English prose writtenwithin a vocational of about 2, 500 “essential” word,non-detailed study of books in prose and verse witha large vocabularly for “rapid reading” and simplecomposition;

(iv) that keeping in view the objective laid down in (ii)above and, the present low standards of teaching,English should be taught as a compulsory subjectfor a period of six years at the Secondary stage, butwith improvements in the training of teachers ofEnglish it should be possible to curtail the durationof the course by one year, provided, however, that.English is taught for six periods of fifty minuteseach per week;

(v) that pupils may, at their option, offer an additionalcourser in English; and

(vi) that facilities should be given for the training ofadministrators and Diplomats in the use of English.both spoken and written.

Qualifications of Teachers of EnglishQualifications of Teachers of EnglishQualifications of Teachers of EnglishQualifications of Teachers of EnglishQualifications of Teachers of EnglishRegarding the qualifications of teachers of English the

Conference made the following recommendations:The minimum qualifications for the teaching of English in

High schools shall be Bachelor of Arts Degree followed by ateachers’ training Diploma in English. For teacher of Englishin Universities, the minimum qualifications shall be M. A.Degree in English, or its equivalent preferably with First orSecond class. The courses for the training of teachers in Englishat the school stage shall include an examination in spoken

Union, as the language of inter-State intercourse of allsocieties and institutions of an all-India character andalso for diplomatic purposes. The standard shouldtherefore, be at least that of the Intermediateexamination in Hindi as an elective subject of any Indianuniversity. Those who were already so qualified mightbe exempted from the examination.

(c) The Conference recommended that in vocational andtechnical schools and colleges in the Indian Union, theobjective to be aimed at is to familiarise, the traineeswith the Hindi language to an extent where they areable to comprehend it in simple everyday situations.”

Qualifications of Teachers of HindiQualifications of Teachers of HindiQualifications of Teachers of HindiQualifications of Teachers of HindiQualifications of Teachers of HindiRegarding the qualifications of teachers of Hindi, the

Conference was of the opinion that the following minimumqualifications and experience should be laid down for teachersof Hindi in various stages for the next five years:

(a) School Stage-Hindi speaking areas:

School: School: School: School: School: Primary and Junior Secondary stage:-At leastMatriculation with Hindi as one of the subjects.

Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-A graduate with Hindi as an electivesubject.

(b) Non-Hindi speaking areas

School: School: School: School: School: Primary and Junior Secondary stage:-Matriculationwith Hindi as one of the subjects, or equivalent qualificationin Hindi.

Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-Higher Secondary:-B. A. with Hindi as a subject or aqualification considered as equivalent.

Conference of Professors of EnglishConference of Professors of EnglishConference of Professors of EnglishConference of Professors of EnglishConference of Professors of EnglishA similar Conference of Professors of English of Indian

univer-sities was convened by the Government in New Delhion the 23rd and 24th January, 1953, when 28 representativesof universities were present besides representatives of theMinistry of Education and a Member of the Union Public ServiceCommission.


teaching of the subject by persons with meagre knowledge. ofthe language and ill-equipped to arouse interest or enthusiasmin the student.

We recommend that in regard to other languages also,whether the mother-tongue or regional language, there is needfor a reorientation of the methods adopted in teaching thelanguage. To try to cram into the young pupil a number ofabstract terms and definitions of grammar and syntax, longbefore the student has learnt to read fluently simple prose, isto create in the young mind an aversion for language classes.A contributory factor is the dearth of simple and enter-tainingreading matters in the language capable of creating in the pupila desire and eagerness to persue such books. With the emphasisnow placed rightly on the mother-tongue or regional languagewe hope that (a) teachers of languages will be given trainingin the methods to be adopted in such teaching, and (b) thatevery encouragement will be given to well-qualified persons toproduce books in prose and poetry suited to the different stagesof education of school children.

We have referred to the need to encourage the study of theclassics at the High school stage. We believe that if the classicsare to be studied by an increasing number of students and ifthey are to become popular, there is even greater need for arevision of the methods of teaching them. In the modern set-up of education, there is urgent need to revise old methodsand employ modern techniques in the study of languages, soas to interest the student and to create in him a love for thestudy of classics.

We have not referred to the need for the study of otherforeign languages at this stage. We believe that the need forsuch study by a few of the students will increase with the rolethat India is bound to play in international affairs. It is in theinterest of the country-that there should be people who areconversant with one or other of the many foreign languages,European and Asiatic, because of their use in trade commerce.politics and public affairs. We realise that in most cases thestudy of such languages may be usefully taken up at Highereducation levels, through the University or other institutions

English. An elementary study of Phonetics and English life andinstitutions shall therefore form an integral part of thecurriculum. Full use should be made of audiovisual and othermodern aids to teaching. Short-term courses in methods ofteaching should be organised for the benefit of teachers ofEnglish in the universities.

Need for Qualified Teachers and Improved MethodsNeed for Qualified Teachers and Improved MethodsNeed for Qualified Teachers and Improved MethodsNeed for Qualified Teachers and Improved MethodsNeed for Qualified Teachers and Improved MethodsThe teaching of a language and the ease with which a pupil

can learn such language depends to a very large extent on theteacher and on the type of literature that is placed at thedisposal of the pupil at different stages of his study. We aregenerally in agreement with the recommendations regardingthe qualifications of the teachers made by the representativesat the two Conferences convened by the Govern-ment of Indiaon the study of English and Hindi. There is a serious dearth,at present, of well-qualified and experienced teachers who canhandle English classes in schools and colleges. We believe thisis one of the important reasons for deterioration in the standardof English at the University stage. We are also of opinion thatthe general tendency in educational circles and among thepublic to con-done such deficiency in standards is also responsiblefor the rapid deterioration in the knowledge of English. We areconvinced that if a language is to be learnt, it should be studiedso as to use it effec-tively and with correctness in written orspoken form.

Likewise we feel that, at present, there is need for well-qualified and experienced teachers, if the official language,Hindi, is to be properly learnt and used. We have noted withregret the lack of properly qualified teachers particularly innon-Hindi areas. The anxiety to spread the teaching of Hindiin schools in these areas had led to a recognition of qualificationsof various bodies by the authorities concerned, much to thedetriment of the proper maintenance of standards in thelanguage. This serious defect is to be noted at the Universitylevel also. While standards expected of students may varyslightly in Hindi speaking and non-Hindi speaking areas, forthe reason that Hindi is not the mother-tongue or the spokenlanguage of the region, there can be no justification for the


and those who cannot. Nor can it be suggested that a particulargroup will not be in a position to take to Higher education ata particular stage of study. In view of these difficulties it issuggested that no student should be handicapped by ignoranceof a language which will ultimately determine the career thathe should choose. It should also be recognised that even inregard to many of the diversified courses of instruction asmatters stand at present, a knowledge of English will beextremely useful for understanding the subject better and forfurther study of the same subject. All these considerations leadto the conclusion that a study of English should be given dueposit-ion in Secondary schools and facilities should be madeavailable at the Middle school stage for its study on optionalbasis.

In the case of those students passing out of the Senior Basicschools or from Middle schools who have not taken English asa subject of study provision has been made in the curriculumfor an elementary course in English. In the case of those whowish to go to Higher education, special arrangements shouldbe made in the Secondary schools to enable them to take theadvanced course in English.

As regards the study of Hindi, it is felt that in view of itsbecoming the official language of the Centre and of some States,every pupil at the Secondary stage should be given anopportunity of acquiring a basic knowledge of the language andit be left to him to develop it according to his needs. From thispoint of view it is stressed that Hindi should be taught duringthe Middle school or the Senior Basic stage.

We have already referred to the fact that in regard to theposi-tion of Hindi as spoken language the country may bedivided into three regional groups. Consequently the standardof achievement in these three areas way be different; in thisconnection we endorse the recomemndations made by theConference of Professors of Hindi, that the standard in Hindiareas should be progressively raised, while in the non-Hindiareas the standard should be based mainly on the student’scapacity to comprehend the language and use it in everydaysituations.

of higher training. We would, however, recommend thatopportunities should be available in a few of the HigherSecondary schools at least for some pupils to take up one orother of these languages, should they, so desire.

We may state that to the large majority, the study oflanguages would be a means to an end and not. an end in itself;to the few with a flair for languages the study of such languageWill be a life’s mission and such scholars should be given everyencouragement to contribute to the wealth of the languageundismayed by utilitarian considerations. Whatever be theobjective, the maintenance of proper standards in the teachersand the taught should always receive due consideration.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONFrom what has been stated, it would be apparent that

unanimity of opinion is hardly possible in the consideration ofsuch an important subject. The differences reflected in theopinions expressed by our witnesses have also been reflectedin the deliberations of ‘the Commission. Some felt that Englishshould no longer occupy its present position, that the scopeand methods of teaching English should be changed and thatduring the transitional period the study of the subject may bemade optional at the Lower Secondary stage. On this basis theyhave recommended that English should be an optional subjectof study at the Middle school stage. Others, however, feel thatunder present conditions and taking due note of the developmentof the regional languages and the official language of the Centre,it is necessary that a sound knowledge of English should beconsidered a pre-requisite to studies at the higher levels oflearning whether in the University or other institutions. Forthis reason, it is stated that English should be a compulsorysubject of study in the Secondary school beginning from theMiddle school stage.

The question has been raised whether in view of thepossibility of a large number not pursuing higher courses ofstudy, a foreign language should be made compulsory for suchpersons. It is difficult at any stage to determine with anydegree of certainty those who can proceed to Higher education


reasons stated were: the great paucity of standard books in thelanguages concerned; at present several of the languages arestill in the process of developing a literature suited to theexposition of modem scientific thought. It is important to realisethat if books are to be, produced, they must be produced notas translations but as original works by authors competent towrite such books and in the language. concerned. The paucityof authors who have contributed to the litera-ture in scientificand technical subjects in India is well known. The necessity,therefore, of reading in English or in some foreign languagemany of the books now produced in higher ranges of learningcannot be disputed; moreover English is at present the mediumof instruction in many universities and will be the languageused by the Centre and certain States for some years to come.It is felt that until books written in the regional languagesreplace books now available in a foreign language, it is inevitablethat students will need to have a good knowledge of Englishto study the subjects in the books available in that language.

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONSSUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONSSUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONSSUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONSSUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Mother-tongue or the regional language should generallybe the medium of instruction throughout the Secondaryschool stage, sub-ject to the provision that for linguisticminorities special facilities should be made available onthe lines suggested by the Central Advisory Board ofEducation.

2. During the Middle school stage, every child should betaught at least two Languages. English and Hindi shouldbe introduced at the end of the Junior Basic stage,subject to the principle that no two languages shouldbe introduced in the same year.

3. At the High and Higher Secondary stage, at least twolangu-ages should be studied, one of which being themother-tongue or the regional language.

As regards the classical language, it is felt that provisionshould be made for students desiring to take to these studiesto have the necessary opportunity to do so either at the Highschool or Higher Secondary school stage.

It was felt by some that in view of the difficulties alreadypointed out in the regions, it should be left to the regionsthemselves to plan out how best these languages could bestudied at the different stages of the Secondary school. We,however, feel that under present circurnstances it should bepossible for a child to learn languages. It is no doubt true thescripts being different the strain will be a llttle heavy, but webelieve that it is easier for the child to learn these languagesat an early stage, than at a later stage. At the Senior Basicor the Middle school stage, therefore, when the child hasalready learnt the mother-tongue and it will continue to pursueits study, Hindi and English may be introduced. A principle,which we feel, is necessary to observe is that two differentlanguages should not be introduced at the same time andtherefore one of them should be introduced at the initial stageand the other a year later.

At the end of the Lower Secondary or Senior Basic stageit should be left to the pupil concerned to continue the studyof one or the other of two languages, viz. Hindi and Englishand to take to a classical language at the High school or HigherSecondary school stage should he so desire.. The selection oflanguage can therefore be left to the pupil at High school orHigher Secondary stage depending on the nature of the coursehe proposes to pursue.

In regard to some of the vocational courses taken in thediversi-fied scheme of studies at High school or Higher Secondarystage, it may be necessary that English should be continued.The question whether English should continue to be used forcertain technical or technological subjects at the HigherSecondary stage and at the uni-versity has been widelycanvassed. It has been represented that at present neither theregional language nor the federal language can step into thebreach and supply the necessary literature in the particularsubject of study for the higher stages of learning. Among the

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Curriculum in Secondary SchoolsCurriculum in Secondary SchoolsCurriculum in Secondary SchoolsCurriculum in Secondary SchoolsCurriculum in Secondary Schools120120120120120 121121121121121

is that it Is narrowly conceived, mainly in terms of the admissionrequirements of the colleges. This continues to be the case eventoday in, spite of the many attempts made from time to timeto remedy the defect. At one, time, the examination at theend of the High school was known as the “Entrance Examination,” thereby clearly indicating Its scope and purpose. At a laterstage it came to be known as the Matriculation Examinationdenoting very much the same thing though in a differentmanner. The word ‘matriculation’ implied that its purpose wasthe registration of students for entrance to the University.

The present practice is to call it the School-LeavingCertificate or Secondary School Examination implying therebya certain shift of emphasis In the purpose of the examination.But. unfortunately, this is more nominal than real. Even nowmost of the pupils who, sit for this examination aspire to joincollege. If they do not, or cannot do so, it is, generally dueto financial reasons. The demands of collegiate education stillhold sway over the entire field of school education in India. Wewere informed that certain High school courses are unpopular.because there is no provision for pursuing them at college. Thishas tended to bring the high school course into closer conformitywith the pattern of University courses. Another factor whichhas had the same effect is the close dependence of publicservices on University degrees. Most of the higher posts in thepublic services are not open to any one who has not passed aUniversity examination. Elsewhere in this report we havediscussed at some length the adverse effects of the presentmethod of recruitment to the public services on Secondaryeducation and have suggested certain measures for improvingthe position.

EMPHASIS ON BOOKISH KNOWLEDGEEMPHASIS ON BOOKISH KNOWLEDGEEMPHASIS ON BOOKISH KNOWLEDGEEMPHASIS ON BOOKISH KNOWLEDGEEMPHASIS ON BOOKISH KNOWLEDGEOwing to the great influence that the college curriculum

exercises over the Secondary school curriculum the latter hasbecome unduly bookish and theoretical. University courses areby their nature, academic and theoretical and deal largely withabstractions and generalisations. It is only in the last fiftyyears that practical and applied aspects of different branchesof knowledge chiefly the sciences, have found a place in the

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CCCCCURRICULUMURRICULUMURRICULUMURRICULUMURRICULUM INININININ S S S S SECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARY S S S S SCHOOLSCHOOLSCHOOLSCHOOLSCHOOLS

IMPROVEMENT IN CURRICULUMIMPROVEMENT IN CURRICULUMIMPROVEMENT IN CURRICULUMIMPROVEMENT IN CURRICULUMIMPROVEMENT IN CURRICULUMFor many decades there has been a strong and persistent

criticism of the existing Secondary school curriculum. Duringthe course of our investigations we heard these criticismsrepeated over and over again.

The main points of these criticisms are that

(i) the present curriculum is narrowly. conceived;

(ii) it is bookish and theoretical;

(iii) it is overcrowded, without providing rich and significantcontents;

(iv) it makes inadequate provision for practical and otherkinds of activities which should reasonably find roomin it, if it is to educate the whole of the personality;

(v) it does not cater to the various needs and capacities ofthe adolescents;

(vi) it is dominated too much by examinations ; and

(vii) it does not include technical and vocational subjectswhich are so necessary for training the students to takepart in the industrial and economic development of thecountry.

A NARROW CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUMA NARROW CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUMA NARROW CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUMA NARROW CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUMA NARROW CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUMIn our opinion, there is room for some of these criticisms.

It would, not be correct to state, as some maintain, that thepresent curriculum has no goal in view. What is true, however,


the multiplicity of subjects, presented as separate entities,without bringing out their organic inter-relationship. So informing the curriculum an attempt should be made to seewhether certain subjects can be grouped in large, organicallyrelated units dealing with certain broad areas of humanknowledge and interest. Thus it is psychologically preferableto present subjects centering round the study of the socialenvironment and human relations under the comprehensiveheading of “Social Studies” than to teach a number of separatesubjects like History, Geography, Civics and Economics inwater-tight compartments.

Similarly, the study of the physical environments andman’s relation to Nature can be presented fruitfully througha coherent and organically related syllabus in “General Science”.Teaching of separate subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Botany,Zoology, Hygiene, etc., may have certain advantages froma narrow instructional point of view but, apart from the factthat this involves over-crowding of the syllabus, that approachdoes not give the students a realistic and organic understandingof the world in which they are living. Each particular subjectbecomes a group of facts, principles and formulae to be learntrather than a window opening out on a certain significantaspect of life. A clear reali-zation of the difference betweenthese two approaches will provide a valuable principle ofguidance both in organization of the curriculum and the choiceof right methods. Moreover, if children are given an opportunityto carry on practical activities in connection with the varioussubjects that they are learning-for instance, laboratory workin the teaching of science it tends to reduce the feeling ofboredom.

There is also an undoubted tendency to crowd the syllabusof each subject with too many facts and details, often of littlesignificance and an unwelcome burden on the memory. Ourcurriculum makers have usually suffered from the besettingsin of the “specialist” who tries to put as much of his favouritesubject-matter as possible into the curriculum and the textbooksand is more concerned with the logical and scientific demandsof the subject than the needs, the psychology and the interests

University courses but even now the emphasis is more on theacademic than on the practical aspect. At the high school stagewe definitely need a different approach. The High school pupilsdo not yet possess the intellectual maturity to deal competentlywith abstract theories and generalisations. Moreover, theseschools have to cater for pupils, many of whom are notacademically minded and all of whom will certainly not go tothe university. In fact, under normal circumstances the majorityof the High school-leavers do, and should enter into practicallife. For such students a narrowly conceived bookish curriculumdoes not obviously provide the right kind of preparation.

They need to participate in various kinds of intellectualand physical activities, practical occupations and socialexperiences which is not possible through the mere study ofbooks. In the course of the last half century, a realisation ofthis fact has brought about almost a revolution in the conceptionof the High school curriculum. In many educationally progressivecountries, its scope has been very much widened and itspurpose is to cater for the entire range of the pupil’s interestsand capacities-intellectual, physical, emotional, aesthetic andsocial. For his all-round development, we must provide a wideand varied range of occupations, activities and experiences. Wemust give him practical training in the art of living and showhim through actual experience how community life is organizedand sustained. We have to do all this, not because we necessarilywant out pupils to start earning their living immediately, butbecause such knowledge and experience contribute to the all-round growth of their personality. This advocacy of a broad-based curriculum catering for an all-round development of thepupil should not, however, be confused with another .issuewhich many of the witnesses raised regarding the content ofthe various subjects of the curriculum.

They complained of the overcrowding of the present syllabus,of the multiplicity of subjects and the heavy content-load in thedifferent subjects. There is a great deal of justification for thiscriticism. It is desirable, in the first instance, to reduce themultiplicity of subjects as much as possible. It is not oftenrealised that the complaint of over-crowding is largely due to


changing and developing sociological needs. The details of thecurricula in each subject should be settled on the basis of thiscontinuous research.

In this connection it is important to bear in mind that itis neither possible nor desirable to teach children all the facts,even the most important of them, that they are likely to needin later life. It is often this ill-conceived desire that is responsiblefor the present over-crowded and unsuitable syllabus; if it isresisted, they could be considerably lightened. It is moreimportant to awaken interest and curiosity in the child’s mindto teach him the methods and technique of acquiring knowledgethan to burden his memory with miscellaneous information“against the rainy day”. If he has acquired this mastery overthe tools of learning, he will be able to add to his knowledgeunder the spur of felt need. Our teachers should remember thatcompletion of the school course or of the college course is notthe end of education which is, in reality, a continuous life-long process. Even a little knowledge, acquired pleasantly andthoroughly and with the feeling that it has real significance forus, is better than a great deal of miscellaneous, ill-digestedknowledge unrelated to life. The former will quicken interestand open the gateway to continuous learning; the latter maykill curiosity and create distaste for further learning. Inorganizing our curricula and selecting methods of teaching, wemust not lose sight of this crucial principle.

Lack of Adaptation to Individual DifferencesLack of Adaptation to Individual DifferencesLack of Adaptation to Individual DifferencesLack of Adaptation to Individual DifferencesLack of Adaptation to Individual DifferencesDuring the period of adolescence, pupils develop individual

tastes, interests and special aptitudes, but the presentcurriculum hardly takes note of these individual differences.At one time it was generally held that these differences beginto manifest themselves at about the age of 11 and this providedthe basis for a break at that age in the educational pattern.But later researches tend to the conclusion that this developmenttakes place nearer 13. Whatever be the precise age when thesedifferences appear, they have an important educationalsignificance which educationists must reckon. There have beenmany attempts to. classify these varied abilities under certainbroad categories for purpose of education and educational

of the learners. Often Committees of Courses which meet forthe reorganisation of the syllabus end up by introducingadditional subject matter, unrelated to the students’ life andinterest, instead of carefully sifting the contents from the pointof view of their significance and relevance’ The syllabus ofHistory is good instance of this ten dency where, even at theUpper Primary or Lower Secondary or Senior Basic stage long-forgotten incidents and persons of ancient history have ‘beenresuscitated under the fond delusion that learning certain dullfacts about them will enrich the students’ mind and deepentheir appreciation of national culture. This wrong approach isdue to the failure to realize the difference between rich subject-matter and a large heap, of miscellaneous items of information.

Only that curriculum content is justifiable, in schoolswhich adds to the understanding or the appreciation or theefficiency of students and can be grasped by them intelligently,pleasantly, and with a clear realization that, in some ‘way,it is contributing to the enrichment of their life and activities.We have stressed this fact at some length because we areconvinced that unless the syllabus of every school subject is,on the one hand, lightened by dropping overboard the cargoof inert, uninteresting and useless subjectmatter and, on theother hand, enriched by the inclusion of interesting, andsignificant material that will give ‘joy and insight to students,it cannot become a truly educative medium.

And the criterion for deciding what is interesting oruninteresting, significant or otherwise, must not be therecommendation of the scientist or the historian or geographeror the literatuer but the attitude of the students and intelligent,understanding teachers. In view of the importance of this matterwe would recommend as a proposal of high priority, theestablishment in such States and at the Centre-preferably inassociation with Teachers’ Training institutions-of Bureaus orBoards charged with the duty of curricular research on lineswhich have been successfully tried in some Western countries,notably the United States. It should be the function of suchBoards constantly to evaluate and sift the existing curricula inthe light of students’ psychological interests as well as the


were introduced. Absence of well-trained teachers and propermaterial facilities was another contributory factor.

Moreover, the immense prestige of the universities and thelure of their “academic” courses also stood in the way of thosenew courses meeting with proper response. The situation has,however, radically changed now. Our industrial revolution hasstarted and, under its impact, the character of Indian economyhas begun to change slowly but inevitably. The Second WorldWar has greatly hastened the process and accelerated the paceof industrialisation. With the attainment of political freedomrecently, the expansion of industries has become an integralpart of national policy.

The Planning Commission has drawn up an elaborate planfor the rapid industrialization of the country and the first Five-Year Plan has been launched already. All this underlines theimportance of TechnicaI education and holds out the hopes thatnew avenues of employment will open out of persons possessingtechnical training and competence. In the field of Secondaryeducation this calls for the introduction of diversified types ofcourses to meet the needs of an expanding indus-trial economy.If Secondary education remains exclusively academic and doesnot develop practical skills and aptitudes, suitable candidateswill not be forthcoming for admission to Technical institutionswhich will not, therefore, be able to pull their full weight inour national life. On the other hand, a suitable reorientationof Secondary education will help to produce skilled workers andtechnicians who will provide efficient personnel for industryand make our various national projects successful. In fact it isthe special function of Secondary education to provide thecountry with the second line of its leaders in all walks ofnational life-art, science, industry and commerce. The presentunilateral system is not planned to provide such leadershipwhich is yet another argument for its diversification.

We might perhaps sum up all these criticisms by sayingthat, like Secondary education, the Secondary curriculum isout of tune with life and fails to prepare students for life. Itdoes not give them a real understanding of, or insight into,the world outside the school, into Which they will have to enter

Organisation. In England three broad categories are recognisedacademic, technical and practical corresponding to which thereare three different types of Secondary schools Grammar,Technical and Modem. In India also a few States have madean attempt to introduce different types of Secondary coursesfor pupils of different abilities.

But, on the whole, the present curriculum does not makeadequate provision for this diversity of tastes and talents.High school courses do provide for certain ‘option’; butvery often the scope and range of such options is narrow andlimited. What is needed is a broadly conceived curriculumwhich will give free room for the, development of differenttypes of abilities through studies and activities, congenial tosuch development.

Domination by ExaminationsDomination by ExaminationsDomination by ExaminationsDomination by ExaminationsDomination by ExaminationsThere can be little doubt that the present Secondary

curriculum is dominated by examinations. It is a matter ofeveryday experience to which teachers, parents and childrencan all bear testimony because. all suffer under its strain. Wehave discussed the influence of examinations on education ina separate chapter and it is not, therefore, necessary to dilateon this problem here.

Lack of Provision for Technical and Vocational StudiesLack of Provision for Technical and Vocational StudiesLack of Provision for Technical and Vocational StudiesLack of Provision for Technical and Vocational StudiesLack of Provision for Technical and Vocational StudiesThere is a long standing complaint that secondary schools

have made no provision for technical and vocational subjects.To meet this criticism attempts have been made from time totime-for example, in 1882 by the Indian Education Commissionwhich recommended the introduction of practical and pre-technical and pre-vocational subjects to set right this deficiency.These and some recent attempts made by universities andother bodies which control Secondary education, have notproved very successful.

One main reason for this failure is that provision forTechnical education must go along with the development ofindustries; it cannot precede or bring about such progress. Lackof industrial and commercial development in the country wasresponsible for the unpopularity of such courses wherever they


imply giving an important place to productive work which isthe backbone of organized human life. It would also postulatethat a general curriculum, which may be prescribed by theEducation Department for a whole school system, must becapable of adaptation to local needs and situations. The teachershould build up in the minds of students a lively sense of beingan integral part of the local community and the local communityshould be enabled to realize that the school is a vital andInvaluable part of its life.

Fourthly, the curriculum should be designed to train thestudents not only for work but also for leisure. We have alreadyargued the case for the introduction of a variety of activities-social, aesthetic, sport, etc, in the school. This is recommendednot only to make a school life pleasant and meaningful for thestudent here and now, but also because the cultivation ofvaried interests and different hobbies provide excellent trainingfor leisure which, after all, forms an important andquantitatively quite large area of every individual’s life.

Fifthly, it should not stultify its educational value by beingsplit up into a number of isolated, uncoordinated water-tightsubjects. Subjects should be inter-related and, within eachsubject the contents should so far as possible be envisaged as“broad fields” units which can be correlated better with liferather than narrow items of information.

The Curriculum at the Middle School StageThe Curriculum at the Middle School StageThe Curriculum at the Middle School StageThe Curriculum at the Middle School StageThe Curriculum at the Middle School StageWe are now in a position to indicate in broad outline the

curri-culum for our future Secondary schools. These schoolsfalls into two-main categories. The first category includes Middleschools and Senior Basic schools, schools which cater generallyfor the pupils of the age group 11 to 13. The second categoryincludes High schools and Higher Secondary Schools, the Highschools providing a three-year course and the Higher Secondarya four-year course. The age-range of pupils in High schools willapproximately be 14 to 16 and in Higher Secondary schools 14to 17 The necessity for maintaining, for the present, twodifferent types of Secondary schools, High schools, and HigherSecondary schools-has already been explained in Chapter IVof our report.

presently. The starting point for curricular reconstruction must,therefore, be the desire to bridge the gulf between the schoolsubjects and the rich and varied activities that Make up thewarp and woof of life.

The Basic Principle of Curriculum ConstructionThe Basic Principle of Curriculum ConstructionThe Basic Principle of Curriculum ConstructionThe Basic Principle of Curriculum ConstructionThe Basic Principle of Curriculum ConstructionWe are now in a position to enumerate briefly the principles

on which the curriculum should be based. These have beenbrought out by implication already in the preceding discussionbut it will be helpful to restate them clearly and coherently.In the first place, it must be clearly understood that, accordingto the best modern educational thought, curriculum in thiscontext does not mean only the academic subjects traditionallytaught in the school but it includes the totality of experiencesthat pupil receives through the manifold activities that go onin the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop,playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts betweenteachers and pupils.

In this sense, the whole life of the school becomes thecurriculum which can touch the life of the students at all pointsand help in the evolution of balanced personality.

Secondly, there should be enough variety and elasticity inthe curriculum to allow for individual differences and adaptationto individual needs and interests. Any attempt to forceuncongenial subjects and studies on children, unfit to takethem up, is bound to lead to a sense, of frustration and tohinder their normal development. There are, of, course, certainbroad areas. of knowledge, skill and appreciation with Whichall children must come into contact and these must find place‘in the curriculum. We shall discuss presently what these subject-areas are, but it is necessary that they should be kept to theminimum and should not be beyond the students’ powers andcapacities. In other words, the same standard of achievementshould not be expected’ of all.

Thirdly, the curriculum must be vitally and organicallyrelated to community life, interpreting for the child its salientand significant features and allowing him to come into contactwith some of its important activities. Obviously, this would


effectively as the so-called intellectual subjects. Historicallyspeaking, these came much earlier in the field of humanactivity long before subjects like mathematics, science andothers came to be formalised and regarded as worthy of humanpursuit. As valuable media for the development of the emotionalside of the mind their place is certainly higher than that of theordinary subjects. Their inclusion in the school curriculum isvaluable for the proper development of the emotions and helpfulto the growth of other aspects of the personality-intellectual,aesthetic and spiritual. Who could deny the intellectual andaesthetical value to a student in the creation, undertaking andcompleting of a piece of art or music or handiwork ? No apologyis needed today for including art, music and craft as essentialelements in the school curriculum.

It will be noticed that we have not included physicaleducation in the above list of subjects. This is not due to anylack of appreciation of its place and importance In theeducational programme. We consider it much more than a‘subject’ in a curriculum. One of the main aims of educationis the proper physical development of every pupil, so essentialfor building up a healthy and balanced personality. Asintellectual development comes through the study of varioussubjects, so physical development comes through various formsof activities. It is much wider than what is usually denotedbriefly by the term ‘P.T.’. So physical education as series ofactivities will form a part of the curriculum but the approachto it will be somewhat different from the approach to othersubjects.

We have stated that the function of the Middle schoolcurriculum is to introduce the pupil in a general way to certainbroad fields of human knowledge and interest. We would liketo underline the phrase ‘in a general way’. The Middle schoolis not the place for specialisa-tion but the stage when a generalintroduction to all the broad and Significant fields of knowledgecan and should be given. The phrase ‘in a general way’ indicatesthe scope of the course; it is not the depth of knowledge in anyparticular field but familiarity with the different importantfields in which human mind has been active throughout the

The Middle or Senior Basic stage is a continuation of thePrimary (Junior Basic) stage. As long, therefore, as Middleschools exist, their course must not differ materially from theSenior Basic course. Eventually those schools can easily betransformed into Senior Basic schools. It is not really desirableto have the distinct and separate types of, courses at this stage,as the existence of Basic and non-Basic schools side by sidetends to create a kind of unhealthy caste distinction in education.The main difference between the Middle school and SeniorBasic school courses will be in the method of approach and ofteaching; but the educational programme, i.e. the subjects andcourses to, be covered and the activities undertaken, will asfar as possible be similar.

Again, as the Middle or Senior Basic stage is a continuationof the Primary stage, it is necessary to observe in framing thecurriculum and planning the work for it that there is not aviolent departure from the previous stage either in the contentsof the curriculum or of the methods. We have kept this principlein view in recommending the curriculum for the Middle stage.Regarding methods, it is now an accepted principle that thePrimary curriculum, whether the Basic or non-Basic, shouldbe based ore activities. Therefore, in the Middle schoolcurriculum, the emphasis should be on activities so that theremay be no departure from the principles underlying the pupils’education at the Primary stage.

The special function of the curriculum at the Middle stageis to introduce the pupil in a general way to the significantdepartments of human knowledge and activity. These willnaturally and obviously include language and literature, socialstudies, natural sciences and mathematics which have alwaysformed part of every Secondary school curriculum. But thereare a few other subjects whose claims are not so freely admitted,or admitted in a grudging manner so that their position in thecurriculum is regarded as ornamental or at best secon-dary. Inthis group we include art, music and craft. These subjectsdemand expression and achievement, with as much importancein their own way as the purely intellectual subjects; and theycan be used for the education of the human mind as easily and


The place of the different languages in our educationalprogramme at different stages has been fully discussed in theearlier chapter. In view of the arguments stated there, it isnecessary for the present to find a place for English in theMiddle school curriculum. Every school should make provisionfor the teaching of the official language, Hindi and theinternational language, English. It may, however, be providedthat English is not to be treated as a compulsory subject ofstudy if the pupil or guardian does not wish it to be studied.In the case of those pupils who do not desire to study English,an alternative arrangement should be made for the study ofanother language. In schools which provide for the study ofEnglish on an optional basis there should also be alternativearrangements for an advanced course in the mother-tongue forthose who do not take optional course in English.

With two other languages besides the mother-tongue, thecourse in languages will be rather heavy. It is unavoidable ina country like ours which has a multiplicity of languages andwe should be prepared to pay this price for the wealth of ourlinguistic heritage. One miti-gating fact, however, is thatthese languages will be introduced when the child will haveacquired a certain amount of mastery over his mother-tongue.Also in order to lessen the burden we have already suggestedthat only one new language should be begun in any one year.Moreover, with regard to the second and third languages theemphasis will be on the language aspect only. The aim will beto introduce the child to the practical use of the two languageswhile the literary aspects will be kept definitely in thebackground.

We have already explained at some length why it isimportant to include art, music and craft in the Middle schoolcurriculum. With regard to art and music, a certain amountof natural ability is needed .for efficiency and every child willnot be able to attain the same standard ; but there is no reasonwhy every child should not be given a chance to benefit by thecultural values implicit in the study of art and music.

With regard to crafts we would like to emphasise theimportance of the local crafts and the use of local materials.

ages and out of which the pattern of human culture has beenevolved. The purpose therefore is two-fold ; the child as theinheritor of the treasures of human civilisation has the right,firstly, to know what its main components are, and secondly,as a result of acquiring that knowledge to choose at a laterstage, the particular field in which he can in his own waycontribute his share to this fund of human culture. Therefore,strictly speaking, nothing which has abiding and significantvalue for humanity can be omitted from the child’s curriculum.Great discrimination will be required in selecting from thisvast treasure such elements as the child can understand andappreciate at this stage. Again, it is in this Middle stage thatthe special abilities and interests of the individual child tendto crystallise and take shape. In view of this, the Middle schoolcurriculum has to be of an exploratory character. By providinga broad-based and general curriculum and an appropriateenvironment in the school, we can help the child to discoverhis own tastes and talents.

It may be argued that such an approach is likely to makethe curriculum heavy. It need not be so, since what we areaiming at this stage is not depth of knowledge in any particularfield but a general understanding and appreciation of thesignificant elements of human culture. The curriculum mustnot be overloaded with too many facts and items of informationwith what Whitehead has called “dead bits of knowledge”. Theaim should be to give the child an appreciation of humanachievement in different fields, to widen his outlook and broadenhis sympathies.

Keeping in view the above considerations we suggest thefollowing broad outline of the Middle school curriculum : 1.Languages 2. Social Studies 3. General Science 4. Mathematics5. Art and Music 6. Craft 7. Physical Education

Under languages will come the mother-tongue, the naturalmedium of self-expression or the regional language. Next wouldcome the official language of the Republic, i.e., Hindi, aknowledge of which is necessary in the wider interests of nationallife and’ national unity. Where Hindi is the mother-tongue, thepupil may study another language.


in training their practical aptitudes in the preparation fordefinite vocational work later. The educational programme willnot be narrowly vocational, but will have a definite vocationalbasis.

For example, a young student who shows signs ofmechanical aptitude and is interested in things mechanical,may take a course with a technical bias-not to become, anengineer but to get a general introduction to that field ofengineering which he may like to choose, as his vocation afterfurther training. Besides, giving him some training of a technicalkind, the course should also give him a reasonable amount ofgeneral education so that he may be fit to discharge his dutiesas a human-being and citizen trained in the greatest of all arts-the art of living. Similarly, another student may take a coursein agriculture not necessarily to become a farmer, but becausehe is interested in agriculture as a most valuable humanoccupation and an essential part of the human economy. Hisunderstanding of the various aspects of agriculture wouldcertainly make him a better member of society, even thoughhe may not actually become a farmer. A good teacher shouldalways be able to exploit the educational possibilities implicitin these subjects. There is no doubt that the so-called technicalsubjects have considerable cultural value., which should befully explored. In fact, with the great advances during the lasthundred years in science and technology, the concept of cultureitself has become wider and more comprehensive; science andtechnique, are as much a part of it as the older disciplines ofliberal studies. It is this approach. which will have to be adoptedin our Secondary institutions distinguishing them from thepurely vocational schools.

There is yet another consideration which will determine,the organization of the curriculum in these High schools andthe Higher Secondary schools. Pupils will come to them fromMiddle schools as well as Senior Basic schools. As long as somedifferences exist in the courses and methods of teaching inthese two types of schools it would be advisable to provide aninitial period of transition in the high school stage which willenable students drawn from, different schools to pass through

They have a tradition behind them which will be familiar toevery child in the locality. They also possess a certain amountof emotional significance which has considerable educationalvalue.

The Curriculum at the High and the Higher SecondaryThe Curriculum at the High and the Higher SecondaryThe Curriculum at the High and the Higher SecondaryThe Curriculum at the High and the Higher SecondaryThe Curriculum at the High and the Higher SecondarySchool StageSchool StageSchool StageSchool StageSchool Stage

By the end of the Middle school the special abilities andinterests of the pupils would generally be taking definite form; at least it will be so with most of the pupils. So the curriculumat the High school stage (both for High schools and HigherSecondary schools) should be, . as far as possible, framed onthe-basis of these abilities and interests. We have no scientificdata available to help us to arrange in categories-if that werepossible-these special abilities and interests in terms of well-defined and compact educational programmes. But if a numberof well-thought out programmes are offered, the young peoplewill be in a position to choose from among them in accordancewith their own abilities and inclinations. So we have to providevaried course in, High schools and Higher Secondary schoolswith a fairly wide latitude for choice. This, however, is notto be treated as specialisation in the narrow sense of the word.Its primary object is to provide suitable. scope for thedevelopment of the special interests of the pupils. Specialisation,on the other hand, implies exclusiveness of interest which isrightly condemned at too early an age. A reference to thecurriculum suggested by us would indicate how we have triedto avoid that kind, of narrow specialisation.

In the High school stage there is yet another criterionwhich will help us in deciding what would be the appropriatecurriculum for any particular pupil. For the large majority ofthese adolescents this will be all the education that they willreceive. In a normally functioning educational system not morethan twenty-five to thirty per cent of the pupils in High schoolsare likely to, go to the universities and other institutions ofthe higher learning such as technological and similarinstitutions. So most of them have to think of earning a livingand the educational programme should give them some trainingin this, direction-not so much in terms of specific vocations as


The curriculum, as we envisage it, will consist of thefollowing:

A. (i) Mother-tongue or Regional language or a compositecourse of the mother-tongue and a Classical language(ii) One other language to be chosen from among thefollowing:

(a) Hindi (for those whose mother-tongue is not Hindi)

(b) Elementary English (for those who have not studiedin the Middle stage)

(c) Advanced English (for those who had studied Englishin the earlier stage)

(d) A modem Indian language (other than Hindi)

(e) A modern foreign language (other than English)

(f) A Classical language

B. (i) Social Studies-general course (for the first two yearsonly) (ii) General Science including Mathematics-generalcourse (for the first two years only)

C. One Craft to be chosen from the following list (whichmay be added to, according to needs) :

(a) Spinning and Weaving

(b) Wood-work

(c) Metal work

(d) Gardening

(e) Tailoring

(f) Typography

(g) Workshop Practice

(h) Sewing Needlework and Embroidery

(i) Modelling

D. Three subjects from one of the following groups

Group 1-HumanitiesGroup 1-HumanitiesGroup 1-HumanitiesGroup 1-HumanitiesGroup 1-Humanities(a) A classical language or a third language from A (ii) not

already taken (b) History (c) Geography (d) Elements of

certain common educational experiences and programmes anddevelop a common outlook and approach to their work. Thereforewe suggest that in the first High school. year the. coursesshould follow, to some extent. the general pattern of coursesin the preceding stage and that differentiation should come inthe second year.

The courses in the High schools and the Higher’ Secondaryschools will follow the same pattern. They will consist of certaincore-subjects common to all and certain optional subjects. Thedifference in the period of education (three years in the onecase and four years in the other) makes it necessary to havetwo levels of integration of the subject-matter with the coresubjects as well as the optional subjects, The High schools, willobviously offer a lighter course as far as the contents areconcerned but within the limits of each particular course, hereshould be as much integration of subject-matter as is possible.It is lack of such integration which makes the curriculum opento the criticism of being disjoined and overloaded.

The need for developing an integrated course is so great,that. instead of allowing pupils to choose from a very widerange of options according to their individual inclination-as isdone in certain countries and even in some States in India-wehave preferred to group subjects under certain broad headingsin order to allow for some amount of integration and correlation.Complete freedom of choice without any guidance either fromparents or from teachers Is not educationally desirable and inthe choice of subjects within a group, the pupils should get thebenefit of expert educational guidance. Such guidance isessential for the success of any educational programme and wehope that before long it will be available to all our educationalsystems.

We are now in a position to give the broad outline of thecurri-culum at the High school and the Higher Secondary stage.This curriculum is intended to be only suggestive and no attempthis been made to work out the details under each subject. TheState Depart-ments of Education will have to work out thedetails and fill the outline after making a careful study andinvestigation of the problem as we have elsewhere suggested.


languages which are absolutely essential, those who possesslinguistic ability should be able to take an additional thirdlanguage, and in special cases under the note at E, he canchoose yet another language if he cares to do so.

We have recommended that a general course in social studiesand general science should be provided at the High school stagefor those who do not take up these (or allied subjects) amongtheir optionals. These two subjects together with the languagesand a craft will really form the common core of the High schoolcourse. To this will be added the group of special subjectschosen by the pupil in accordance with his abilities and interests.

The courses in social studies and general science will be ofa general nature and they will be taught in the first two Highschool years only, but they will not be examination subjects.Their main purpose will be to explain more fully than waspossible in the Middle stage—in intelligent manner and withoutgoing into details-the social movements and forces which areshaping their lives and the contribu-tions that science is makingin changing and regulating the social pattern. All should knowsomething about them in order to live in-telligently in the fastchanging world of today. We shall discuss the purposes ofteaching these two subjects a little more fully later.

A word of explanation is necessary to indicate thesignificance of the phrase “those who do not take up these (orallied subjects) among their optionals” occurring in the last butone paragraph. A pupil taking up either History or Geographyor elements of Economics and Civics, in the “humanities”group will be required in the second year when differentiatedcourses begin, to take up the course in gene-ral science andnot in social studies. Similarly, a pupil taking the sciences,under the ‘science’ or ‘technical’ or ‘agricultural’ group shouldtake the course in social studies, but not in general science.Students who take the commercial group will be studying somephases of social studies as a part of their course in CommercialGeography or Elements of Economics and Civics. In that casethey will be exempted from taking the social studies course butthey will take the course in general science. For students takingthe ‘fine arts’ group some know-ledge related to social studies

Economics and Civics (e) Elements of Psychology and Logic(f) Mathematics (g) Music (h) Domestic Science

Group 2-SciencesGroup 2-SciencesGroup 2-SciencesGroup 2-SciencesGroup 2-Sciences(a) Physics (b) Chemistry (c) Biology (d) Geography

(e) Mathematics (f) Elements of Physiology and Hygiene (notto be taken with Biology)

Group 3-TechnicalGroup 3-TechnicalGroup 3-TechnicalGroup 3-TechnicalGroup 3-Technical(a) Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Drawing

(b) Applied Science (c) Elements of Mechnical, Engineering(d) Elements of Electrical Engineering

Group 4-CommercialGroup 4-CommercialGroup 4-CommercialGroup 4-CommercialGroup 4-Commercial(a) Commercial Practice (b) Book-keeping (c) Commercial

Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics (d) Shorthandand Typewriting

Group 5-AgricultureGroup 5-AgricultureGroup 5-AgricultureGroup 5-AgricultureGroup 5-Agriculture(a) General Agriculture (b) Animal Husbandry

(c) Horticulture and Gardening (d) Agricultural Chemistry andBotany

Group 6-Fine ArtsGroup 6-Fine ArtsGroup 6-Fine ArtsGroup 6-Fine ArtsGroup 6-Fine Arts(a) History of Art (b) Drawing and Designing (c) Painting

(d) Modelling (e) Music (f) Dancing

Group 7-Home ScienceGroup 7-Home ScienceGroup 7-Home ScienceGroup 7-Home ScienceGroup 7-Home Science(a) Home Economics (b) Nutrition and Cookery (c) Mother

Craft and Child care (d) Household Management and HomeNursing (e) Besides the above a student may take at his optionone additional subject from any of the above groups irrespectiveof whether or not he has chosen his other options from thatparticular group.

It will be noticed that in this curriculum a pupil willordinarily be required to take one other language besides hismother tongue. It may be Hindi or English or any other languageaccording to his needs and choice. This arrangement will meetwith the ordinary requirements of most pupils. We are definitelyof the opinion that the curriculum should not be loaded withtoo many languages and while a majority should only study


teachers who are well-versed both in the craft and in thescientific aspects of teaching of the craft. Craft teaching inTraining colleges for a limited period of nine months or a yearcannot possibly produce this type of teachers; and if crafteducation is not to suffer once again and be neglected in schoolsby being entrusted to such partially trained teachers who havenot yet developed that skill in the craft sufficient to exemplifyto the students, it will be necessary in the interim period forsome years that a trained craftsman ‘though not fully educatedin the formal way should be associated with the trained teacherin the teaching of the crafts to the pupils. The expert in craftmay be engaged on a part-time basis and may be able to helpin training the boys in more than one type of craft. Anotheralternative is that such a trained dexterous craftsman may beutilised by several schools on a pre-planned basis of organizedtime-table of instruction.

It will be seen that we have recommended seven groups ofoptional courses. Other groups may, of course, be added tothe list. Ordinarily, however, these seven groups would provideenough scope for full freedom of choice to pupils with differentinterests and aptitudes. The State Departments of Educationshould examine the position in the light of their experiencesand modify or add to these groups.

The other point regarding the curriculum recommended byus has to be noted. The differentiated curriculum will reallybegin in the second year though the selected craft will be takenup from the first year. One other subject may also be taken upin the first year for the sake of convenience. But we wish toemphasise the point that except in the case of languages, theoptional subjects need not all be studied throughout the course.A particular subject may be covered in two years or in threeyears depending on the nature of the subject. For example, thecourse in shorthand and typewriting need not extend throughoutthe four school years. It may even be split up, typewritingbeing taught in the first year and shorthand in the last twoyears.

We are aware that a new curriculum by itself, howevergood and carefully planned, cannot transform the educational

may be covered in the course on the history of art. So they takethe course in general science but not, ordinarily, in socialstudies. The home science group should, we feel, take bothsocial studies and general science for the first two years.

We have recommended that every High school should takeone craft. We consider it necessary that at this stage, everystudent should devote some time to work with the hands andattain a reasonably high standard of proficiency in one particularcraft, so that if necessary, he may support himself by pursuingit. But it is not on economic grounds only that we make thisrecommendation. By working with the hands the adolescentlearns the dignity of labour and experiences the joy of doingconstructive work. There is no greater educative medium thanmaking, with efficiency and integrity, things of utility andbeauty. It trains practical aptitudes, facilitates clarity ofthinking, gives chances for co-operative work and thus enrichesthe entire personality.

The craft chosen at the High school stage may or may notbe the craft taken in the Middle school stage by the pupil.While, no doubt, a certain amount of mechanical Skill willbe attained at the end of the Middle school stage, there willbe ample room for him to attain higher standard of efficiencyin the High school. For example, the aesthetic aspect will comeinto fuller play at this stage. An intellectual study of theeconomics of the craft and of the science involved in the craftprocesses will also be duly stressed. But the pupil should havethe freedom to choose a new craft, if he so likes, when he comesto the High school. The period of time he can devote there, islong enough for him to achieve a fairly high standard of efficiencyin the new craft.

The training in crafts requires two fundamental principlesto be observed. So far as the craft itself is concerned, propertraining can only be given by one who is an expert in thatparticular craft. The second principle is that in giving thiseducation in craft, the utilisation of the craft for craft-centrededucation will be possible only if a trained teacher fully qualifiedin the craft and in the scientific aspects thereof is available.For a transitional period, it will not be possible to get the


subject-matter than to study a heavy syllabus in a mechanicalor superficial manner. In connection with the curricular researchthat we have re-commended, we would like specially to stressthe importance of scrutinising the detailed syllabus in eachsubject to eliminate unnecessary and irrelevant items ofinformation. We can only elucidate the principle here and notwork out detailed syllabuses. Our educational authorities, whoprescribe the courses, and our teachers who teach them needto understand clearly the aims and objects they should keepin view in the various subjects. We shall state them here verybriefly and suggestively with reference to Languages, SocialStudies and General Science.

LanguagesLanguagesLanguagesLanguagesLanguagesAmongst languages, the highest importance is to be given

to the mother-tongue. This sounds like a platitude but isunfortunately not so; for in the past, for more importance andtime have been given to other languages. Any teacher howeverpoorly qualified, has been con-sidered good enough to teachthe mother-tongue and, for long, even the grades and salariesof language teachers have been lower than those of otherteachers. Learning the mother-tongue does not imply merelythe capacity to read and write it anyhow and a continuousaddition to the student’s vocabulary. It is a most potent andcomprehensive medium for the education of the students’ entirepersonality. Through it a good teacher can train his pupils inclear thinking, which is one of the most important objectivesof education, and in lucid, felicitous self-expression, whichbesides being a great social gift is an essential quality forsuccessful democratic citizenship; he can also build up literaryappreciation and good taste and educate the emotions. Literatureis a vehicle for training the character and inculcating the rightsense of values through the study of literary masterpieces andcommunion with the spirit of great writers. It also provides auseful insight into the mind and the culture of the past. Butall these objectives can only be attained if the emphasis isplaced on the right things—self-expression in reading, writingand speech; study and appreciation of literature as a mirror tolife; reading of suitable general books of high quality with

system. Much will depend on the details of the curriculum andon the methods of handling it. What is really needed, is a neworientation and a new approach. Again, a curriculum cannotbe regarded as fixed for all times-it should be a matter ofconstant experimentation with a view to revising it from timeto time according to changing needs. The bounds of humanknowledge are constantly expanding and, therefore, it isessential to go on examining and evaluating the contents of thecurriculum, adding to it significant new items and weeding outfrom it whatever has ceased to have direct significance for thepupil and his immediate and future life. Therefore. as we havesuggested elsewhere, there is an urgent need for curricularresearch in our country. We hope that its importance will beclearly realised and arrangements made for it in the Trainingcolleges.

While discussing the basic principles of curriculumconstruction, we have already indicated the nature of this newapproach in the earlier part of this chapter. We have alsotouched briefly on physical education, and art and craft teaching.It is really necessary to define this new approach with referenceto every subject in the curriculum. It would, however, sufficefor our purpose if we do so with reference to three of the mostimportant core subjects-languages, social studies and generalscience and briefly indicate what we expect from the teachingof these subjects at this stage.

We would like to make it clear that it is not the nomenclatureor the combination of subjects that matters in the curriculumbut their actual contents. Otherwise, the subjects that we havesuggested do not differ markedly from those that are beingtaught in many Secondary schools at present. We have to beclear about the objectives that are aimed at, the values thatare expected to be derived by the pupil and the scope to becovered. So far as the scope is concerned, all that we need sayis that the attempt should not be to crowd as much matter aspossible into each subject but to pick out the most significantelements, which are relevant to the age and the needs of thestudents. It is far more useful from the educational point ofview to understand and grasp thoroughly, comparatively light-


They help the student to discover and explain how thisadjustment has taken place in the past and how it is takingplace today. Through them, the students should be able toacquire not only the knowledge but attitudes and values whichare essential for successful group living and civic efficiency.They should endeavour to give the students not only a senseof national patriotism and an appreciation of national heritage,but also a keen and lively sense of world unity and worldcitizenship. We need hardly state the obvious fact that theseare but the formulation of the aims which have to be achieved;their translation into curricular terms will require carefulthought and patient research. In the chapter on ‘Methods’, wehave said something about how the various topics should bepresented in the form of units and projects etc.

General ScienceGeneral ScienceGeneral ScienceGeneral ScienceGeneral ScienceAn understanding and appreciation of the fundamental

principles of the natural and physical sciences is essential toeffective living in the world of today. The common need ofMiddle school students in this field can be met best byformulating “general courses”, with em-phasis on practicalapplications and observations. At the High school stage, therewill be a specialised reorientation of the science courses andPhysics, Chemistry and Biology will be taught as independentsubjects. But, both from the point of view of students adjustmentto their natural environment and of providing the properbackground for the more specialized studies later, it is desirableto formulate “general science” courses for the Middle stage. Itis to be noted that the science syllabus in the Secondary schoolis not directed to the “production of scientists”. Its aim is to givebasic understanding and appreciation of scientific phenomena-biological and physical—which may prepare the “non-scientists”for a fuller and more complete life. At the same time, thecourses should give fundamental principles to those relativelyfew who will later specialize in science. Special emphasis mustbe placed on demonstrations, field trips, and practical projectswhich may link up school science with actual life problems andsituations—concrete problems like local sanitation, watersupply, ‘elimination of pests, etc. Science teaching at this

interest rather than concentration on textbooks; approach toliterature as a source of joy and inspiration rather than a kill-joy drill in grammer and vocabulary. If well-qualified and well-trained teachers can take up the teaching of the mother-tonguein this spirit, it may well raise the whole level and quality ofeducation.

In the case of the other languages-whether English orclassical or modem Indian languages-the approach must bedefinitely practical. The students should be able to read themwith comprehension and ease, speak them correctly so as tomake themselves understood and express simple ideas andgive easy descriptions in writing. The emphasis must, therefore,be on reading and speech through out and the students shouldnot be tied down to prescribed textbooks. The preparation ofeasy books for general reading, whose vocabulary range isapproximately the same as that of the textbooks, is an importantmatter requiring the attention of all educational authorities.If, at this stage, foundations are laid for reading withcomprehension, interest will carry the student, in later life,as far as he cares to go. But the adoption of very ambitious aimsat this stage, e.g., literary appreciation, study of difficultpoems, writing on abstract themes will defeat the very purposein view.

Social StudiesSocial StudiesSocial StudiesSocial StudiesSocial Studies“Social Studies” as a term is comparatively new in Indian

education; it is meant to cover the ground traditionally associatedwith History, Geography, Economics, Civics, etc. If theteaching of these separate subjects only imparts miscellaneousand unrelated information and does not throw any light on, orprovide insight into social conditions and problems or createthe desire to improve the existing state of things, their educativesignificance will be negligible. This whole group of studies has,therefore, to be viewed as a compact whole, whose object isto adjust the students to their social environment which includesthe family, community, State and nation-so that they may beable to understand how society has come to its present formand interpret intelligently the matrix of social forces andmovements in the midst of which they are living.


adopted as suitable. Considerable care was, therefore, takenin their preparation, and the authors themselves were generallypersons of standing. With the change-over to ‘the regionallanguage as the medium of instruction, there was no longera possibility of books being published on an all-India basis andauthors were limited to the regions concerned. The restrictivenature of the open competition and the need for immediateprovision of some kind of textbook or other led to a haphazardselection of books and to a considerable deterioration in thestandard of the textbooks that were prescribed or recommended.Not every teacher in a region was competent to write textbooksin that particular regional language. Textbooks could seldombe written by the best qualified and most competent teachersbecause of their ignorance or insufficient knowledge of theregional language.

Apart from these difficulties, inevitable in the transitionalperiod, we have reason to criticise the selection even of thosebooks that are available in the market. Some complaints wehave received may not be altogether justified, and we realisethat opinions may vary widely as to the suitability of books.The impression left on us after carefully sifting the evidencetendered was that, in prescribing textbooks considerationsother than academic were not infrequently brought to bear; norcould it be asserted that the Textbook Committees had beenfunctioning efficiently. Instances were brought to our noticewhere textbooks prescribed for a particular grade were eithertoo difficult or too easy or they were very defective in thelanguage in which they were written and in the manner inwhich the subject was presented.

The question therefore of producing proper textbooks forschools is one which should receive the earnest attention ofboth the State and Central Governments. It is interesting tonote that as far back as 1873, a Resolution was passed by theGovernment of India requesting local governments to appointcommittees for the examination of existing School books inorder to discover defects of either form or substance and tobring them into harmony with the principles enunciated in theResolution.

stage, should initiate the student into the use and appreciationof the scientific method by which facts are discovered,relationships established, and sound conclusions reached. Pupilsshould be encouraged to explore every opportunity to developthe attitude of critical inquiry. The classroom, the home, thecity and the village, the fields and woods and streams, all offerrich resources and opportunities for science teaching resourcesthat must be fully utilized by every teacher of science.

The teacher should aim at awakening in the pupils a livelycuriosity about the natural phenomena around them atdeveloping their capacity for the practical application of theirknowledge, at appreciating the tremendous impact of modernscience on all aspects of our life and at interesting them in thehuman Side of scientific progress by introducing them to thelives of the great scientists. Such an approach will ensure thatscience becomes a part of “liberal” education and an instrumentfor the appreciation of the special characteristics of modernculture.

We cherish the hope that, if the curriculum is reorganizedon the lines suggested and if the new dynamic approach isadopted. the Secondary school may become a centre of joyouseducation related to life, instead of being merely a centre ofdull and stereotyped instruction.

TEXTBOOKS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSTEXTBOOKS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSTEXTBOOKS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSTEXTBOOKS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSTEXTBOOKS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Some Defects in the Existing SystemSome Defects in the Existing SystemSome Defects in the Existing SystemSome Defects in the Existing SystemSome Defects in the Existing SystemThe bulk of the evidence that was tendered, particularly

by teachers in schools and colleges, indicated that there wasa great deterioration in the standard of textbooks at presentprescribed to the students. It was pointed out by some that thechange-over to the regional language as the medium ofinstruction in the different States had led to an aggravationof the problem. Grave though the defects were in the use ofa foreign language as the medium of instruction at the schoolstage, there was one relieving feature in regard to the selectionof textbooks. These textbooks were prepared by authors indifferent parts of India. They had to complete with similarpublications from other parts of the world if they were to be


printed in very large numbers, it should be possible to obtainthe services of competent person to ensure good layout anddesign.

So far as illustrations are concerned, their present standardand quality are almost a scandal and it is necessary that boththe Central and State Governments should take a direct interestin their improvement. We would like to make two definiterecommendations in this behalf. The Central Government shouldeither set up a new institution or help an existing Art schoolto develop a special course-to train promising artists in thetechniques of book-illustrations. There is no justification forthe complacent belief that any drawing master or artist canprepare suitable illustrations for books. It requires a specialflair and technique for which special training is necessary.Secondly, we recommend that the Central Government and,if possible, the State Governments also should built up andmaintain a library of books of good illustrations which couldbe sent out not only to Textbook Committees but also topublishers. This would reduce considerably the cost of productionand consequently the price of the books also. We recommendthat the Textbook Committees should lay down definite andclear criteria for the paper, type, illustrations and the formatof the books for various classes and they should unhesitatinglyreject those which do not conform to the specified criteria.

Role of Publishers in the Publication of TextbooksRole of Publishers in the Publication of TextbooksRole of Publishers in the Publication of TextbooksRole of Publishers in the Publication of TextbooksRole of Publishers in the Publication of TextbooksIt was brought to our notice in this connection that the

commercial side of the production of textbooks has also adverselyaffected their proper selection. The practice in some States isto prescribe only one textbook in each subject for each class.In view of the very large number of pupils studying in theseforms, the approval of a book by the committee meant largeprofits to the publishers and financial stakes involved sometimesresulted in undue influences being brought to bear on themembers of the committees. Evidence tendered left no doubtthat such influences did interfere with proper selection oftextbooks. As a result of this, textbooks were often prescribedwhich were too difficult or too easy for the class concerned orwere defective in language and in the manner of presentation

Among the principles laid down were—

(i) that a Standing Committee of Reference should beappointed in each province to choose or, if necessary,to prepare appropriate textbooks in the Indian languagesand that the Committee so constituted should draw upa list of suitable books that could be adopted by thedifferent schools concerned;

(ii) that where no suitable textbooks existed in any particularsubject the Standing Committee should take steps tohave such a work prepared.

At present there are Textbook Committees in differentStates and these Committees are expected to review the bookssubmitted to them by publishers and recommend textbooks inthe various subjects that might be studied by pupils in differentstandards.

Standards in Production of TextbooksStandards in Production of TextbooksStandards in Production of TextbooksStandards in Production of TextbooksStandards in Production of TextbooksWe are greatly dissatisfied with the present standard of

proudction of school books and consider it essential that thisshould be radically improved. Most of the books submitted andprescribed are poor specimens in every way-the paper is usuallybad, the printing is unsatisfactory, the illustrations are poorand there are numerous printing mistakes. If such books areplaced in the hands of students, it is idle to expect that theywould acquire any love for books or feel interest in them orexperience the joy that comes from handling an attractivelyproduced publication. So far, this matter has been left entirelyto Commercial publishers who have failed to bring about anyappreciable improvement. We are convinced that this state ofthings will continue unless the Education Departments take adirect interest in it. In our opinion, some of the textbooksshould be published directly under the auspices of the TextbooksCommittees. We would like these books to set up for theemulation of the publishers, a higher standard of productionin every respect. In many ways, the difference between a well-produced and a badly produced book is a matter of good tasteand careful designing and it does not always involve anappreciable increase of expenditure. When books are to be


they should make a positive attempt to promote social,communal and international harmony so that the youths maybe trained to become good citizens of their country as well asgood citizens of the world.

Constitution of a High-Power CommitteeConstitution of a High-Power CommitteeConstitution of a High-Power CommitteeConstitution of a High-Power CommitteeConstitution of a High-Power CommitteeHaving stated the general principales, we may now pass

on to the machinery that should be entrusted with this task.We are of opinion that all political and other extraneousinfluences must be eschewed in the selection of textbooks. Thisis possible only if a high-power committee is entrusted withthis task. Such a committee should function as an independentbody. It should be composed of 7 members who will be chosenwith particular reference to their high status, knowledge andexperience. The Committee we envisage will consist of (1) ahigh dignitary of the judiciary of the State, preferably a judgeof the High Court, (2) a member of the Public ServiceCommission of the region concerned; (3) a Vice-Chancellor ofthe region concerned: (4) a headmaster or headmistress in theState; (5) two distinguished educationists to be coopted by themembers; and (6) the Director of Education.

The Director of Education should be the Secretary of theCommittee and the Committee may elect its own Chairman.The membership of the Committee should be for a period offive years. The Government of the State concerned maynominate those members were necessary.

Function of the CommitteeFunction of the CommitteeFunction of the CommitteeFunction of the CommitteeFunction of the CommitteeThe Committee should have the following functions:

(1) To prepare a panel of expert reviewers for each of thesubjects included in the Secondary school educationcurriculum.

(2) To appoint Expert Committees from time to timeconsisting of two or three members to give, detailedreports on the suitability of the books referred to them.They should be paid a suitable hono-rarium.

(3) To invite experts to write textbooks and other books forstudy, if necessary.

and sometimes abounded in factual mistakes. The evil hasbecome so widespread that it is necessary, in our opinion, totake effective steps to check this state of affairs and to exercisestrict control to ensure the production and selection of betterbooks. If proper books are to be produced and authors of reputeare to write them, a different approach to the whole problemis urgently needed.

We are of the opinion that it is desirable to modify the rigiddependence of education on certain prescribed textbooks, andtherefore, we recommend that textbooks should not beprescribed for every subject. In the case of languages, it seemsdesirable to prescribe definite textbooks for each class in orderto ensure proper gradation. So far as the other subjects areconcerned the Textbook Committee should approve a numberof suitable books in each subject and leave the choice to theinstitutions concerned. It has also been brought to our noticethat some of the books prescribed have offended the religiousor social susceptibilities of sections of the community or havetried to indoctrinate the minds of the young students withparticular political or religious ideologies. Fortunately thistendency is not very marked at present but, in view of ourdemocratic, secular constitution, it is necessary to curb itwherever it is in evidence.

Textbook Committees should, therefore, examine the booksnot only from the academic point of view but also with referenceto certain important general principles which have a far-reachingbearing on their usefulness and suitability. No book should beapproved which offends the religious sentiments of any sectionof the community or brings into contempt any reasonable socialpractice and custom. They should not create any feeling ofbitterness or discord among the different sections of the people.Nor should they be utilised for propaganda of any particularpolitical ideology or attempt to indoctrinate the young mindswith particular political theories, except in so far as soundprinciples of the democratic way of living and the democraticform of government, which the country has accepted, arebrought home to the pupils. Not only should textbooks excludeany matter which may have these undesirable reactions, but


feel that unless active attempts are made to bring out a numberof such publications as well as books in the regional languagesand in the official language of the Union, the all-rounddevelopment of the pupil will be seriously handicapped. Teachersalso should have more books available to them in the languagesso that they may with profit refer to them and keep theirknowledge up-to-date.

Reference may, in this connection, be made to the frequentchange of textbooks in the schools. We find no justification forsuch quick changes. Besides imposing an unnecessary financialburden, which is becoming unbearable even for middle classparents, such frequent changes are not in the best interest ofeducation.

If a book has been carefully chosen, there is no reason whyit should not be used for a reasonable length of time. Moreover,the possibility of such changes leads to unfair competitionamongst publishers who seek by all means, to get their booksapproved irrespective of quality. Similarly, it is necessary totake care that too many books are not placed on the approvedlist-as is the practice in some States-because that tendsunconsciously to lower their quality. If the list of approvedbooks in a particular subject is limited, there will be an incentiveon the part of authors and publishers to produce better books.Otherwise, if there are as many as twenty or thirty books onthe approved list, it is impossible to maintain a high standard.We depreciate also the growing practice in many schools,particularly in the richer schools, of making the student spendextravagantly on exercise books and stationery. Apart from theheavy burden on their parents, it gives them a wrong kind ofsocial and economic training which is objectionable from manypoints of view.


CurriculumCurriculumCurriculumCurriculumCurriculum

1. At the Middle school stage, the curriculum shouldinclude (i) Languages; (ii) Social Studies; (iii) GeneralScience; (iv) Mathematics; (v) Art and Music; (vi) Craft;and (vii) Physical Education.

(4) To cooperate with similar committees in other Stateswherever possible, so as to select suitable books in thelanguage concerned on a regional basis.

(5) To arrange for the publication of textbooks and otherbooks needed for the schools.

(6) To maintain a fund from the amount realised from thesale of publications.

(7) To grant suitable honoraria to authors or royalties topublishers whose books are approved as books of studyfor the schools.

(8) To utilise the balance of the fund for purposes, suchas,

(a) awarding of scholarships to poor and deservingcandidates,

(b) providing necessary books for such pupils.

(c) contributing towards the cost of supply of milk,midday meals and evening refreshments to schoolchildren, and

(d) generally for such other purposes as are conduciveto the improvement of Secondary education.

The Committee should submit a report at the end of everyyear to the government on its working. The Committee willhave its own office, the expenditure of the office being bornout of the funds referred to above.

In suggesting that this Committee should undertake thepublication of certain books, we shall not be restricting thechoice of books nor limiting the scope of free enterprise in thepublication of books. Even now many universities publishtextbooks in languages after paying honoraria to the authorsand royalties where necessary. The funds accruing therefromhave afforded substantial help to universities to develop someof their activities in the research departments.

Books of Reference in Regional LanguagesBooks of Reference in Regional LanguagesBooks of Reference in Regional LanguagesBooks of Reference in Regional LanguagesBooks of Reference in Regional LanguagesWe have referred elsewhere to the great paucity of books

of reference in the regional languages for school libraries. We


10. The Central and State Governments should maintainlibraries of blocks of good illustrations which could beloaned to Textbook Committees and publishers in orderto improve the standard of book illustration.

11. Single textbooks should not be prescribed for everysubject of study, but a reasonable number of bookswhich satisfy the standards laid down should berecommended leaving the choice to the schoolsconcerned.

12. In the case of languages, however, definite textbooksshould be prescribed for each class to ensure propergradation.

13. No book prescribed as a textbook or as a book for generalstudy should contain any passage or statement whichmight offend the religious or social susceptibilities ofany section of the community or might indoctrinate the‘minds of the young students with particular politicalor religious ideologies.

14. Frequent changes in textbooks and books prescribed forstudy should be discouraged.

2. At the High school or Higher Secondary stage, diversifiedcourses of instruction should be provided for the pupils.

3. A certain number of core subjects should be common toall students whatever the diversified courses of studythat they may take; these should consist of (i) Languages,(ii) General Science, (iii) Social Studies, and (v) a Craft.

4. Diversified courses of study should include the followingseven groups: (i) Humanities, (ii) Sciences, (iii) Technicalsubjects, (iv) Commercial subjects, (v) Agriculturalsubjects, (vi) Fine Arts, and (vii) Home Science; as andwhen necessary additional diversified courses may beadded.

5. The diversified curriculum should begin in the secondyear of the High school or Higher Secondary schoolstage.

TextbooksTextbooksTextbooksTextbooksTextbooks

6. With a view to improving the quality of textbooksprescribed a high-power Textbook Committee should beconstituted which should consist of a high dignitary ofthe judiciary of the State, preferably a Judge of theHigh Court, a Member of the Public Service Commissionof the region concerned, a Vice-Chancellor of the region,a headmaster or headmistress in the State, twodistinguished educationists and the Director ofEducation; this Committee should function as anindependent body.

7. A fund should be maintained from the amount realisedfrom the sale of publications which may be utilised forawarding scholarships, and providing books and certainother amenities for school children.

8. The Textbook Committee should lay down clear criteriafor the type of paper, illustration, printing and formatof the book.

9. The Central Government should set up a new institution,or help some existing Art schools to develop training inthe technique of book illustration.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Dynamic Methods of TeachingDynamic Methods of TeachingDynamic Methods of TeachingDynamic Methods of TeachingDynamic Methods of Teaching156156156156156 157157157157157

OBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODSOBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODSOBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODSOBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODSOBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODSIn discussing the problem of right methods, it is necessary

to take a broad and comprehensive view of their objectiveswhich are really closely related to the objectives of educationthat we have already discussed and which we must to someextent recapitulate from the point of view of methodology. Amethod is not merely a device adopted for communicatingcertain items of information to students and exclusively theconcern of the teacher who is supposed to be at the “giving end.”Any method, good or bad, links up the teacher and his pupilsinto an organic relationship with constant mutual interaction: it reacts not only on the mind of the students but on theirentire personality, their standards of work and judgment,their intellectual and emotional equipment, their attitudesand values. Good methods which are psychologically and sociallysound may raise the whole quality of their life ; bad methodsmay debase it. So, in the choice and assessment of methods,teachers must always take into consideration their end-products—namely, the attitudes and values inculcated in themconsciously or unconsciously. Good methods of teaching shouldaim at the following objectives, which have not only intellectualbut also social and moral implications, for in the domain ofeducation, it is impossible to draw rigid lines of demarcation.Whatever impact education has on one aspect of the personalitytends to react on other aspects.

The highest value that all methods should try to inculcateis love of work and the desire to do it with the highest measureof efficiency of which one is capable. There are only two realeducative media, contact with a rich and well-integrated humanpersonality (whether of the teacher or the parents or personalfriends) and sincere, wholehearted pre-occupation withworthwhile work, intellectual as well as practical. If educationfails to develop in the students a real attachment of the workthat they are doing in school and the will to put the best ofthemselves into it, it can neither educate the mind nor trainthe character. For various reasons, which we, need not analysehere, this attitude to work is not common amongst our students-either in schools or in colleges. According to our evidence they

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DDDDDYNAMICYNAMICYNAMICYNAMICYNAMIC M M M M METHODSETHODSETHODSETHODSETHODS OFOFOFOFOF T T T T TEACHINGEACHINGEACHINGEACHINGEACHING

NEED OF RIGHT METHODSNEED OF RIGHT METHODSNEED OF RIGHT METHODSNEED OF RIGHT METHODSNEED OF RIGHT METHODS

We have discussed the question of the reconstruction of thecurriculum in the preceding chapter. But every teacher andeducationist of experience knows that even the best curriculumand the most perfect syllabus remain dead unless quickenedinto life by the right methods of teaching and the right kindof teacher.

Sometimes even an unsatisfactory and unimaginativesyllabus can be made interesting and significant by the giftedteacher who does not focus his mind on the subject matter tobe taught or the information to be imparted but on his students-their interests and aptitudes, their reactions and response. liejudges the success of his lesson not by the amount of mattercovered but by the understanding the appreciation and theefficiency achieved by the students.

In building Up, therefore, a picture of the reorganizedSecondary school, it is necessary to indicate the kind of methodsto be adopted and popularized if the curriculum that we haverecommended is to develop into the kind of educational mediumthat we envisage. It is really the function of Training collegesto introduce these methods in our schools through their trainedteachers and we do not propose to cover here the ground thattraining courses are expected to do. We shall confine ourattention to the most outstanding defects in this field and toindicate the general principles and approach to be adopted toeradicate these defects.


situation. The strangle-hold of verbalism is still confused withthe grasp of knowledge-knowledge, which is the fruit of personaleffort and purposeful intellectual and practical activity.Consequently many students leave school with a certain amountof information as their equipment but neither well-assimilatedknowledge nor wisdom, which is the grace of knowledge. Wefelt strongly, therefore that only such methods should beadopted as will give concreteness and reality to learning andhelp to break down the barriers between life and learning andbetween the school and the community. We shall have somethingto say later about the nature of such methods.

On the intellectual side the most important objective ofteaching methods should be to develop the capacity for clearthinking which distinguishes every truly educated person andhas become increasingly important in the modern world of“plural possibilities”, where every one must learn to make uphis mind and judge issues and problems without prejudice orpassion. A majority of our citizens will not receive any educationbeyond the Secondary stage and if they cannot learn to thinkstraight and dispassionately at this stage, they will never beable to play their part as responsible citizens of a democracy.Some of the objectives to which we have referred above will,if achieved, assist in training students in this valuable capacity.But that is not enough. It must also form the conscious objectiveof every single teacher, no matter what subject he is entrustedwith.

Whether a student is asked to make a speech in a debatingsociety or to write an essay or to answer a question in history,geography, or science or to perform an experiment, the accentshould always be on clear thinking and on lucid expressionwhich is a mirror of clear thought. All students cannot becomeeloquent speakers or good stylists but there is no reason why-if proper methods are adopted-every normal student should notbe able to learn to speak and write in such a way as to conveyhis ideas lucidly and intelligibly. In this connection we wouldlike to discourage the present practice of giving excessive homework. It is not only a, great burden on the children but is likelyto be a threat to their health and a hindrance to the development

are content with the minimum of effort, Slipshod in their work,and tend to confine themselves to the study of “Notes” and“Summaries” rather than textbooks, and to textbooks ratherthan significant books of wider interest.

The Secondary school can render no greater service to thestudents (and ultimately to the nation) than by raising theirstandards of efficiency in every thing and creating the necessaryattitude for the purpose. The motto of every school and itspupils should be “Every thing that is worth doing at all is worthdoing well”-whether it be making a speech, writing acomposition, drawing a map, cleaning the classroom, makinga book rack or forming a queue. From this point of view, itis more valueable to take up fewer projects and to completethem with thoroughness and efficiency than to attempt a largernumber haphazardly and superficially. In this connection, itis well to remember that good work, habits, and skills are notacquired theoretically or in a vacuum; it is proper habits ofwork and insistance on them in every detail and over a longperiod of time that create the requisite attitudes and values.Discipline or cooperation. for instance, cannot be instilled intostudents through lectures or exhortations; they can become apart of an individual’s normal technique of life only when hehas been given numerous opportunities of participating in freelyaccepted projects and activities in which discipline and co-operation are constantly in demand for achieving the ends inview.

Another serious defect which vitiates present day teachingis its excessive domination by verbalism i.e., the tendency toidentify knowledge, with words the delusion that if a studentis able to memorize or repeat certain words or phrases he hasgrasped the facts or the ideas that they are meant to convey.The use of an imperfectly understood foreign language asmedium of instruction has greatly accentuated this evil andstudents have usually been content, or compelled, to memorizewhole paragraphs or pages from their text-books in History,Geography and even in Science and Mathematics. In spite ofthe change in the medium of instruction in recent years, weare afraid there has not been much improvement in this


the success of this proposal would largely depend on the requisiteaccommodation and equipment being available for the purpose.

VALUE OF ACTIVITY METHODSVALUE OF ACTIVITY METHODSVALUE OF ACTIVITY METHODSVALUE OF ACTIVITY METHODSVALUE OF ACTIVITY METHODSOur own observation of many schools-at-work as well as

the evidence given by experienced educationists lead usirresistibly to the conclusion that the methods of teaching inuse are still dominated by routine. There is still too much ofcramming and the teaching in the school is not related to life,nor is there any determined attempt to check deterioration ofstandards of expression in speech and writing. The point ofdeparture for all reforms in method must be the realizationthat knowledge has to be actively acquired by every individualstudent through independent effort. The basis of teaching musttherefore, be the organization of the subject matter into unitsor projects which would create opportunities for self-activity onthe part of the students. These should largely replace theformal lessons which often lack proper motivation and,therefore, fail to arouse real interest. Students can put in theirbest effort only when the relationship between their life andtheir lessons is made manifest, for this win create the necessaryfeeling of interest and provide the requisite motivation.

So the business of the teacher should be to re-establish thelink between life and knowledge, to share the aims and objectsof teaching with his, pupils and to plan the programme of workin such a way that pupils will have varied and ampleopportunities for self-expression in speech, writing, collectivereading, independent research, constructive activities andother projects that bring the hand and the mind into fruitfulcooperation. Such a conception of the school day programmeis far removed from the stereo-typed routine of the present dayin which verbalism predominates-the teacher talking anddictating notes and the children listening passively in theclassroom and memorizing things at home for the sake ofpassing tests and examinations.

There is no opportunity or desire to acquire knowledgeeither for the sake of life or for its own sake-the dominantmotive is to scrap through the examination. If the self-activity

of proper habits of work. Whatever home work is given-and weare of the opinion that this should be confined to the higherclasses should be carefully and scrupulously corrected and themistakes discussed with the students so that their confusionsof thought and expression may be gradually eliminated.

When a great deal of home work is given and it is notproperly scrutinized by the teacher, the mistakes of spelling,of grammar, of expression of involved presentation and, aboveall, of confused thinking remain undetected and are likely tobecome ingrained. That is why a little home work, well andwillingly done and carefully corrected, is far better than greatdeal of slipshod work reluctantly accomplished. Here aselsewhere, quality is more important than quantity. This doesnot of course, mean that children will do no study at home.If interest has been aroused and reading habits have beencultivated they will read many books of general interest, theywill pursue their various hobbies, they may prepare charts,models diagrams or perform simple experiments and studytheir textbooks in various subjects. But the difference is thatall this will be work, spontaneously undertaken and stemmingfrom the students’ natural interest not imposed on them fromoutside.

Finally, it is desirable that the methods of teaching shouldexpand the range of students’ interest. A cultured man is aperson of varied interests and, if healthy interests are fosteredthey will enrich the personality. The normal adolescent isnaturally interested in many things and in the class-room, onthe playground during excursions and in their social and extra-curricular activities. The intelligent and wide awake teacherhas numerous opportunities to kindle new interest, to expandand strengthen existing ones and to satisfy their innate desireto touch life at many points. It is by exploring different avenuesof interests and activities that he can truly discover himself andbegin to specialize in due course. We would urge all schools toprovide in the time-table at least one free period every day inwhich students may pursue their favourite hobbies and creativeactivities individually or in groups, preferably under theguidance of some interested teacher. We need hardly add that


the group of students concerned-provided, of course, it is notorganised as a compulsory task imposed on the students fromabove but is envisaged as a creative activity initiated anddirected by them spontaneously and with zest.

There is another important principle which may be bornein mind by the teacher in planning his methods of teaching.It is not the amount of knowledge imparted or learnt in classthat matters but the efficiency and thoroughness with whichit is acquired by the students. With the great increase inknowledge that has taken place in every single field, it is quiteimpossible for a student-not only in the Secondary school buteven in the university-to acquire even one hundredth of themost essential knowledge in any particular field of studies. Anyattempt, therefore, at an encyclopaedic approach, howeverwatered down, is foredoomed to failure. The teacher mustconcentrate on two things-quickening of interest and trainingin efficient techniques of learning and study. If, through properpresentation and the realisation of the relationship betweenthe student’s life and what he is learning at school, his curiosityand interest have been aroused, he will always be able toacquire necessary knowledge, on the spur of felt need. in hislater life. On the other hand, the static, ready-made knowledge,which is forced on him, not only fails to irradiate his mind butis also quickly forgotten-as soon as it has been unburdened inthe Examination Hall !

The emphasis therefore shifts from the quantum ofknowledge to the right methods of acquiring it. For this purpose,it is essential that every student should be trained in the artof study. We consider this absolutely essential and wish tostress it in particular because, in a large majority of schools,no attempt is made to train students in this basic skill. It seemsto be presumed that any one who can read a book, in the senseof passing his eyes over words or pronouncing them with hislips, has studied it. This is an untenable presumption. Studyimplies several mental processes-interpretation of words intotheir appropriate meanings, the art of building up ideas andsifting the significant from unimportant details of illustrationor from incompetent “padding”.

approach is adopted, if there is imagination in planning workand freedom in its execution, the present bookish schools canbe transformed into “work schools” or “activity schools” andthey can become genuine centres of education for the wholepersonality of the child. This approach also postulates thatpractical and productive work should find a prominent andhonoured place in the school programme. We have alreadyprovided for it in the curriculum but what we are concernedwith here is the principle that the teaching methods in all.subjects should be inspired, as far as possible, with the spiritunderlying good craft work.

This implies that, in the teaching of every subjectopportunities should be afforded for pupils to apply practicallythe Knowledge that has been acquired by them. In Geographyit may take the form of drawing maps, making models,illustrations, organising excursions, keeping weather records,constructing in appropriate materials scenes from the life ofdifferent regions of the world etc. In History, in addition tothe preparation of suitable illustrations of the type mentionedabove, they may prepare and stage historical plays-making thecostumes, the stage effects, fixing the lights etc., themselves,or cooperatively study local history, or set up a small historymuseum and, in fact take up any projects that will bringhistory to life. In connection with the study of languages—particularly the mother-tongue-they may undertake to writesmall booklets on subjects of special interest to them.

The collection of material from relevant sources, its editing,its actual writing, the binding of the booklets attractively-willall from part of a joyous project. Illustrated charts about greatwriters may be prepared-containing their pictures short noteson their life and works and brief appropriate quotations inprose or poetry from their writings-or they may possibly attempttranslations of some easy books and articles in English withthe object of providing rich reading material for their fellowstudents in the Library. The school magazine is another projectwhich can become the nucleus not only of creative writing butof a number of academic and practical Activities which maywiden the interests and quicken the whole intellectual pace of


of different types of children, he can neither win their interestnor their active co-operation. The present practice ofmechanically applying the same methods to dull average, aswell as bright children is responsible for much of theineffectiveness of the instruction given in schools. If thesevarious groups of children are allowed to proceed at their ownappropriate pace and the method approach as well as thecurricular load are properly adjusted, it will be good for all ofthem-it will save the dull children from discouragement andthe bright children from a sense of frustration. We commendfor consideration in this connection a scheme that has beentried in schools in the United Kingdom. The curriculum isarranged in “three streams”, A, B and C.

For the dull children, the curriculum as well as the syllabusin each subject are simpler and lighter-that is the C stream-and include only the minimum essential subject-matter. If theycan complete that with thoroughness and efficiency they willgain more intellectually than if they were dragged behind thechariot wheels of their brighter colleagues. For the brightstudents the curriculum has richer content and, after theyhave completed the common basic contents, they can go on tostudy the additional subject-matter. We have not considered itnecessary to work out the curriculum or the syllabuses on theselines because it will have to be done by State Departments ofEducation and, to some extent, by each individual schoolaccording to circumstances. But we recommend that this ideaof adjusting the curriculum to students of varying ability shouldbe explored and, what is equally important, methods of teachingshould also be similarly adjusted. The brighter children will,for example, be able to respond better to methods involvinggreater freedom, initiative and individual responsibility thanthe dull or the average children who may require, at least inthe early stages, a greater measure of planning and guidanceby the teachers.

BALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WORKBALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WORKBALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WORKBALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WORKBALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WORKA wise teacher must however, balance the claims of

individual work with co-operative or group work. In actual lifeit is just as important to possess qualities of good tempered co-

These study skills cannot be acquired automatically buthave to be consciously practised. It is not necessary for us todiscuss the methods that should be adopted for this purposeand for assessing whether the students have acquired thehabits and capacities needed for intelligent study. But we dofeel that, with reference to every subject of curriculum, theteaching of appropriate methods of study must form animportant part of the school programme. One approach whichhas been successfully tried in some schools, is to organize, atthe beginning of the session, a “How to study week” in whichall the pupils concentrate on this problem are made consciousof it and are initiated into proper methods of study. But obviouslythis can only be useful if care is taken to see that the habits,skills and attitudes acquired during this intensive training areused throughout the year and if every teacher cooperates inthis project. One essential part of this programme must be atraining in the use of reference materials such as the list ofcontents and index in books, the dictionary, the atlas andreference books like the Encyclopaedia or the Book of Knowledge.

ADAPTATION OF METHODS TO SUIT DIFFERENTADAPTATION OF METHODS TO SUIT DIFFERENTADAPTATION OF METHODS TO SUIT DIFFERENTADAPTATION OF METHODS TO SUIT DIFFERENTADAPTATION OF METHODS TO SUIT DIFFERENTLEVELS OF INTELLIGENCELEVELS OF INTELLIGENCELEVELS OF INTELLIGENCELEVELS OF INTELLIGENCELEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE

Having stressed the value of activity methods, we shouldlike also to put in Pi plea for individualized work and instruction,in order to train the students in the habit of workingindependently. If students are trained to do so, it will discouragecramming and make it necessary for the teacher to cover theentire course or teach the whole book through formal orallessons. He could then concentrate on the essentials show theinter-connections of topics and arouse intelligent interest leavingsome parts of the course to be studied by the studentsindependently. There will always be certain types of assignmentin the school programme which can be best carried out on thebasis of individual activity. Such training is necessary not onlyto develop their capacity for independent work but also to adoptinstruction to individual differences, these differences are amost significant part of the psychological data with which theteacher has to deal and, if he fails to adopt his methods of workand presentation to the psychological needs and mental range


reducing the stress placed on textbooks and making increasinguse of the Library as repository of reference books, standardbooks and books of general interest. A textbook usually adoptsa specific approach conveying information and knowledge assystematically and briefly as possible. Such an approach hasits own advantages but it cannot provide adequate training forthe growing mind of the adolescent which often craves for awider and more challenging presentation and appreciatescontact with more creative minds that textbook writers aregenerally gifted with.

Moreover, the standard of interest and general knowledgeis so deplorably poor in Secondary schools-the examination“howlers” and the reports of Public Service Commissions are‘an irrefutable proof of the latter-that it has become a matterof the highest priority to promote the desire and the habit ofgeneral reading amongst our students. This means, in effect,the establishment of realy good libraries in schools and theprovision of an intelligent and effective Library Service. In fact,without it, many of the recommendations and proposals madein this chapter and elsewhere cannot possibly be implemented.Individual work, the pursuit of group projects, many academichobbies and co-curricular activities postulate the existence ofa good, efficiently functioning library. The library may well beregarded as an essential instrument for putting progressivemethods into practice. In view of its crucial importance, weconsider it necessary to devote some space to discussing howthe school library must be organized if it is to play its parteffectively in the improvement of Secondary education.

We should like to state at the out set that, in a largemajority of schools there are at present no libraries worth thename. The books are usually old, outdated, unsuitable, usuallyselected without reference to the students’ tastes and interests.They are stocked in a few book-shelves, which are housed inan inadequate and unattractive room. The person in charge isoften a clerk or an indifferent teacher who does this on a part-time basis and has neither a love for books nor knowledge oflibrary technique. Naturally, therefore, there is nothing likean imaginative and well-planned library service which could

operation, discipline and leadership as to have the capacity forpersonal initiative and independent work. The former qualitiesdevelop best in the context of well organised group work whichis not at present given its due place in our schools. The normalbasis of work in a large majority of schools is competition-competition for marks and grades and prizes. This has its useswithin limits but does not by any means provide the propertraining for the art of living in the community.

The genuine training of emotions, attitudes, and socialcapacities take place best in the context of projects and unitsof work undertaken co-operatively. It is the give-and-take ofshared experiences that brings out the quality of leadership,inculcates habits of disciplined work and takes the individualout of his potentially dangerous mental and emotional isolation.We recommend, therefore, that teachers should be so trainedthat they are able to visualise and organize at least a part ofthe curriculum in the form of projects and activity-units whichgroups of students may take up and carry to completion. Anotheradvantage of such projects would be that they will break throughthe academic isolation of the school and bring it into vitalrapport with the life and the activities of the surroundingcommunity. The chemistry of purification of water may blossominto the study of the municipal water system; the lesson inCivics may lead to a study of the working of the Local Boardor a campaign for the improvement of local sanitary conditions.In fact there are numerous resources in the life of everycommunity which can and should, be utilised for educationalpurposes. Such an approach will vitalise the school and alsohelp to improve the conditions obtaining in the community. Wewould like to refer in this connection to a significant educationalmovement that under way in the United States under the nameof learning by living the object of which is to link the schooland the community into a mutually enriching unity.

THE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN SCHOOLSTHE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN SCHOOLSTHE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN SCHOOLSTHE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN SCHOOLSTHE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN SCHOOLS

Need for a Proper Library ServiceNeed for a Proper Library ServiceNeed for a Proper Library ServiceNeed for a Proper Library ServiceNeed for a Proper Library ServiceWe have referred in an earlier part of the chapter to the

importance of cultivating the habits of general reading, of


now towards what they should be reading in due course. Libraryeducation postulates the gradual elevation of taste and refiningof appreciation but the teachers’ tact will lie in not forcing thembut in unobtrusively guiding them on the way. In this endeavour,his own example and contagious enthusiasm can prove verypotent allies.

The library being attractively arranged and adequatelysupplied with suitable books, the next important thing is anefficient service. In most schools, as we have pointed out, thereis no conception of such service. It would require the servicesof a highly qualified and trained librarian who would be on apar with other senior teachers in pay and status and we definitelyrecommend that there should be, in every Secondary school,a full-time librarian of this type. If his function is merely tomaintain a register of books, keep the library open at oddhours and occasionally issue books to a few students, therewould obviously be no need for a full-time and highly qualifiedlibrarian. But if the library is to be the hub of the academicand intellectual life of the school, if it is not only to meet butguide the reading interests of students, if it is to work as acentre of free and supervised study as well as group. work onprojects undertaken by them-if it is to do all these things, thelibrarian will surely have all his work cut out.

He will also be responsible for giving due publicity to goodbooks old and new, available in the library-preparing andcirculating book lists suitable for different grades, displayingblurbs and cuttings of book reviews on the notice board,arranging book exhibitions, perhaps conducting a group readingproject when a few students of similar interests may cometogether to read aloud poems, or stories or dramas. Above allhe will be available for consultation in the selection of suitablebooks for general reading or references needed for individualor group projects, that they have to work out as part of theircurricular or co-curricular work. It will, of course, be necessaryfor him to have the assistance of all his colleagues in this work-and if in the Training colleges some of them can be given a brieforientation and training in library work, it will be a greatadvantage-but he will have to act as the pivot and the inspiration

inspire students to read and cultivate in them a sincere loveof books. What makes this situation particularly difficult is thefact that most teachers and headmasters and even theeducational administrators and authorities do not realize howunsatisfactory this position is and, therefore, they have nosense of urgently in matter. It is, necessary, therefore, to givesome idea of the Library as we conceive it.

In the first place, the library must be made the mostattractive place in the school so that students will be naturallydrawn to it. It should be housed in a spacious, well-lit hall (orroom), with the walls suitably coloured and the rooms decoratedwith flowers and artistically framed pictures and prints offamous paintings. The furniture-bookshelves, tables, chairs,reading desks-should be carefully designed with an eye toartistic effect as well as functional efficiency. As far as possible,the open shelf system should be introduced so that studentsmay have free access to books, may learn to handle them andbrowse on them at their leisure. In decorating the library, thefull co-operation of the students should be obtained in order togive them the feeling that it is their own library.

Secondly, the success of the library depends largely on theproper selection of books, journals and periodicals. This shouldbe the function of a small committee of teachers who have agenuine love for books, can study book reviews, consultcatalogues and visit book shops, if possible. It would be usefulif the same committee could be entrusted with the work ofstudying children’s reading interests. Both in this work as wellas in the choosing of books, some senior students who areinterested in reading should be associated. They are, after all,the consumers and their co-operation is likely to be veryenlightening. The guiding principle in selection should be notthe teachers own idea of what books the students must readbut their natural and psychological interests. If they feel moreattracted, at a particular age, to stories of adventure or travelor biographies or even detection and crime, there is nojustification for forcing them to read poetry or classics or belle-letters. Of course, the teacher’s skill and teaching efficiencywill consist in his being able to direct what they are reading


in all its bearings. Nothing can be more inspiring than contactwith a teacher who loves his own subject and who can presentit in its proper prospective.

It is necessary for the headmasters and the teachers tokeep their fingers, as it were, on the pulse of their students’general reading. At present, this is far from being the case andtherefore-with the exception of the brightest students who mayassume the initiative in consulting teachers about their reading-they do not receive any individual guidance in this behalf. Mostteachers, in fact, have no idea of what a majority of studentsare reading or whether they are reading at all ! This points tothe need of maintaining proper records that can be easily andquickly scrutinized. We should like to make tworecommendations in this connection. Where ordinary issueregisters-rather than issue cards-are maintained, each studentmust be allotted a few pages of the register in which all booksstudied by him are entered date-wise so that the class teachersand the headmaster may see at a glance what each individualhas been reading and give him necessary advice andencouragement. Secondly, each student should be required tomaintain a diary in which he may enter-date-wise, the namesof all the books (with the names of the authors) which he hasread, together with brief quotations or extracts that mayappeal to him. Perhaps at a later stage, he may write shortreviews or appreciations of those books. Such a diary,maintained throughout the school years, will provide afascinating map of his intellectual development and literarygrowth which will not only be of value to him here and nowbut may be of interest even in later life.

Vacation Library and the School and the CommunityVacation Library and the School and the CommunityVacation Library and the School and the CommunityVacation Library and the School and the CommunityVacation Library and the School and the CommunityWe would like to make certain general suggestions in order

to strengthen library facilities and to secure the maximum useof those that exist. In all public libraries there should be asection specially meant for children and adolescents which maysupplement the resources of the local school libraries. Secondly,steps should be taken to keep the school library open duringthe vacation and long holidays for the benefit of the studentsas well as the local community, if possible. In places where

of this intellectual and literary ferment. In this connection, itis recommended that such of those teachers as have not hadany training in library work during the period of study inTraining colleges should be given opportunities for attendingsummer courses in librarianship for periods ranging from 4 to8 weeks.

We have recommended that every Secondary school shouldhave a central library under a trained librarian. School buildingsbeing what they are, it will be sometime before provision couldbe made in every school for a big reading room and its adjuncts.Similarly it will take time to provide each school with a qualifiedand trained librarian. Hence our recommendation for trainingsome teachers in the management of school libraries as a partof their training course. These partially trained teacher-librarians will, working in cooperation gradually build up thecentral library and organise the library service, while in themeantime, working the class libraries. The class library is animportant and essential adjunct to the central school library.It is easily organised and in the hands of a teacher of imaginationit can do within its own limitations as much good work as thecentral library. The important point about the class library isto change and replenish its stocks at frequent intervals so thateven within the four walls of a classroom the children have awide variety of intellectual fare spread before them. A wiseclass teacher can use the class library effectively to developcorrect reading habits and for various other educative purposes.In a way he is in a position of advantage as compared withother teachers and if he himself loves books he is sure to infecthis children with his own love and enthusiasm.

Subject LibrariesSubject LibrariesSubject LibrariesSubject LibrariesSubject LibrariesBesides the class library in every High school there should

be subject libraries in charge of subject teachers. Competentsubject teachers can enrich their teaching greatly with the helpof small collection of books on their own subjects. These shouldnot be confined to textbooks only. Advanced works, referencebooks, books on related subjects and allied fields, all thesewill find a place in that collection, so that handling them andbrowsing over them students get a wide view of the subjects


We have advocated in the preceding paragraphs severalnew approaches to methods of teaching and described the parta well-organized library can play in facilitating theirimplementation. But in the evidence and the memoranda thatwere tendered to us, it was repeatedly affirmed that it is verydifficult to apply such progressive methods in schools. Obviously,if these ideas and suggestions are not translated into terms ofcurriculum and methods and the difficulties that stand in theway are not removed, Secondary education will make noheadway. Some of ‘these difficulties have to do with the generalsense of frustration that unfortunately prevails amongstteachers. There is no enthusiasm, no creative urge to initiateand educational renaissance. We hope, however, that soonafter the publication of this Report the Central and the StateGovernments will undertake to organize-for the discussion ofall these problems-country-wide seminars, discussion groupsand refresher courses for headmasters and teachers, conductedby educationists with vision. This will help to reorient theteachers’ minds and their way of thinking and create a new andbracing climate of opinion. If the improvement in the terms andconditions of service and the general social status of teachersthat we have recommended elsewhere is brought about and asense of contentment is created, we have no doubt that, asa result of these conferences, etc., the present feeling offrustration will disappear and the biggest hurdle in the wayof educational reconstruction will be removed.

Role of the State in Preparing LiteratureRole of the State in Preparing LiteratureRole of the State in Preparing LiteratureRole of the State in Preparing LiteratureRole of the State in Preparing LiteratureAnother measure which will be very helpful in this

connection is a systematic attempt on the part of all EducationDepartments, to prepare suitable literature, suggestiveprogrammes, teaching aids, etc., for the guidance of teachers.At present they lack definite guidance. It is not provided bythe stereotyped notes of Inspecting Officers, which can neitherinspire creative thinking, nor stimulate new methods of work.The production of such material requires that there should bea small “educational wing” attached either to the office of theDirector of Education or to one of the Post-Graduate Trainingcolleges, which will devote itself exclusively to the study of

there is no public library, the school should also consider thepossibility of throwing the school library open to the publicoutside school hours. This may involve some extra expenditurebut it would be eminently worthwhile because it will draw theschool and the community into the kind of partnership that wehave advocated in this Report. We are also of the view that,in States where a library cess is levied, the proceeds shouldalso be utilised to strengthen and improve school libraries. Insmaller places it may be more economical to build up the schoollibrary in such a way that it may also serve the function of aPublic Library for the locality, thus avoiding the duplicationof buildings and furniture, and to some extent, of staff.

In some cities we understand that during the vacationbooks of interest to suit different grades of students are collectedfrom various school libraries and are placed in a central locality,the students being encouraged to visit such improvised librariesand to study whatever books they may be interested in. Thisis an interesting experiment that may be tried in large cities.

NEED FOR SUITABLE LITERATURENEED FOR SUITABLE LITERATURENEED FOR SUITABLE LITERATURENEED FOR SUITABLE LITERATURENEED FOR SUITABLE LITERATUREWe may, in passing, make a reference here to the associated

problem of the production of suitable books for children andadolescents. At present there is a great paucity of such booksin practically all Indian languages and unless the Centre andthe State Governments take well thought-out measures-toencourage the production of suitable books for general reading,the objective in view cannot be realized-books suitable not onlyfrom the point of view of contents but also of printing, bindingand illustrations. This may be done by giving financial assistanceto qualified and well-established organizations engaged in theproduction of such books, by offering prizes to the best bookspublished and by arranging translations of good children’sbooks available in English or published in various regionallanguages. We believe that, if school libraries are better financedand are able to buy a larger number of books and if a love ofreading is created in the students and eventually in adults withthe. increased purchase of books, the law of demand andsupply will come into play and more and better books will bepublished.


an improved syllabus and methods of teaching and discipline,they might, in due course, help to leave the whole educationalsystem.

The Education Departments may also perhaps explore thepossibility of short-term exchange of really gifted teachers fromone school to another-particularly of teachers drawn from suchprogressive schools who may be sent to other institutions. Sofar as the system of examination is concerned, we have maderecommendations elsewhere which are calculated to minimizeits dead-weight and to secure greater freedom for teachers.

We recommend that such experimental schools as are inexistence or which may be established in future should receivedue encouragement at the hands of the State and CentralGovernments.

MUSEUMS AND OTHER AIDS TO EDUCATIONMUSEUMS AND OTHER AIDS TO EDUCATIONMUSEUMS AND OTHER AIDS TO EDUCATIONMUSEUMS AND OTHER AIDS TO EDUCATIONMUSEUMS AND OTHER AIDS TO EDUCATION

MuseumsMuseumsMuseumsMuseumsMuseumsMuseums play a great part in the education of school

children as they bring home to them much more vividly thanany prosaic lectures the discoveries of the past and variousdevelopments that have taken place in many fields of Scienceand Technology.

We have seen the great value that museums play in othercountries and the great importance that is attached to visitsby school children at periodical intervals to these museums.They can also supply a background of information in regard tohistory, art and other fields of learning.

At present there are (within our knowledge) no museumsin India. of the type that exist in some of the European andAmerican cities. We believe it is necessary from the educationalpoint of view to establish such museums in important centresat least, wherein both ancient and modern collections will beexhibited and in some cases even demonstrations given of theactual process of development of various scientific discoveries.

Nothing can impress the students in the formative age somuch as the actual visualising of these experiments in graphicmanner. We have seen exhibitions conducted in various

educational issues and problems, with special reference to theteachers’ practical difficulties, and produce pamphlets,brochures, accounts of new educational experiments andmovements for their use.

These should be so written that they will keep theirknowledge up-to-date, introduce them to good books, inspirethem to try new and better methods of teaching and give themdetailed and practical suggestions for the purpose. Thedepartment should also see to it that every Secondary schoolhas a small but select library of educational books and periodicalsfor the teachers’ use.

EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLSEXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLSEXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLSEXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLSEXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLSSometimes even good teachers, with ideas and a: sense of

duty, are unable to put progressive educational methods intopractice. Where this is not due to the uncongenial schoolatmosphere the reason may be either that the teachers havenot been adequately trained in and given practicaldemonstration and observation of such methods or the pressureand dread of examination may be cramping their efforts.

So far as the first reason is concerned it is a fact that eventhe demonstration schools attached to Training colleges oftenfail to put, into practice the ideas and theories advocated bythe college professors.

So the teachers come out of these institutions with rathervague ideas about things like ‘activity methods’, ‘free work’ andgroup projects etc., but they have never seen them at work.This difficulty can only be overcome if good demonstration andexperimental schools are established and given all the necessaryfacilities, material and psychological, to develop better methodsof teaching.

We should like to commend in this connection a newexperiment undertaken in one of the States whereby a certainnumber of selected schools have been released from the usualdepartmental regulations about curricula, methods andtextbooks and given the freedom to work on new experimentallines. If a few progressive schools are established in everyState, where experienced teachers would be free to work out


with the psychology of the young mind. It should not be treatedas a routine duty which can be discharged by any teacher inthe area.

Care must be taken to see that an expert panel ofheadmasters and teachers is constituted to decide on (a) thesubject to be dealt with, (b) the manner in which it ought tobe dealt with, and (c) persons competent to give such a talk.If school broadcasts are to be conducted on these lines, theywill form a very efficient supplement to education.

We venture to hope that the adoption of the varioussuggestions that have been made as well as the practicalmeasures that have been recommended will break through thevicious circle which holds our schools in its thrall and releaseforces which will eventually transform the educational system.


1. The methods of teaching in schools should aim notmerely at the imparting of knowledge in an efficientmanner, but also at inculcating desirable values andproper attitudes and habits of work in the students.

2. They should, in particular, endeavour to create in thestudents a genuine attachment to work and a desire todo it as efficiently, honestly and thoroughly as possible.

3. The emphasis in teaching should shift from verbalismand memorization to learning through purposeful,concrete and realistic situations and, for this purpose,the principle of “Activity Methods” and “Project Method”should be assimilated in school practice.

4. Teaching methods should provide opportunities forstudents to learn actively and to apply practically theknowledge that they have acquired in the classroom.“Expression Work” of different kinds must, therefore,form part of the programme in every school subject.

5. In the teaching of all subjects special stress should beplaced on clear thinking and clear expression both inspeech and writing.

museusms from time to time and have been greatly impressedwith their educational value. It will serve also to educate thepublic at large and to give them a realistic approach to scientificinvestigations and scientific discoveries.

It will not be difficult for every State to concentrate on onesuch prominent Museum at least. While on this subject we mayalso refer to the desirability of providing small museums in theschools themselves. It may even be possible to have a morecomprehensive set-up in the museum of a particular town towhich all the schools can contribute and thus make it muchmore attractive to school children and to the public. We. feelthat assistance from the Centre and the States should beforthcoming for the starting of such museums.

Audio-Visual Aids—Films and RadioAudio-Visual Aids—Films and RadioAudio-Visual Aids—Films and RadioAudio-Visual Aids—Films and RadioAudio-Visual Aids—Films and RadioIt is hardly necessary to emphasise the role that audio-

visual aids, films and radio talks, can play in the liberalisingof the education of the school children. In some States theyhave been developed to such an extent that most of the schoolsare able to obtain from the Department of Public Instructionthe audio-visual aids and films and to correlate them with theparticular subjects that are being taught.

The students thus get not merely theoretical instructionbut through these aids a graphic presentation of the subject.We recommend that a central library of educational films shouldbe available in each State and that films of great value be sentfrom the Central Government to the States periodically. Werecommeded also that educational films suited to Indianconditions should be taken and made available to schools.

As regards the radio, we are glad to learn that throughthe All-India Radio, arrangements have been made for schoolbroadcasts. It is hardly necessary for us to emphasise that suchbroadcasts should be by well-qualified persons and should createan interest in the subject so that the boy’s curiosity can beroused to learn more about the subject.

Nothing is calculated to produce in the child an aversionfor such broadcasts as the monotonous and none too graphicdescription that sometimes is given by persons not quite familiar


13. Suitable literature for the guidance and inspiration ofteachers should be produced by the EducationDepartments of all States and either the Officeof the Director of Education or one of theTraining colleges should be adequately equipped for thepurpose.

14. In order to popularize progressive teaching methodsand facilitate their introduction “Experimental”and “Demonstration” schools should be establishedand given special encouragement where they exist.,so that they may try out new methods freelywithout being fettered by too many departmentalrestrictions.

6. Teaching methods should aim less at imparting themaximum quantum of knowledge possible and more ontraining students in the techniques of study and methodsof acquiring knowledge through personal efforts andinitiative.

7. A well-thought out attempt should be made to adoptmethods of instruction to the needs of individual studentsas much as possible so that dull, average and brightstudents may all have a chance to progress at their ownpace.

8. Students should be given adequate opportunity to workin groups and to carry out group projects and activitiesso as to develop in them the qualities necessary forgroup life and cooperative work.

9. As the proper use of a well-equipped school library isabsolutely essential for the efficient working of everyeducational institution and for encouraging literaryand cultural interests in students, everySecondary school should have such a library; classlibraries and subject libraries should also be utilized forthis purpose.

10. Trained librarians, who have a love for books and anunderstanding of students’ interests, should be providedin all Secondary schools and all teachers should begiven some training in the basic principles of librarywork, in the Training colleges as well as throughrefresher courses.

11. Where there are no separate Public Libraries the schoollibraries should, so far as possible, make their facilitiesavailable to the local public and all Public Librariesshould have a special section for children andadolescents.

12. In order to improve general standards of work in schoolnecessary steps should be taken to produce textbooksas well as books of general reading which are of distinctlysuperior quality to the books at present available.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education The Education of CharacterThe Education of CharacterThe Education of CharacterThe Education of CharacterThe Education of Character180180180180180 181181181181181

impinge purposefully on the. character of their students but itis meant to bring out the complexities and the magnitude ofthe problem. A radical and comprehensive approach to it cannotbe confined to the school but must take the whole situation intoaccount. There is no doubt that the beginning must be madein the schools and these cannot be content merely with reflectingoutside trends; they must provide a selective environment inwhich children may be able to transcend, to some extent,limitations of their home and neighbourhood.

In the great debate that has been going on for decadesbetween those who hold that education must only seek toadjust the individual to his environment and those who thinkthat it should be an agency for the “superior reconstruction”of the environment and its pattern of life, we are definitelyon the side of the dynamic and creative view of education. Weare convinced that it is the business of the school to trainindividuals who will not only be duly appreciative of theirculture and the good qualities of national character and nationaltraditions but will also be able to analyse and evaluate itcritically, to eschew whatever is weak or reactionary and todevelop the qualities of character and intellect needed for thepurpose. Our school teachers can be in fused with a high senseof their destiny only when they are made to realize that theyare engaged in the making of better human beings and a bettersocial order and not merely, teaching a dull, prescribed syllabus.

Secondly-and this follows a natural corollary from what wehave said above-in this education of character, the school hasto win the active cooperation of the parents and the communityin general. If the various educative agencies-the home, theschool, the neighbour-hood, the community, the religiousorganizations and the State-have no common outlook and agreedideas about this problem but pull in different directions, theschool will not be able to make an abiding and coherentimpression on the character of its students. After all, theyspend only one-fourth or one-fifth part of the day in school andthe rest of their time is passed in direct or indirect contact withthese other agencies, which can easily undo the good work ofthe school. For, it is essentially the whole of the community

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TTTTTHEHEHEHEHE E E E E EDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATION OFOFOFOFOF C C C C CHARACTERHARACTERHARACTERHARACTERHARACTER

THE BASIC PRINCIPLESTHE BASIC PRINCIPLESTHE BASIC PRINCIPLESTHE BASIC PRINCIPLESTHE BASIC PRINCIPLESIn dealing with the aims and objectives of education, we

have made it clear that the supreme end of the educativeprocess should be the training of the character and personalityof students in such a way that they will be able to realize theirfull potentialities and contribute to the well-being of thecommunity. One of the main criticism against modern educationis that, by concentrating too much on examinations, enoughattention is not devoted to activities that promote the formationof character and inculcate ideals which make for personalintegrity and social efficiency. We propose, therefore, to devotespecial attention to some of the problems which arise in thisfield to discuss the basic principles which should underlie ourapproach and to suggest what the schools can do to deal withthem.

NEED FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL ANDNEED FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL ANDNEED FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL ANDNEED FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL ANDNEED FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL ANDCOMMUNITYCOMMUNITYCOMMUNITYCOMMUNITYCOMMUNITY

We should, in the first place, take due note of the fact thatthe school is a small community within a larger community andthat the attitudes, values and modes of behaviour-good or bad-which have currency in national life are bound to be reflectedin the schools. When we complain of indiscipline or lack ofearnestness or slipshod methods of work or failure to appreciatethe dignity of labour in the students, we should not forget thatthese may be due largely to defects in the community. This doesnot imply that we can condone this failure of the schools to


It is possible to organize school work in such a way and tobuild up such traditions that the students will do everythingthey undertake with efficiency, integrity, discipline cooperationand good temper. It is also possible for teachers and studentsalike to do their work in a haphazard, slipshod manner, withoutany discipline or social sense. We recommend that theHeadmaster and staff should discuss this crucial problemamongst themselves: and Plan their work in such a way, thatthe qualities of character and mind, that they wish to inculcateare reflected in everything that they do-the compositions theyWrite, the speeches they make in the debating society, thePictures they paint, the maps they draw, the social activitiesthey organize, the craft work they undertake. This wouldrequire the setting before them of high standards of work andconduct-both personal and impersonal-and creating the desireto approximate to those standards. It would also call for therejection of any work-and deprecation of any form of behaviours-that falls below the standard that may be expected from theparticular student concerned. If all school work and activitiesare made psychologically interesting and exacting-in the senseof challenging the full powers of the adolescents-and if they aretrained to take them up in the right spirit, the most congenialconditions will be created for the right training of character.

STUDIES AND CHARACTER FORMATIONSTUDIES AND CHARACTER FORMATIONSTUDIES AND CHARACTER FORMATIONSTUDIES AND CHARACTER FORMATIONSTUDIES AND CHARACTER FORMATIONWhile we recognize the basic importance of work in this

context, we should not undervalue the part that the, properpresentation of the curriculum and the reading of great bookscan play in this behalf. Teachers can present all school subjects-particularly the social studies-in such a way that the studentsmay develop a right outlook on the world in which they areliving and acquire a proper appreciation of the nature of humanrelationship-individual as well as group relationships. Historyand Geography can both, in their way, show the mutualinterdependence of nations and groups and, together withscience, they can demonstrate how all great humanachievements have been made possible through the silent,often unrecognized, work of numerous individuals and groupsbelonging to all parts of the world. They can also make their

and not merely the school that educates. This implies theestablishment of that active association between parents andteachers to which we have referred elsewhere. This should notbe limited to rare and special occasions and to the sharing ofmutual complaints and grievances but should result in a betterunderstanding between them and in reconciling their ideas andvalues so that, as far as possible, the same kind of motives,methods and impulses may play on the formation of the students’character at home as in the school.

This association should, however, go further and draw intoits train not only the parents of the students on the rolls butalso other influential and worthy members of the communityand leaders or various educative agencies who should be affordedopportunities of coming into contact both with teachers andchildren, of talking to them and discussing problems of commoninterest with them. In this way the staff of the school cantactfully help in building up a pattern of influences and activitiesin the life of the community which will cooperate with theschool in moulding the students’ character on right lines.

Thirdly, it must be remembered that the education ofcharacter is not something which can be relegated to a particularperiod or a particular teacher or the influence of a particularset of activities. It is a project in which every single teacherand every item of the school programme has to participateintelligently.

This is a truth which most teachers would readily concedein theory. Some are apt to believe that it is the special themeof religious and moral instructions or the special object of teamgames and certain extra-curricular activities and has little, ifanything, to do with the day-to-day and the hour-to-hour workof the school. We should like to emphasize, as strongly as wecan, the basic principle that ‘character is forged on the anvilof action’-of every kind of action, academic, social manual ormoral-and the way in which the student performs his manifoldduties in school or at home leaves an indelible impression onhim. We would like to remind our teachers of Carlyle’s carpenterwho “broke all the ten commandments with every single strokeof his hammer !”.


INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ONINFLUENCE OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ONINFLUENCE OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ONINFLUENCE OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ONINFLUENCE OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ONDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINE

Indiscipline may take the shape of group indiscipline orindividual indiscipline. Group indiscipline is the worst of thetwo. While as individuals Many of our students are as good asstudents anywhere, the tendency to group indiscipline hasincreased in recent years. Many causes have led to this groupindiscipline. Incidents of indiscipline reported from elsewherehave their demoralising effect on students. For various reasonsunder a foreign regime, acts of indiscipline became frequent,often necessitated by the political activities which were launchedagainst a foreign government. While there may have beenjustification for such discipline under different practicalcircumstances, we feet that there is no Justification for suchacts of indiscipline after the attainment of independence. Thedemocratic constitution which the country has adopted permitsof the redressing of grievances through a democratic machinery.It would be against all principles of democracy in fact it wouldbe against the very trend and safety of democracy, if such actsof indiscipline were to continue.

Factors Promoting DisciplineFactors Promoting DisciplineFactors Promoting DisciplineFactors Promoting DisciplineFactors Promoting DisciplineThe real purpose of education is to train youth to discharge

the duties of citizenship properly. All other objectives areincidental. Discipline therefore should be a responsibility ofparents, teachers, the general public and the authoritiesconcerned. There are some positive factors Promoting discipline.The Indian students’ natural tendency is to be disciplined. Itis only when forces act strongly on him that he may sometimesbe led astray. He appreciates the rules and is normally inclinedto abide by them. Much can be done to encourage this trendin school life. Personal contact between the teacher and thepupil is essential and it is from this point of view that wemaintain that there should be some limit in the number ofpupil admitted into different sections of a class and to the wholeschool. Reference has been made to this aspect in anotherplace.

Emphasis is also to be laid on the role of the class teacherand the headmaster in promoting general discipline and the

pupils realize how these great achievements call for highstandards of efficiency and integrity Which are the basis ofgood character.

Similarly, ; an imaginative and sympathetic study ofliterature-not just textbooks but great books and great author-scan inculcate noble ideals and values. By encouraging thehabit. of reading and by gradually raising the standards oftaste and appreciation, the school can mobilize a powerful andbeneficial influence which Will continue to exercise its waythroughout their life.

It is in the context of these general principles that we haveto visualise the problem of character education And this hasto be visualized not in a social vaccum but with reference toour contemporary socio-economic and political situation. Whilethe base ideals and values of good character may be regardedas permanent, they have to be interpreted and applied in thespecial circumstances of our national life.

We have already discussed, at some length in the Chapteron the Aims and Objectives of Education, the type of mind andcharacter that must be developed in our youth, if they are toparticipate effectively and worthily in the expanding life oftheir country.

It is not necessary for us therefore to recapitulate thatdiscussion and we can well confine ourselves to pointing outcertain special issues that must be considered by all educationistsand to suggesting how they can be successfully tackled. Wepropose to draw special attention to three of these issues-theproblem of discipline, the question of moral and religiousinstruction and the part that the various extra and co-curricularactivities can play in this field.

DISCIPLINEDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINEDISCIPLINENo amount of improvement and reconstruction in education

will bear much fruit if the schools themselves are underminedby indiscipline. It is clear from much of the evidence we receivedthat students and teachers alike need more of spirit of discipline.If proper education is to be given, acts of indiscipline prevalentin schools have to be checked.


discipline among students. We think it unfortunate that suchtrends are on the increase. If therefore some of the unhealthytrends of political life are to be avoided in school life, a seriousattempt should be made to see that children under the age of17, who are in schools are not drawn into the vortex ofcontroversial politics and are not utilised for election purposes.The suggestion has been put forward that it should be consideredan election offence for any member or party to utilise theservices of these pupils in political or civic campaigns.

It may be difficult to prove which party has utilised students,but this should not be beyond the power of an election tribunalto tackle. We therefore recommend that suitable legislationshould be passed making it an election offence to utilize studentsbelow the age of 17 for any of the purposes of political propagandaor election campaign.

There is another aspect of the question which we would liketo mention. It is good that some of our politicians address ourstudents. It has an educational value and we should like toencourage this practice of addressing gathering of students inschools. In actual practice this has led to certain anomalies inthe publicity given by the Press to such meetings. Persons whoaddress these gatherings have different audiences in mind andspeak not infrequently in a different strain from what is desirableor necessary at school gatherings. We do not wish to generaliseon this point, because there are many honourable exceptions,but the tendency in view of the publicity given is to speak notto the audience before them, but to a wider audience whoseattention they wish to attract. This is not a healthy trend forschool education and discipline.

Role of TeachersRole of TeachersRole of TeachersRole of TeachersRole of TeachersLastly discipline among students can only be promoted if

there is discipline among the staff. Both within the school andin organizations connected with the teaching profession, theteacher has always to realise that all his activities are beingwatched by his pupils. To that extent therefore, both in hispersonal conduct and in his general attitude to all problemsconcerning the country, he has to realise that there are

welfare of the pupils. In regard to school life itself a greaterresponsibility should develop upon the students themselves inthe maintenance of discipline. Nothing is more calculated todevelop a proper sense of self-discipline, and proper behaviourthan their enforcement not by any outside authority with anysymbol of punishment but by the students themselves. Theyshould choose their own representatives to see to it that propercodes of conduct are observed both for the sake of the individualsand for the good name of the school. It is from this point of viewthat we commend what is known as the house system in schools,with prefects or monitors or student councils, whoseresponsibility it will be to draw up a code of conduct and toenforce its observance in the school.

Another important method of bringing home to the pupilsthe value of discipline is through group games. It is on theplaying fields the virtue of playing the game for its own sakeand the team spirit can be cultivated. Such extra-curricularactivities as boy scouts and girl guides, the National CadetCorps, Junior Red Cross and social service activities willpromote a proper spirit of discipline. The building up of a trulyharmonious and united form of community.life in the schoolshould be the endeavour of all institutions.

Besides these positive factors, certain negative factors alsopro-mote discipline. The discipline of the youth of any countrydepends upon the discipline that is exercised by elders. In someparts of the country on occassions, certain activities of leadershave not been such as are calculated to promote a healthy spiritof discipline in the younger generation. School authorities arenot always to blame for indiscipline in the schools. We havebeen given to understand that, at the time of elections whetherto the legislatures or to some civic bodies, those who aspirefor such places do not hesitate to utilise the students for thefurtherance of their objective namely, the winning of theelection. It is a well-known fact that in all democraticinstitutions, election time is a time of feverish activity notalways conducted in the most healthy spirit, and the utilizationof immature mind for purposes of campaigns with or withoutslogans attached thereto is not calculated to promote sound


conducted by denominational agencies, where religiouseducation is given. There is, however, a clause, which is beingincreasingly put into effect that no person who does not belongto a, particular religion can be compelled to attend religiousinstruction. We are given to understand that in most of suchschools it is now the rule rather than the exception that religiousinstruction is confined only to those of the particular faith. Insome of these schools what is known as moral instruction isgiven to such of those pupils who do not attend religiousinstruction. Whether religious instruction or moral instructionis given, the benefit of such instruction will be derived not fromits being treated more or less on the lines of classroom instructionbut from the spirit of the school and the influence exercised bythe teachers. Healthy trends in regard to religious or moralbehaviour spring from three sources:

(1) The influence of the home which is the dominant factor;

(2) The influence of the school through the conduct andbehaviour of the teachers themselves and life in theschool community as a whole.

(3) Influences exercised by the public of the locality and theextent to which public opinion prevails in all matterspertaining to religious or moral codes of conduct. Noamount of instruction can supersede or supplant thesethree essential factors. We, however, feel that suchinstruction can be supplemented, to a limited extentby properly organised instruction given in the schools.One of the methods adopted in some schools is to holdan assembly at the commencement of the day’s sessionwith all teachers and pupils present when a generalnondenominational prayer is offered. Moral instructionin the sense of inspiring talks given by suitable personsselected by the headmaster and dwelling on the livesof great personages of all times and of all climes willhelp to drive home the lessons of morality. In view ofthe provision of the Constitution of the Secular State,religious instruction cannot be given in schools excepton a voluntary basis and outside the regular schoolhours; such instruction should be given to the children

limitations within which he must act for the best interests ofthe profession. We welcome the opportunity afforded in ourconstitution for the teaching profession to be represented in thelegislatures of the country. To whatever group or party he maybelong, it is necessary for him to adhere to the principlesMentioned above.

Instances have been brought to our notice where schoolmanagers or members of Managing Boards have not refrainedfrom utilising their position to influence teachers and pupilsto participate in political or other electioneering activities. Therecommendation that we made that the utilization of pupilsshould be considered an election offence will probably go a longway to inhibit this increasing tendency. Ultimately, however,it is the school atmosphere and the teacher working there thatensure proper codes of conduct and discipline in the schools.

RELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTIONRELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTIONRELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTIONRELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTIONRELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTIONReligious and moral instruction also play an important

part in the growth of character. At different places which theCommission visited, a good deal of emphasis was. laid on thisaspect of education.

There is little doubt that the whole purpose of educationis not fulfilled unless certain definite normal principles areinculcated in the minds of the youth of the country. The necessityfor religious education has also been emphasised by some,while others are not in favour of religious instruction, in viewof the diverse forms of religions practised in our country, andthe positive decision in the Constitution that the State will bea Secular State. This does not imply that because the State issecular there is no place for religion in the State. All that isunderstood is that the State as such should not undertake touphold actively, assist, or in any way to set seal of approvalon any particular religion. It must be left to the people topractise whatever religion they feel is in conformity with theirinclinations, traditions, culture and hereditary influence.

Against this background we have considered this questionvery carefully. The present position with regard to religiouseducation is that there are certain schools, particularly those


and learn self-reliance through the daily life and activities ofthe camps. The All India Scout Camp at Taradevi, Simla Hills,is a very good example of the kind of thing we have in mind.We recommend that the State should give adequate financialassistance to the scout movements and should help to securesuitable sites for scout camps. Scouting and Guiding requireproper guidance and, for this purpose, it is desirable that someof the teachers should be trained in organising scout groupsand supervising their activities. In this connection we may alsorefer to the need to open summer camps and holiday homesfor school students in general. Such camps, too, can help tomould character by making pupils self-reliant and by enablingthem to recognise the dignity of labour and the value of groupwork as well as healthy community rife. All schools should, asfar as possible, afford an opportunity of groups of their studentsto spend a few days in such camps every year.

National Cadet CorpsNational Cadet CorpsNational Cadet CorpsNational Cadet CorpsNational Cadet CorpsDuring the last few years, the Government of India has

instituted the junior division of the National Cadet Corps whichis open to pupils of all Schools. The officers are drawn largelyfrom the teaching profession. This has the advantage of bringingteachers and pupils into closer contact in the training camps.Through the N. C. C. certain physical and other activities ofa quasi-military nature are taught to the pupils. We have notedwith pleasure the keen interest taken by them in this trainingand the general demand for its expansion. Owing to financialdifficulties, however, many of the State Governments havenot been able to meet this demand, so that a large numberof schools are left without National Cadet Corps. To ensure itsproper Organisation, efficiency and development it is necessaryto centralize its working. The present variations in regard toequipment, dress, parades and some of the other necessaryamenities require that this important Organisation should bea central responsibility. Moreover, the recruitment and thetraining for the N. C. C. should receive greater attention fromthe Defence Department. We recommend, therefore, that theN. C. C. should be brought under the Government of Indiawhich should have the responsibility for its proper maintenance,

of the particular faith and with the consent of the parentsand the management concerned. In making thisrecommendation we wish to emphasise that allunhealthy trends of disunity, rancour religious hatredand bigotry should be discouraged in schools.

EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIESEXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIESEXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIESEXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIESEXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIESElsewhere we have referred to the place and importance

of what are called “extra-curricular” or “co-curricular” activities.We would like to draw pointed attention here to their significancefor the education of character. They are as integral part of theactivities of a school as its curricular work and their properOrganisation needs just as much care and fore-thought. Suchactivities will naturally vary, within limits, from school toschool depending upon its location, its resources and theinterests and aptitudes of the staff and students. If they areproperly conducted, they can help in the development of veryvaluable attitudes and qualities. We proposes to refer herebriefly to some of these activities from the point of view of theirincidence on character.

Scout and Guide ActivitiesScout and Guide ActivitiesScout and Guide ActivitiesScout and Guide ActivitiesScout and Guide ActivitiesThe Scout and Guide movement has taken deep root in

India and the new Organisation, the Bharat Scout and Guides,has many branches in all the States. Scouting is one of the mosteffective means for the training of character and the qualitiesnecessary for good citizenship. It has the great merit that itappeals to pupils of all ages and taps their mani-fold energies.Through its various games, activities and technical skills, itis possible to lay the foundation of the ideals of social service,good behaviour respect for leaders, loyalty to the State anda preparedness to meet any situation. The Commission hasnoted with pleasure the keen interest that is being taken inthis movement in some of the States and is of the opinion thatit should receive the fullest encouragement from all StateGovernments and that necessary provision should be made forcarrying on all its activities in schools and in camps. It wouldbe of great advantage, if, in each district or regional area, acentre is selected where scouts can meet for their annual camps


grants for their encouragement. The contribution that they canmake to the training of character and the awakening of culturaland practical interests is so important that petty considerationsof economy should not be allowed to starve them.

All these various agencies that we have discussed-the home,the school with its curriculum and methods and discipline andextra-curricular activities, and the local community-willexercise. their influence in shaping the character of the students.The books that they read, the moral and religious instructionthat is imparted to them and the personal example of theteachers will inculcate the right ideals and values. But themost potent of these will be the all-Pervasive influence of thelife of the school as a community, its wisely planned scheduleof functions and duties its mutual give-and-take, and itswillingly accepted discipline its chance of leadership, and itsopportunities for social service. The success and the psychologicalunderstanding with which the school can be organised as acommunity will largely determine how far it can effectivelyfunction as an agency for the education of character.


DisciplineDisciplineDisciplineDisciplineDiscipline

1. The education of character should be envisaged as theresponsibility of all teachers and should be providedthrough every single aspect of school programme.

2. In order to promote discipline personal contact betweenteacher and the pupils should be strengthened; Self-Government in the form of house system with prefectsor monitors and student-councils; whose responsibilitywill be to draw up a Code of Conduct and enforce itsobservance, should be introduced in all schools.

3. Special importance should be given to group games andother co-curricular activities and their educationalpossibilities should be fully explored.

4. Suitable legislation should be passed making it anelection offence to utilise students below the age of 17for the purposes of political propaganda or electioncampaigns.

improvements and expansion. The States should, of course,cooperate fully in the furtherance of the movement.

Training in First Aid, Junior Red Cross and St. John’sTraining in First Aid, Junior Red Cross and St. John’sTraining in First Aid, Junior Red Cross and St. John’sTraining in First Aid, Junior Red Cross and St. John’sTraining in First Aid, Junior Red Cross and St. John’sAmbulanceAmbulanceAmbulanceAmbulanceAmbulance

These have a special value because they enable the studentsto render useful forms of social service and thus gain a senseof personal and social worth. We feel that it will be of greatadvantage to the students as well as to the community if everystudent is trained in First Aid and Junior Red Cross work andif some of the students receive training in St. John’s Ambulancework. Such training could be utilized on the occasions of fairs,festivals, epidemics or floods or whenever large congregationsof people happen to meet at a centre. We have recommendedelsewhere that some teachers should be trained in ambulancework and first aid. If that is done, they could be entrusted withthe task of training their pupils under the guidance of qualifiedofficers of these organisations.

Other Extra-Curricular ActivitiesOther Extra-Curricular ActivitiesOther Extra-Curricular ActivitiesOther Extra-Curricular ActivitiesOther Extra-Curricular ActivitiesThere are many other extra-curricular activities which

schools can and should develop to the best of their ability andresources e.g., hiking, rowing, swimming, excursions, debates,dramas, drawing and painting, gardening. All such activitiesadd to the appeal of the school and release the creative talentsand social aptitudes of the children. We repeat that the successof these activities depends very largely upon the interest evincedby the teaching staff. While the students should be encouragedin every way to stand on their own feet and develop theseactivities through their own initiative, the teachers should beat hand to help and guide them so that their educativepossibilities may be fully exploited and they may ensure thatall students take part in one or more of these activities. It isfor this reason that we have recommended that all teachersshould devote a definite time to such activities and this timeshould be taken into account in fixing their maximum hoursof work. We feel that, while part of the money may come fromstudents’ voluntary contributions or a specific fee charged forthe purpose, the, Education Department should give liberal

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education194194194194194 Guidance and Counselling in Secondary SchoolsGuidance and Counselling in Secondary SchoolsGuidance and Counselling in Secondary SchoolsGuidance and Counselling in Secondary SchoolsGuidance and Counselling in Secondary Schools 195195195195195

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GGGGGUIDANCEUIDANCEUIDANCEUIDANCEUIDANCE ANDANDANDANDAND C C C C COUNSELLINGOUNSELLINGOUNSELLINGOUNSELLINGOUNSELLING INININININ

SSSSSECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARY S S S S SCHOOLSCHOOLSCHOOLSCHOOLSCHOOLS

IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE TO PUPILSIMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE TO PUPILSIMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE TO PUPILSIMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE TO PUPILSIMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE TO PUPILSThe provision of diversified courses of instruction imposes

on teachers and school administrators the additionalresponsibility of giving proper guidance to pupils in their choiceof courses and careers. The secret of good education consistsin enabling the student to realise what are his talents andaptitudes and in what manner and to what extent he can bestdevelop them so as to achieve proper social adjustment andseek right types of employment. The subject of guidance hasgained great importance in many countries in recent yearsparticularly in America. In many schools well planned effortsare made to provide assistance to individual boys and girls indeciding upon their future careers and education, and otherpersonal problems. In our country. unfortunately not even abeginning has been made in this direction, except in a fewStates.

Educational and vocational guidance is not to be regardedas a mechanical process whereby the advisers and teachers sortout boys and girls as a grading machine sorts out apples ! Itis not a question of just deciding that one boy should stay onthe farm, another work in an aeroplane factory, a thirdbecome a teacher and a fourth take to the management of agarage. Guidance involves the difficult art of helping boys andgirls to plan their own future wisely in the full light of all thefactors that can be mastered about themselves and about theworld in which they are to live and work. Naturally therefore,

Religious and Moral InstructionReligious and Moral InstructionReligious and Moral InstructionReligious and Moral InstructionReligious and Moral Instruction

5. Religious instruction may be given in schools only ona voluntary basis and outside the regular school hours,such instruction being confined to the children of theparticular faith concerned and given with the consentof the parents and the managements.

Extra-Curricular ActivitiesExtra-Curricular ActivitiesExtra-Curricular ActivitiesExtra-Curricular ActivitiesExtra-Curricular Activities

6. Extra-curricular activities should form an integral-partof education imparted in the school and all teachersshould devote a definite time to such activities.

7. The State should give adequate financial assistance tothe Scout Movement and should help to secure suitablesites for Scout Camps; schools should, as far as possible,afforded opportunity for groups of their students tospend a few days every year at such camps.

8. The N.C.C. should be brought under the CentralGovernment which should take the responsibility for itsproper maintenance improvement and expansion.

9. Training in First Aid, St. John’s Ambulance and JuniorRed Cross work should be encouraged in all schools.

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attention. Accurate, comprehensive and continuous informationabout occupations and about institutions of higher study shouldbe made available to the pupils, as without his informationthey cannot intelligently determine their future line of action.Vocational and educational guidance should be made availableto the individual pupils at different stages because of the possiblechanges in his economic status, his aptitudes and interests aswell as the changes that are likely to occur in the nature ofthe occupation. Care should be taken to see that students donot decide upon a vocation too early or too huriedly, but onlyafter a careful study of the openings available and in the lightof experience gained through trials. There should, therefore,be provision for a reconsideration of their plans at the differentstages of education.

CAREER MASTERSCAREER MASTERSCAREER MASTERSCAREER MASTERSCAREER MASTERSIn some States we found that investigations in Guidance

have been started and experimental laboratories established,both for purposes of research and to train guidance officers. InStates where a beginning has been made there are CareerMasters attached to schools who have received a certain amountof training to enable them to discharge their duties as vocationalcounsellors. We are aware that in some universities the Students’Information Bureau are trying to collect necessary informationfor the use of their students.

There are also in most States Employment Exchanges whichmay give information to those seeking employment. This is,however, a different thing from what is needed at the schoolsstage. In most of the States there has been no serious attemptso far to make a scientific study of the available careers or tobring home to the pupils the possibilities open to them at thedifferent stages of their education. It is not a question here offinding employment, but of seeking the knowledge necessaryto equip students adequately for suitable types of work. It isat this stage that vocational guidance is required and CareerMasters can be of help in placing these pupils in their properposition or in giving advice to pupils in the choice of vocationsuited to their training and aptitudes.

it is not the work of a few specialists but rather a service inwhich the entire school staff must cooperate under the guidanceof some person with special knowledge and skill in this particularfield. Guidance in this sense is not confined to the vocationalfield only. It covers the whole gamut of youth problems andshould be provided in an appropriate form at all stages ofeducation through the co-operative endeavour of understandingparents, teachers, headmasters, principals and guidanceofficers.

QUALIFICATIONS OF A GUIDANCE OFFICERQUALIFICATIONS OF A GUIDANCE OFFICERQUALIFICATIONS OF A GUIDANCE OFFICERQUALIFICATIONS OF A GUIDANCE OFFICERQUALIFICATIONS OF A GUIDANCE OFFICERA good Guidance Officer possesses many good qualities. He

must have an understanding of young people and their problems,based on scientific knowledge but inspired with sympathy andthe ability to look at life through the eyes of boys and girls. Heshould have special training in good counselling methods,mental hygiene and in the discriminating use of tests andschool records. In the field of vocational guidance he shouldhave an accurate knowledge of occupational opportunities andrequirements. He must have ample time for conferences withpupils, parents and employers, and he must be fully familiarwith the purpose and programme of the school and have thecapacity to work in close co-operation with the teachers.

ROLE OF THE TEACHERSROLE OF THE TEACHERSROLE OF THE TEACHERSROLE OF THE TEACHERSROLE OF THE TEACHERSIn all schools a good deal of guidance work will have to be

done by the teachers in the class through informal contactswith their students. They can play a very important role in thisrespect. The Guidance Officer will gather much usefulinformation from them helping him to understand studentsand their needs and problems. Likewise, he will furnish themwith information which would enable them to fit class workmore carefully to students’ aptitudes and needs.

PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN GUIDANCEPRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN GUIDANCEPRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN GUIDANCEPRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN GUIDANCEPRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN GUIDANCEThere are certain important points to be borne in mind in

connection with education and vocational guidance. Personaldifferences which are of a permanent psychological feature atthis stage must be recognised, understood and given due


and Career Masters and their services should be made available,in an increasing measure, to all educational institutions sothat guidance may be given to students at different levels ofeducation, particularly at the Secondary stage at which decisionsabout employment have to be taken by a large majority ofstudents.

CAREER CONFERENCECAREER CONFERENCECAREER CONFERENCECAREER CONFERENCECAREER CONFERENCEAmong the agencies for imparting information about

occupations is the “Career Conference” of teachers, parents,students, employers and successful persons from differentvocations. Such a conference can stimulate interest, give fullerknowledge of vocational requirements and encourage studentsto avail themselves of the service provided by the vocationaland educational guidance staff. At this conference successfulmen and women from various walks of life can be invited todiscuss the requirements and opportunities in their specialfields of work. The pupils too, should participate in it so thattheir interest may be stimulated and their curiosity fullysatisfied. Often they do not know the further facilities availablein Technical Higher education or the conditions of admissionand the nature and duration of these courses, or the level ofefficiency that they must attain if they are to pursue themsuccess-fully. It would be the business of the Guidance Officersto provide necessary information and advise about all of thesematters.

THE CENTRE’S RESPONSIBILITYTHE CENTRE’S RESPONSIBILITYTHE CENTRE’S RESPONSIBILITYTHE CENTRE’S RESPONSIBILITYTHE CENTRE’S RESPONSIBILITYWe have referred briefly to the need for guidance, the place

of Career Masters in schools, and the responsibility of theheadmasters and teachers in regard to the future of theirpupils. If this scheme is to be implemented satisfactorily, weare of the opinion that the Centre should take the responsibilityof opening in different regions, institutions for the training ofGuidance Officers and Career Masters to which each Stateshould depute its nominees. It would be neither possible noreconomical for each State to set up its own training centres.It may be possible to attach some of these centres to teachertraining institutions so that, besides providing necessary

PLACE OF VISUAL AIDSPLACE OF VISUAL AIDSPLACE OF VISUAL AIDSPLACE OF VISUAL AIDSPLACE OF VISUAL AIDSThe development of new types of visual aids provides

unlimited possibilities for the pupils to obtain knowledge of thedifferent occupations open to them at different stages of theireducational ladder Thus to broaden the pupils’ understandingof the scope, nature and significance of the occupations orindustries, films should be available which not only depict theactual nature and conditions of work in a particular industrybut also supplement this with information concerning the dailyroutine of the worker on the job. Vocational guidance films areavailable in different countries to bring home to the youngstudent the different types of employment that are availableas well as what is expected of the employee who chooses aparticular vocation. We believe that in this country there isurgent need to prepare such educational films showing theconditions of industrial, agricultural, technical and othervocations which will give the students information as well asguidance in the choice of their vocation.

It is not to be expected that every student will necessarilyaccept what the teacher or the headmaster or the counsellormay advise him to do. In some cases the parents’ influence mayout-weigh his opinion or the student may have a higher opinionof his own talents than the more sober and objective view takenby the guidance officer. We feel, however, that if the systemis tried with tact and sympathy and the co-operation of allpersons concerned, it will develop, in course of time, into avaluable method of avoiding the present waste of talent, andit will fit the trained aptitudes of students into types of workwhich they can do efficiently and through which they canachieve at least a certain measure of self-fulfilment

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIESROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIESROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIESROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIESROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIESIn all progressive countries, Government aims at a wide

dissemination of facts concerning various occupations andconstantly seeks to establish suitable agencies and techniqueswhich will enable every individual to find employment suitedto his inclination, ability, and skill. There should be in everyregion in India a centre for the training of Guidance Officers


THE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF STUDENTSTHE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF STUDENTSTHE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF STUDENTSTHE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF STUDENTSTHE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF STUDENTS

Importance of Physical and Health EducationImportance of Physical and Health EducationImportance of Physical and Health EducationImportance of Physical and Health EducationImportance of Physical and Health EducationThe physical welfare of the youth of the country should be

one of the main concerns of the State and any departure fromthe normal standards of physical well-being at this period oflife may have serious consequences-it might promote diseaseor render the individual more easily susceptible to certaindisease. In many countries, particularly during the two worldwars, an examination of young men recruited for war servicerevealed a disproportionately large number who were unfit forsuch work. In India even among those persons who wererecruited on a voluntary basis, it was noted that quite a largenumber of them were physically unfit for military service. Itwould not be an exaggeration to say that, if the whole. of thepopulation at the particular age period at which recruitmenttakes place had been subject to a similar examination theproportion of the unfit would have been higher than in anyother country. Physical fitness and health education, therefore,assume an importance that no State can afford to neglect.

It is often stated that the proper care of the health andsound physical education require an expenditure that may notbe within the reach of the State Government. It is unfortunatethat a long range view has not been taken in this matter. Toallow the youth to suffer from physical handicaps and thus tofall a victim to diseases and to allow incipient diseases to liedormant and then develop it to increase the number that wouldrequire hospital treatment. Such an approach naturally swellsthe medical budget of the country. Apart from this aspect, ithas to be recognised that the increase in the number of physicallyhandicapped people and those of low health levels means anincrease in the number of those with diminished economicvalue and efficiency. The earning capacity of such individualsbeing seriously diminished, it becomes an economic drain onthe resources of the country to support them and their families.If both these points are taken into consideration, it will be seenthat economising in health education and physical welfare isunsound economy because the State has to spend much moreon medical services than it would under properly organisedschemes of physical and health education.

training for Guidance Officers and Career Masters, they mayalso train the teachers in the general principles of educationaland vocational guidance.

This will help them to understand better the methods ofobservation to ascertain the aptitudes of the pupils under theircare, and thus enable them to co-operate with the CareerMasters more intelligently in the common problem of adaptinginstruction to the pupils and preparing the pupils moresuccessfully for their future vocations.

In addition to the training institutions for Guidance Officersthat we have envisaged we recommend that a Central ResearchOrganization may be established for carrying out research ineducational and vocational guidance and for the preparationof tests with particular reference to Indian conditions and theneeds of the pupils concerned and the opportunities availableto them from time to time.

In order to fulfil all the purposes we have in view we alsorecommend that in every State there should be a Bureau ofVocational and Educational Guidance whose duty would be toplan and coordinate the activities recommended above.


1. Educational guidance should receive much greaterattention on the part of the educational authorities.

2. In order to broaden the pupil’s understanding of thescope, nature and significance of various occupationsof industries, films should be prepared to show thenature of the work in various industries and this shouldbe supplemented by actual visits.

3. The services of trained Guidance Officers and CareerMasters should be made available gradually and in anincreasing measure to all educational institutions.

4. The Centre should take up the responsibility of openingin different regions centres, of training for GuidanceOfficers and Career Masters to which each State maysend a number of teachers or other suitable persons fortraining.


(iii) There is no follow-up not even in the case of those whohave been declared as defective.

(iv) Effective co-operation has not been established betweenthe school authorities and the parents, and eitherthrough ignorance or through lack of financial resourcesor both, the parents have taken little interest in thereports of the school medical officers.

We feel therefore that unless the present system is improvedconsiderably, it would be a mere waste of time and money tocontinue it To bring about necessary improvements, werecommend that :

(i) Health examination should be thorough and complete.If a choice is to be made between frequent and cursoryexaminations and more thorough examinations at longerintervals, the latter are greatly to be preferred. Everypupil in the ‘School. should undergo at least one completeexamination every year while in school and one justprior to leaving-the School.

(ii) Pupils with serious defects and those who suffer fromsevere illnesses should be examined more frequently.

(iii) Much more should be done to assure prompt and effectivefollowup whenever examinations reveal the need forcorrective or remedial measures.

(iv) One copy of the health report should be kept by theschool medical officer, another copy should go to theparent, and a third copy to the teacher in charge of aparticular group of students. This copy should be keptas part of the personal record of the pupil and on thisshould be based the programme for his health instructionand physical education. It should be the duty of theschool physician to study the reports of healthexaminations and to select those cases for which remedialor corrective treatment is indicated. Thus the healthand safety of students will become an important concernof the entire school and activities for promoting andsafeguarding health will find a place throughout theschool programme.

HEALTH EDUCATIONHEALTH EDUCATIONHEALTH EDUCATIONHEALTH EDUCATIONHEALTH EDUCATIONFrom what has been stated, it must be clear that unless

physical education is accepted as an integral part of education.and the educational authorities recognised its need in all schools,the youth of the country, which form its most valuable asset,will never be able to pull their full weight in national welfare.The emphasis so far has been more on the academic type ofeducation without proper consideration being given to physicalwelfare and the maintenance of proper standards of health ofthe pupils.

Measures to be AdoptedMeasures to be AdoptedMeasures to be AdoptedMeasures to be AdoptedMeasures to be AdoptedWe shall now refer to some considerations that may be

borne in mind in regard to health education. Every student inthe school requires to be trained in sound health habits bothat school and at home. The instruction should be practical sothat he may not only appreciate the value of health educationbut also learn the ways in which he can effectively maintainand improve his health. This is essential not only for physicalreasons but because sound mental health depends on goodphysical health. It should, therefore, be a responsibility of allschools to see that their children keep healthy so that they canget the maximum benefit possible from their education.

Medical ExaminationMedical ExaminationMedical ExaminationMedical ExaminationMedical ExaminationIt is necessary for this purpose, to subject all students to

a medical examination, to ascertain whether they are normalin health and standards of physical development. Although thesystem of school medical inspection has been in existence fora number of years in many States, we are of the opinion thatthe results have not been satisfactory for the following reasons:

(i) The medical inspection has been done in a perfunctorymanner.

(ii) The defects that have been brought out even by thistype of examination have not been remedied becausethe remedial measures suggested are often not carriedout.


The Role of TeachersThe Role of TeachersThe Role of TeachersThe Role of TeachersThe Role of TeachersWe have stated that there should be a systematic follow-

up and that active methods should be adopted to afford the fullbenefits of medical treatment for such students as need it. Inregard to the health of school children, it is necessary to realisethat it is the teacher who can detect at a very early stage anydeviation from the normal, such as defective vision, posturaldefects, deficient hearing etc., because he is in constantcontact with the child. We have therefore emphasised in theChapter on Teacher-Training that training in first aid andfundamental principles of health as well as the detection ofdeviations from normal standards should form a part of theinstruction prescribed for all teachers in Training Colleges. Ifsuch training is given in the first principles of healthmaintenance, teachers can play a valuable part in bringing tothe notice of the school medical officer or other authoritiesconcerned any cases of deviation from the normal at a fairlyearly stage.

Medical Examination of Children in HospitalsMedical Examination of Children in HospitalsMedical Examination of Children in HospitalsMedical Examination of Children in HospitalsMedical Examination of Children in HospitalsA scheme has been formulated in one of the States, whereby

in those areas where well-equipped hospitals are situated, theschool children may get the benefit of attention from thespecialists of the hospitals. In cases where defects have beennoted and medical treatment is required, the children may betaken in groups by the teacher, the school medical officer orthe physical director to the hospital ‘concerned on one or twoafternoons in the week, when the staff will look after him. Ithas been suggested that the whole afternoon may be reservedfor this purpose. In this way a team of medical officers, whoare specialists in such branches as Opthalmology, Ear, Noseand Throat, Chest diseases, etc., together with a physicianwould be responsible for taking note of the physical defects andailments of children and getting them suitably treated. Childrenwho require more frequent visits may be advised to attend suchafternoon sessions or they may be told the remedial measureswhich the escorting teacher should see are My carried out. Inview of the paucity of trained personnel and the limited numberof hospitals equipped for this purpose, it will not, however

SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITYSCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITYSCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITYSCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITYSCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITYWe have stated at another place that the whole concept of

the duties of the school needs to be enlarged, by including init various forms of fruitful co-operation with the community.There are various fields in which the school can serve thecommunity, and various fields in which the community can co-operate with the school. It is important to remember that inregard to the health and the care of the children, the activitiesof the school should be extended to their homes, andneighbourhood and to the village or city as a whole. The reasonfor this is obvious. The health of school children is determinednot only during the hours spent at school but even more soduring the time spent at home and in the neighbourhood of thehome and at work.

If the school neglects the home and community factors,these out-of-school influences may prevent or cancel many ofthe beneficial effects of the school’s endeavour to improve thehealth of the child. It is not suggested that schools can directlycontrol the conditions outside, but they can influence them byeducating both the pupils and their parents, by co-operatingwith the physicians and the health authorities of the city orvillage and by educating the public to a better appreciation ofits health problems and a better recognition of what they canthemselves do to improve health conditions. We may go furtherand say that if the school could actually do something to improvethe conditions of sanitation in small, selected locality, it wouldbe the best health education for both pupils and parents and,in fact, the whole community. In this endeavour, the healthauthorities of the locality should give their active co-operationand assistance to the school. This would also be a very goodmethod of promoting the idea of the dignity of labour in thechildren.

This approach to the maintenance of school children’s healthmay appear impracticable at first sight. But a clear appreciationof the factors involved and a better co-ordination of the agenciesconcerned with the promotion of health will show that theadopting of such measures can produce tangible results withina reasonable time.


is, therefore, such more than mere drill or a series of regulatedexercises. It includes all forms of physical activities and gameswhich promote the development of the body and mind.

If it is to be given properly, teachers of physical educationshould evolve a comprehensive plan to be followed by thestudents and it should be based on the results of the healthexamination. Most of these activities are group activities, butthey should be made to suit the individual as well, taking duenote of his capacity for physical endurance. Phyiscal education,group games and individual physical exercises should be given,no doubt, in the school under the supervision of the Directorof Physical Education, but there is one aspect of physicaleducation which should not be forgotten. As in the case ofhealth education, the school should ‘go to the community’ andseek its assistance in the furtherance of the programme ofphysical education. There are various types of physical exercisesthat can be taken up by students with the necessary aptitudes,outside the, school under the auspices of other agencies in thecommunity interested in physical education, e.g., swimming,boating, hiking, and group games that may be locally popular.Where such facilities are available, special arrangements shouldbe made for school children to avail of them under properguidance and special hours may be fixed for them in somecases. e.g. in swimming baths and Akhadas, etc.

Teachers and Physical EducationTeachers and Physical EducationTeachers and Physical EducationTeachers and Physical EducationTeachers and Physical EducationIt has been noted that physical education is generally

considered to be the exclusive responsibility of the teacher forphysical education. So long as the other teachers of the schooldo not participate in this matter along with the physicalinstructor, physical education will Dot be a success. That iswhy we have recommended elsewhere that the teachers undertraining should receive a certain amount of instruction inphysical education while specialists will of course be trainedin special institutions. We recommend that all teachers or atleast those below the age of 40 should actively participate inmany of the activities of physical education and thus make ita living part of the total school programme instead of being aside issue entrusted to an isolated member of the staff.

be possible to extend such a scheme over the whole State.There is reason to believe that, owing to over-crowding andother insanitary conditions of city life, the health of schoolchildren suffers much more in urban than in rural areas. Atpresent the opportunities for school children to be taken towell-equipped hospitals are greater in urban areas than in therural areas. It is suggested, therefore, that to begin with, theschool-population of the urban areas may be given the benefitof the scheme and the progress in its working should be watched.It is not by means implied that the rural children should beneglected. Wherever such defects are noticed in them, it mustbe ensured that they also get the benefit or proper medical careat the institutions situated in the neighbouring towns or cities.They should be taken to the institutions concerned or themedical staff may visit such schools on definite days, arrangingmobile. hospital ambulances for the purpose. In any case suchremedial measures as the school medical officer may suggestshould be adopted, and the school authorities should see thatthey are carried out.

One of the important factor leading to many defects inhealth is malnutrition. At no period of life does malnutritionplay such a large part in causing ill-health, or in promotingdefects of growth as in the period of adolescence. Very little isbeing done at present in educational institutions to see to theproper nutrition of children. We recommend that, in residentialschools and hostels, balanced diets suited to different agesshould be prescribed by nutrition experts and managements beadvised about proper standards for children’s diet.

PHYSICAL EDUCATIONPHYSICAL EDUCATIONPHYSICAL EDUCATIONPHYSICAL EDUCATIONPHYSICAL EDUCATION

The Concept of Physical EducationThe Concept of Physical EducationThe Concept of Physical EducationThe Concept of Physical EducationThe Concept of Physical EducationWe have dealt with health education first because the

success of physical education depends upon the health of thestudent. It is an indispensable part of all health programmes.Its various activities should be so planned as to develop thephysical and mental health of the students, cultivaterecreational interests and skills and promote the spirit of teamwork, sportsmanship and respect for others. Physical education


of technical competence and well educated. Physical educationdoes not consist in a mere display of strength but conduces tothe physical, mental and moral welfare of the pupil concerned.As regards posts of greater responsibility such as Directors orInspectors of Physical Education, we feel that training for twoyears may be necessary. To provide the training Schools withqualified physical instructors, there is need for considerableexpansion of the training facilities. This may be done by,increasing the facilities in the existing colleges and by openingnew colleges where necessary. To meet the needs of the wholecountry we recommend that some of these institutions may berecognised as All-India Training Centres and given help bothby the Centre and the States to enable them to train a largenumber of personnel.


Health EducationHealth EducationHealth EducationHealth EducationHealth Education

1. A properly organised school medical service should bebuilt up in all States.

2. A thorough medical examination of all pupils andnecessary follow-up and treatment where necessaryshould be carried out in all schools.

3. Some of the teachers should be trained in first aid andgeneral principles of health so that they may co-operateintelligently with the medical staff.

4. Proper nutritional standard should be maintained inhostels and residential schools.

5. The school should assist where possible, in themaintenance of the sanitation of the area and the schoolchildren should thus be trained to appreciate dignity ofmanual labour.

Physical EducationPhysical EducationPhysical EducationPhysical EducationPhysical Education

6. Physical activities should be made to suit the individualand his capacity for physical endurance.

7. All teachers below the age of 40 should activelyparticipate in many of the physical activities of students

We place special value on group games as they help tomould the character of the students in addition to affordingrecreational facilities and contributing to their physical wellbeing. There is one aspect of group games to which we shouldlike to draw attention. Competitive group games betweendifferent schools and regions have come to stay and they nodoubt increase interest in group games. One defect which isoften associated with them has, however, to be guardedagainst. In order to prepare teams for competitive matches theplaying fields are often utilised mainly by the, few studentswho are selected for the school teams, while the majority atecontent to watch them passively. To develop the health of theschool community, it is far more important that the majorityof the students should utilise the playing fields than that asmall minority should do so for the sake of winning tournamentsand bringing a kind of professional credit to the school. Thegrowth of this tendency towards a kind of professionalism inschool sports must be carefully resisted.

We have recommended the maintenance of school recordsfor all students, and would like to add here that these shouldinclude a full record of all activities in the field.

Training of Physical Education TeachersTraining of Physical Education TeachersTraining of Physical Education TeachersTraining of Physical Education TeachersTraining of Physical Education TeachersSome of the States have established Colleges of Physical

Education where training is given for about a year to candidatespossessing certain prescribed qualifications. We are of theopinion that the training should be comprehensive includingall aspects like health education, first-aid, nutrition, etc. Itis important that they should have a good standard of generaleducation. Teachers of physical education in Secondary schoolsshould have at least passed the S. S. L. C. Examination andshould have received some training in general principles ofeducation and child psychology. They should be associated withthe teaching of subjects like physiology and hygiene and shouldbe given the same status as other teachers of similarqualifications in the school. If graduate trained teachers areavailable they may take up teaching of certain special subjects.If the training institutions are effectively to discharge theirduties they should be staffed with carefully selected persons

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education210210210210210 A New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and Evaluation 211211211211211

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A NA NA NA NA NEWEWEWEWEW A A A A APPROACHPPROACHPPROACHPPROACHPPROACH TOTOTOTOTO E E E E EXAMINATIONXAMINATIONXAMINATIONXAMINATIONXAMINATION ANDANDANDANDAND

EEEEEVALUATIONVALUATIONVALUATIONVALUATIONVALUATION

The subject of Examination and Evaluation occupies animportant place in the field of education. It is necessary forparents and teachers to know from time to time how the pupilsare progressing and what their attainments are at any particularstage. It is equally necessary for society to assure itself thatthe work entrusted to its schools is being carried on satisfactorilyand that the children studying there are receiving the righttype of education and attaining the expected standards. Thiskind of check up of the school work is essential in the interestsof all concerned-pupils, teachers, parents and the public.Examinations are the usual means adopted for this purpose.

EXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNALEXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNALEXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNALEXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNALEXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNALExaminations may be either internal or external. Internal

examinations are conducted by schools from time to time andat least once during the school year, for evaluating the progressof the pupils, for grading them, and when the time comes,for selecting and promoting them to a higher class. Of thepurposes for which examinations are held, certainly the first,namely, the evaluation of progress is the most important. Onit depends not only grading and promotion but even the methodof instruction.

Annual examinations are a common feature of our schools.Some schools also hold terminal examinations, i.e.,examinations at the end of each term. A few also hold weeklyor monthly tests. Usually in the eyes of both the school

and thus make them a lively part of the schoolprogramme.

8. Full records of physical activities of the students mustbe maintained.

9. The training in physical education should becomprehensive enough to include all aspects of healtheducation.

10. The teachers of physical education should be associatedWith the teaching of subjects like Physiology andHygiene and given the same status as other teachersof similar qualifications.

11. The existing facilities for training of teachers of physicaleducation should be expanded by increasing the seatsin the existing colleges, by opening new colleges wherenecessary and by reorganising some of the institutionsas All-India Training Centres to which aid may giveboth by the Centre and the States.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education A New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and EvaluationA New Approach to Examination and Evaluation212212212212212 213213213213213

have been widely questioned. It has been urged that the presentsystem of examining by means of essay-type questions leavesso much scope for the subjectivity of examiner that it cannotbe relied upon to any great extent. In this connection referencemay be made to the findings of the Hartog Report on anExamination of Examinations which clearly proves the foiblesof such a system. It may therefore be fairly inferred that asat present conducted, examinations do not help us to evaluatecorrectly even the intellectual attainments of the pupils.

THE EFFECT OF THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM ON OURTHE EFFECT OF THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM ON OURTHE EFFECT OF THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM ON OURTHE EFFECT OF THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM ON OURTHE EFFECT OF THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM ON OUREDUCATIONEDUCATIONEDUCATIONEDUCATIONEDUCATION

We have already referred to the new concept of education.Unfortunately our present system of education still laysexclusive emphasis on the intellectual attainments of the pupilsand this has been due mainly to the influence of our examinationsystem. The examinations determine not only the contents ofeducation but also the methods of teaching-in fact, the entireapproach to education. They have so pervaded the entireatmosphere of school life that they have become the mainmotivating force of all effort on the part of pupil as well asteacher. It is not often clearly realised that a pupil’s effortthroughout his education is concentrated almost wholly on howto get through the examinations. Unless a subject is includedin the examination scheme the pupil is not interested in it. Ifany school activity is not related directly or indirectly to theexamination, it fails to evoke or enlist his enthusiasm. Asregards methods, he is interested in only those which securean easy pass rather than in those which may be educationallymore sound but which do not directly concern themselves withexaminations. He is more interested in notes and cribs thanin text-books and original works ; he goes in for crammingrather than for intelligent understanding since this will helphim to pass the examination on which depends his future.

As has already been stated it is not only the pupil but theteacher also who is affected by this examination craze. To theteacher the system of examination affords an easy solution tomany of his problems. While it is difficult if not impossible, toshow immediate, tangible and measurable results with regard

authorities and the pupils, the most important of these internaltests and examinations is the annual examination. On theresults of this examination the annual promotions are decidedso that it dominates all other tests and examinations. A fewschool have replaced the annual examination by thecummulative results of periodic test and examinations.

The external examination comes generally at the end of theschool stage. Its purpose is two-fold selective and qualifying,selecting those who have successfully completed a course andqualifying them from among many for the next higher stage.At one time besides the matriculation of University entranceexamination (or its equivalent, the School Final or the SchoolCertificate Examination) there used to be in some parts of thecountry, two other examinations, one at the end of the primarystage and another at the end of the middle school stage; andall these were regarded as public examinations. We are toldthat still these are prevalent in some States. We are convincedthat our system of education is very much examination-ridden.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEMSCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEMSCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEMSCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEMSCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEMOF EXAMINATIONS IN INDIAOF EXAMINATIONS IN INDIAOF EXAMINATIONS IN INDIAOF EXAMINATIONS IN INDIAOF EXAMINATIONS IN INDIA

Both the internal and the external examinations in thiscountry are more or less modelled on similar lines and theyfollow the same general pattern. Both are intended to testmainly the academic attainments of a pupil and his progressin intellectual pursuits. These do not test the other aspects ofthe pupils development; or if they do, it is only indirectly. Thetwentieth century has witnessed a widening of the meaningand scope of education. The school of today concerns itself notonly with intellectual pursuits but also with the emotional andsocial development of the child, his physical and mental health,his social adjustment and other equally important aspects ofhis life-in a word, with an all-round development of hispersonality. If examinations are to be of real value they musttake into consideration the new facts and test in detail the all-round development of pupils.

Even as a test of the intellectual attainments of pupils, thevalidity and usefulness of the present pattern of examinations


of the hampering effect of examinations. They said and wegenerally agree with them, that the examinations to-day dictatethe curriculum instead of following it prevent anyexperimentation hamper the proper treatment of subjects andsound methods of teaching foster a dull uniformity rather thanoriginality, encourage the average pupil to concentrate toorigidly upon too narrow a field and thus help him to developwrong values in education. Pupils assess education in terms ofsuccess.in examinations. Teachers, recognising the importanceof the external examination to the individual pupil, areconstrained to relate their teaching to an examination whichcan test only a narrow field of the pupil’s interest and capacitiesand so inevitably neglect the qualities which are more importantthough less tangible. They are forced to attend to what can beexamined; and to do that with success they often have to‘spoon-feed’ their pupils rather than encourage habits ofindependent study. We were told that in some schools notes aredictated even in the lower classes and after some time thechildren feel unhappy and helpless if this is not done. Thissystem is not so uncommon as we would wish to imagine.

THE PLACE OF EXAMINATIONSTHE PLACE OF EXAMINATIONSTHE PLACE OF EXAMINATIONSTHE PLACE OF EXAMINATIONSTHE PLACE OF EXAMINATIONSNevertheless examinations—and specially external

examinations—have a proper place in any scheme of education.External examinations have stimulating effect both on thepupils and on the teachers by providing well defined goals andobjective standards of evaluation. To the pupil the examinationgives a goal towards which he should strive and a stimulusurging him to attain that goal in a given time, therebydemanding steady and constant effort. This makes the purposeclear and the method of approach definite. He is judged byexternal and objective tests on which both he and othersinterested in him can depend. And finally, it gives him ahallmark recognised by all.

For the teacher, too, it is helpful to have a goal andstimulus. Without these his work may lose in precision anddirection. The external examination gives him standardscommon for all teachers and therefore universal and uniformin character. It also releases him from the responsibility of

to those intangible efforts of a good education such as charactertraining, well rounded personality, a wholesome socialadjustment and a proper development of appreciation of thefiner values in life it is much easier to show results in intellectualattainments and academic progress. And if society sets greaterstore by these attainments than by what is conducive tocharacter building and sound citizenship, how can the teacherhelp paying attention to the former attainments. Moreoverexaminations are, comparatively speaking, an easy methodof grading pupils and pronouncing judgment on their work.Again, and this is most unfortunate, his success as a teacheris very often measured by the results of his pupils in theexaminations. It is not uncommon to hear such statements aso and so is a good teacher because his pupils show a highpercentage of success in the final examination. Headmastersin presenting their reports at the annual gatherings lay emphasison the results of examinations and on the brilliant success ofsome of their pupils, thus provoking the criticism that thereport resembled a profit and loss account presented toshareholders of an industrial concern. To judge the work of ateacher by the percentage of passes of his pupils in theexamination is to keep alive the old and exploded system ofpayment by results.

The attitude of the parents also lends support to this stateof affairs. Because of the close connection between employmentand the passing of external examinations, the average parentis more interested in his child passing that examination thanin anything else. Even the authorities who provide highercourses or employ young people are guided almost solely by thecertificates awarded on the results of the external examinations.To this may be added the unfortunate trend in recent timesto utilise the marks obtained at public examinations as the solecriterion for admission of students to most colleges.

Thus all circumstances conspire today to put an undue andunnatural emphasis on examinations, specially the externalexaminations and they have come to exercise a restrictinginfluence over the entire field of Indian education to such anextent as almost to nullify its real purpose. Many complained


schools have abandoned such examinations. They use the resultsof periodical tests and of weekly or monthly examinations forpurposes of promotion. A few other supplement the annual andperiodical examinations by more elaborate records of workdone by pupils throughout the year. We commend these stepswhich will give the annual examination its proper place. Thepromotion of a child should depend not only on the results ofthe annual final examination but also on the results of periodictests and the progress shown in the school records. The patternof internal examination should also be changed. The objectivetype of tests should be widely used to supplement the essay-type tests ; other steps suggested with regard to the externalexamination should also apply in the case of internalexamination

NEED FOR SCHOOL RECORDSNEED FOR SCHOOL RECORDSNEED FOR SCHOOL RECORDSNEED FOR SCHOOL RECORDSNEED FOR SCHOOL RECORDSBut neither the external examination nor the internal

examination, singly or together, can give a correct and completepicture of a pupil’s all-round progress at any particular stageof his education; yet it is important for us to assess this, inorder to determine his future course of study, or his futurevocation. For this purpose a proper system of school recordsshould be maintained for every pupil indicating the work doneby him in the school from day to day, month to month, termto term and year to year. Such a school record will present aclear and continuous statement of the attainments of the childin different intellectual pursuits throughout the successivestages of his education.

It will also contain a progressive evaluation of developmentin other directions of no less importance, such as the growthof his interests, aptitudes, and personality traits, his socialadjustments, the practical and social activities in which hetakes part. In other words it will give a complete career. Wehave seen such records being maintained in some schools buttheir number is few. We recommend that these should be acommon feature of all schools all over the country. A fewspecimens of cumulative record forms will be found in AppendixVII School may devise their own forms on the lines indicatedtherein.

making wrong judgments about the work of his pupils. Finally,the external examination has another great advantage, namely,that it helps a school to compare itself with other schools.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THESUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THESUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THESUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THESUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THEPRESENT SYSTEMPRESENT SYSTEMPRESENT SYSTEMPRESENT SYSTEMPRESENT SYSTEM

In view of all these considerations it would appear that theexternal examination cannot be altogether done away with.Certain steps however have to be taken to minimise itsundesirable effects. Firstly, there should not be too manyexternal examinations. Secondly, the subjective element whichis unavoidable in the present purely essay type examinationshould be reduced as far as possible. The essay-type examinationhas its own value. It tests certain capacities which cannot beotherwise tested. But it cannot be the only test for measuringthe attainments of pupils. One of its greatest disadvantages isthat it gives undue weight to the power of verbal expressionin which so many individual differences exist. In order therefore,to reduce the element of subjectivity of the essay-type tests,objective tests of attainments should be widely introduced sideby side. Moreover, the nature of the tests and the type ofquestions should be thoroughly changed.

They should be such as to discourage cramming andencourage intelligent understanding. They should not deal withdetails but should concern themselves with a rationalunderstanding of the problems and a general mastery of thesubject matter. In this connection we consider that it isundesirable to set two papers of three hours each on one andthe same day. Lastly, the final assessment of the pupil shouldnot be based entirely on the results of the external examination; other things such as internal tests and the school recordsmaintained by teachers should be taken into consideration anddue credit should be given to them. With these safeguards andchanges, we feel the external examination can serve a usefulpurpose.

With regard to the prevalent system of internalexaminations also certain changes are necessary. The emphasison all-important annual examination should be reduced. A few


used to the system they themselves will come to appreciate theadvantage of such school records. The cumulative records willgreatly influence their work in the classroom specially theirmethods of teaching and handling children, so much so thatthe entire character of their work will change.

Doubts have been expressed whether teachers will be ableto discharge this added responsibility satisfactorily inmaintaining the records will they not be swayed too much bytheir personal predilections and judgments thereby nullifyinggreatly the value of these records ? Maintaining the recordswould need a certain amount of training. We have no doubtthat arrangements will be made by the State Departments ofEducation to provide such training, perhaps in the TrainingColleges for teachers. With such training and a certain amountof practice and with an occasional check-up by the head of theinstitution and by the Inspectorate, we have no doubt that theteachers will be able to discharge these duties to the satisfactionof all. There may be occasional lapses here and there, but theseshould not cause any anxiety or loss of faith in the teachers.In his sense of responsibility the average Indian teacher doesnot yield to any teacher in any other country. What he needsis clear direction, encouragement and sympathy.

NEED FOR RESEARCHNEED FOR RESEARCHNEED FOR RESEARCHNEED FOR RESEARCHNEED FOR RESEARCHIn order to maintain the cumulative records properly the

teachers will have to use a number of tests of different kinds-intelligence tests, attainment tests, aptitude tests and others.We expect that the State Bureau of Education which will devisethe forms of cumulative records will also prepare these testsin collaboration with the Training Colleges. There is need forcontinuous research in these fields. The Training Colleges shouldalso organise short courses of training in the. use of these formsand tests.

EVALUATION AND MARKINGEVALUATION AND MARKINGEVALUATION AND MARKINGEVALUATION AND MARKINGEVALUATION AND MARKINGAt this stage it is necessary to indicate the actual means

to be adopted in evaluating and grading the work of pupilswhether in the external or internal examinations and in

MAINTENANCE OF RECORDSMAINTENANCE OF RECORDSMAINTENANCE OF RECORDSMAINTENANCE OF RECORDSMAINTENANCE OF RECORDSThis cumulative record will be maintained by the class

teacher. The class teacher who will maintain it (he may alsobe a specialist in charge of a particular subject) is speciallyplaced in charge of a class of pupils for one school year. Heteaches them one or two important subjects and thus spendsmore time with them than other teachers do. He gets to knowthem personally and individually. His responsibilities as far ashis class is concerned are not confined to the four walls of theclass-room ; they extend over the pupil’s entire life in theschool, He is thus the right person to maintain the record.

In some schools a class teacher remains in charge of a classfor one year at the end of which he hands over the charge ofhis pupils to the class teacher of the next higher class. In someother schools the class teacher follows his class from year toyear till the class goes out of the school. Both systems havetheir advantages. Whether a teacher remains in charge of aclass for one year or for a number of years, the important thingis that he gets the opportunity to establish personal contactswith a group of pupils. Such personal contacts, specially withadolescent pupils have great value, and their importance cannotbe exaggerated.

In most schools some sort of class-teacher system prevails; but it is not fully exploited because of the supposed importanceof teaching by specialist teachers. Often the class-teacher’sresponsibilities consist of only in maintaining the class registerand collecting monthly school fees from pupils. There is noinherent contradiction between the class teacher system andthe subject-specialist system. The two can be easily combinedin the same system and the class-teacher can function in locoparentis for the pupils under his care with great advantage forall concerned.

TEACHERS AND SCHOOL RECORDSTEACHERS AND SCHOOL RECORDSTEACHERS AND SCHOOL RECORDSTEACHERS AND SCHOOL RECORDSTEACHERS AND SCHOOL RECORDSIt has been said that the introduction of cumulative records

will increase the responsibilities of teachers and add to theirwork. This is no doubt true. But the advantages would outweighthe personal disadvantage to teachers. And once they become


arranged in the alphabetical order of their names and not ashitherto according to the percentile scale.

We have discussed at some length the general principlesof evaluation of school work in view of its extreme importancein education. We now come to offer certain specific and firmrecommendations on the subject.

A SINGLE FINAL EXAMINATIONA SINGLE FINAL EXAMINATIONA SINGLE FINAL EXAMINATIONA SINGLE FINAL EXAMINATIONA SINGLE FINAL EXAMINATIONWe have referred to the desirability of reducing the number

of external examinations. We recommend that there should beonly one public examination to indicate the completion of theschool course. It may be either the High school final examinationor the Higher Secondary Examination depending on the natureof the School where the pupil completes his course. Thereshould be no other public exami-nation before it. The certificateto be awarded to indicate the completion of the Middle Schoolor any other school class will be given by the school itself andit will be based entirely on the school records which will includethe results of periodic and annual tests.

SCHOOL CERTIFICATESSCHOOL CERTIFICATESSCHOOL CERTIFICATESSCHOOL CERTIFICATESSCHOOL CERTIFICATESEven the final public examination need not be compulsory

for all; that is, if pupils so desire they need not take it. Howeverevery pupil who completes the school course will get a schoolcertificate based on school records testifying to his progress andattainments in different directions in school.

The point has been raised that the school certificate maynot be reliable and that standards will vary. As regardsreliability, with all the provisions we have mentioned previouslywe have little apprehension on that score. The only way tomake the teachers’ judgments reliable is to rely on them. Inthe beginning there may be stray cases of wrong judgment, butbefore long they will come to be more and more reliable andtrustworthy. “No one can examine better than the teacher whoknows the child, and a method of examination by the teacher,combined with school records, would be devised which wouldfurnish a certificate giving information of real importance toemployer or college or profession, and yet would preserve in

maintaining the school records. The present system of evaluatingby percentiles, i.e. by numerical marks, out of a hundred, mayhave certain advantages but the disadvantages seem to outweighthe advantages. Firstly, it introduces too many subdivisionswhich are not only useless but cumbersome; and secondly, itis indeed difficult to distinguish between two pupils one ofwhom obtains, say, 45 marks and another 46 or 47. Thissystem no doubt gives the semblance of accurate judgmentwhich for most of the pupils it is hardly worthwhile to exerciseand is beset with many errors. In this connection we wouldagain invite attention to the Hartog Report on ‘An Examinationof Examinations’ which fully reveals the limitations and errorsof the system. A simpler and better system is the use of thefive-point scale to which ‘A’ stands for excellent, ‘B’ for good,‘C’ for fair and average, ‘D’ for poor and ‘E’ for very poor. Inthis system pupils are grouped in broad divisions which arcmore easily distinguishable than the differences indicated bypercentile marks. We recommended that this system be adoptedfor school records.

For written examinations, whether external or internal,the same scale may be used with this modification that hereD and E will be combined to indicate ‘failure’. Here ‘A’ willindicate ‘Distinction’, B ‘Credit’ and C ‘Pass’ and D and E‘Failure’ or ‘Cases Referred Back’. The values of these categoriesin terms of percentile marks may be determined by theexamining authority. Individual examiners in different subjectsmay even use the percentile system and then convert thepercentile scores in terms of categories. The systemrecommended here will work in almost all cases except wherethe distinctions are to be: made for the award of scholarshipsand prizes. In these cases (whose number will always be limited)the system-may be modified to introduce a finer scale whichmay show the difference between two cases which may bealmost similar. It must however be admitted that a differenceof a few marks on the percentile scale is more often a matterof chance than of exact determination. We note that changeshave been introduced in recent years in several universitieswhere candidates who have secured a first or second class are


described. For the final examination a candidate will ordinarilytake six subjects, two from Section ‘A’, one from Section ‘C’and three from Section ‘D’ of the Curriculum (vide pp. 86-88).He may also take an additional subject as provided underSection ‘E’, but the result should be decided on the performanceof the six subjects only. A pass in six subjects should be deemedsufficient for the satisfactory completion of the certificate. Ofthese six subjects, at least four should have been obtained atthe public examination, while two others may be passes obtainedin the school records. If such school record passes are taken intoconsideration candidate should have obtained at least one creditamong the four passes of the public examination. In such ascheme due notice would also have been taken of the schoolrecord of the pupil.

We have indicated in a general way of the tests to beobserved for certifying satisfactory completion of the schoolcourses. It is, however, , open to those concerned with theselection of pupils for higher education, university, technicalor otherwise, or for those authorities which recruit publicservices, to determine the exact standard of achievementrequired of candidates in the several subjects.

We are of opinion that as far as the final public examinationis concerned the compartmental system should be introduced.If a candidate fails in one or more subjects of the publicexamination he should be allowed to take these subjects ofpublic examination at a subsequent examination but in suchcases the school records will not be taken into account. He neednot again sit for subjects in which he has obtained a pass. Hewill be given not more than three chances to appear atsubsequent examinations.

A candidate who has passed the examination in the requiredsix subjects and wishes to qualify in any additional subject,may appear at a subsequent examination. The result thusobtained will be entered by the examination authority in thecertificate already obtained by the candidate.

The scheme recommended by us here for the reform of theentire system of examination and evaluation of school workshould be tried for a reasonably long period of time. It takes

fact the freedom of the school and would rid teacher and pupilof an artificial restrain imposed from without. As for uniformityof standards, even under the present conditions, two apparentlysimilar certificates mean very different things and illusoryuniformity can be brought too dearly.” (Norwood CommitteeReport on Curriculum and Examination in Secondary Schools,H.M.S.O., 1941, p. 32).

EXAMINATION CERTIFICATEEXAMINATION CERTIFICATEEXAMINATION CERTIFICATEEXAMINATION CERTIFICATEEXAMINATION CERTIFICATEPupils who complete the school courses and take the final

examination will get certificate to be awarded by the authoritiesholding the examination. Elsewhere we have described theconstitution and function of the body which will be responsiblefor holding the two public examinations at the end of the schoolcourse namely, the High School Certificate Examination andthe Higher Secondary Certificate Examination.

The form of these certificates needs also to be changed.Some States award a bare certificate mentioning only thedivision obtained by the pupil without mentioning in detail thecourses taken by him. Such certificates are not very helpfuleither to the colleges or to the employing authorities. In oneor two states, however, a more elaborate form of certificateis used which incorporates not only the results of the schooltests in these and other subjects which are not included in thepublic examination but also contain extracts from school records..A specimen copy of such a certificate form is given in AppendixVIII. We commend this latter form of certificate in preferenceto the former.

Examining authorities should prescribe a form wherein theschools could file in the details of the school record of the pupilconcerned. At the time of the public examination the school willforward the record to the examining authority. The examiningauthority in its turn will enter therein the results of the publicexamination and return it to the school to be forwarded to thepupil concerned. Every candidate who appears for theexamination will get a certificate, showing the school recordand the public test record. The system of evaluation to beadopted by the school and the examining body has already been

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education224224224224224 Improvement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching Personnel 225225225225225

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IIIIIMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENT OFOFOFOFOF THETHETHETHETHE T T T T TEACHINGEACHINGEACHINGEACHINGEACHING P P P P PERSONNELERSONNELERSONNELERSONNELERSONNEL

THE NEED FOR IMPROVING THE GENERALTHE NEED FOR IMPROVING THE GENERALTHE NEED FOR IMPROVING THE GENERALTHE NEED FOR IMPROVING THE GENERALTHE NEED FOR IMPROVING THE GENERALCONDITIONS OF TEACHERSCONDITIONS OF TEACHERSCONDITIONS OF TEACHERSCONDITIONS OF TEACHERSCONDITIONS OF TEACHERS

In the preceding chapters of our Report we have referredto the various steps to be taken to improve the quality andstandards of Secondary education and to make it a worthymedium for the balanced development of the students’personality. We are, however, convinced that the mostimportant factor in the contemplated educational reconstructionis the teacher-his personal qualities, his educationalqualifications, his professional training and the place that heoccupies in the school as well as in the community.

The reputation of a school and its influence on the life ofthe community invariably depend on the kind of teachersworking in it. Priority of consideration must, therefore, begiven to the various problems connected with the improvementof their status. During our tour, we were painfully impressedby the fact that the social status, the salaries and the generalservice conditions of teachers are far from satisfactory. In fact,our general impression is that on the whole their position todayis even worse than it was in the past.

It compares unfavourably not only with persons of similarqualifications in other professions but also, in many cases,with those of lower qualifications who are entrusted with lessimportant and socially less significant duties. They have oftenno security of tenure and their treatment by management isin many cases, inconsistent with their position and dignity.The same story of woe was repeated at almost every centre by

time for such fundamental changes to be assimilated beforethey can work satisfactorily and before any judgement can bepronounced on them.


1. The number of external examinations should be reducedand the element of subjectivity in the essay-type testsshould be minimised by introducing objective tests andalso by changing the type of questions.

2. In order to find out the pupil’s all around progress andto determine his future, a proper system of schoolrecords should be maintained for every pupil indicatingthe work done by him from time to time and hisattainments in the different spheres.

3. In the final assessment of the pupils due credit shouldbe given to the internal tests and the school records ofthe pupils.

4. The system of symbolic rather than numerical markingshould be adopted for evaluating and grading the workof the pupil in external and internal examinations andin maintaining the school records.

5. There should be one public examination at the completionof the Secondary school course.

6. The certificate awarded should contain besides theresults of the public examination in different subjects,the results of the school tests in subjects not includedin the public examination as well as the gist of theschool records.

7. The system of compartmental examinations should beintroduc-ed at the final public examination.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Improvement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching Personnel226226226226226 227227227227227

Government schools and schools under the management ofprivate agencies. In the case of Government schools, the PublicService CommisSion selects teachers-at least in the highergrades-and in doing so they have the advice of the Director ofEducation or some other high official of the Department. Inprivately managed schools, however, the procedure variesfrom State to State and sometimes from institution to institution.We recommend that in all privately managed institutions thereshould be a small Selection Committee entrusted with theresponsibility of recruiting the staff, with the headmaster asan ex-officio member. It is also desirable that a nominee of theDepartment of Education should be on the Managing Board.We also recommend that, in schools maintained by local boardsor municipalities, a similar policy should be adopted and eitherthe Public Service Commission of the State or a body constitutedon similar lines should be entrusted with the task of selectingteachers.

PERIOD OF PROBATIONPERIOD OF PROBATIONPERIOD OF PROBATIONPERIOD OF PROBATIONPERIOD OF PROBATIONAt present there is no uniformity in regard to the period

of probation prescribed for teachers. Unless it is short-termvacancy, it is desirable that a trained teacher, appointed toa permanent post, should be on probation for one year, andafter satisfactory completion of the period he should beconfirmed. In exceptional cases, the managements may extendthat period by one year which should be the maximum periodof probation before deciding confirmation. After confirmation,the teacher should normally be continued in service till the ageof retirement.

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGH ANDQUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGH ANDQUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGH ANDQUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGH ANDQUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGH ANDHIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLSHIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLSHIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLSHIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLSHIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLS

We have already stated that, so far as the High schoolsare concerned only graduates with a degree in education shouldbe appointed. We feel that at the Middle school stage also itis important to have a fair number of trained graduates on thestaff. It is our hope that, in course of time, education at theMiddle school stage win be imparted by graduate teachers, andSecondary grades trained teachers will be available for Primary

the Teachers’ Organizations and by responsible headmastersand others interested in education.

It is surprising that, in spite of the recommendations madeby successive Education Commissions in the past many of thedisabilities from which teachers suffer, still persist and adequatesteps have not been taken to remove them. We are aware thatin recent years, in many States, there has been a revision ofteachers’ grades and dearness allowances’ have been sanctioned.But they have not brought adequate relief, be-’ cause,meanwhile, the cost of living has risen steeply and thus nullifiedthe concessions that had been granted. We are fully consciousof the financial difficulties of the State Governments and thefact that they have to attend simultaneously to a large numberof urgent and pressing problems. But we are convinced that,if the teachers’ present mood of discontent and frustration isto be removed and education is to be. come a genuine nation-building activity, it is absolutely necessary to improve theirstatus and their conditions of service.

METHOD OF RECRUITMENTMETHOD OF RECRUITMENTMETHOD OF RECRUITMENTMETHOD OF RECRUITMENTMETHOD OF RECRUITMENTThere seems to be no uniform system in the different States

in regard to the recruitment of teachers. We have referredelsewhere to the measures that may be adopted to attract thebest persons to the profession by giving them stipends andtreating them as on probation during the period of training.Many schools have still a large number of untrained teachersand it does not seem to have been realised by managementsthat it is unfair on their part to let the students be taught bysuch teachers. Some management’s utilise untrained teachersfor short periods and then discharge them and thus circumventthe departmental rules regarding the employment of trainedteachers. We realise that the training facilities available arenot adequate and that a considerable increase in the numberof training institutes is necessary. Still we are not convincedthat the managements have taken all the steps possible toattract trained teachers. We feel that there should be areasonably uniform procedure for the selection and appointmentof teachers and this should not be very different as between


we feel that the qualifications of the teachers entrusted withthe last two years at the Higher Secondary stage should be thesame as prescribed in some universities for teachers of theIntermediate. These qualifications are the Honours or M.A.Degree or a first Class B.A. with a degree in teaching. For thetraditional period we suggest that persons employed in HigherSecondary schools should have these high academicqualifications and possess either a degree in Education or atleast three years’ teaching experience in a college. In the HigherSecondary schools which impart instruction in the technicaland vocational subjects some of the teachers dealing with thelast two years should likewise possess high qualifications intheir own subjects. These may be prescribed by the specialadvisory committees which we have suggested for technicaleducation.

We have referred in another chapter to the importance ofproperly trained teachers of languages at the school stage. If,as we envisage, students have to be taught two or morelanguages, the need for properly trained teachers becomeseven greater. At present, in a number of schools, the languageteacher is required to have a university qualification and insome State qualifications awarded by certain other bodies havebeen recognised as equipment. We trust this recognition hasbeen given with due reference to their academic standards,and that government have satisfied themselves about thecourses, the methods of teaching and qualifications of staff. Wefeel that unless this is done, there will be wide variation inthe standard of attainment of language teacher in differentschools. These teachers, like the teachers of other subjects,require special training in method of teaching. In some Statessuch training is provided for language teachers and certificatesare awarded by the University or the Government. Werecommend that all other States should likewise arrange forthe training of graduates, oriental title holders and otherpersons possessing necessary linguistic qualifications.

Conditions of ServiceConditions of ServiceConditions of ServiceConditions of ServiceConditions of ServiceIn addition to what we have stated above there are certain

other important conditions of service which merit consideration.

or Junior Basic schools. We recommend this for considerationas a long-term plan.

In regard to the appointment of teachers for technical andtechnological subjects included in the diversified courses ofstudy, the qualification should be prescribed by the departmentsof education after taking into consideration the requirementsof the particular subject to be taught. In the majority of cases,we recommend that such teachers should be graduates in theparticular subject and should have received training in teachingit.

We have noted that at present, in many schools, the staffappointed satisfy only the minimum educational qualificationsprescribed. It is very desirable that at least some of the teachersshould possess higher educational qualifications both in generaleducation and in teaching.

Many universities have given teachers employed inrecognised schools the privilege of taking the examination fora higher degree after private study. As an incentive for theacquisition of such additional qualifications, we suggest thatschool authorities should grant some additional increments toteachers who obtain higher degrees while in service. Caremust, however, be taken to see that this does not interferewith the satisfactory discharge of their normal duties.

We have recommended that the Secondary school courseshould be extended to cover an additional year and that at theend of this period candidates must be eligible for the HigherSecondary schools certificate. This additional year of schoolcourse carries with it the responsibility for greater efficiencyin teaching and for the attainment of a higher standard. It isnecessary before any school is recognised as Higher Secondaryschool that teachers with higher qualifications should beappointed to the staff. We found that in one State, whenevera school is upgraded into a Higher Secondary school, it wasincumbent upon the management to have on the staff personswith higher qualifications (a Master’s or Honours Degree) thenumber of such teachers depending upon the number of subjectstaught in the school. In view of the fact that one year of theold Intermediate is to be added to the Higher Secondary schools,


Generally, the teacher subscribes an amount not exceeding 61/4 % of his salary and an equal amount is contributed by themanagement and the State or by the Local Board concerned,the whole amount being invested in some kind ‘of securitiesand paid to him at the end of his service. Teachers who aretransferred from one educational institution to another havethe right to have their Provident Fund also transferred. Insome States, however, an equal contribution is not made tothe Provident Fund by the parties concerned.

Teachers in government service are entitled to pension asin other services of government but not so the teachers inprivate schools. We have had several unfortunate cases wherethe sudden demise of a teacher has left the family almostpenniless and the Provident Fund did not meet even theimmediate needs of the family. It is, therefore, necessary tothink of other ways of overcoming such difficulties.

Triple Benefit Scheme for TeachersTriple Benefit Scheme for TeachersTriple Benefit Scheme for TeachersTriple Benefit Scheme for TeachersTriple Benefit Scheme for TeachersRecently, in one of the States, a triple benefit scheme has

been instituted for government servants, called the Pension-cum-Provident Fund-cum-Insurance Scheme. We understandthat this scheme has been introduced by some universities alsofor their employees. We feel that, if the teachers are to berelieved of worries about the future of their family, this triplebenefit scheme should be made applicable to teachers in allStates. The details of the scheme are given in the Appendix IXSince the majority of the institutions are privately managed,the responsibility for the maintenance of the Provident Fundand Pension Fund account should rest with the governmentthrough the Department of Education which will be responsiblefor working out the details and administering the fund.

Security of TenureSecurity of TenureSecurity of TenureSecurity of TenureSecurity of TenureThe teaching profession in the country is much perturbed

about security of tenure of office and the general conditionsunder which they have to work. In some States, schools havebeen established by managements who have no experience ofeducational work. There is no doubt that many managementshave abused their position and treated teachers shabbily and

Scale of Pay: Scale of Pay: Scale of Pay: Scale of Pay: Scale of Pay: Considerable dissatisfaction existseverywhere about the scales of pay for teachers in the differentgrades of schools. Certain minimum scales of pay have beenrecommended by successive committees and commissions aswell as in the Reports of the Central Pay Commission, theCentral Advisory Board of Education and the Kher Committee.These recommendations, have not, however, been implementedand as we have pointed out, the concessions actually madehave been largely nullified by the phenomenal increase in thecost of living. The problem therefore requires urgentconsideration.

Apart from the question of the actual scales of pay sanctionedwe see no justification for variations in the grades of teachersworking in government schools and in schools conducted bylocal bodies and private agencies in the same State. Werecommend as a general principle that those who have similarqualifications and undertake similar responsibilities should betreated on a par in the matter of salary irrespective of the typeof institution in which they are working. We have noted thatin some States the scales of pay are much lower than on otherStates. We wish to emphasise that the revision of the presentscales of pay is urgent and this revision should take into dueconsideration the recommendations made by previouscommittees during the last few years as well as the increasein cost of living that has occurred since then. Since the cost ofliving as well as the financial position of different States varyconsiderably, it is not possible for us to suggest a uniform payscale applicable in all States. We, therefore, strongly urge thatthe States should appoint special committees to review thescales of pay of teachers of all grades and make recommendationsthat meet in a fair and just manner, the present cost of living.

Provident Funds and Pension: Provident Funds and Pension: Provident Funds and Pension: Provident Funds and Pension: Provident Funds and Pension: Apart from the scales ofsalary the general conditions of service should be such thatteachers can duly discharge their family and civic responsibilitieswithout anxiety about their future and the security of service.At present they are entitled to Provident Fund benefits in mostof the States. The contribution made to the Fund by the teachers,the States and private managements vary considerably.


appeal to a higher authority i.e., government. Where a localboard has a number of schools under its management, we deemit desirable that there should be a special officer of the EducationDepartment to look after the conditions of service of teachersemployed under it. In the case of girls’ schools the specialofficer should be a woman of the status of an Inspectress ofSchools. These officers should be authorised to deal withtransfers, appointment, etc., subject to a right of appeal eitherto the Director of Education or the Arbitration Board accordingto the nature of the case.

Age of RetirementAge of RetirementAge of RetirementAge of RetirementAge of RetirementAt present, the age of retirement is 55, but in private

institutions, it can be extended up to 60 with the approval ofthe Department of Education. We feel that in view of theexpanding need for qualified teachers and in view also of theimprovement in the general expectation of life within recentyears, the age of retirement may be extended to 60 with theapproval of the Director of Education provided the teacher isphysically and otherwise fit.

Other AmenitiesOther AmenitiesOther AmenitiesOther AmenitiesOther AmenitiesIn addition to the above specific recommendations we feel

that there are certain other amenities that should be providedfor the teaching profession so as to attract the right type ofpersons. Among these may be mentioned the following:

Free Education of Children: Free Education of Children: Free Education of Children: Free Education of Children: Free Education of Children: Free education up to theage of 14 is a responsibility of government under theConstitution. It would therefore, be in keeping with this policy,if the children of teachers are given free education in schools.We were glad to note that in one State the children of all theteachers are given free education up to the middle school stage,and half-fee concession at the high school stage, the Statecompensating the managements concerned for the loss of feeon this account. We recommend this policy and suggest thatthe children of teachers should be given free educationthroughout the school stage.

Housing Schemes for Teachers: Housing Schemes for Teachers: Housing Schemes for Teachers: Housing Schemes for Teachers: Housing Schemes for Teachers: One of the difficultiesexperienced in recruiting teachers both for urban and rural

this is probably responsible for the demand by some teachersand Teachers’ Associations that all schools should be broughtunder the control of the government. We have also receivedcomplaints that service conditions under local bodies have beenunsatisfactory and that teachers have been subjected tohumiliating treatment by the authorities concerned in the matterof transfer, termination of services, and punishments. In briefthe present position of these bodies and their relationship tothe teaching profession is not satisfactory. We have been toldby responsible teachers and Teachers’ Associations that it isnot unusual for some managements to ask for “voluntarydonations” from the teachers for the schools. We consider itessential that all those who have to do with educationaladministration should recognise clearly and without any mentalreservation the status of the teachers and the respect andconsideration due to them. At the same time we must stronglyaffirm that it is the duty of teachers to set up such a highexample of personal and professional integrity as to win therespect as well as the full co-operation of the management andthe community.

It has also been brought to out notice that punishment aresometimes meted out to teachers inconsiderately-their servicesare terminated or their transfers made without adequategrounds or increments stopped without justification. While wewould not suggest that an erring teacher should not incur anypunishment, we feel that whenever such punishment aremeted out there should be provision for an appeal by theteacher to a higher authority. We are aware that, in certainStates, the managements are required to report to the Directorof Public Instruction certain types of disciplinary action. Forthis purpose, Arbitration Boards or Committees should beappointed which will have a right to look into these appealsand any grievances and to consider whether the punishmentaccorded, suspension, dismissal, stoppage of increments, orreduction to a lower status is justified. This board should consistof the Director of Education or his nominee, a representativeof the management and representative of the State Teachers’Association. The decision of the Board should be final, exceptin the case of government servants who have the right to,


profession as a whole will be greatly appreciated and will goa long way to relieve them of anxiety.

Leave Concessions: Leave Concessions: Leave Concessions: Leave Concessions: Leave Concessions: We have stated elsewhere that theminimum number of working days in a school should be about200. In a large majority of cases, the teacher will get thebenefit of the vacation and the other causal holidays. Undercertain circumstances, however, special leave may be necessaryon account of illness or urgent personal work. There are threetypes of leave, which may be considered in this connection—causal leave, medical leave, and, in the case of womenteachers, maternity leave We recommend that there shouldbe uniform leave rule for all educational institutions.

In addition to the kinds of leave mentioned above there isa great deal to be said in favour of study leave being grantedto teachers. Opportunities must be given to them to visit differentinstitutions within the country and some of them, in responsibleposition, may be given study leave on full pay to go abroad,for period ranging from 6 months to 12 months, for highereducation or to study educational work in foreign countries.Such study leave should be granted by the Centre or the StateGovernment concerned, and the teachers selected may beeither from Government or Local Boards or Private schools,the chief criterion for selection being the extent to which hewill gain by his study and experiences for use on his return.Study leave may also be granted to obtain higher qualificationsin teaching or any other relevant subject of study.

The system of granting a “subbatical year’s leave” thatexists in some countries of the West may also be consideredwith advantage by the State and Central Governments.

The Problem of Additional EmploymentThe Problem of Additional EmploymentThe Problem of Additional EmploymentThe Problem of Additional EmploymentThe Problem of Additional EmploymentThe most usual form of remunerative work taken up by the

teachers out of school hours consists of private tuitions. Thispractice of private tuitions has unfortunately assumed theproportions of an educational scandal. We are satisfied that itis attended with several evils. Steps should be taken to abolishit as early as possible. In view of the recommendations we havemade for the improvement of the conditions of service. we

areas is the lack of suitable accommodation. This difficulty iseven greater in the case of women teachers, and instances havecome to our notice of women teachers transferred to certainplaces being entirely unable to find any residentialaccommodation at all. We suggest that through a system of co-operative house-building societies or in other ways teachersshould be provided with quarters so as to enable them to livenear the schools and devote more of their time to the manysided activities of the School.

Railway Travel Concessions: Railway Travel Concessions: Railway Travel Concessions: Railway Travel Concessions: Railway Travel Concessions: Teachers have to attendseminars and refresher courses organised by the Departmentof Education or by Teachers’ Associations, and they should beencouraged to attend regional and All-India EducationalConferences. We were told that the railway authorities haveextended certain travel concessions to them. We welcome thismove and, recommend that it should be widened so thatteacher wishing to go to health resorts or holiday camps or toattend educational conferences, seminars, etc., be given travelconcessions at half rates.

Holiday Homes and Health Resorts: Holiday Homes and Health Resorts: Holiday Homes and Health Resorts: Holiday Homes and Health Resorts: Holiday Homes and Health Resorts: One of the teachers’special advantages is the long vacation during which they areexpected to refresh themselves both in body and mind and‘equip themselves better for their work when the school reopens.It would be of advantage to start a nation-wide movementencouraging teachers to go to health resorts or holiday homesduring the vacation. This should not be very difficult or costly,if managements and State Governments co-operate to organisesuch, camps on a permanent basis and afford necessary facilitiesto teachers to spend at least part of their vacations in suchcamps. In some States a beginning has been made in thisdirection, and we would like to commend this example to otherStates and private managements.

Medical Relief: Medical Relief: Medical Relief: Medical Relief: Medical Relief: We feel that the teaching profession shouldbe entitled to the benefit to medical relief, free treatment inhospitals and dispensaries, and, where necessary, freeaccommodation in State hospitals. We were glad to learn thatin one of the States, all non-gazetted officers were entitled tothis concession. The extension of this privilege to the teaching


school ultimately depends. The reputation of a school and theposition that it holds in the society depends in a large measureon the influence that he exercises over his colleagues, thepupils and their parents and the general public. Similarly thedicipline of the school and its esprit de crops are his specialresponsibility. He also holds an important place in the life ofthe community, where he can exercise a very healthy influence.By this contact with parents and the general public he can helpto forge that link between the school and the larger communitywhich we have repeatedly stressed. He is also responsible forcarrying out the policies and programme of the Department ofEducation and he acts a liaison between it and the managementor the general local community.

From all these points of view the choice of the headmasterof the school is of particular significance. By his attainmentsand qualifications, his previous record as a teacher, his socialaptitudes, he should be able to command the confidence of hiscolleagues and the public and the respect of his pupils. Webelieve that seniority is frequently not the best criterion in thechoosing of a headmaster. It is more important that he shouldpossess the other conditions and qualifications that we havementioned as necessary for such a high and responsible post.

The special qualifications to be stressed in addition to theacademic and professional are teaching and/or administrativeexperience of at least 10 years and qualities of leadership andadministrative ability.

We belive that to attract people of the right type to soresponsible a position, the emoluments of the post should besufficiently attractive. For this purpose a special scale of payor an allowance in addition to this salary should be given. Toenable him to discharge his duties efficiently the number ofstudents in the school must be limited. We have stated elsewherethat the optimum number in a school is 500 and the maximum750 except in certain multipurpose schools where it may be 1,000 and where the headmaster should have a Deputy to lookafter vocational side or the general side as the case may be.Where the number exceeds this limit, a senior teacher shouldbe designated as Assistant Headmaster and certain duties of

believe it will become increasingly unnecessary for teachers totake up private tuitions to supplement their income. We areaware that some students require special coaching to keep pacewith other children but the right way of dealing with thatsituation is that the school should itself make provision forextra tuition to such backward children at fixed hours chargingextra fees for purpose if necessary.

We do not wish, to make any definite recommendationsin this matter but would leave to the State to consider whether,consistently with their school duties, some of the teachers inthe rural areas could not be utilised for other local duties likePost Office or Rural Reconstruction ‘Work such as being carriedon by the Community Projects on a remunerative basis. In viewof the paucity of educated persons in rural areas this kind ofpart-time employment may enable the teacher to perform someuseful work for the local community and earn some additionalincome.

The Teachers’ Status in SocietyThe Teachers’ Status in SocietyThe Teachers’ Status in SocietyThe Teachers’ Status in SocietyThe Teachers’ Status in SocietyWe have already referred to the importance of the teachers’

social status. There is a growing feeling, that the lead in thismatter should be taken by persons in high public positions whoshould show special recognition of the status and dignity ofteachers and treat them not on the basis of their salary andeconomic status but on the importance of the nation-buildingwork that is entrusted to them. If they do so, society wouldfollow their example in due course. At important public andceremonial functions, the head of the State or the Ministersor the District Officer concerned should invite representativesof the teaching profession and give them a position of honour.Many in the profession have shown outstanding merit in theirwork and are entitled to receive due recognition of it from theState as well as from the society. They must also be consultedin all important matters pertaining to education so as tostrengthen their sense of professional responsibility.

The HeadmasterThe HeadmasterThe HeadmasterThe HeadmasterThe HeadmasterSpecial mention must be made of the position of the

headmaster in a school. On him the proper working of the


State to State, but on the whole it is not high. In some Statesthey should have read up to the third form or the eighthstandard of the High School or they should have completed theHigher Elementary course. Thereafter they are given one ortwo years’ training and are then expected to teach in Elementaryor primary or junior Basic schools as they may be variouslycalled.

Need for Better-Equipped Teaching PersonnelNeed for Better-Equipped Teaching PersonnelNeed for Better-Equipped Teaching PersonnelNeed for Better-Equipped Teaching PersonnelNeed for Better-Equipped Teaching PersonnelIt is an accepted principle that teaching in the lower

standards and especially in infant classes in the Primary gradesrequires as much, if not more, preparation as in the Highschools and that the lower the grade of pupils the greater isthe skill required to teach them. In the course of our tour, wehave observed with pleasure in some nursery schools andprimary schools conducted by private agencies to what extentthe quality of teaching improves when educated and well-trained persons are in charge. We have seen how the boys andgirls in these schools are not merely given training in the three‘R’s’ but are also trained in habits of life and social conduct andin some elementary craft work which helps in the developmentof personality and creates in children a healthy interest in anda love for education. These principles are no doubt implementedin what is known as the Basic typo of education. The point tobe emphasised is that proper education at this very early stageis not possible with the type of teachers as are now acceptedfor Primary schools. If a good foundation is to be laid at thismost impressionable stage, efforts should be made to see thatbetter equipped and better trained teachers are available. Weare, therefore, of the opinion that the minimum generaleducational standard for all Primary school teachers should bethe School Leaving Certificate and that their period of trainingshould extend over two years and it should consist of trainingboth in general as well as in the professional subjects.

In our opinion, there should be only two types of institutionsfor teacher-training: (1) for those who have taken the SchoolLeaving Certificate or the Higher Secondary School LeavingCertificate as envisaged by us, and for whom a two-yearteacher-training should be required; and (2) for graduates for

the headmaster should be delegated to him. It is of the utmostimportance however that headmaster should have opportunitiesof getting into contact with all the pupils in the school, toscrutinize their records, to get to know the parents and toparticipate in the co-curricular and the community activitiesof the school.

In conclusion, we should like to reiterate that the wholequestion of educational reconstruction hinges on the successthe Department and the community in winning over the wholehearted co-operation of the teachers. For this purpose, thenecessary climate of opinion must be created. This should bedone not only through the various measures that we haverecommended for improving their economic and social statusbut also by organizing nation-wide conferences, study groups,discussions and seminars at which creative ideas abouteducational reform may be discussed and popularized,

TEACHER-TRAININGTEACHER-TRAININGTEACHER-TRAININGTEACHER-TRAININGTEACHER-TRAINING

Importance of Training of TeachersImportance of Training of TeachersImportance of Training of TeachersImportance of Training of TeachersImportance of Training of TeachersHaving considered the general question relating to the

improvement of the teachers’ status it is necessary to devotespecial attention to the problems of their training. It has beennoted that there are considerable variations in regard to theteacher-training programme in different States and also thatthe number of institutions for teacher-training is veryinadequate compared even to the present needs. Moreover, theprospects of teaching profession are not satisfactory enough toattract sufficient number of candidates to join the teacher-training institutions.

Types of Teacher-Training InstitutionsTypes of Teacher-Training InstitutionsTypes of Teacher-Training InstitutionsTypes of Teacher-Training InstitutionsTypes of Teacher-Training InstitutionsBroadly speaking, the existing teacher-training institutions

may be classified under three heads: (i) Primary (or Basic)Teacher-Training; (ii) Secondary Teacher-Training; and(iii) Graduate Teacher-Training Institutions.

The Primary (or Basic) Teacher-Training Institutions areintended for teachers of Primary or junior Basic schools. Thegeneral educational qualification of these teachers varies from


interest in teaching should be stimulated by visits to schools,discussions and some amount of teaching practice undersupervision. In the second year, special subjects pertaining topedagogy and the practice of methods of teaching should forma large part of the curriculum. Secondary-grade trained teachersshould largely be employed for the nursery schools and theprimary or junior Basic schools. While every one of them mayprobably be given training to deal with general subjects inthese different types of schools, some should have specialtraining in one or other of the following : (a) Nursery-schooleducation. (b) Craft education and principles of craft-centrededucation. (c) One or other of co-curricular activities.

The general approach to co-curricular activities will betaught to all, but one or two of these co-curricular activitiesshould be more intensively taken up by the student-teachersfor a limited period of training, say for 8 or 12 weeks. Theobject of the special training in such co-curricular activities likephysical education, scouting and guiding, first-aid, excursion,library organisations etc., is to provide teachers specially trainedto organise these activities properly.

Graduate-TrainingGraduate-TrainingGraduate-TrainingGraduate-TrainingGraduate-TrainingGraduate-training is restricted to one year, and although

we have recommended as a long-term programme thedesirability of increasing this period to two academic years, werealise that it cannot be thought of in the immediate future.During this one year of training, the graduate teacher shouldbe trained in methods of teaching at least two subjects. Thesubjects so chosen should have studied, at least up to the.Intermediate or Higher Secondary Certificate standard. Thispoint is important. For we are told that in many instancesgraduates with a combination of subjects which have nothingto do with schools come for training. Such graduates, even withtraining, can hardly make good subject-teachers. They should,therefore, be discouraged from joining the teaching profession.

Practical TrainingPractical TrainingPractical TrainingPractical TrainingPractical TrainingThe importance to be attached to teaching practice in schools

cannot be over-emphasised. We believe that it-will be conducive

whom the training should be, as at present, of one academicyear. We suggest as a long-term programme that graduateteachers should have their training extended to two academicyears; but we realise that both financially and in view of thenumber of teachers required and also because the teachersthem-selves can ill spare two years for such training, this isnot immediately possible.

Graduate or First-Grade Teacher-TrainingGraduate or First-Grade Teacher-TrainingGraduate or First-Grade Teacher-TrainingGraduate or First-Grade Teacher-TrainingGraduate or First-Grade Teacher-TrainingIn regard to graduate teacher-training, we are definitely

of the opinion that institutions for this purpose should berecognised by and affiliated to the universities and the diplomasand degrees should be granted by the universities and not bythe State Departments of Education or by ad hoc bodies. Insome States, it would appear that some graduate teachersobtain as their training qualification a degree awarded by auniversity while others obtain for the same purpose a diplomagiven by the State Department of Education. We consider thatthe maintenance of two standards in training is whollyunnecessary. It is not desirable that the State through theirDepartments of Education should conduct tests and grantdiplomas at this stage. Graduate training being a post-graduatequalification should come under the university and when thereare universities carrying on this function, all graduates shouldbe trained in institutions which are affiliated to the universitiesand submit to tests conducted by the university. As for theother type of teacher-training institutions, they should beunder the control of a separate Board appointed for this purposeand not under the Department of Education. We shall refer tothe constitution and functions of such a Board later. In someStates even these are under the control of the university; butwe do not think that the university can effectively superviseand guide the large number of such institutions catering formany thousands of teachers.

Secondary-Grade TrainingSecondary-Grade TrainingSecondary-Grade TrainingSecondary-Grade TrainingSecondary-Grade TrainingIn the secondary-grade training institutions for which we

have recommeded a two-year course, the first year will bedevoted largely to general education. The student-teachers’


by sample test by the Board of Examiners conducting theuniversity examination.

Training in Co-Curricular ActivitiesTraining in Co-Curricular ActivitiesTraining in Co-Curricular ActivitiesTraining in Co-Curricular ActivitiesTraining in Co-Curricular ActivitiesIn view of the importance we attach to co-curricular

activities, to which reference has been made elsewhere, everystudent-teacher should have special training in one or other ofthe co-curricular activities in a manner we have suggested forsecondary-grade trained teachers. The object of this trainingis not to supplant the fully trained personnel, but rather tosupplement their activities and to give them valuable assistancein this respect. Thus, a short course of training in schoollibrarianship will enable the teacher concerned to give valuableassistance to the trained librarian of the school. Likewise,training in physical education will enable the teacher to co-operate with the medical officer, and with the physical educationteachers in looking after the physical welfare of the schoolchildren. So far as medical care is concerned, we have inanother place referred to the fact that student teachers can begiven a short period of training in regard to certain fundamentalsof school health and care of the children; we have also statedthat school teachers so trained would form a useful link withthe other trained staff in looking after the health and welfareof the school children. Each training institution must developalong these lines so as to supplement the usual teacher-trainingprogramme by intensive courses over short periods for teachersWith particular aptitudes in any of the co-curricular activities.Likewise, training in school administration, audio-visualeducation, school broad-casts, social education, scouting andguiding, citizenship, training, junior Red Cross as well astraining in conducting students’ clubs, debating societies, etc.and in organising social service and community life can begiven to the student-teachers. Many of these activities requirea good deal of knowing and preparation if they are to beeffectively utilised in the school programme.

In-Service TrainingIn-Service TrainingIn-Service TrainingIn-Service TrainingIn-Service TrainingHowever excellent the programme of teacher-training may

be, it does not by itself produce an excellent teacher. It can

to sound training if every Teacher-Training college has ademonstration school-more commonly called a model school-aswell as a certain number of other schools at a reasonably neardistance associated with it for purposes of practical training.These schools themselves should have trained graduate teacherson the staff. We do not propose to enter into the details withregard to the nature of the training that is to be imparted butwe wish to emphasise that at present the practical training forstudent-teachers is very limited and in some places almost non-existent. There is one point, however, which should bementioned in this connection. The practical training should notconsist only of practice in teaching, observation, demonstrationand criticism of lessons, but should include such subjects asconstruction and administration of scholastic tests, Organisationof supervised study and students’ societies, conducting libraryperiods and maintenance of cumulative records. We feel thatthe scope of teacher training, particularly in its practicalaspects, should be broadened to include some of these activitiesthat a student-teacher will be expected to perform when hebecomes a full fledged teacher.

One aspect of such specialised training deserves attention.The training of teachers of handicapped children concerns notonly the physically handicapped but also the mentallyhandicapped children. Teachers of mentally handicappedchildren also need very special kind of training in which problemof mental disorders and mental hygiene should figureprominently. It would however, be an advantage if A teachersare initiated during their training into the general principlesof mental hygiene because of the insight it provides into thebehaviour problems of even ordinary children. In fact we areof opinion that mental hygiene should receive greater emphasisthan it at present does in the teacher training courses at alllevels.

As regards the assessment of a teacher’s practical ability,we realise that it is not possible for large numbers to have anexamination test in practical training conducted by an outsideagency like the university, but internal tests by the staffshould be required in all cases, supplemented where necessary


in different schools. For this purpose every training collegedesiring to conduct educational research should have under itscontrol an experimental or demonstration school besides thepractising schools already mentioned.

Training in Special SubjectsTraining in Special SubjectsTraining in Special SubjectsTraining in Special SubjectsTraining in Special SubjectsThere are certain special types of training which are being

given in different institutions. Physical education, for instance,is at present given in specialised institutions for the purpose.Likewise, training for handicapped children, for deaf-mutesand the blind are given in separate institutions. Rightly so, forthe effectiveness of the training will be preserved only if givenin institutions where the. principles of pedagogy in relation tothese particular subjects concerned will be given due emphasis.

Recruitment to Training CollegesRecruitment to Training CollegesRecruitment to Training CollegesRecruitment to Training CollegesRecruitment to Training CollegesRecruitment to training colleges should be carefully made

so as to admit only those who hold the highest promise ofbecoming successful teachers. Admission. should generally becarefully devised after tests and interviews. We cannot affordto waste money on training people who have not the makingof good teachers. We have had enough evidence to show thatin many places it has not been possible to recruit a sufficientnumber of trainees to meet the needs of the schools in theState. Even where a sufficient number of recruits is available,they seldom possess high qualifications. This is no doubt owingto the present very unsatisfactory position of teachers’ statusand emoluments. As long as the conditions of service and salaryare so unattractive and the status of teachers remains low andunimportant corn. pared with other learned professions, thereis no possibility of drawing large numbers of really qualified,enthusiastic and devoted candidates to join the profession. Wehave referred elsewhere to the Urgent need of improving theconditions of teachers in all these respects.

There is one other aspect of the question, however, whichwe wish, to emphasise at this stage. There is great diversityin regard to the terms offered to student-teachers in the differenttraining institutions in the States. In some institutions thetraining is given free; in other a fee is charged. Taking into

only engender the knowledge skills and attitudes which willenable the teacher to begin his task with a reasonable degreeof confidence and with the minimum amount of experience.Increased efficiency will come through experience criticallyanalysed and through individual and group efforts atimprovement. The teacher training institution should acceptits responsibility for assisting in this in-service stage of teacher-training. Among the activities which the training college shouldprovide or in which it should collaborate are : (1) refreshercourses, (2) short intensive courses in special subjects, (3)practical training in workshop, (4) seminars and professionalconferences. It should also allow its staff where possible toserve as consultants to a school or group of schools conductingsome programme of improvement.

Liasion Between Training Institutions and OtherLiasion Between Training Institutions and OtherLiasion Between Training Institutions and OtherLiasion Between Training Institutions and OtherLiasion Between Training Institutions and OtherAgenciesAgenciesAgenciesAgenciesAgencies

Training institutions should be in close liaison with theDepartment of Education and the schools. Such closerelationship will be fruitful in many ways specially in regardto the placing of student-teachers. Except in the case of deputedteachers, training institutions are not now in a position to doanything for placing other students in educational institutions.It would be to the advantage of all concerned if traininginstitutions could keep in touch with their alumni and followtheir subsequent careers. In recruiting teachers, therefore,training colleges should be consulted by the department as wellas by the other agencies.

Training Colleges and Research in EducationTraining Colleges and Research in EducationTraining Colleges and Research in EducationTraining Colleges and Research in EducationTraining Colleges and Research in EducationOne aspect of the training college should not be lost sight

of. The training college should in essence be not merely acollege for training teachers, but an institution for researchwork in all aspects of pedagogy.

The staff of the college should be such as would be capableof devoting some of their time to research in curricular andextra-curricular activities, general administration, moderntrends of pedagogy and also from time to time in research toevaluate results of the particular method of training adopted


of training may be increased to a minimum of 180 days byeliminating the number of unnecessary holidays. Within thisperiod, it should be possible for the students to have practicaltraining in schools and to have the theoretical training in thesubjects concerned and some training in a few of the co-curricularactivities.

Residential Training CollegesResidential Training CollegesResidential Training CollegesResidential Training CollegesResidential Training CollegesThere is one aspect of the life of the student-teacher which

we wish to emphasise. We believe that the time at the disposalof the student-teacher, whether in the second-grade or thegraduate-grade, is so limited that his whole time should bedevoted to the study of various aspects of education, school life,community life, administration, etc.

Life in the training institutions should be a guide to theactivities in the school with the pupils. We wish, therefore, toemphasise that this community life in the training institutions,the devotion to the various activities that can be attempted insuch institutions and the mixing of the student-teacherthemselves in all social and useful activities both in the schoolcommunity as well as in the community life of the area wherethe school is situated would best be promoted by a residentialsystem of training. We, therefore, strongly advocate aresidential type of training institutions for all students. Suchresidence will train them in self-reliance, provide a certainamount of manual labour and cultivate community life withinand outside the school premises. We expect them to managetheir own hostels, to take turns in the different kinds of workconnected with the kitchen and the dining room, to beresponsible for the general cleanliness of the institution, andthus to develop habits of healthy and active living and senseof the dignity of labour.

Post-Graduate Course in EducationPost-Graduate Course in EducationPost-Graduate Course in EducationPost-Graduate Course in EducationPost-Graduate Course in EducationWe have referred to research in training institutions. This

brings up to post-graduate training in Education. We feel thatthere is scope for post-graduate courses in Education and weare glad to note that in some of the universities a post-graduatedegree, the Master of Education, has been instituted. A clearer

consideration the need for a very large number of teachers andalso the need for attracting the right type of teachers to theprofession, we recommend that no fees should be charged intraining colleges and all student-teachers should be givensuitable stipends by the State during the period of training.This was the practice some years ago. We also suggest thatteachers already in service should be given, during the periodof training the same salary which they were getting. Theyshould, however, under such circumstances, be expected toexecute a bond to serve as teachers for a period of five years.This will apply both to graduate teachers and to second-gradeteachers.

We have suggested that young pupils who show promiseof developing into good teachers should be recruited. We wishto point out that the teachers themselves are potentiallyrecruiting agents par excellence. By their attitude towards thepublic and the students, they are daily recruiting young peopleinto or out of the profession. At the upper secondary schoollevel and in the undergraduate colleges, teachers can performan outstanding service to students and the profession if theyactively encourage young people who possess intelligence andother characteristics which may lead to success in teaching, toconsider teaching as their career. Such students, aftergraduation, may serve for some period in some school andacquire practical experience before going in for professionaltraining.

Preparation of Teachers Before Admission and DurationPreparation of Teachers Before Admission and DurationPreparation of Teachers Before Admission and DurationPreparation of Teachers Before Admission and DurationPreparation of Teachers Before Admission and Durationof Courseof Courseof Courseof Courseof Course

In view of the comparatively short duration of the trainingcourse at present, it is suggested that the selection of thestudents for teacher training may be made some months inadvance of the opening of the course. The majority of candidateswill be those who are already teaching or who have settled onteaching as their profession. During this period, they may begiven opportunities to study some selected books recommendedby the training colleges concerned, so that when they come fortraining they will have some information as a back-ground forthe study they are to launch upon. We suggest that the period


qualification may be three to five years experience as anInspector. In the case of second grade training institutions theminimum qualification should be a first or second class bachelor’sdegree, with an L. T. or B. T. qualification. In the case ofgraduate training institutions, the minimum qualificationshould be (i) an Honours or Master’s degree, or a, first classB.A. or B.Sc. degree in the particular subject, (ii) a. professionalqualification a Master of Education degree with three years’teaching experience or an L. T. or B. T. degree with five years’service as an Inspector or headmaster. We are of opinion thatthere should be a free exchange between professors in trainingcolleges on the one hand and selected headmasters of schoolsand Inspectors of the Education Department on the other andthat for varying periods of three to five years there should bea possibility of sending one or other of these to any of the postsmentioned herein. Professors in training institutions should beenabled for short periods to take up the duties of headmastersor Inspectors so that they may become familiar with the actualconditions of school life and realise how the training that isimparted by them in the training colleges is actually put intopractice.

We agree that so far as the nursery and primary stages ofinstruction are concerned, women are better teachers thanmen. In regard to Middle schools also a considerable body ofopinion is in favour of giving ample opportunities for womento be employed as teachers in these institutions. We agree withthis view. In girls’ schools obviously women should be theteachers. We have been forcibly impressed by the fact that theeducation of girls has much leeway to make up. The facilitiesavailable for girls in many States are very much limited. Arapid expansion of girls’ education depends to a very largeextent upon the availability of women teachers. We haveexamined this question very carefully and have come to theconclusion that under present conditions it will not be possibleto recruit adequate number of women student-teachers in theexisting training institutions. We feel therefore that specialefforts should be made in this direction. As a short-term policy,at any rate, we would recommend part-time courses beingmade available to women who could spare a little time and who

conception of what is intended by the Master’s degree ineducation seems to us to be required. This degree is primarilyintended for higher studies in pedagogy: (1) to give ideas throughthe study of comparative education of modern methods that arebeing followed in different countries, (2) to, cultivate aptitudefor research so that experiments on new methods and techniquesof education suited to the country and the community may beundertaken, (3) to afford opportunities for specialisation in oneor other of the branches of study pertaining to (a) the curriculaof school studies, (b) craft-centred education, (c) co-curricularactivities, etc., and (4) to train teachers for higher grades inthe profession such as the headmaster, the inspectorate, andteaching staff of training institutions. In fact this highereducation should be designed to inculcate the qualities ofleadership in education.

At present the Master’s degree can be taken immediatelyafter the first degree in education. Owing to the limited numberof seats the selection is more often made from those who havehad experience as teachers subsequent to their first degree inteaching, but it is not limited. to such people. We believe thatit would be an advantage if for this higher degree in educationtrained teachers who have done normally a minimum of threeyears teaching in a school are only selected. It is desirable thata certain number of scholarships should be made available forsuch teachers for the period of study they have to put in forthe higher degree and that the teachers concerned may beselected after consideration of their qualifications, their recordas school teachers, their aptitude for research shown by anycontributions that they may have made, their generalpersonality and their conduct in the profession.

Staff of Training CollegesStaff of Training CollegesStaff of Training CollegesStaff of Training CollegesStaff of Training CollegesFrom what has been stated above, it seems obvious that

care should be taken in selecting the staffs of training collegeswhether for the second grade institutions or the first i.e.,graduate training colleges. We believe that there should be apicked staff of teachers possessing (i) a good general educationalqualification; (ii) a degree in teaching; and (iii) at least fiveyears of experience as a teacher in a school. An additional


ideas. We are convinced that, if the training colleges could beorganized on right lines and become dynamic centres ofprogressive educational movements, the whole task ofeducational reconstruction would be greatly facilitated.


Improvement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching PersonnelImprovement of the Teaching Personnel

1. A reasonably uniform procedure should be devised forthe selection and appointment of teachers for all typesof schools.

2. In all privately managed institutions and in schoolsmaintained by local boards there should be a smallSelection Committee entrusted with the responsibilityof recruiting the staff, with the headmaster as an ex-officio member.

3. The normal period of probation for a trained teachershould be one year.

4. Teachers working in High Schools should be graduateswith a degree in education; those who teach technicalsubjects should be gra-duates in the subject concernedwith the necessary training for teaching it; teachers inHigher Secondary schools should possess higherqualifications, somewhat similar to those prescribed insome Universities for teacher of the, IntermediateCollege.

5. The teachers possessing the same qualifications andperforming the same type of work, should be treatedon a par in the matter of grades of salary irrespectiveof the type of institutions in which they are working.

6. Special Committees should be set up to review thescales of pay of teachers of all grades and recommendsuch scales of pay that will meet in a fair and justmanner the varying cost of living.

7. In order to relieve teachers from anxieties about theirown and. their dependents’ future which will affect theefficiency of their work, the, system of triple benefitscheme pension-cum-provident fund-cuminsurance,should be introduced in all States.

with the appropriate training take up teaching as part-timeworkers. Such part-time training may be in the mornings orin the evenings but necessarily the total period of training willhave to be-extended. We suggest that three years may be theperiod for second grade teachers, and two academic years forgraduate teachers. The question may be raised as to how theycould have practical training on a part-time basis. We thinkthat for the limited time for which this practical training isneeded it should not be difficult to arrange it in such a mannerthat they can spend their time in the schools concerned. Thesepart-time student-teachers should also be eligible for somestipend during their period of training and if such stipend isgiven they should undertake to perform the duties of a teacherfor a minimum period of three years. We shall refer to theemployment of women as teachers in another part of our Report.We are of opinion that women may be employed as part-timeteachers after training and much help may thus be obtainedfrom them if a little more care is devoted to the manner of theiremployment as part-time teachers.

We would like to stress, in conclusion the importance ofthe training colleges assuming the role of leadership, in thetask of educational reconstruction. Our impression is that theyhave not so far been able to do so. They should become activecentres not only of research but of practical experiments directedto the improvement of educational methods, curricula, disciplineand organization of schools. They should, in the first instance,successfully work out new ideas in their own DemonstrationSchools and then, through the example of the school as wellas the training given to their students, this influence shouldpermeate into all institutions of the State. At present theirwork is greatly vitiated by the fact that there is considerabledivorce between their theory and practice and the educationalideas advocated in the lecture room are not actually translatedin practice in the schools under them. In order to overcome thisdifficulty, it would be an advantage if each training collegecould be given the responsibility of supervising the work of acertain number of schools in the neighbourhood, which would,on the one hand, improve their standards and, on the other,enable the members of the staff to give practical shape to their


Certificate or Higher Secondary School LeavingCertificate for whom the period of training should betwo years; and (ii) for graduates for whom the trainingmay for the present be of one academic year but extendedas a long term programme to two academic years.

20. Graduate teacher-training institutions should berecognised by and affiliated to the universities whichshould grant the degrees, while the secondary gradetraining institutions should be under the control of aseparate Board appointed for the purpose.

21. The teacher-training should receive training in one ormore of the various extra-curricular activities.

22. The training colleges should, as a normal part of theirwork, arrange refresher courses, short intensive coursesin special subjects, practical training in workshop andprofessional conferences.

23. The training college should conduct research work, invarious important aspects of pedagogy and for thispurpose it should have under its control an experimentalor demonstration school.

24. No fees should be charged in training colleges, whileduring the period of training all the student-teachersshould be given suitable stipend by the State; theteachers who are already in service should be given thesame salary which they were getting.

25. All training colleges should provide adequate residentialfacilities so as to be able to arrange community life andother suitable activities for the trainees.

26. For the Master’s Degree in Education only trainedgraduates who have normally done a minimum.of threeyears’ teaching should be admitted.

27. There should be a free exchange between professors InTrain-ing Colleges, selected Headmasters of Schoolsand Inspecting Officers.

28. In order to meet the shortage of women teachers, specialparttime training courses should be provided.

8. Arbitration Boards or Committees should be establishedto lock into the appeals and grievances of teachers and toconsider matters relating to suspension, dismissal etc.

9. The age of retirement in the case of physically fit andcompetent teachers may be extended to 60 with theapproval of the Director of Education.

10. The children of teachers should be given free educationthroughout the school stage.

11. Through a system of cooperative house building societies,teachers should be provided with quarters so as to enablethem to live near the school and devote more time tothe many-sided activi-ties of the school.

12. Teachers wishing to go to health resorts or holidaycamps or to attend educational conferences, seminars,etc. should be, given travel concessions and leavefacilities.

13. They should be given free medical attention andtreatment in hospital and dispensaries.

14. The leave rules should, as far as possible, be uniformfor all educational institutions.

15. Opportunities should be provided on a generous scalefor teachers to visit different institutions within thecountry and in special cases to go, abroad on studyleave for higher studies.

16. The practice of private tuitions by teachers should beabolished.

17. Persons in high public position should give specialrecognition to the teachers’ social status and the dignityof their profession.

18. In order to attract persons of the right type to the,responsible position of the headmaster the emolumentsof the post should be made sufficiently attractive.

Teacher-TrainingTeacher-TrainingTeacher-TrainingTeacher-TrainingTeacher-Training

19. There should be only two types of institutions for teacher-training (i) for those who have taken the School Leaving

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Problems of AdministrationProblems of AdministrationProblems of AdministrationProblems of AdministrationProblems of Administration254254254254254 255255255255255

Joint Secretary and should have direct access to the Minister.It would of course be open to the Minister when he considersit necessary to consult the Secretary particularly in regard toadministrative and financial matters.

Need for Co-ordinationNeed for Co-ordinationNeed for Co-ordinationNeed for Co-ordinationNeed for Co-ordinationWe have noticed that in the States as well as at the Centre

different Departments and Ministries have responsibility forvarious aspects of education for the age period of 10 to 17. Thus,while the Department of Education is responsible for most ofthe activities connected with school education there are otherMinistries which have their own organization for impartingeducation of particular types. The Ministry of Agriculture, theMinistry of Industry and Commerce, the Ministry of Transportand Communications and Ministry of Labour, both at theCentre and the States, have under their control, schools ofdifferent kinds which cater for the needs of this age group. Ithas often happened that these different Departments are notin touch with one another’s activities nor is the EducationDepartment in a position to coordinate them with a view toincreasing efficiency and securing economy of effort. It seems,therefore necessary that there should be a coordinating agencyand that problems of a similar nature pertaining to more thanone Ministry or Department should be discussed by themthoroughly and a concerted programme of education should beformulated. In some cases, the Departments mainly responsiblefor producing technicians have not utilised their resourcesadequately for the furtherance of Technical education by startingsuitable types of Technical schools.

The Department of Transport and Communications, forinstance, maintains a few Secondary schools of the usual typefor the children of its employees. In our view the responsibilityfor training technicians of various grades should be shared bythe Central Department of Railways along with other allieddepartments. This Department has a large number ofworkshops, and it is intended that in course of time India willbecome self-sufficient in the production of railway engines andall varieties of rolling stock and other necessary equipment. Itis also desirable that there should be an efficient service for

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ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIONORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIONORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIONORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIONORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIONIn any scheme of educational reconstruction which envisages

a large scale development of educational institutions of diversevarie-ties, it is necessary to consider carefully the administrativemachin-ery that should be responsible for the spread of educationand for its orderly development.

The present administrative set up is that in all States thereis a Directorate of Education working under the direct controlof a Minister who has a Secretary to assist him at the Secretariatlevel and a Director of Education as the executive head of theDepartment responsible for offering technical advice to theMinister in all educational matters and for carrying out thepolicy of the Department.

In actual practice the Director of Education has to submithis propos-als for the reorganization and expansion of educationto the Minister through the Secretary. This has actually meantthat such proposals and policies are subjected to criticisms bythe subordinate officers of the Secretariat and are oftenpresented in a form which may be quite different from whatwas originally conceived by the Director. The Secretary himselfmay not be fully conversant with these problems as he isfrequently transferred from one Department of the Secretariatto another. If education is not to be treated as a mere administra-tive problem, we feel that the Director of Education should bemainly responsible to advise the Minister and for this purposewe recommend that where the Director himself is not theSecretary of the Department he should have the status of a


educational programme. The Minister of Education may be theChairman and the Director of Educa-tion, the Secretary of theCommittee.

Co-ordinating Committee of Departmental HeadsCo-ordinating Committee of Departmental HeadsCo-ordinating Committee of Departmental HeadsCo-ordinating Committee of Departmental HeadsCo-ordinating Committee of Departmental HeadsAt the next level, there is need for a coordinating committee

consisting of the departmental heads concerned with the variousas-pects of education. Here we suggest that heads of departmentsrespon-sible for education, general, technical, agricultural,commercial and other types should meet and discuss the workingof the existing ma-chinery and the possibilities of its expansionand improvement. The Director of Education may be theConvener of this Committee and a Deputy Director of Educationmay act as Secretary. If there is a Deputy or Joint Director ofTechnical Education, he should be a member of the Committee.This Committee will have to meet several times a year toreview the position and to consider methods of improvementand expansion in all relevant fields. At the outset the Committeeshould review the whole educational structure and draw up amaster plan showing how the necessary integration can beachieved smoothly and expeditiously in the different types ofschools established by the State or Centre. The whole objectof this planning would be to avoid duplication, to improve andexpand the facilities needed for the different educationalinstitutions and to use them more effectively by theircoordination or merging, and to lay down a programme underwhich special types of education may be progressively providedeither in separate institutions or in multipurpose schools. Anydepartment of the States or Centre which is interested indeveloping a particular branch of education should place suchproposals before this Committee. It will thus afford anopportunity for getting an over-all picture of the whole field ofeducation and enable the public and the State to know exactlywhat is being done and what are the plans proposed for thefuture.

Director of EducationDirector of EducationDirector of EducationDirector of EducationDirector of EducationThe Director of Education should be assisted in his work

by a number of experts, including a Joint Director of Vocational

repairing, overhauling and the maintenance of all rolling stockand engines. We are aware that a certain number of apprenticesare trained for employment in the railways, and that in someof the central workshops, work connected with the manufactureand repair of engines and rolling stock is being carried on. Butif trained personnel of the required standard and in sufficientnumber is to be available the facilities need to be expanded andimproved. Since the railways are the largest employers oftechnicians of all grades. it should be one of their main functionsto maintain or help in the maintenance of technical schools ofdifferent grades to trained skilled labour for their work.

Again during the war, the Department of Commerce andIndustry in the Central Government was responsible for startinga number of train-ing institutions for technician and manyavailable workshops in the country were utilised for the purpose.Since the conclusion of the war, a few institutes originallystarted for this purpose have been kept going by the departmentwhere training is given in the craft or trade concerned but noprovision has been made for general education. In thecoordinated programme of Technical education at this level,agriculture has also a large part to play. It seems to us thatsuch departments should pool their resources and adopt auniform policy in regard to the training of various types ofskilled workers needed for the different industries of the country.We may recall here what we have already stated that in allschemes of Technical education there should be room for anadequate amount of general education without which it is notpossible to give intelligent training in technical skill. Moreover,the object of all education at this stage whether technical orgeneral is to ensure that all educated youths are also trainedfor the efficient discharge of their duties as citizens.

Committee of MinistersCommittee of MinistersCommittee of MinistersCommittee of MinistersCommittee of MinistersIn view of all these considerations we recommend that

there should be a committee constituted at the Centre as wellas in the States consisting of the different Ministers concernedwith the var-ious types of education as well as the Minister forFinance. They must meet and discuss how best the resourcesof the departments could be pooled for the furtherance of the


Two distinguished educationists co-opted by the othermembers of the Board.

Two persons nominated by the Department and a Principalof a Training College nominated by government.

One of the Deputy Directors as a Member-Secretary.Functions of the BoardsThe Board will be generally responsible for the following

mat-ters:

(1) To frame conditions for recognition of High schools,Higher Secondary schools and the qualifications of theteaching staff.

(2) To appoint committees of experts to advise on thesyllabuses etc., for the different courses of study.

(3) To frame courses of study on the recommendation ofExpert Committees that may be appointed for thispurpose.

(4) To draw up panels of question Paper Setters, ChiefExaminers and Assistant Examiners.

(5) To frame rules prescribing the minimum conditions forselec-tion of Examiners, Assistant Examiners, etc.,and generally to frame such other rules as may benecessary for its effective functioning.

(6) Generally to advice the Director of Education whenrequired on all matters pertaining to Secondaryeducation.

In this connection we wish to point out that in some States,the Boards which have been recently constituted for the purposeare un-weildly in number and some of the interests representedon it are not likely to promote efficiency or harmony. Weconsider that, if Second-ary education is to progress on rightlines, the Board must be a com-pact body mainly composedof experts, whose functions will be limited to the formulationof broad policies.

The Board is not expected to function as an executive bodywhich is the province of the Director of Education.

or Techni-cal Education to give expert advice on Technicaleducation. The various Deputy Directors should deal withparticular aspects or grades of education and there should bea Deputy Directress of Education, whose chief responsibilityshould be to, look after the education of girls, and to see toit that adequate facilities are provided for them in theeducational system of the State. She should also be responsi-ble for the development of women’s education and for advisingon their special needs and problems.

Board of Secondary EducationBoard of Secondary EducationBoard of Secondary EducationBoard of Secondary EducationBoard of Secondary Education

We recommend that there should be a Board of SecondaryEducation under the chairmanship of the Director of Educationto deal with all details of education at the Secondary stage(general and technical). This board should be composed ofpersons with wide experience and knowledge-of different aspectsof Secondary education. We recommend that it should consistof not more than 25 members, ten of whom should be speciallyconversant with matters pertaining to Vocational or Technicaleducation.

We suggest the following constitution for the Board whichcan of course be modified to suit special needs of the Statesconcerned:

The Joint Director of Vocational Education

The Director of Agriculture

The Director of Industries

One Head of a Polytechnic

Two representatives nominated by Government from thesenior teaching staff of Vocational Schools.

The Deputy Directress of Women’s education.

Four Headmasters of High schools including headmastersof Multipurpose schools, nominated by government.

Two representatives of Provincial Secondary Teachers’Association, elected by the Executive of the Association.

Five nominees of the universities of the region, of whomtwo shall be professors dealing with Technical education.


(4) A principal of a Polytechnic.

(5) Three persons nominated by the government, one ofwhom at least shall have experience of vocationaleducation.

(6) A dean of the faculty of teaching and anotherrepresentative of the faculty nominated by the Vice-Chancellor or Vice-Chancellors of the universities in theState.

The functions of this Board would generally be as follows:

(1) To frame schemes and syllabuses for. the training ofundergraduate teachers.

(2) To draw up the condition for recognition of suchSecondary grade training centres.

(3) To draw up schemes of examinations for these teachers.

(4) To draw up qualifications necessary for the teachers ofthe different subjects in the training institutions.

(5) To appoint expert committees wherever necessary andto advise the Board on the schemes of special trainingnecessary in the different vocational subjects of study.

(6) Generally to advise the Director of Education whenrequired on all matters pertaining to teacher training.

Central Advisory Board of EducationCentral Advisory Board of EducationCentral Advisory Board of EducationCentral Advisory Board of EducationCentral Advisory Board of EducationThe Central Advisory Board of Education constituted by

the Cen-tral Government has been functioning for many yearsin order to, advise the Central Government and incidentallythe States on all matters pertaining to education at differentlevels. Composed as it is of representatives of all educationalinterests as well as States, its deliberations have been veryuseful and its reports have furnished valuable material bothfor the States and the Centre. We are of opinion that such abody should continue to function as a coordinating agency toconsider all India problems concerning education.

Provincial Advisory BoardsProvincial Advisory BoardsProvincial Advisory BoardsProvincial Advisory BoardsProvincial Advisory BoardsWe recommend that provincial Advisory Boards should be

constitut-ed in all States to advise the Department in all matters

With regard to the conduct of examinations, we recommendthat a small committee of the Board, consisting of not morethan five mem-bers, should be appointed, with the Directorof Education or a senior member of the Directorate as Convener.This committee will be respon-sible for framing its scheme andconducting public examinations and for publishing results. TheDirector will be assisted in this work by a senior officer withthe necessary staff to carry out the day-to-day duties andresponsibilities in this connection and to attend to all the detailsconcerning the conduct of examinations.

The executive powers needed to implement therecommendations of the Secondary Education Board will bevested in the Chairman of the Board, the Director of Education.This Board shall ordinarily meet at least twice a year, but maymeet on other occasions when summoned by the Chairman oron a requisition made by 1/3rd of the members consti-tutingthe Board. It will have its own office and establishment witha whole-time Office Secretary for that purpose.

Board for Teacher Training InstitutionsBoard for Teacher Training InstitutionsBoard for Teacher Training InstitutionsBoard for Teacher Training InstitutionsBoard for Teacher Training InstitutionsWe have referred to the need to establish many new

institutions to train teachers in general as well as in vocationalsubjects. While the training of graduates will be arranged inUniversity Colleges the training of under-graduates teacherswill be carried on in a large number of centres for the supervisionand guidance of which we recom-mend the establishment of aBoard that will lay down the conditions necessary for theirproper training. It should also be empowered to suggest for theconsideration of the universities any improvements that maybe needed in the graduate training programme.

Regarding the conditions of this Board, we suggest thatthe Director of Education will be the Chairman, with thefollowing as members:

(1) The Joint Director of Education (Technical).

(2) Two heads of secondary grade training institutions.

(3) Two headmasters or headmistresses of schools, one ofwhom will be connected with vocational education.


etc., there should be attached to the Director’s Office certainexperts in these subjects who will inspect the different schoolsperiodically and help in improving the standards of teaching.

Selection of InspectorateSelection of InspectorateSelection of InspectorateSelection of InspectorateSelection of InspectorateAt present the Inspectorate Is made up in diverse ways by

differ-ent States. In some cases Inspectors are recruited directlyto in-spectional. posts and while certain academic qualificationsare pre-scribed, experience and other relevant qualificationsare not duly emphasised. Once a, person has been chosen forthe Inspectorate he often continues in that line till the age ofretirement. We are of the view that. a person, to be chosenas an Inspector, should Possess high academic qualifica-tions(an Honours or Master’s degree) and should have had teaching.experience in schools for at least ten years, or should have beenHeadmaster of a High school for a minimum period of threeyears. In addition to direct recruitment the Inspectors shouldalso be drawn from:

(i) Teachers of ten years’ experience.

(ii) Experienced Headmasters of High schools, and

(iii) Qualified staff of Training colleges.We recommend further that suitable persons from any of

these categories may be appointed as Inspectors for a periodof three to five years after which they may revert to theiroriginal posts. In the initial stages, we suggest that fifty percent of such posts may be reserved for recruitment on thisbasis. It is necesary that Pro-fessors of Training colleges shouldbe conversant with the work done in the schools; and thatHeadmasters should likewise have a chance to serve asInspecting Officers for short periods. This will enable them toappreciate the position of the Inspector and to approach theprob-lems of the schools with greater appreciation of the realitiesfrom their own experience.

Duties of InspectorsDuties of InspectorsDuties of InspectorsDuties of InspectorsDuties of InspectorsThe duties of an Inspector are divisible into administrative

and academic. The administrative duties relate to the annualinspection of records, accounts, office routine, etc. For this

pertaining to education. The Board may function on lines similarto the Central Advisory Board of Education and should becomposed of representatives of the teaching profession, theuniversities, Managements of High schools and HigherSecondary schools, heads of departments dealing with differentspheres of education, representatives of Industry, Trade andCommerce, and the Legislature and the general public. TheMinister of Education should be the Chairman of the Board andthe Director of Education or the Education Secretary shouldbe the Secre-tary. This body will advise the Department ofEducation on all mat-ters pertaining to education, particularlyits improvement both in the quality and quantity.

SUPERVISION AND INSPECTION OF SCHOOLSSUPERVISION AND INSPECTION OF SCHOOLSSUPERVISION AND INSPECTION OF SCHOOLSSUPERVISION AND INSPECTION OF SCHOOLSSUPERVISION AND INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS

Existing DefectsExisting DefectsExisting DefectsExisting DefectsExisting DefectsThe present system of inspection of schools was subjected

to criticism by several witnesses. It Was pointed out thatinspections were perfunctory, that the time spent by theInspector at any particu-lar place was insufficient, that thegreater part of this time was taken up with routine work likechecking accounts and looking into the administrative aspectsof the school. There was not enough time devoted to the academicside and contacts between the Inspectors and teachers werecasual. It was also stated that the number of schools entrustedto the care of an Inspector was too large and the range too widefor him to be able to acquaint himself with their work andappre-ciate their problems; nor was he in a position to adviseand guide the teaching staff in improving the work of theschool. It occasionally happened that the Inspector instead ofbeing “the friend, philosopher and guide” of the school, behavedin such a critical and unsympathetic way that his visit waslooked upon with some degree of apprehension if not ofresentment. In our view the true role of an Inspector-for whomwe would prefer the term Educational Adviser-is to study theproblems of each school, to take a comprehensive view of allits functions and to help the teachers to carry out his adviceand recommendations. We also recommend that for specialsubjects like Physical Education, Domestic Science, Art, Music,


(2) Other Types of Managements: The large increase in thenumber of students anxious to join schools has led toa rapid increase in the number of schools and thesehave been started by a variety of manage-ments, manyof whom were not conversant with the needs of theschools or the methods of their management. There arevarious types of schools managed by:

(a) Local bodies such as District Boards orMunicipalities;

(b) Religious organisations and other denominationalbodies;

(c) Registered Trust Boards;

(d) Certain private bodies;

(e) Individuals;

Schools Maintained by Local Boards: Schools Maintained by Local Boards: Schools Maintained by Local Boards: Schools Maintained by Local Boards: Schools Maintained by Local Boards: There are manyschools which are maintained by local bodies and though wedo not wish to make any unfair generalisation about theirefficiency, we have had enough evidence to show that thereis considerable need for a, toningup of these institutions.

As in the case of private managements, the Local Boardsshould have a small executive body for the management ofschools. This executive body should not exceed nine memberswith either District Educational Officer or some nominee of theDirectorate as an ex-offi-cio member of the Board. In the caseof Municipalities or Panchayats, which have only one schoolin their charge, the headmaster should be ex-officio memberof the Executive Committee. We feel strongly that the boardshould not interfere with the internal management of the schoolsconcerned, or with the powers and duties of the headmasters.We regret to note that, in many cases, members of local bodieshave not hesitated to assume a responsibility to visit schools,to examine the records and sometimes actually to interferewith the teaching. We think this tendency on the part ofindividual members of the Local Boards to act as an inspectingagency should be strongly discouraged, and no member shouldhave the right to inspect the school or to call for any statementor documents or in any other way to interfere with its internal

purpose he must have the assistance of a competent staff. Withthe increase in the number and types of schools, this duty willrequire a considerable amount of his time it he is to dischargethese functions properly and efficiently. The time needed forthe. purpose has necessarily re-stricted the scope of his activitieson the academic side. Moreover, the multiplicity of the subjectstaught in the school by specially qualified Staff now makes itvery difficult for any single officer, however qualified to inspectthem thoroughly and to advise on all their problems. We,therefore, recommend that the academic work of the schoolshould be thoroughly inspected by, a panel of experts with theInspector as Chairman and this should be done once in threeyears. We recommend that three persons may be chosen fromsenior teachers of headmasters to visit schools in the comPanyof the Inspector and to spend two or three days with the staff,discussing with them all aspects of school life-the library andlaboratory facilities, the curriculum, the organization of extra-curricular activities, the use of the holidays and all otherproblems connected with school activi-ties. Through these fulland frank discussions, the inspectors will be in a far betterPosition to help in the improvement of the school. What issuggested is nothing new-colleges affiliated to universities arevisited by, commission of “Parts who inspect their working,dis-cuss their problem and report to the university.

MANAGEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF RECOGNITIONMANAGEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF RECOGNITIONMANAGEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF RECOGNITIONMANAGEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF RECOGNITIONMANAGEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF RECOGNITION

Types of ManagementsTypes of ManagementsTypes of ManagementsTypes of ManagementsTypes of ManagementsDuring our tour we realised that there were several types

of school managements. Among these may be mentioned:

(1) Schools Managed by the States or the Centre: Theseschools are comparatively few in number in the differentStates. They were at one time intended to be modelschools whose general methods of work and organizationmight be adopted by those who wished to start schools.We cannot say that at present many of the State schoolsserve as models. In many respects, in view of the greatdemand for admission to schools, great laxity in theconditions which were ob-served previously was noted.


such cases to permit the admission of all children to suchschools but till that is done they should be eligible to receivegrant-in-aid like other schools.

Private Managements: Private Managements: Private Managements: Private Managements: Private Managements: A large number of private bodiesare at present managing schools. We are of opinion that allsuch bodies should be registered and should function asregistered associations.

Individual Managements: Individual Managements: Individual Managements: Individual Managements: Individual Managements: There is also a fairly largenumber of schools which are run as “proprietory schools” byindividuals. We feel that no Secondary schools should be runon such lines but that they should be governed by a suitablemanaging board registered under the Companies Act.

Control over the Opening of SchoolsControl over the Opening of SchoolsControl over the Opening of SchoolsControl over the Opening of SchoolsControl over the Opening of SchoolsIn recent years, the great increase in the number of schools

has led to a great laxity in the conditions laid down for startingnew schools. Our attention has been drawn to a large numberof ‘unrecog-nised schools’ in some States and schools run byprivate individuals without prior consultation or approval ofthe education authorities concerned. This laxity hasunfortunately led to a state of affairs where schools are runmore like commercial enterprises than as educa-tionalinstitutions. We have also been given to understand that, inmany cases, private individuals or groups of individuals startschools without. proper buildings or equipment and havingenrolled a number of students, create a situation where thedepartment has no alternative but to recognize them for thesake of the students, though normally such schools shouldnever have been allowed to function. Such educa-tionalinstitutions often spring up largely because of the paucity ofrecognised schools to cater for the needs of an ever-increasingschool-going population.

From what has been stated above, it will be obvious thatif schools are to be run on proper lines, if educational interestsare to be duly stressed and a healthy spirit of citizenship is tobe incul-cated in the pupils, care should be taken thatrecognition is given only on clearly defined conditions whichwill ensure their proper running and the maintenance of the

management. The President of the Committee alone may beauthorized to call for returns or information from. theheadmaster. Defects or complaints should be brought to thenotice of the District Educational Officer who may be asked toreport on them. It is impor-tant to safeguard the status of theheadmaster and the teachers, if they are to function efficientlyand exert their influence for good over the pupils. This doesnot obviously, imply that any serious lapse on the part of theteachers should be condoned. What we suggest is that theproper channel for enquiry into all such complaints should bethe Headmaster and the District Educational Officer and notthe members of the Boards, either collectively or individually.

Religious Organisations: Religious Organisations: Religious Organisations: Religious Organisations: Religious Organisations: A number of religiousorganizations also conduct schools in the different States. Theseorganizations have contributed to the expansion of educationalfacilities and many of them have, on the whole maintained areasonable level of efficiency in their schools. Some of them,however, suffer from the various defects pointed out elsewheresuch as over-crowding and ill-qualified staff. In some cases therecruitment of staff is influenced by reli-gious or sectarianconsiderations. These trends are also noticeable in schools runby other educational associations. Institutions run by communalorganizations are also spread over different parts of the countryand some of them are run on lines which have tended topromote unhealthy trends. The manner in which the teachersare selected and in some cases the spirit in which the schoolis administered are not calculated to promote a broad andhealthy national outlook.

Registered Trust Boards: Registered Trust Boards: Registered Trust Boards: Registered Trust Boards: Registered Trust Boards: There are certain registeredTrust Boards maintaining schools. It is laid down in someinstances, under the terms of the trust deed that the schoolsshould be run exclusively for certain purposes or for certainsections of the population exclu-sively. This is contrary to thegrowing trend of opinion that all educational institutions shouldbe open to children of every religion and community. Themanagements, however, are prepared to open their schoolsto all, but they are prevented from doing so by the terms ofthe trust. We recommend that legislation should be passed in


may be adopted with suitable modifications by all States forthe purpose.

(1) Individual or proprietory managements should bedefinitely discouraged. All the managing bodies shouldbe registered and should consist of a limited number ofpersons. We recommend that the member-ship of suchmanaging bodies should not exceed fifteen.

In all such managing bodies, the headmaster shouldbe an ex-Offi-cio member. In the case of schools whichare to be started in future as well as in case of schoolswhere managements have not already complied withthe conditions of recognition, we recommend that anominee of the Director of Education should be madea member of the managing body. His functions wouldlargely be advisory, and we hope that his presence willhelp the managing body to understand the condi-tionsto be satisfied for recognition and the measures to betaken for improving its efficiency and its activities. Weunderstand that this procedure has been adopted in thecase of colleges affiliated to certain universities and ithas been found to work satisfactorily.

(2) No member of the Managing Board should directly orindirect-ly interfere in the internal administration ofthe school, the disci-pline of the students or the dutiesof teachers.

(3) Where a large educational society is responsible for thestarting of the school, the actual management shouldbe delegated to a small board functioning on the linesstated above.

(4) The managing body should be responsible for the passingof the budget for proposals to start new branches ofstudy for corre-spondence with the Directorate ofEducation in all matters pertaining to the managementsof the school and for the appointment of the teach-ingstaff under definite conditions of service. Everymanagement should draw up definite rules of servicewherein the conditions of salary, leave etc., are definitely

right atmosphere in them. In certain States representationswere made by teachers of privately managed institutionsrequesting that all schools should be taken over by the State.We are not ourselves in agreement with this view and cannot,therefore, recommend such a course of action. On, the other.hand, we feel that private managements have got an importantpart, to play in the scheme of education and that if a numberof managements conduct schools in a. spirit of emulationcalculated to secure greater efficiency and co-ordination theywill be better served. If such schools are run side by side withState schools, in an atmosphere of healthy competition,improvements in teaching and other aspects of education willbe fostered.

We have drawn attention to the many defects noticed inschools run by private managements but we recognize thatsome of them have been doing their work very efficiently andshould be given every encouragement. It is equally imperative,howev-er, that managements which have failed to reachreasonable level of efficiency or have shown gross irregularitiesor indifference to educational interest should be given a cleardirective to remedy these defects within a definite period.Attention of the State Governments may be invited to theBritish Education Act of 1944 which empowers the Ministry ofEducation to take over such schools which fail to conform toconditions prescribed and run them as State schools for a time,and eventually hand them back to the management concernedif it is found to be in a posit-ion to take over charge. Werecommend that, wherever possible, the States should similarlytake over such schools. If this is not possible, it should nothesitate to close down such schools and make alternativearrangements for the education of the pupils of thoseinstitutions.

Conditions for Recognition of SchoolsConditions for Recognition of SchoolsConditions for Recognition of SchoolsConditions for Recognition of SchoolsConditions for Recognition of SchoolsIn many States there are, definite conditions regulating

the procedure to be adopted for recognition of schools. Webelieve that managements are complying with these conditionsin such States. We, however, feel it necessary to suggestcertain general standards and conditions of recognition which


(7) The management should satisfy the Directorate ofEducation that qualified staff is available and will beappointed in accordance with the rules laid down by theDepartment for affiliations. The con-ditions of serviceshould be uniform for the whole State, and there shouldbe no difference between teachers in State schools andthose in privately managed schools so far as theminimum scale of salary, conditions, security of serviceand the minimum amenities recommended areconcerned.

(8) The number of pupils admitted per class and the totalnumber that should be admitted for the whole schoolshould conform to the instructions of the department,taking into consideration the material facilities and thestaff available, as well as the number of subjects forwhich the school seeks affiliation. We have already statedthat ordinarily we consider 500 as the optimum, 750as the maximum, except in the case of schools withdiversified courses of instruction where the maximummay go up to 1, 000 provided that not more than 40pupils are admitted in any section.

We have noticed that at present there is no limit to thenumber of divisions that can be opened in each class.Some managements have opened a very large numberof sections in their congested premises, thus increasinggreatly the total number of students as well as thenumber of sections which each teacher has to teach. Wedo not think that this kind of education can possibly beefficient. We, therefore, recommend that the numberof sections in each class should be limited, and beforeany increase in the number of sections is made, theprior approval of the Department of Education shouldbe obtained.

The Department of Education should take note of allfactors and limit the number of sections in such a mannerthat teaching does not re-duce itself to a mere mechanicalprocess of repeating the same lesson over and overagain in the course of a week.

laid down and every teacher on his appointment shouldreceive a copy of these conditions and execute anagreement for service in the school.

(5) Every management should be required to provide anendowment for the proper running of the school, theamount of the endowment being determined withreference to the number of diversified courses that theschool may undertake and the general requirements ofeffi-ciency. The finances of the school should be keptseparate from those of any other institutions under thesame management and the interest or income accruingfrom the endowment should be shown in the receiptsfor the year. Full and proper accounts should bemaintained, and the acquittance roll should clearlyshow each teacher’s scale of pay and the amount drawneach month by him. Separate accounts should be keptfor any special fees levied by the school. These accountsmay be kept by the headmaster and scrutinised by anAccount-ant or Auditor of the school. These accountsshould be prepared annually and should be subject toaudit by the Department of Educa-tion. In regard tospecial endowments, gifts, etc. made to the school, aseparate register of accounts should be maintained whichshould also be duly audited, the income accruingtherefrom being added to the general endowment fundof the schools.

(6) Every management should satisfy the Directorate ofEducation that adequate accommodation is availablefor the running of the school in a satisfactory manner.There should be adequate playgrounds and wherepossible rest rooms and cafeteria or tiffin rooms wherethe pupils may have their mid-day meals.

Where the school admits girl students, whether inmixed schools or co-educational institutions separateprovisions should be made for retiring rooms andcommon rooms. We have already recommended that acertain number of women should be on the staff of suchschools, and provision should be made as far as possiblefor their accommodation near the school premises.


a month and the items for which they are to be expendedare also specified. In some institutions, subscriptionsor donations are asked for the building fund, sinkingfund, etc. on a supposedly voluntary basis. This maylead to abuse and should be discouraged.

(10) We have referred to the fact that a large number ofschools is managed by certain denominational agenciesor by certain sections or communities. In some of theseinstitutions it has been noticed that recruitment of theteaching staff is confined to the particular caste, creedor section concerned.

In our opinion this is not a desirable practice. Whatevermay be the composition of the Managing Board, we are definitelyof the opinion that, so far as the school teaching staff Isconcerned, it is the duty of the management to gee that nosuch restrictions are imposed on their selection in the largeInterests of the school.

In view of the importance and urgency of providing fordiversi-fied courses of instruction, we strongly recommendthat in the exist-ing as well as the new schools when diversifiedcourses of study are to be started, liberal financial aid andencouragement should be given. We realise that this wouldInvolve a considerably additional financial burden and we feelthat this responsibility may well be shared by the State andCentral governments. In all such cases particularly whenTechnical and Agricultural courses are started, we recommendthat the State and Central governments should contributetowards necessary equipment. It would then be the responsibilityof the managements to carry on their work, with such grantas the State may be able to give towards meeting their deficit.If this recommendation is not implemented there will be littlechance of diversified courses being introduced in the near future.

We have described the conditions which should be fulfilledby educational institutions and reiterate that managementsshould be re-quired to obtain prior approval of the Director ofEducation before opening a school which should not be givenunless the minimum condi-tion prescribed have been fulfilled.It is advisable that a survey be made in each State of the

(9) There is a wide divergence in the scale of fees chargedby different managements. While we realize that nouniform scale of fees can be fixed for all institutions, wefeel that the scales of fees fixed by managements shouldbe subject to approval by the Department of Education.We recognize that in some schools in view of the ameni-ties provided and the appointment of better trainedstaff, it is necessary to charge a higher rate of fees. Atthe same time, we are anxious that the managementsshould not indiscriminately raise the scale of fees. Theyshould in any case be able to satisfy the depart-mentthat the higher fees charged are being actually utilisedin the interests of the pupils. At the other extreme,cases have been brought to our notice whereneighbouring schools have been entered into unfaircompetition by lowering the scale of fees and by offeringconcessions and scholarships merely to attract students.We recommend that in the interest of general efficiencyof schools, rules should be framed preventing suchundue competition amongst neighbouring schools.

We have noted that a large number of “other fees” arelevied by school managements for various purposes,and that the total amount of such fees, in some cases,comes to nearly half the tuition fee charged. We considerthat this is too heavy a burden on many pupils whichcan certainly be lessened by carefully defining theactivities for which such additional fee can be levied. Itis desirable that some sort of uniform practice shouldbe followed in this matter in each State. We suggestthat the question should be looked into by a committeeappointed by the Education Department. It should notbe open to any management to add arbitrarily to thespecial fees charged for such activities. It should alsobe ensured that such fees are spent for the objects forwhich they are collected. In this connec-tion we havebeen informed that in one of the States it has been laiddown that such fees should be charged once in the yearand should not exceed the amount of the tuition fee for


in schools where agriculture is taught as a practical subject..Such farms may belong to the school or they may be taken onlease from neighbouring farmers who may rent them for aconsideration.

Whatever be the type of school building that is ultimatelyap-proved certain important requirements should be fulfilled:(i) sites for buildings and playgrounds; (ii) extent of site required;(iii) type design of school buildings; (iv) easy means of transportor easy accessibility.

Sites for-Buildings and PlaygroundsSites for-Buildings and PlaygroundsSites for-Buildings and PlaygroundsSites for-Buildings and PlaygroundsSites for-Buildings and PlaygroundsSelection of a site will depend on whether the school is to

be situated in a rural or urban area.

Rural Schools: Rural Schools: Rural Schools: Rural Schools: Rural Schools: These schools should be established invillages with a fair amount of population and easily accessibleto the surrounding villages. There should also be enough openground available for playgrounds and extracurricular activitiesof the school. If a residential school is thought of in the ruralarea, care must be taken to see that sufficient ground isavailable for the residence of staff and pupils for out-doorgames. We have referred to the fact that the school should bea centre for the intellectual, social and physical activities ofthe community of the neighbourhood, and therefore, it isdesirable to see that easy accessibility is secured and that theopen area available is also adequate.

Urban Schools: Urban Schools: Urban Schools: Urban Schools: Urban Schools: Here a site for a school may present manydiffi-culties. We believe that by encouraging rural schools, thepressure on urban schools will diminish more particularly ifresidential rural schools are encouraged by the State. The sitefor an urban school should not be in very congested area or inindustrial areas. As far as possible the school should be solocated that while facilities for transport of students areavailable, the school itself should be in an area free from thenoise and bustle of city life. Many schools nowadays make theirown transport arrangements for the students and this shouldbe encouraged. As in the railways the public transport shouldbe made available to school-going children at a concession rate.In big cities the possibility of locating some of the schools In

existing educational facilities and a definite plan be formulatedfor the opening and location of new schools to meet the growingneeds of population.

SCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENTSCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENTSCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENTSCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENTSCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT

Open-Air-SchoolsOpen-Air-SchoolsOpen-Air-SchoolsOpen-Air-SchoolsOpen-Air-SchoolsThere has been some criticism regarding the construction

of school buildings and the type of designs approved for thispurpose. Examples have been quoted of schools in open spacesunder the shade of trees, with very few permanent buildingsconstructed for the school. It has been suggested that in acountry like India open-air school should be encouraged andthe heavy cost of construction of school buildings avoided, atleast for the present. We visited some of these open-air schoolsand we felt that under certain conditions some of the activitiesof the school may be carried on in the open air during part ofthe year.

Open-air schools serve a different purpose in other countries.Such schools, under the prevalent climatic conditions cannotpossibly be a substitute for properly constructed buildings, butin the cases of certain types of handicapped children open-airschools are necessary and are encouraged. For children affectedwith tuberculosis and other diseases which require plenty offresh air, open-air schools are encouraged. In such schoolshowever, admission is limited to children suffering from theparticular disease.

Two factors may, however, be noted : (1) The open-Airsystem lends itself to small groups of students being taughtthere, and it also requires good shade and a large area forcarrying on instruction satisfactorily; (2) while much theoreticalinstruction in certain subjects may be given in open-air classesit is impossible to certain other subjects unless suitableaccommodation is provided for them. Thus the laboratories,libraries and work-shops should be located in buildings suitablyconstructed. In any case the school requires considerable groundsfor the physical education programme to be carried out, forgroup games and certain of the extra-curricular activities of theschool. We have also referred to the need for agricultural farms


bigger villages is made and that a complete record of this ismain-tained and necessary legislation passed to prevent suchencroachment for industrial and commercial purposes or forhousing societies with-out proper sanction by the government.If the youth of the country are to be properly encouraged inphysical education and their health improved, we believe, thatthis is one of the urgent steps that should be taken and wetherefore recommend early legislation towards this end. Wherethere are open spaces belonging to the State or the Centre inany part of the country, rural or urban, the first considerationthat should be borne in mind when any scheme is entertainedfor the utilisation of such sites is the need for preserving themas open spaces, parks or playgrounds for the community aslungs for the city or the rural area concerned. It is only whenthese conditions are fully satisfied that the assignment of suchopen spaces as are under the control of the government forother purposes should be considered. We feel that unless alegislative measure of the kind stated above is passed urgently,open spaces now available for use as play-fields and recreationalgrounds for the children and the youth of the country wouldsoon be denied to them. We recommend also that whereversuch open spaces are available steps should be taken by theState in consultation with the local authorities or the ruralcommunity to convert them into suitable playing fields andplace them at the disposal of the schools and of the public ofthe area concerned.

Type and Design of SchoolsType and Design of SchoolsType and Design of SchoolsType and Design of SchoolsType and Design of SchoolsThere are at present rules and regulations prescribing the

condi-tions under which schools be constructed. Provision ismade in such schools to see that there is a free circulation ofair, proper light, shelter from monsoonish weather, and itis also laid down that the rooms constructed should have acertain minimum area to accommodate a certain number ofschool children in a class. Attention in this connection is invitedto the Report of the School Buildings Committee appointed bythe Central Advisory Board of Education in 1941. The Reportwhich is comprehensive has made valuable suggestionsregarding the school buildings and their equipment. We believe

one area with sufficient playground and open space should beexplored with the necessary arrangements for transport.

PlaygroundsPlaygroundsPlaygroundsPlaygroundsPlaygroundsPlaygrounds and open spaces for students’ recreation are

essen-tial. It may not always be easy to secure enoughplayground and open spaces in a crowded city, but such openspaces as are available must be conserved to be utilised bygroups of schools, if necessary. It is desirable that in all citiesmore particularly in the big cities, a Committee representativeof the school managements, headmasters, city authorities andothers interested in the physical-welfare of the students togetherwith representatives of the State should be organized to promote“Play-centre Movement” and from time to time to see that theplaygrounds available in the city are effectively used by theschoolgoing population.

Legislation Acquiring Open SpacesLegislation Acquiring Open SpacesLegislation Acquiring Open SpacesLegislation Acquiring Open SpacesLegislation Acquiring Open SpacesIn this connection we wish to stress the importance of

keeping playgrounds and open spaces in the big cities free fromencroachments either for industrial purposes or for businessconcerns or for building programmes. We regret to note thatin several cities it has become a regular feature for buildingprogrammes to encroach upon these spaces not realising thenecessity of keeping such open spaces free and of utilizing themfor the health and welfare of the youth of the country. In thisconnection, attention is invited to the Open Spaces Act of 1906as amended in 1912 to cover open spaces and recreation groundsenacted in the United Kingdom. Under this Act, any park.open space or playing field cannot be encroached upon by anyof the local authorities without the matter being placed beforethe Parliament and a specific sanction being obtained.Consequent upon this wise measure, we find that the openspaces in the large cities in England are still kept as openspaces and in spite of a very heavy building programme, noneof these open spaces has been encroached upon. We recommendtherefore that the State and Central governments shouldimmediately take steps to see that a survey of open spaces,parks and playing fields in all cities, municipalities and in the


of the work of the individual student, but in the maintenanceof discipline and in the relationship that should exist betweenthe teacher and the taught, In certain cases pressure has beenbrought to bear on the headmasters of schools by managements,by parents’ associations and by public bodies and sometimesby the authorities concerned, to admit a much large numberof students and even to adopt the double shift system to increasethe number of school-going population. The schools under suchcircumstances have to work like factories and the bad effectupon the education imparted to children of such schools canhardly be exaggerated.

Construction of SchoolsConstruction of SchoolsConstruction of SchoolsConstruction of SchoolsConstruction of SchoolsThe schools must provide for (1) certain amenities for the

students such as common room, sanitary conveniences,provision for mid-day meals and refreshments to be taken, andin the case of girl students retiring rooms with necessaryconveniences separately; (2) accommodation for teachers witha common room available for them; (3) a reading room and alibrary; (4) a visitors’ room where parent or relations who wishto interview the headmaster may wait; (5) a room for theHeadmaster and an office room and a room for the AssistantHeadmaster, should such a person be appointed; (6) laboratoriesand workshops where necessary, such laboratories andworkshops being constructed on an approved plan and for adefinite number of students.

With reference to the library and the reading room, wehave stat-ed elsewhere that the school must be a centre of theintellectual activity of the whole, community particularly inrural areas, and for this purpose, the library and reading roomshould be so constructed that, out of the school hours, it waybe possible for the general public also to use the library undercertain prescribed conditions. This is one of the ways in whicha school can “go to the community” and educate as well asinterest the community in its welfare. We also recommend thatwherever and Whenever it is possible, without interfering withthe regular programme of school work, the, school premisesmay be placed at the disposal of the public of the place for anyof the general purposes for which there is necessity. The idea

that every classroom should provide for an area of not less than10 sq. ft. per student.

We are also of opinion that the number of students in anyclass. should be limited so that classrooms are constructed toaccommodate this number. In some States the number is limitedto 30, in others. to 40, but we have noted with regret thatin recent years, these num-bers have been exceeded; in somecases 50 to 60 pupils are admitted into a class. We feel stronglythat at this age period, with a) view to establishing personalcontact between the teacher and the taught and to exert awholsome influence on the pupil, the optimum number thatshould be admitted to any class should be 30 and the maximumshould not exceed 40. We recommend that in future, schoolsshould be so constructed that they can develop later into thepattern of multipurpose schools affording facilities for morethan one type of diversified courses. It is very likely that in themajority of schools owing to limitations of finance and personnel,more than one or other of the diversified forms of instructionmay not be possible. But ultimately it is our hope that manyschools may be able to afford facilities. for two or more diversifiedcourses. Any type design must therefore take note of thispossibility of expansion as well as of the variety of courses thatmay be provided. We feel for instance that it should be necessaryto provide for workshops, for certain laboratories, certainspecial rooms for drawing, painting or music; etc., and it isdesirable that any design for a school building should takethese into consideration and so adjust the design that in course,of time without much change of the original building, suchadditional accommodation may be provided. Even if diversifiedcourses are not provided, it is absolutely necessary to maintainat least a small workshop with the necessary equipment.

We are of opinion that the present trend in certain schoolsto multiply the number of sections in each class and to increasethe total strength in the school should not be encouraged. Weregret to say that we, have come across schools where the totalnumber of pupils has exceeded 2, 000, each class being dividedinto 8 to 10 sections. This excessive number has led to a groatdeal of laxity not only in the teaching, observation and recording


in such important subjects as Physics and Chemistry was givenin the classroom. It is obvious that to teach Geography withouta proper supply of maps, Elementary Physics without modelsand instruments, Elementary Chemistry without the rudimentsof a laboratory would be giving a theoretical instruction withoututilising the many valuable aids, but this is what is exactlyhappening in certain schools.

We understand that in some universities, definite ruleshave been framed in this behalf and list of essential equipmentneeded for each subject and for a certain number of studentsto be taught in such sub-jects have been drawn up. It is acondition of affiliation that the minimum equipment as setdown should be made available before affi-liation can be grantedto the college. We recommend that in the case of school alsofor every subject which requires practical instruction in oneform or another and for such subjects where audio-visual aidsare essential, directions should be given with regard to theequipment that ought to be made available and the exercisesthat ought to be provided so as to make the teaching of thesubject more instructive and useful to the pupils concerned. Wefeel this would be all the more necessary. In the diversifiedcourses of study which we are recommending, and unless sucha scheme is adopted we are afraid that school may get affiliatedfor such diversified courses of instructions. without having thenecessary equipment and appliances and the theore-tical typeof instruction will seriously impair the value of such courses.We recommend, therefore, that expert committees should beappointed to lay down the equipment required for each of thesediversified courses, including the workshop equipment and thenumber of pupils that can be conveniently accommodated inthe workshop.

Audio-Visual AidsAudio-Visual AidsAudio-Visual AidsAudio-Visual AidsAudio-Visual AidsThere are some modern methods of Audio-Visual education

used at present in different countries which have yet to be morefully utilis-ed in our schools, and we feel that suitable provisionmust be made for this purpose. Among such equipment maybe mentioned film and filmstrip projectors, radios, magiclanterns and Epidioscopes etc. Such appliances may be shared

prevalent hitherto that a school building should be utilised onlyfor school purposes should no longer be entertained in view ofthe larger role the school should play into the general interestsof the local community. This will secure a better appreciationof the role of the, school and a better education of the schoolgoing population themselves in methods of social Service andin various spheres of activity-calculated to benefit the communityaround. We feel that the more the school benefits the communityat large, the more the community itself will assist the school,and many healthy activities can be conducted with the full co-operation of the public of the locality. It should. however, be,clearly understood that the Headmaster is the final authorityto decide what activities way be, allowed in the school premises.

There is one other aspect of the design of the school thatwe have to refer to, in some parts of the country, owing toclimate conditions, it will be necessary to have indooraccommodation for physical education. The boys could thentake active part in physical exercises in open halls wherefacilities for recreation can be provided.

Research in BuildingResearch in BuildingResearch in BuildingResearch in BuildingResearch in BuildingOne other point which we wish to stress is that both in the

type design of schools as well as in the type design of furniture,etc. there is considerable scope for research to make, them suitIndian conditions. This research has not so far been undertakenand we think it could be carried out at the Central BuildingResearch Institute with the joint efforts of the teacher and thearchitect or engineer concerned. The furniture should suit theage group, height, etc. so as to develop proper sitting postures,etc.

EquipmentEquipmentEquipmentEquipmentEquipmentThe equipment of a school is a matter which requires great

care. We regret to say that we have noticed many schools wherethere was hardly equipment, and subjects were taught underconditions where boys were forced to memorise rather thanunderstand what was taught. In some of the schools we visited,it was quite clear that the laboratories were hardly ever used,except as store houses for odds and ends; theoretical instruction


available. It should be the endeavour of the managements tosee that such shops are not encouraged and that in the schoolitself a, well run cafeteria providing clean and whole-some foodat comparatively cheap rate is available. We recommend alsothat cooperative stores be established in all schools providingschool requirements at almost the cost price. We feel sure thatif the teachers take some interest there should be no difficultyin establishing such cooperative stores. In some Statescooperation has a strong hold. The school design should naturallytake note of the requirements of cafeteria and cooperativestores.

Quarters for the School StaffQuarters for the School StaffQuarters for the School StaffQuarters for the School StaffQuarters for the School StaffIt has not often been realised that for efficient service in

the school, the teachers concerned should have suitable quartersas near the school as possible. This is particularly true ofschools situated in urban areas. We feel that the presence ofthe headmaster and some at least of the staff in or near aschool, particularly if there are hostels attached or where theschools are residential will be of the greatest, benefit to theschool-going population. It will attract teachers to the schoolsand it will be of great benefit to the management itself if,quarters can be assured. We consider that this is particularlynecessary, and not merely desirable, in the case of girls’schools for women teachers. We have had occasion to note thatfor lack of suitable quarters, there has been great difficultyin recruiting women teachers to some of the girls’ schools. Thecommunity life of the teaching staff thus encouraged by theprovision of quarters in the area would go a long way to promotetheir sustained interest in the school and their united effort forthe better running of the instituion. We recommend also thatquarters should be provided for the teaching staff of boys’schools particularly in rural areas where no quarters areavailable at present for the majority of the teachers. In urbanareas, the cost of rented buildings is prohibitive and teacherswith small emoluments can hardly live in decent quarters. Wetherefore recommend that quarters be also provided as far aspossible in the urban areas. In doing so, the State should cometo the aid of the schools by starting cooprative housing societies

by two or three schools to be used by them in rotation atdifferent times of the day or on different days. We have referredelsewhere to the part that the radio can play in giving generaleducation to the students of schools and colleges and the closeliaison that should be maintained between the teaching staffof the school and those connected with All India Radio. We werevery glad to know that in many States such a close liaison ismaintained and the headmasters of the schools and otherteachers were consulted as to the type of broadcasts that wouldbe of interest and benefit to the school-going population.

Hostels for Residential and Day-Residential SchoolsHostels for Residential and Day-Residential SchoolsHostels for Residential and Day-Residential SchoolsHostels for Residential and Day-Residential SchoolsHostels for Residential and Day-Residential SchoolsWe have recommended both residential schools and day-

residential schools. Residential schools should provide foraccommodation not merely for the pupils but also for some ofthe teachers. There should also be enough of open space forplaygrounds for the residential schools. In the design ofresidential schools, proper accommodation should be providedfor library, for indoor games, dinning halls, dormitories andseparate accommodation for the care and isolation of the sick.The care of the sick in residential schools, is a responsibilityof the management and while efforts may be made to admitthose who are seriously sick in the neighbouring hospitals forminor ailments, arrangements for temporary isolation shouldbe provided.

We have already referred to that fact that in the day-residential schools children would be expected to come in themorning and stay there till late in the evening and that throughthe cafeteria or otherwise, arrangements may be made toprovide them with mid-day meals and refreshments at cheaprates. It is therefore necessary that there should be a diningroom for the purpose and also certain common rooms wherethe pupils may take rest. In this connection we wish to stressthe need for a cafeteria to be opened in all day schools. It isunfortunate that the managements have not taken care thattheir school children should have, when necessary, clean foodand filtered water to drink. We have noticed that several coffeehotels have a brisk trade just by the side of the school, wherethere is no guarantee of wholesome food or drinks being


and with this end in view we recommend that a teacher shouldnot be given more than 30 periods a week.

Vacation and HolidaysVacation and HolidaysVacation and HolidaysVacation and HolidaysVacation and HolidaysNo country, perhaps enjoys as many holidays as India and

with the innumerable holidays given for various religiousfunctions, the work of the school is seriously handicapped.School work suffers much by interruption and it is far betterto give short vacations during the academic year. We recommendthat school holidays need not conform to holidays declared bythe government, that two months’ vacations should be givenin summer and that there should be two breaks of 10 to 15 daysat suitable occasions in the year.

RECRUITMENT TO PUBLIC SERVICESRECRUITMENT TO PUBLIC SERVICESRECRUITMENT TO PUBLIC SERVICESRECRUITMENT TO PUBLIC SERVICESRECRUITMENT TO PUBLIC SERVICES

Effect of the Present Method of the Recruitment onEffect of the Present Method of the Recruitment onEffect of the Present Method of the Recruitment onEffect of the Present Method of the Recruitment onEffect of the Present Method of the Recruitment onEducationEducationEducationEducationEducation

We have discussed at considerable length that universitieshave had a dominating influence on Secondary education whichonly aims at qualifying candidates for entrance to a university.But more than this, the present method of recruitment topublic services in the country has a deadening influence onboth Secondary education and other grades of education.Complaints are common that the type of education prevalentfor over a hundred years was mainly intended to provide clerksfor government service. Whatever may have been the motivesin the past it is obvious that the present and in the future thevery large number of young men who seek educationalopportunities can never hope to secure employment ingovernment service, because the number of posts is very limited.If education is, to lead the indivi-dual to secure employmenton the basis of his general accomplishment. it seems necessarythat there should be a change not only in the nature of educationbut also in the policy and in the methods adopted for recruitmentto public services.

Present Method of Selection to ServicesPresent Method of Selection to ServicesPresent Method of Selection to ServicesPresent Method of Selection to ServicesPresent Method of Selection to ServicesAt present the Public Service Commission holds a

competitive test for selecting candidates for different grades of

and by giving loans to the managements of the schools on easyterms. If these recommendations are accepted and adopted, wefeel sure that the whole atmosphere of the school will bedifferent, and that efficiency and discipline will improve andthe community itself will beg-in to realise that the school is aninstitution calculated to serve the need not only of the pupilsbut of the whole community.

HOURS OF WORK AND VACATIONSHOURS OF WORK AND VACATIONSHOURS OF WORK AND VACATIONSHOURS OF WORK AND VACATIONSHOURS OF WORK AND VACATIONSIn most States the hours of work in schools are specified

and a uniform practice is observed which does not take intoconsideration the varying needs of the locality, the climaticconditions therein and the manner in which the school pupilsmay best serve their families.

We feel considerable latitude, should be, given to schoolsto arrange their school hours in such a way that they do notinterfere with the life of the community or with the, generalconditions Prevailing therein. Provided the total number ofworking days and the number of working hours per day befixed it should be possible for schools, with the previous approvalof the Director to vary the hours of school work, with due,reference to the changes in the season. Particular note may betaken of the requirements of rural schools and of the occupationsof the community. Thus during the agricultural seasons whenthe parents have to depend on the help of their children, itis good for the children to be associated with such occupationsof their parents, whatever may be their future vacation in life.Nor do we consider it desirable to have fixed hours commonto all schools independently of Seasonal variations.

We recommend that the total number of working days ina school should not be less than 200, that the working hoursper week be at least 35 periods of 45 minutes each inclusiveof time spent for some, of the co-curricular activities of theschool. The school should Work regularly for 6 days in theweek, one of the days being a half day when the teachers andtaught may devote special attention to the pur-suit of extra-curricular activities. We have already stated that all teachersshould take part in one or other of the extra-curricular activities


Methods of Recruitment in Other CountriesMethods of Recruitment in Other CountriesMethods of Recruitment in Other CountriesMethods of Recruitment in Other CountriesMethods of Recruitment in Other CountriesWe have examined the methods of recruitment in other

countries and the principles on which such recruitment is based.The policy in recruitment to the civil services in general andto the administrative posts in particular in the United Kingdomis based upon certain consi-derations such as:

(i) Recruitment at an early age.

(ii) A close linking of the various methods and stages ofentrance with the educational system of the country.

(iii) The emphasis on a general rather than specificpreparation for career as an officer.

(v) An examination which does not seek unduly to influencethe general school and university curriculum.

(v) Finally as a corollary to the former the desire thatcandidates who have failed in the civil service testsshould not be at a disadvantage in their study for otherprofessions. A general education which enlarges andstrengthens their understanding is what is required sothat it will precede the special education which mustqualify persons to discharge the business of their post.

Suggestions for Improving the Methods of SelectionSuggestions for Improving the Methods of SelectionSuggestions for Improving the Methods of SelectionSuggestions for Improving the Methods of SelectionSuggestions for Improving the Methods of SelectionWe believe that to get the most suitable persons for the

different grades, the practice that obtains in most of theWestern countries should be followed. Selection should be madeat various age periods 16 to 18, 19 to 21 and 22 to 24. If thefirst recruitment is at the age periods of 16 to 18 and acompetitive examination is held the person so selected willhave received sufficient education and be sufficiently maturefor his work and for further training to discharge the particularduties thereof. It should be left to the department concernedto plan the method of, further training for the type of workthat is expected. Such training should be given as part of theroutine duties he has to perform. The next category will bethose who have attained the age of about 19. That bulk of suchcandidates are likely to have passed the Higher Secondarystage of examination and would know how to prepare for such

public services. The maximum age for recruitment tomost of the services irrespective of the nature of the work is25 years. In the case of persons belonging to some of theeducationally backward communities there is a relaxa-tion ofthe age period.

It is surprising that the competitive tests for even thelowest grade of clerical posts is based upon this maximum ageperiod and not on the stage of education completed. Both theproducts of school and of the university are allowed to sit forthe same competitive test conducted by the Public ServiceCommission and it is not clear how the same type of questioncan hold good for matri-culates as well as graduates. It is alsodifficult to understand how by such a test the achievements ofcandidates of different grades of education can be evaluated.

A boy is thus forced to pursue higher courses of study evenup to the age of 25 in the vain hope that, somehow or other,at some period of his educational career he may be able tosecure through a competitive test the coveted post of a lowerdivision clerk. Economic wastage involved in this method ofrecruitment as well as the psychological wastage involved inthe unnecessary pursuit of higher academic studies by theunsuitable candidates are obvious. The over-crowding ofeducational institutions in the higher spheres of education isone of its consequences.

Recruitment in IndiaRecruitment in IndiaRecruitment in IndiaRecruitment in IndiaRecruitment in IndiaIn India the usual practice is to recruit persons who are

below 25 for all grades and classes of employment and laterto leave it to them, in some manner or other, and withoutany guidance to pass the special tests which are needed forpromotion from one post to a higher post.

There is also another unfortunate trend which has cometo force in recent years. Promotion to a higher post is basednot on his work or the special tests passed by him but on hisqualifying for a degree. This has resulted in a constant pressureupon universities to permit employees in government service,to appear for university examinations after private study andobtain a higher qualification.


to the different levels of education. We also recommend thatfor a transitional period the methods of recruitment that wehave suggested based on the age limit should be tried for about50 per cent of posts while the recruitment to the rest be madeon the present basis. The results of these methods should becarefully watched before all the posts are treated on a uniformbasis.


1. The Director of Education should be the officer mainlyres-ponsible to advise the Minister and for this purpose,it is necessary that he should have at least the statusof a Joint Secretary and should have direct access to theMinister.

2. A Committee should be constituted both at the Centreand in each State consisting of the ministers concernedwith the various grades and types of education in orderto discuss how best the resources of the departmentcould be pooled for the furtherance of education of alltypes.

3. There should be Co-ordinating Committee consisting ofthe departmental heads concerned with the differentspheres of education in order to consider methods ofimprovement and expansion in all fields of education.

4. There should be a Board of Secondary Educationconsisting of not more than 25 members with the Directorof Education as its Chairman to deal with all mattersof education at the Secondary stage and to Jay downgeneral policies.

5. A Sub-Committee of the Board should deal with theconduct of examinations.

6. There should be a Teachers’ Training Board forsupervising and laying down the conditions necessaryfor the proper training of undergraduates and forsuggesting, for the. consideration of the universities,improvements that may be needed in the training ofgraduates.

a test. Likewise at the next higher age level, the test beingof a more advanced nature, it will generally draw candidateswho have either completed the university degree or who areappearing for it. This would also give scope for persons whohave not the resources to go to colleges but may study privatelyto compete for selection to administrative posts. People whowill be selected for the last grade, between the ages of 22 and24, will be for highest services like the Indian Administrativeor Foreign Service etc. In practice most of them would haveobtained a university degree but this should not be put downas sine qua non for appearing for the competitive test.

It may be argued that the number of people who wouldappear for such a test may be so large that it may not bepossible for the Public Service Commission to conduct theseexaminations. This is no doubt a difficulty but the method hascertain definite advantages. The students will not pursue apurposeless education to obtain a degree which would only leadto the over-crowding of colleges by unsuitable candidates andto increase the number of unemployed graduates. Anotheradvantage would be that those who have taken to highlyspecialised courses of instruction would not then be crowdinginto government posts for which such training is not needed.It has been rightly pointed out by many leaders of publicopinion that the qualifications prescribed for government servicein this country have given undue importance to universitydegrees and this has led to a large number of unfit personsflocking to the universities much to the detriment of standardsand the tone of university education. The policy pursued bygovernment in this respect is followed by some employers also.

We therefore recommend that a careful study should bemade of the conditions of recruitment and that a universitydegree should be prescribed only for such posts largelyprofessional-where high aca-demic attainments are obviouslynecessary.

We recommend that the whole system of recruitment topublic-service should be examined de novo by a competentcommittee specially appointed to see tow far the methods ofrecruitment can be improved and how they could be best applied


Managements and Conditions of Recognition of SchoolsManagements and Conditions of Recognition of SchoolsManagements and Conditions of Recognition of SchoolsManagements and Conditions of Recognition of SchoolsManagements and Conditions of Recognition of Schools

14. Recognition to schools should be given only on clearlyde-fined conditions which will ensure their properrunning and the maintenance of proper standards.

15. The Managing Boards of all schools should be registeredand should consist of a limited number of persons withthe headmaster as an ex-officio member.

16. No member of the Managing Board should directly orin directly interfere with the internal administration ofthe school.

17. Every management should be required to draw definiterules, of service wherein the conditions pertaining tosalary, leave, etc., should be definitely laid down.

18. For proper running of a school every management shouldbe required to provide endowment and the incomeaccruing from this should be shown in the receipts ofthe year.

19. The scales of fees fixed by the managements of a schoolshould be subject to approval by the Department ofEducation.

20. A committee should be appointed when necessary bythe De-partment of Education to go into the questionof levying uniform scale of tuition fees and other feesand all accounts of the school should be subject to auditby the Department.

21. The managements should satisfy the Department thatqualified staff is available and will be appointed inaccordance with the rules laid down by the Departmentfor affiliation.

22. The management should satisfy the Department thatadequate accommodation and equipment, etc. havebeen provided for the efficient running of the school.

23. The number of sections in each class should be limitedand before any increase in the number of sections ismade, the prior ap-proval of the Department should beobtained.

7. The existing Central Advisory Board of Education shouldcontinue to function as a coordinating agency to considerall-India problems concerning education, and StateAdvisory Boards should be constituted on similar linesin each State to advise the Department of Education onall matters pertaining to education.

Inspection of SchoolsInspection of SchoolsInspection of SchoolsInspection of SchoolsInspection of Schools

8. The true role of an Inspector should be to study theproblems of each school and view them comprehensivelyin the context of educational objectives, to formulatesuggestions for improvement and to help the teachersto carry out his advice and recommendations.

9. Special Inspectors or panels of Inspectors should beappointed to inspect the teaching of special subjects likeDomestic Science, Art, Music, etc.

10. Persons selected as Inspectors should possess highacademic qualifications, adequate teaching experienceor experience as head-masters of High schools for amaximum prescribed period. In addition to directrecruitment, Inspectors should also be drawn from:

(i) teachers of ten years’ experience,

(ii) headmasters of High schools, and

(iii) duly qualified staff of training colleges who may beallowed to work as such for a period of three to fiveyears.

11. The Inspectors should have a competent staff to helpthem in the discharge of their administrative duties.

12. In order to evaluate the academic side of activities ofa school there should be a panel of experts with theInspector as Chairman to inspect the schools.

13. Three persons may be chosen from senior teachers orheadmasters to visit the school in the company of theInspector and to spend two or three days with the staff,discussing with them and with the school authorities allaspects of school life and problems.


33. The school constructed in future should provide facilitiesfor the introduction of diversified courses.

34. In the type design of schools as well as the furniture,etc. research should be carried on to improve functionalefficiency and to adjust them to Indian conditions.

35. Expert Committees should be appointed to laydown carefully the amount and kind of equipmentrequired for various types of diversified courses andworkshops.

36. Cooperative stores should be established in all schoolswhere books, stationery and other materials requiredby students are made available to them at cost price.

37. So far as possible, quarters should be provided forteachers in rural areas as well as urban areas to attractsuitable persons to the profession and to facilitatedevelopment of a corporate community life in the schools.

Hours of Work and VacationsHours of Work and VacationsHours of Work and VacationsHours of Work and VacationsHours of Work and Vacations

38. Considerable latitude should be given to schools toarrange their school hours in such a way as not tointerfere with the activities of the community and thegeneral climatic and occupational conditions prevailingin the locality.

39. As a rule the total number of working days in a schoolshould not be less than two hundred, the working hoursper week should be at least thirty-five periods of aboutforty five minutes each; the school should work regularlyfor six days in the week, one of the days being a halfday when the teachers and students might meetinformally and work together on various extra-curricularand social projects.

40. School holidays need not be identical with public holidaysas declared by the government and normally during theyear there should be a summer vacation of two monthsand two breaks of ten to fifteen days at suitable periodsduring the year.

24. In the interest of the general efficiency of schools rulesshould be framed preventing undue competition amongstneighbouring schools.

25. The teaching staff should not be limited to any particularcaste or community but should, as far as possible, berecruited on a wide basis.

26. In view of the importance and urgency of providingdiversi-fied courses of instruction, financial, aid andencouragement should be given to the existing schoolsas well as new schools providing diversified courses ofstudy.

27. Managements should obtain prior approval of theDirectors of Education before opening schools and theapproval should not be, given unless the minimumconditions prescribed have been scrupulously fulfilled.

School Building and EquipmentSchool Building and EquipmentSchool Building and EquipmentSchool Building and EquipmentSchool Building and Equipment

28. Secondary schools sould be established in rural areasin central places with sufficient population which areeasily accessible to the surrounding villages.

29. Schools in urban areas should, as far as possible, beso located that they are free from the noise andcongestion of the city and necessary transport facilitiesshould be made available for students.

30. The open spaces available in cities must be conservedto be utilised as playground by groups of schools andthe state and central governments should prevent,through legislation, encroachment on them for industrialor commercial purposes or by housing societies.

31. Normally, in designing buildings for schools, careshould be taken to see that an area of not less than 10sq. ft. is provided per student in the classrooms.

32. The optimum number or boys to be admitted to anyclass should be 30 and the maximum should not in anycase exceed 40; the optimum number in the whole schoolshould be 500 while the maximum should not exceed750.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education294294294294294 Financial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary Education 295295295295295

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FFFFFINANCIALINANCIALINANCIALINANCIALINANCIAL A A A A AIDIDIDIDID TOTOTOTOTO S S S S SECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARYECONDARY E E E E EDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATION

The question has often been asked whether finances willbe avai-lable to implement the recommendations that theCommission may make. It has been pointed out that therecommendations of the previous Commissions have not beengiven effect to, largely because the necessary financial resourcescould not be made available either by the States or by theCentre. While some of the recommendations that we havemade may possibly be implemented without undue strain onthe financial resources of the States or the Centre, the mostimportant of our recommendations do require substantialfinancial help if they are to be worked out successfully.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATERESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATERESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATERESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATERESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATEWe have been told that under the Constitution, Secondary

edu-cation is a responsibility of the States. We have alreadyexpressed the view that the Centre is not absolved of allresponsibility in regard to Secondary education, particularlythose aspects which have a bearing on the general economicdevelopment of the country and the training for citizenship.Moreover the fundamental rights guarantee to every citizenfree and compulsory education up to the age of 14; this impliesthat responsibility in this behalf is shared both by the Statesas well as the Centre. It seems obvious, therefore, that in allmatters connected with the improvement of Secondary educationthere should be fullest cooperation between the States and theCentre both in regard to the lines on which education shoulddevelop as well as the manger in which the recommendationsshould be implemented.

Recruitment to Public ServiceRecruitment to Public ServiceRecruitment to Public ServiceRecruitment to Public ServiceRecruitment to Public Service

41. The selection for and recruitment to public service shouldbe made successively at definite age periods i.e., theage 16 to 18, 19 to 21, 22 to 24.

42. For a transitional period, this method of recruitmenton the basis of age groups should be tried for about 50%of the posts, while the other 50% should be recruitedon the present basis and this pro-portion should begradully reduced.

43. A careful study should be made of the present conditionsof recruitment with particular reference to therelationship between the university degree and publicservices and such degree qualification should beprescribed only for posts that require such high academicattainments; for this purpose, a committee should beappointed to go into the whole system of recruitmentto public service and to consider how far-the methodsof recruitment could be improved and relatedintelligently to the different levels of education.

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education Financial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary EducationFinancial Aid to Secondary Education296296296296296 297297297297297

(1) Payment of stipends to teachers under training;

(2) Payment of medical officers for medical inspection;

(3) Maintenance In boarding homes of orphans;

(4) Construction and extension of school buildings andhostels;

(5) Furniture, apparatus, chemicals and books for library;

(6) For acquisition of lands for school buildings, hostels orplaygrounds;

(7) For crafts or industrial education;

(8) Maintenance grant.But grants for all these purposes are not given by all States,

and the grant-in-aid code would seem to need revision in thelight of the new proposals for educational reform.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A.VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A.VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A.VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A.VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A.The way in which Vocational education has been

implemented in the United States of America and the reasonswhich led to its rapid development in that country deservenotice.

In the United States schools are controlled entirely andsupported to a very large degree by the different States.However, the Federal Government has had considerableinfluence in educational matters and, in recent years, it hasincreased its grant-in-aid to the States for part of theireducational progress. In 1862, an Act called the Morall Act waspassed which made a notable change in the educational policypursued by the Federal Government. It was laid down that theprincipal objective of such aid should be, without excludingeither scientific and classical students, to teach branches oflearning as are related to agriculture and the mechanical artsin such a manner as the legislatures of the State may prescribe,in order to afford the industrial classes, a liberal and practicaleducation in their various pursuits. This policy has been steadilykept in view. A further impetus to Vocational education wasgiven by the passing of the National Vocational Education Actof 1915 commonly called the Smith Hughes Act (Appendix X).

In this respect we wish to draw attention to the analogyof the United States where, although education is theresponsibility of indi-vidual States which can carry out theirown experiments in education independently, there is an over-all pattern of education for all American youths, which has theapproval and support of the Federal Government. The FederalGovernment has found it necessary to guarantee throughlegislation substantial financial aid for educational development.The recommendations to which we attach great importancerelate to the implementation of Vocational education as a partof Secondary education and its expansion to all parts of thecountry as early as possible and the improvement of the statusand conditions of service of the teachers. No progress inSecondary education is possible unless the teaching professionattracts the right type of people and proper conditions of service,including salary, are guaranteed at the different levels ofeducation.

SOURCES OF REVENUESOURCES OF REVENUESOURCES OF REVENUESOURCES OF REVENUESOURCES OF REVENUEAt present, the sources of revenue for educational purposes

at the State level are: (1) State Government grants; (2) Grantsmade by Municipal and other local bodies directly or throughan educational cess; (3) Private benefactions and grants madeby private managements; and (4) School fees.

An educational cess can be imposed by local bodies underpermis-sive power given to them by State Governments. It islevied on land revenue, or as part of the profession tax or onproperty tax in urban areas. The rate of cess varies and althoughthe local bodies can levy the maximum educational cesspermissible under the Act in many cases this has not beendone.

STATE GRANTSSTATE GRANTSSTATE GRANTSSTATE GRANTSSTATE GRANTSThe grants given for education vary from State to State.

Educa-tional institutions under private managements are givengrant-in-aid to assist them in the expansion and improvementof their educational facilities. These grants given may be forany of the following purposes:


understand that-similar Acts have been passed in some othercountries also, notably in Canada.

We have referred to this Act in some detail, because, ifour country is to make any progress in Vocational educationand help agriculture, industry, trade and commerce, it canonly be done by passing an Act of Legislature of similar nature,guaranteeing Central funds for the different States for theorganization and promotion of Vocational education. At theCentre, different Departments under several Ministries arenow expending considerable sums of money for specialeducational purposes. So far as Secondary education isconcerned, the Centre has not given any substantial aid exceptto those institutions for whose maintenance it has a directresponsibility. We, therefore, recommend that a suitable Acton somewhat similar basis should be passed which will enablethe different Ministries concerned to pool their resources in thefield of Secondary education and to establish a centralOrganisation to supervise the development of Vocationaleducation in the different States. It should be able to assist intheir proper organization, equipment and maintenance and inproviding properly trained teaching personnel who may be paidadequate salaries. As in the Acts quoted above, the matchingof such Central grants with grants from State funds should belaid down as a condition.

THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONTHE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONTHE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONTHE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONTHE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONWe recommend that a Board should be constituted at the

Centre to be called the Federal Board of Vocational EducationThe funds for this board should be contributed by the differentMinistries, more particularly the Ministries of Education,Railways and Communication, Food and Agriculture,Industries, Trade and Commerce. The Board should consistof representatives of the different Ministries men-tioned above,together with representatives of the Ministries of Finance landDefence. To represent the general public, the President of theRepublic may nominate three distinguished persons to it. TheChairman of the Board should be the Minister of Education atthe Centre and Secretary of the Ministry of Education shall beits Secretary. The Board should have power to cooperate with

This Act is intended to provide for the promotion of Vocationaleducation, for cooperation with the States in the promotion ofeducation, agriculture, trades and industries and in thepreparation of teachers of vocational subjects and to appropriatemoney and regulate its expenditure. The detailed provisions ofthe Act deal with grants to assist the States in paying thesalaries of teachers, supervisors and directors of agriculturalsubjects and teachers of trade, industrial and home economicssubjects.

To enable the objectives to be attained, a Federal Boardof Voca-tional Education was created consisting of theSecretaries of Agricul-ture, Commerce and Labour, the U. S.Commissioner of Education and three citizens of the UnitedStates to be appointed by the President with the advice andconsent of the Senate. The Board was given the power tocooperate with the State Boards in carrying out the provisionsof this Act, and it was the duty of the Federal Board to makeor cause to have made, State investigations and reports dealingwith the establishment of vocational schools and classes andthe giving of instruction in Agriculture, Trades and Industries,Commerce and Home Economics. The funds made available tothe Federal Board. of vocational education could also be utilisedfor printing and binding of books of reference and periodicals.A series of supplementary acts for the same purposes followed,the most significant being the George Barden Act of 1946,which authorised an additional sum of 28, 500, 000 dollars tobe distributed to the States for Vocational education. In orderto receive the federal funds mentioned in the Smith-HughesAct, the various States and territories were required to matchfrom States, territorial or local funds or both, 100% of thefederal money i.e. grants were made on a dollar to dollar basispaid by the Federal and State Government respectively. It was,however, found that the States and territories actually exceededtheir share of the contribution.

As a result of the Smith Hughes Act and later the GeorgeBarden Act, Vocational education received a stimulus whichhas resulted in a very large increase of trained personnel andmuch greater industrial prosperity in the United States. We


industries or concerns such as Railways and Communications,Posts and Telegraphs a certain percentage of the net revenuefrom these undertakings might be made available for thepromotion of Technical education. They should really take thelead in encouraging Technical education in all fields in orderto improve the quality of the work turned out in their workshopsor elsewhere.

Public Philanthropy: Public Philanthropy: Public Philanthropy: Public Philanthropy: Public Philanthropy: Public Philanthropy has played anota-ble part in the development of every kind of education inour country but in recent years its scope is becoming more andmore limited, so that the extent of the aid expected from thissource has greatly dimi-nished. We do not want to go into thedetailed causes of this change. Many educational institutionsowed their inception and continued exi-stence to a class thatis fast disappearing. It seems to us that certain special incentivesare required to attract philanthropic aid for educationalpurposes. Taking note of this, the Central Government hasalready passed certain rules under which contributions madeto certain institutions like universities and research institutesare up to a limit of Rs. 25, 000 for Secondary education andup to a limit of Rs. 50, 000 for Technical education may beexempted from operation of the Income tax Act.

Religious and Charitable Endowments: Religious and Charitable Endowments: Religious and Charitable Endowments: Religious and Charitable Endowments: Religious and Charitable Endowments: We believethat, in certain States, provision has been made by an Actof the Legislature for some of the income of religious andcharitable institutions being used for educational purposes. Weconsider that it would be a fair utilisation of these funds, ifafter meeting the necessary charges pertaining to theadministration of these trusts, diversion of some of the surplusfunds is made to education including secondary education. Wetrust that similar provisions will be made in other States wheresuch legislation is not already in force.

Estate Duties: Estate Duties: Estate Duties: Estate Duties: Estate Duties: We would also recommend that amountsbe-queathed to public institutions for general educationalpurposes in the will of a deceased person should not be subjectto any duty by the Centre and that the whole of this amountshould be appropriated to the educational purposes for whichthey are meant.

the State Boards in carrying out the provisions of the Act andit should have generally the same functions as the UnitedStates Federal Board. The funds at the disposal of the FederalBoard shall be distributed to the State concerned taking intoconsideration the percentage contribution of each State whichshould be fixed at a definite percentage of the whole grant orwith reference to the particular purpose for which the grantis given and the size of the school going population of eachState. These provisions may be incorporated in the Act to guidethe Board in its work.

OUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FINANCEOUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FINANCEOUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FINANCEOUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FINANCEOUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FINANCE

Technical Education Cess: Technical Education Cess: Technical Education Cess: Technical Education Cess: Technical Education Cess: We have mentioned in anearlier chapter that the spread of Technical education woulddirectly benefit industry trade, commerce, transport, etc.,and therefore, it is reasonable to expect that industry tocontribute towards, the training of well qualified technicalpersonnel. The evidence tendered made us feel that industrywould welcome this cess if it is taken into full confidence andgiven a, voice in shaping the policy of Technical and Industrialeducation. At present. a, special cess is levied on certainindustries to promote development and research in them. Whilethis is of great value. it cannot be denied that the employmentof well-trained qualified technicians in all grades of industrywill result in much greater improvement and this would dependlargely on the reorientation of the Secondary education asenvisaged by us. Among the industries that will largely benefitfrom employment of such trained personnel, there are thetextile industry, steel, ship building, motor cars, railwaysand transport, mining, machine tools and other engineeringindustries etc. We therefore recommend that a cess called theIndustrial Education Cess be levied, the determination of itsexact rate and methods of the collection being left to an ExpertCommittee to assess with reference to each industry concerned.This cess should be utilised solely for the furtherance of Technicaland Vocational education at the Secondary stage taking intoconsideration the needs of each industry. Representatives ofindustry, trade and commerce should be associated with theprogramme of Technical education. In regard to nationalised


reasonably be expected. This scheme of vocational educationand the introduction of vocational subjects in the school asrecommended cannot possibly be implemented in a satisfactorymanner unless central aid is forthcoming.

We have referred to some of the methods of augmentingthe financial resources needed for Secondary education ofdiversified types. We feel that so far as the Centre is concerned,certain direct responsibilities may be taken in the field ofSecondary education. The Centre may give financial aid forsuch purposes as the following:

(1) The starting of Secondary schools providing diversifiedcourses, more particularly in the rural areas.

(2) The, production of better books for children and teachers.

(3) The establishment of institutions for training teachersin technical subjects.

(4) The establishment of centres for encouraging researchin important problems of Secondary education such as:

(a) Curricula of studies;

(b) Vocational guidance;

(c) Physical and health education

(d) Methods of teaching

(e) Book production research;

(f) Technique of examination.

(5) Organisation of refresher courses, seminars andconferences of headmasters and teachers.

(6) Production of suitable educational films and audio-visualaids; and

(7) Encouragement of approved experimental schools.

We feel that the active cooperation of the Centre with theStates is essential to promote education in the country, toimprove its quality and to carry on the necessary research inthe different fields of education which may ultimately beincorporated in the educational system.

OTHER MEASURES TO RELIEVE THE COST OFOTHER MEASURES TO RELIEVE THE COST OFOTHER MEASURES TO RELIEVE THE COST OFOTHER MEASURES TO RELIEVE THE COST OFOTHER MEASURES TO RELIEVE THE COST OFSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATIONSECONDARY EDUCATION

Exemption from Local Taxes an EducationalExemption from Local Taxes an EducationalExemption from Local Taxes an EducationalExemption from Local Taxes an EducationalExemption from Local Taxes an EducationalBuildings: Buildings: Buildings: Buildings: Buildings: We have been told that certain local bodies levyproperty tax on educational institutions and on their groundswhich seriously affects their finances and restricts the scopeof their improvement. If education is a national responsibility,it is not desirable that their buildings and grounds should betaxed and we recommend that whether they are situated inurban or rural areas, in Municipalities or in Corporations,they should be exempted from the levy of this tax.

In many countries this is an accepted principle and insteadof levying such charges, Municipalities and Corporations haveestablished educational institutions of all grades out of theirfunds.

The importance of educational institutions having adequateplaygrounds and open spaces have been stressed by uselsewhere. We recommend, therefore, that State Governmentsand the Centre should, wherever possible, allot lands toschools for playgrounds, buildings, agricultural farms andother similar purposes, without charging for them. Suchallotment is made in the U.S.A. under the land grants scheme.

Exemption of Books and Scientific Apparatus fromExemption of Books and Scientific Apparatus fromExemption of Books and Scientific Apparatus fromExemption of Books and Scientific Apparatus fromExemption of Books and Scientific Apparatus fromCustoms Duty: Customs Duty: Customs Duty: Customs Duty: Customs Duty: Till such time as the necessary scientificapparatus and appliances cannot be manufactured in thecountry, we recommend that educational institutions whichhave to obtain scientific apparatus and workshop appliancesfrom abroad should be exempted from customs duty. We realisethat this involves some dificulties but, with strict control andthe provision of necessary information by the schools to thesatisfaction of the Department of Education, it should not beimpossible to implement this proposal. We likewise recommendthat books for school libraries may be similarly exempted fromduty.

CENTRAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATIONCENTRAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATIONCENTRAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATIONCENTRAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATIONCENTRAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATIONWe are of the opinion that in view of the larger interest

involved, financial aid from the Centre is necessary and may


and books for school library should be exempted fromcustoms duty.

11. The Centre should assume a certain amount of directresponsibility for the contemplated reorganisation ofsecondary education and give financial aid for thepurpose.

THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS WE VISUALIZE ITTHE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS WE VISUALIZE ITTHE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS WE VISUALIZE ITTHE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS WE VISUALIZE ITTHE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS WE VISUALIZE ITIn the preceding chapters, we have discussed the various

aspects and issues pertaining to the reconstruction of Secondaryeducation. In this chapter we propose to present a compositepicture of the Secondary school as it would emerge if ourproposals and recommendations are put into effect.

Provision of a Proper EnvironmentProvision of a Proper EnvironmentProvision of a Proper EnvironmentProvision of a Proper EnvironmentProvision of a Proper EnvironmentThe first concern of the schools should be to provide for its

pupils a rich, pleasant and stimulating environment which willevoke their manifold interests and make life a matter of joyfulexperiences. This is not an easy thing to achieve; it demandsa many-sided approach. To begin with, the physical environmentof our schools with the exception of a few well-endowed schools,is generally so drab and depressing that it is not conducive tothe building up of an esprit-de-crops or a sense of pride in theschool. We realise that many schools work under considerablefinancial difficulties and it is idle to expect that they will beable to put up suitable buildings or provide proper furnitureand equipment. But, we are not prepared to concede the pointthat it is impossible for such schools to do anything to improvetheir present material conditions. In fact, our observationshave convinced us that, where the staff and the managementhave shown some vision and have been able to win the activecooperation of the students and the local community, financialdifficulties have not stood in the way of the schools becomingreasonably “streamlined”.

Educational authorities and teachers often fail to realizewhat tremendous resources they have at their disposal in thehundreds of eager, lively, constructively disposed youngstersin their school. If their enthusiasm and practical aptitudes are


1. In matters connected with reorganisation andimprovement of Secondary education there should beclose cooperation between the Centre and States.

2. In order to promote Vocational education a Board ofvocational Education should be constituted at the Centreconsisting of the representatives of concerned Ministriesand other interests.

3. A cess called the Industrial Education Cess be levied,the amount collected to be utilised for the furtheranceof Technical and Vocational education at the Secondarystage.

4. A certain percentage of the net revenue from nationalisedindustries or concerns such as Railways,Communications, Posts and Telegraphs etc., should bemade available for the promotion of Techni-cal educationin certain fields.

5. Contributions for the development of Secondaryeducation should be exempted from the operation of theIncome-tax Act.

6. Surplus funds from the religious and charitableendowments should be diverted to educational purposes.

7. The amount bequeathed to public institutions for generaleducational purposes in the will of a deceased personshould not be subject to any duty by the Centre and thewhole of it should be appropriated to the educationalpurpose.

8. All educational institutions and the grounds attachedthereto should be exempted from the levy of propertytaxes.

9. The State Governments and the Centre should,wherever pos-sible, assign lands to schools forplaygrounds, buildings or agricultural farms and othernecessary purposes without any charge.

10. The educational institutions which have to obtainnecessary scientific apparatus, workshop appliances


learning, whose main concern is to communicate a certainprescribed quantum of knowledge, but rather as a living andorganic community which is primarily interested in training itspupils in, what we have called, the gracious “art of living”.Knowledge and learning are undoubtedly of value but theymust be acquired as a bye-product of interested activity, becauseit is only then that they can become a vital part of the studentsmind and personality and influence his behaviour. What thisimplies in terms of educational method we have discussed atsome length in the relevant chapter. All that we need recallhere is that the Secondary school of the future must betransformed into an “activity school”, because activity has anirresistible appeal for every normal child and in his naturalpath to the goal of knowledge and culture.

But the “art of living” is a much more comprehensive conceptthan the acquisition of knowledge, however intelligentlyplanned. It includes training in the habits and graces of sociallife and the capacity for cooperative group work; it calls forpatience, good temper, sincerity, fellow feeling and discipline.These can only be cultivated in the context of the social life andthe many curricular and co-curricular activities that must finda recognised place in every good school. We have alreadydiscussed their place in the school programme and the manyeducational values that they can serve if they are organizedintelligently and with vision. What we would like the teachersto bear in mind is that these have a double function to perform—on the one hand, they provide an opportunity for students todevelop their individual talents and capacities and self-confidence and, on the other, they lend themselves to beingmade the leaders in co-operative work Which trains them inthe division and integration of functions and in the alliedqualities of discipline and leadership. We would like to seethese schools humming with activities in which each studentwill be able to discover himself.

One great advantage of the activity methods, that we haveadvocated for teaching curricular subjects, will be that thepresent rigid line of demarcation between the classroom andthe extra-curricular activities—carried in the leisure hours, on

properly and tactfully mobilized, they can themselves changethe general appearance of the school-plant almost beyondrecognition and, in this effort, the parents and the localcommunity can be of immense help. We have no doubt that,under proper encouragement, students all over India can, ifnecessary, carry out minor repairs, white-wash school rooms,keep the school garden and compound in good shape, paint andpolish the furniture, decorate the bare walls of their roomswith charts, pictures and illustrations and enliven them withflowers, wherever this loveliest of Nature’s gifts is available.

And, if the schools do become, as we have envisaged, anintegral part of the life of the community and they begin torealize that their welfare is their own concern, the problemof resources will become much easier, for there is no communityof persons that is too poor to make some contribution for theimprovement of its own school. We have stressed this questionof the decoration of schools at the outset not only because itcan give the students a new feeling towards their school butalso because it cultivates a love of neatness and beauty andartistic taste which are at present lacking in some of our youth.We are anxious that our schools should take the lead in thematter of improving their own physical environment. It is,however, essential that the students should actively share inthis crusade for beauty-both in the matter of its creation andproper maintenance. If this is given to them ready-made likethe furnished residence of a nouveauriche it will not have thesame educative effect; for education primarily consists, as wehave stressed more than once, in making and creating thingsof beauty and utility by our own efforts.

Promotion of Extra-curricular ActivitiesPromotion of Extra-curricular ActivitiesPromotion of Extra-curricular ActivitiesPromotion of Extra-curricular ActivitiesPromotion of Extra-curricular ActivitiesGiven a clean, pleasant and well maintained school building,

we would like the school to see if it can provide a richly variedpattern of activities to cater for the development of theirchildren’s entire personality. It has to formulate a scheme ofhobbies, occupations and projects that will appeal to, and drawout, the powers of children of varying temperaments andaptitudes. Putting the problem in these words obviously impliesthat we do not visualize this school as merely a place of formal


Provision of Craft and Productive WorkProvision of Craft and Productive WorkProvision of Craft and Productive WorkProvision of Craft and Productive WorkProvision of Craft and Productive WorkWe expect this school to devote special attention to craft

and productive work and thus redress the balance betweentheoretical and practical studies which has been upset for many,many years. It will have a lively appreciation of the basic truththat “the education of a mind is essentially a process ofrevivifying in it the latent values contained in the goods ofculture”. In this process, educationally productive work, bothintellectual and practical, plays a very important part; in factit is the finest and most effective medium of education. It will,therefore, be reflected both in its curriculum and methods-thatis, on the one hand, different practical subjects and craft workwill find a place in the curriculum on the same status as theso-called “liberal” studies and on the other, the teaching methodswill partake of the nature of activities and stimulate independentwork. Every well established and reasonably well financedschool will have workshops and craft-rooms where studentswill learn to handle tools and to fashion different kinds ofmaterials into form.

They will not be merely “flirting” with some-thing calledhand-work which often offers little stimulating challenge totheir practical aptitudes, but will actually be confronted withreal jobs of work which will genuinely stretch their powers.These craft-rooms, workshops (and farms), no doubt, arespecially meant for students who offer practical subject likeagriculture, engineering, domestic science, etc., but they willalso provide suitable practical occupations for all studentsincluding those who take up sciences or humanities or artsubjects. Likewise the school laboratory will not be a toy affair,where a few simple and carefully planned experiments areperformed under vigilant eye of the teacher who sees that theprescribed routine is followed. It will endeavour to give themsomething of the thrill and the joy of discovery and the educativeexperience of learning through trial and error. It would bewrong to imagine that practical work of this type cannot becarried out in Secondary schools. It has been done by manyprogressive schools in different countries and one of the finestand stimulating accounts of what has actually been

the playground or in the hobbies room or in the library-will dis-appear and all work will partake of the quality of play. We donot visualize that these schools will have dull, routine ridden,formal lessons in the class plus a number of independent,unrelated ‘extra-curricular’ activities which have no intrinsicrelationship With them either in contents or method.

The entire programme of the school will be visualized asa unity and inspired by a psychologically congenial andstimulating approach, the so-called “work” being characterizedby the feeling of job and self-expression usually associated withplay and hobbies, and these letter having something of themeaningfulness and purpose which are normally considered aspecial feature of academic work.

In the planning of these activities, it is important toremember that they should be as varied as the resources of theschool will permit. Academic activities like debates, discussions,dramas, school magazine, social magazine, social activities,like the organizing of different functions for the schoolcommunity as well as the local community, sports activities,manual and practical activities, social service projects, artprojects, must all be woven into a rich and unified pattern,within which every child will be able to find something to suittastes and interests. In the actual working out of these variousactivities, academic, social, practical and sporting-the teacherswill find that there are really no rigid boundary walls, betweenthem.

The production of a school magazine, for example, involvesa number of activities and processes, which can, coalescetogether to form a most valuable experience to train thepersonality of the pupil. And the impact of a really well work-out of project, whatever its nature, does not remain confinedto its own special field but spreads out to irradiate variousfacets of personality.

Thus, by planning a coherent programme of differentactivities, rich in stimuli, the school will not be frittering awayeither the time or the energy of the pupils but will be heighteningtheir intellectual powers also side by side with training themin the other fine qualities.


The School as a Centre of CommunityThe School as a Centre of CommunityThe School as a Centre of CommunityThe School as a Centre of CommunityThe School as a Centre of CommunityAnother thing which will distinguissh this school from most

of the existing schools is that it will be organized as a community.We have discussed the raison d’etre of this transformation atsome length we have stated that the starting point of educationalreform must be the re-linking of the school to life and restoringof the intimate relationship between them which has brokendown with the development of the formal tradition of education.How can that best be done ? We would like this school tobecome a centre of actual social life and social activities wherethe same kind of motives and methods are em-ployed as operatein the life of any normal and decent human group. It will notconfine itself to book learning and the teaching of prescribedknowledge and skills but it will give full room for the expressionof the pupils’ social impulses. It will. train them, throughpractical experience in co-operation, in subordinating personalinterests to group purposes, in working in a disciplined mannerand in fitting means to ends. Discipline in the school will notbe a matter of arbitrary rules and regulations enforced throughthe authority of the teachers helped by the lure of rewards orthe fear of punishment.

The students will be given full freedom to organize functions,to conduct many of the school activities through their owncommittees and even to deal with certain types of disciplinarycases. In this way, discipline will be maintained through theinfluence of the social group and it will gradually lead to thedevelopment of self-discipline. Above all discipline will beensured by providing for the students psychologically congenialtypes (and methods) of work which will fully capture theirinterest and thus impose their, own inherent discipline onthem. Many teachers must have seen how, when a group ofstudents is working on a really inte-resting project like staginga drama or arranging a prize distribution function, there isusually no problem of discipline. The sincere and spontaneousdesire to do the work as satisfactorily as possible ensuresdiscipline automatically and, if some members of the groupinterfere in any way with its smooth working, the groupopinion asserts itself and puts them right. It is this kind of

accomplished, in this way will be found in the story of thePublic Schools at Oundle (England) as it is developed under theinspiring leadership of its Head Master, Senderson.*

School Library ServiceSchool Library ServiceSchool Library ServiceSchool Library ServiceSchool Library ServiceThis school of ours will also endeavour to build both a living

library and an efficient library service. We have already stressedthe importance of school libraries and given a few practicalsuggestions which can help to quicken the present dormantand depressing libraries into life. The library will be the huband the centre of the intellectual and literary life of thereorganized school and play the same part vis-a-vis all theother subjects as the laboratory plays for science subjects orthe workshop for technical subjects. In fact, even in the caseof scientific and technical subjects it will have a very importantrole.

An intelligent teacher and an interested class will raise, orfind themselves confronted with, many issues and problemsin the course of their work-in history, geography, science,literature etc. No text book could possibly provide the solutionto all these problems or offer the information necessary for thepurpose and no intelligent teacher will commit the folly oftrying to do all the thinking, or discovering all the material,for his pupils.

They will, therefore, naturally have recourse to the libraryas the source of the desired knowledge and the trained andunderstanding librarian will meet them half-way, direct themto the books and reference sources, provide comfortable facilitiesfor them to read and take down notes and cooperatively drawup their plans of work. Thus they will be trained in the art orpurposeful reading and making their own way in the world ofideas. In addition to this purely utilitarian function, the librarywin also provide facilities for developing their taste in thereading for plea-sure which is a most valuable and meaningfulhobby. We feel that, if the teachers and the pupils are keenabout it, they can certainly do a great deal to improve thephysical environment of the library resources and to ensure itsproper use even within limited finance.


formal relationship which means inviting the parents to theschool once or twice a year on the occasion of the PrizeDistribution or the Parents’ Day but continuous contact andexchange of ideas which will help them to understand eachother’s point of view. They will thus learn to coope-rate in thecommon task of giving a better, more rational and moresympathetic deal to the children.

One of the dominant aims of the school in the provision ofall these social and practical activities and in organizing class-work on a new basis will be to educate the character andinculcate the right kind of ideals and value in the students. Itwill be earnestly interested in the problem of moral and socialtraining but will not hug the fond illusion that this trainingcan be provided through lessons in morality or civics orexhortations by the teachers or headmasters on importantoccasions.

It will utilize fully the only two media through whichcharacter and personality can be really formed-the living forceof, personal example and the organization of every single itemof school work in such a way that it will have the desired impacton the personality of the pupils.

The teachers will realise that they cannot train characteror inculcate discipline in the students unless they set beforethem an effective example of personal integrity, social senseand discipline.

But their example will only point the direction and thegoal; the actual process of training will consist in the students’discharging all other duties in such a way that it will irresistiblybuild up the requisite ideals and gualities of character. Thesewill not remain “pinned to the wall” but will find hour-to-hourpractical expression in that way they carry on their studies,Play their games, organize their social activities and performall their talks in and out of school.

It is only when this supreme purpose inspires their heartsand minds and enters into every day activities that charactercan be built on enduring foundations and stand the strain andstress of later life. The teachers should, therefore, constantly

discipline that we should like to see built up in the school. Theschool will, no doubt, be a community but it will be a smallcommunity within a large community and its success and vitalitywill depend on the constant interplay of healthy influencesbetween it and the large community outside.

What we would like to see is a two-way traffic so that theproblems that arise in the home and community life and therealistic experiences gained there should be brought into schoolso that education may be based on them and be intimatelyconnected with real life, and on the other hand the newknowledge, skills, attitudes and values acquired in the schoolbe carried into the home life to solve its problems, to raise itsstandards and link up the teachers, parents and children inone compact and naturally helpful group.

This principle will have other implications too. It will meanthat students will take an active part in various forms of socialservice for the good of the community and the school will notonly inculcate the ideals and a desire for social service but alsoprovide opportunities and the necessary material facilities.

If the village or the town or the particular area of the cityin which the school is located is unclean or happens to beinfested with mosquitoes and flies carrying disease or iscompelled to use water that is impure, it will be the duty ofthe students to rouse the conscience of the local community tothose evils and handicaps through effective forms of educativepropaganda and also to do whatever they can to improve thisstate of affairs and to win the enlightened cooperation of thepublic in this task.

Likewise, interested members of the community, engagedin various useful vocations and profession will be invited to theschool from time to time to talk about their particular work,to show its place and significance in the life of the community,to discuss its difficulties as well as its rewards.

In this way, outside life will flow into the school and lower,if not knock down, the walls which at present isolate it fromthe currents of life operating outside. There will also be a closeparentteachers association in the school-not the usual kind of


reorganised school will endeavour to win the love and confidenceof these children and establish his prestige on sincerity,integrity, hard work and a sympathetic handling of theirproblems.

The school will also considerably modify its methods andsystem of examination. As present, as we have pointed out,teaching is en-tirely dominated by examinations. Students areeducated not so much to acquire knowledge and understandingor the right attitudes as to pass examinations. In this schoolthe emphasis will shift from examination to education; teachersand children will concentrate on the real purpose of the schooland will take examination in their stride.

It is true that the pattern of the final Secondary schoolexamination is beyond their control and it may take some timebefore that is appreciably modified. But there is no reason why,for the lower classes, there should not be more rational andintelligent examination technique, as it is the headmaster andthe staff who largely decide the matter at the stage.

Much greater credit can be given to the actual work doneby the stu-dent from day to day, of which careful and completerecords should be maintained. Moreover, in assessing hisprogress and his position, factors other than academicachievements, should be given due weight —his social sense,initiative, discipline, cooperation, leadership, etc. Even inacademic achievements, they should not use one rigid yardstickbut judge them with reference to the individual capacity andintelligence of each student.

We are confident that, when the teachers’ whole outlookon education is changed and they learn to appreciate the realpurpose of the school, they will be able to make necessaryadjustments in the methods of examination and make it anally, rather than a hindrance, in the process of education.

Freedom of SchoolFreedom of SchoolFreedom of SchoolFreedom of SchoolFreedom of SchoolAbove all, this school will enjoy a much greater degree of

free-dom than is vouchsafed to the schools at present. We havepointed out in our Report that there is a general complaintfrom headmasters that they are unduly fettered by the rules

think of how the academic and other activities of school life arereacting on the students’ character and should frequently discussthis problem amongst themselves and formulate concerted plansof action.

Reorientation of TeachersReorientation of TeachersReorientation of TeachersReorientation of TeachersReorientation of TeachersTeachers must develop a new orientation towards their

work. They will not look upon their work as an unpalatablemeans of earning a scantly living but as an avenue throughwhich they are rendering significant social service as well asfinding some measures of self-fulfilment and self-expression.

They will work as a team engaged in a high endeavour withthe headmaster as a valued and more experienced member-andas new problems and difficulties arise, they will be constantlyconferring amongst themselves and using their collective wisdomand experience to find their solutions.

They will not be dominated by routine but, will keep anopen mind-receptive and experimental-and look upon theirwork as a great social and intellec-tual adventure. This wouldnaturally imply an eagerness on their part to continue theirstudy of psychology, of educational literature, and neweducational ideas.

Their relations with the students will be free and friendly;they will try to study their psychology and their individualdifferences with sympathy and help them in their difficultieswith tact. No school can develop into an educative community,capable of releasing the students’ creative capacities, if theteachers maintain a stiff, forbidding attitude, towards theirpupils and try to maintain their authority through variouskinds of punishment whilst the pupils, on their part, standin awe of them and are not prepared to share their problemsand difficulties with them.

That is an unnatural relationship which brings out theworst in both parties. It is not only a false but dangerousconception of prestige which builds up a, wall between teachersand students. It is usually the weak and the diffident or thetemperamentally handicapped teacher who takes refuge behindthat kind of artificial prestige. The good teacher, in our


into social communities where the healthy, normal motivesand methods of group work are in operation and children havean opportunity of learning by doing, of gaining meaningfulsocial experiences, and, thereby being trained in the supreme“art of living”.

All the changes in the methods of teaching, in disciplineand examination, all the improvements in the physicalenvironment of the schools and its general atmosphere aremeant to assist in this basic transformation. We repeat that itis a difficult, but not an impossible task and, if faith andenthusiasm are kindled in the teachers they can move wholemountains of difficulties.

For the teachers there can be no greater or deeper joy thanproviding for their students an educative environment in whichthey can lead a rich, joyous and meaningful life and not onlyacquire knowledge and skill but also find a release for theircreative capacities.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

We have in previous chapters reviewed the present positionof Secondary education and have suggested the improvementsand changes that may be necessary if the education impartedto the youth of the country is to serve the needs of the individualsand meet the growing demands of the nation.

At the outset one may express the doubt whether it wouldbe possible to implement the recommendations made by theCommission in view of the present financial position of thecountry.

Experience of the past, where similar recommendationshave not received due consideration, may be quoted in supportof such a pessimistic view. It will serve no useful purpose atthis stage to ponder over the possible developments that mighthave resulted had the recommendations of the previousCommissions and Committees, so frequently reiterated since1882, been implemented.

But there is no doubt that India was in no worse positionthan several other countries in the eighties of the last century

and regulations of the De-partment and axe not able to put anynew and creative ideas or sugges-tions into practice.

The teachers have, similarly complained that they havenot enough freedom to work out their ideas and, in their case,it is stated that often it is the headmasters who stand in a way.We trust that the Education Departments and their InspectingOfficers will see their way to giving greater freedom to schoolsin the matter of organizing the syllabus, selecting text booksand adopting teaching methods.

But in addition to that——or even before this is done-thereare certain elements of school work which the teachers Andheadmasters are really free to effect improvements in. We havealready referred in this connection to class examinations. Theyhave certainly to follow the general pattern of the curriculumbut there is no reason why they should not, for example,enrich it by encouraging greater use of the library and thereading of significant books of general interest.

They can adopt methods of work in the classroom whichwill allow students to work more freely and progress at theirown pace. They will be given full freedom in organizing theirvarious activities and extra-curricular projects.

This freedom, which will embrace within its scope bothstaff and students, is a very exacting responsibility and all willhave to be gradually trained to bear it worthily. But there isno other way of doing so than giving them the chance to workunder conditions of freedom and to accept the risks that maybe involved in. the initial stages.

This is the picture of the reorganised Secondary school aswe visualise it. We realise that all schools may not be able towork up to it immediately.

But it is not an impossible or unduly idealized picture andit does point the correct direction of advance. If the educationalauthorities and the teachers accent this conception of the school,we are of the opinion that, in spite of the many difficulties andhandicaps that exist, it will be possible to bring about manywelcome improve-ments in our schools. For, after all, whatwe have advocated is in brief, a transformation of the schools


other spheres of intellectual activity, whether in Science,Humanities, Art or Culture, rapid progress is being made andnew discoveries are being ushered in quick succession.

These call for a general level of educational attainmentwhich would make it possible for our people to absorb andutilise these discoveries and enable them to contribute theirshare to the furtherance of such knowledge.

The attainment of political independence involvesand implies the attainment of intellectual independence inseveral fields, and inter-dependence in fields, where fruitfulcooperation is desirable and necessary for the furtherance ofhuman welfare.

We realise that today, the States and the Centre are facedwith a gigantic task in the field of education. In every spherethere is a great leeway to be made up.

In the sphere of Basic education, Secondary education,Technical and Professional education, and in the higher spheresof scientific and humanistic studies the needs are so great andthe demands so pressing that appreciation of urgent needs ofthe country and the standards that should be achieved may notbe prominently kept in view.

We have noted the great increase that has taken placeduring the last five years both in the number of schools andthe total number of pupils studying in the States. Our pleasurein noting such rapid progress has, however, been diminishedby the fact, so prominently brought to our notice, that thisincrease has largely been possible at the sacrifice, in somecases the serious sacrifice, of efficiency.

If such deterioration is allowed to continue, the generallevel of students’ attainment at all stages of education will beconsiderably lowered. Quality should not be sacrificed toquantity. We trust that in the spread of education, theeducational authorities concerned would take note ofthese dangers and would adopt all possible measures to ensurethat efficiency is not sacrificed in meeting the demands ofexpansion.

and the phenomenal developments and improvementsthat have taken place in these countries during the last sixtyor seventy years must be an object lessons to this country toavoid, in future, lost opportunities and vacillating policies ofthe past.

But whatever the reasons for failure to implement suchrecommendations in the past, the country cannot afford, afterthe attainment of Independence, to neglect or ignore the greatand pressing problems of educational reconstruction or fail totake immediate steps to tackle them in a manner conducive tothe promotion of the welfare of its citizens and safeguardingits future as a forceful and progressive Democratic Republic inthe comity of nations.

We have, in the course of our review of the presentstate of education in the country, taken note of such factorsas have had a deterrent effect on a sound development ofeducation and have referred to two particular factors in thisconnection.

The dominating influence of university requirements onthe one hand, and the undue emphasis attached to the needsof public services and the present methods of recruitment onthe other, have had an adverse effect not only on healthydevelopment of Secondary education but on the whole field ofeducation in the country.

If, in future, such unhealthy trends are to be avoided andeduca-tion is to be directed on right lines, a comprehensiveview of education will have to be taken which will serve theneeds of the individual, and of society and develop the resourcesof the country. In every field of national activity there is a greatdemand for a larger and better trained personnel to meet itsgrowing requirements.

The world of today is different from what it was fifty orsixty years ago. International competition in, all spheres ofactivity is becoming keener and keener. Industry, trade andcommerce can best be promoted only if, in the field of Technicaleducation, standards are maintained at all levels, which arecomparable to standards in other progressive countries. In all


to ensure efficiency and economy. We trust that this suggestionwill receive serious consideration at the hands of thegovernments.

No scheme of educational reconstruction can be implementedwith success without-the active cooperation of the teachingprofession and the sustained interest the teachers may take insuch a task. We, therefore, appeal to them to give theirunstinted cooperation and support to the scheme of educationalreconstruction that may be final-ly adopted by the Statesconcerned taking due note of the recommenda-tions that wehave made. We are fully aware of the great difficulties and theserious handicaps under which the profession is now working,and it is our sincere hope that in the light of ourrecommendations the authorities concerned will take earlysteps to improve the status and emoluments of the teachingprofession.

This will serve to create in the teaching profession a senseof satisfaction and a desire for whole-hearted cooperation. Ina new experimental venture such as this we feel that theteaching profession should be given scope for initiative andfreedom in their task.

To the managements of educational institutions and to thegeneral public we would like specially to address ourselves. Onthem depends largely the possibility of implementation of manyof our recommenda-tions and we hope and trust that with thesame spirit in which they have encouraged all-round educationaleffort they will come forward to implement the suggestionsmade in respect of the bifurcated courses of study and theintroduction of various subjects including the crafts.

The task that has been entrusted to us was not an easy oneand if we have been able to make some useful recommendations,it is due to the sincere cooperation extended to us by officialsand non-officials, by educationists and leaders of public opinion.

It is our hope that these suggestions will be considered inthe light of the special needs and circumstances of each State.But while we do not encourage a dead level of uniformity allover the vast sub-continent, we hope and trust that in essentialand in basic matters of policy there win be a reasonable degree

The importance of attaching the right type of individualsto the teaching profession has been repeatedly emphasised byus. If such in-dividuals are to be drawn into the profession, itshould be made sufficiently attractive, so that those who takeit up as a noble form of national service may not be requiredto make too great a sacrifice of their material comforts and theanxieties and worries of the family life may not distract themfrom their professional duties.

We realise that every scheme of development involves alarge financial liability which the State has to take due noteof. Sometimes this financial liability is examined from the pointof view of quick returns, and hesitation creeps in because thereturns can only be expected on a long-term basis.

A study of the steps taken by some other countries inmaking large financial provisions; for education of diverse typeshould enable such persons and authorities to overcome theirdiffidence.

Just as the large Hydro-Electric and Irrigation schemesnow launched are likely to result in considerable developmentof the agricultural and other material resources of the country,so will be the fertilising of the field of the mind—only its resultswill be more outstanding and permanent in their beneficialeffects.

We are, therefore, of the opinion that a very high priorityshould be given to educational reform both by the States andthe Central government and that they should make every effortto find the necessary funds to implement theserecommendations, and adopt a planned and coordinated policyfor this purpose.

There is one other aspect of the problem to which attentionhas been drawn in the report. Education cannot be dealt within water-tight compartments, nor can the responsibility forsuch education be assigned to different Ministries orDepartments without reference to one another.

It is imperative that the different Ministries andDepartments, at the Centre or in the States, should cooperatein educational planning and co-ordinate their activities so as

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education322322322322322 BibliographyBibliographyBibliographyBibliographyBibliography 323323323323323

of unanimity conducive to the maintenance of pro-gress in allspheres of education.

We are aware that, in some States, reports have alreadybeen presented by committees appointed to review differentstages of education, including Secondary education. We haveperused these reports with profit and interest. We express thehope that the report presented by us and its recommendationswill be taken into due consideration before final decisions arearrived at by the States concerned. We have also expressed theconsidered opinion that. in the interests of an all-rounddevelopment of the country and the improvement of its economicposition, the central government should take an active part,both financially and otherwise, in the reconstruction ofSecondary education and cooperate with the States with theobject of increasing the tempo of educational reform.

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Santosh, A. : Three Language Formula: An Educational Problem,New Delhi, Sian, 1991.

Scott, C. : Social Education, Boston, Ginn and Co., 1908.Simkins, T. : Non-formal Education and Development,

Manchester, Manchester University, 1977.Smith, M. : Using Informal Education, Milton Keynes, Open

University Press, 1990.Stephens, S. : Children and the Politics of Culture, Princeton,

Princeton University Press, 1995.Stewart, J. : Management for the Public Domain, New York,

St, Martin’s Press, 1994.Thomas, A. : Educating Children at Home, London, Cassell,

1998.Wa tkins, K.E. : Informal and Incidental Learning in the

Workplace, London, Routledge, 1991.William, C. : A Tradition of Teachers: Sankara and the

Jagadgurus Today, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.William, C. : Working Toward Sustainable Development: The

Narmada Dam Project, Armonk, New York, 1994.Zvelebil, Kamil V. : Companion Studies to the History of Tamil

Literature, Leiden, Brill, 1992.

AAAAAAdaptation, 125, 128, 129,

164.Administration, 13, 17, 19, 20,

24, 33, 35, 38, 43, 44,56, 75, 232, 242, 243,244, 247, 254, 269, 291,301.

Agreement, 114, 268, 270.Appointment, 23, 26, 35, 44,

61, 68, 75, 226, 228,233, 251, 269, 270, 272.

Association, 124, 182, 232,258, 312.

CCCCCCareer Conference, 199.Caste, 8, 9, 46, 53, 54, 130,

273, 292.Commission, 21, 22, 23, 24,

28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,44, 45, 53, 56, 57, 58,59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,66, 68, 69, 73, 74, 75,76, 79, 80, 92, 96, 100,105, 112, 116, 126, 127,151, 154, 188, 190, 227,230, 264, 285, 286, 288,295, 317.

Conditions, 8, 17, 23, 24, 33,41, 46, 53, 55, 61, 62,63, 74, 80, 85, 86, 93,103, 108, 127, 157, 203,

211, 214, 220, 234, 241,243, 247, 249, 265, 275,276, 279, 280, 281, 282,283, 286, 287, 297, 305,309, 318, 319, 322.

Conference, 29, 110, 111, 112,113, 117, 199.

Conservation, 52.Counselling, 42, 195, 196.Crafts, 38, 52, 82, 89, 133,

140, 141, 297, 321.Cultivation, 48, 85, 129.

DDDDDDepartment, 19, 24, 28, 63,

64, 129, 174, 176, 191,192, 227, 231, 233, 234,237, 238, 240, 244, 249,254, 255, 256, 257, 259,261, 262, 267, 270, 271,272, 287, 289, 290, 291,302.

Development, 2, 5, 7, 16, 17,21, 28, 31, 32, 37, 39,40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46,49, 51, 52, 59, 66, 67,72, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86,87, 89, 90, 93, 99, 100,107, 116, 120, 122, 125,126, 128, 131, 134, 153,159, 171, 175, 190, 191,198, 202, 207, 212, 214,217, 225, 239, 254, 258,293, 295, 296, 297, 299,

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education IndexIndexIndexIndexIndex326326326326326 327327327327327

300, 301, 304, 306, 311,318, 320, 322.

Discipline, 5, 8, 11, 34, 37,43, 57, 80, 83, 87, 88,158, 166, 175, 183, 184,185, 186, 187, 188, 193,250, 279, 284, 307, 311,312, 313, 315, 317.

Distribution, 311, 313.

EEEEEEducational System, 2, 14, 32,

79, 84, 85, 108, 134,141, 175, 177, 258, 287,303.

Evolution, 2, 22, 128.Examination System, 15, 33,

49, 58, 213.

FFFFFFederal Board, 298, 299, 300.Financial Aid, 273, 295, 296,

302, 303, 305.Freedom, 13, 22, 23, 24, 28,

67, 84, 127, 136, 140,141, 162, 165, 174, 175,222, 311, 315, 316, 321.

GGGGGGovernment, 19, 20, 21, 23,

24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 35,36, 38, 39, 40, 44, 47,57, 59, 61, 62, 66, 67,68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74,75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82,92, 103, 110, 112, 147,149, 150, 151, 152, 154,176, 185, 191, 193, 194,198, 201, 227, 229, 230,231, 232, 233, 235, 256,258, 259, 261, 277, 285,286, 288, 293, 296, 297,298, 301, 320, 322.

Guidance, 7, 25, 42, 68, 123,136, 160, 165, 171, 173,179, 191, 192, 195, 196,197, 198, 199, 200, 207,260, 286, 303.

HHHHHHealth Education, 42, 201, 202,

204, 206, 207, 208, 209,210, 303.

IIIIIImplementation, 29, 31, 49,

69, 173, 296, 321.Inauguration, 63.Industry, 127, 198, 255, 256,

262, 299, 300, 318.Institute, 12, 49, 62, 280.Institutions, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15,

17, 20, 22, 25, 28, 34,35, 36, 41, 46, 48, 50,53, 57, 65, 75, 76, 78,88, 97, 99, 105, 111,112, 114, 115, 116, 124,127, 134, 135, 150, 174,175, 186, 197, 199, 200,206, 207, 208, 209, 210,227, 231, 233, 235, 238,239, 240, 244, 245, 247,248, 249, 250, 251, 252,253, 254, 256, 257, 260,261, 265, 266, 267, 268,270, 272, 273, 286, 296,299, 301, 302, 303, 304,321.

Investment, 45.

JJJJJJustice, 24, 44, 54, 86, 88.

LLLLLLaboratory, 97, 123, 128, 264,

281, 309, 310.

Languages, 13, 18, 19, 20, 27,38, 42, 56, 67, 100,101, 102, 103, 105, 106,107, 108, 109, 110, 115,116, 118, 119, 132, 133,138, 139, 141, 142, 143,144, 148, 150, 152, 153,154, 155, 162, 172, 229.

Laws, 31.Library, 18, 97, 128, 149,

162, 166, 167, 168, 169,170, 171, 172, 173, 174,176, 178, 241, 242, 264,279, 282, 297, 305, 308,310, 316.

Literature, 5, 11, 13, 15, 16,18, 19, 55, 71, 89, 107,114, 118, 119, 130, 143,144, 172, 173, 179, 184,310, 314.

MMMMMManagement, 21, 49, 52, 74,

94, 97, 105, 138, 170,198, 206, 235, 236, 238,240, 242, 247, 274, 275,276, 278, 279, 280, 282,283, 293, 294, 302, 303,315.

Members, 21, 23, 24, 26, 45,63, 64, 65, 69, 90, 100,149, 151, 182, 188, 250,258, 259, 260, 265, 266,289, 311, 312.

Membership, 90, 151.Methodology, 157.Morality, 189, 313.Museums, 175, 176.

NNNNNNature, 10, 35, 52, 53, 61,

70, 78, 84, 97, 118,121, 123, 139, 141, 142,

147, 159, 183, 191, 197,198, 199, 200, 216, 221,233, 242, 255, 285, 286,288, 299, 308, 309.

Nutrition, 51, 59, 138, 206,208.

OOOOOOrganisations, 20, 192, 241,

265, 266.

PPPPPPerformance, 8, 54, 223.Philosophy, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8,

10, 12, 15, 30, 36, 54,55, 89.

Physical Education, 38, 42, 48,131, 132, 142, 153, 201,202, 203, 206, 207, 208,209, 210, 241, 243, 245,262, 274, 277, 280.

Political Movements, 185.Powers, 23, 37, 128, 183, 260,

265, 306, 308, 309.Primary Education, 21, 22, 25,

27, 49, 56, 57, 59, 68,73, 92, 110.

Production, 38, 40, 59, 67,145, 148, 149, 150, 172,173, 255, 303, 308.

Project, 87, 162, 164, 169,177, 182, 308, 311.

Protection, 52.

RRRRRRadhakrishnan Commission, 61,

68.Religion, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14,

55, 89, 105, 188, 189,266.

Research, 3, 33, 34, 42, 43,44, 46, 48, 58, 124,125, 142, 143, 145, 152,

System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education328328328328328 System and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian EducationSystem and Issues in Indian Education 329329329329329

CCCCCONTENTSONTENTSONTENTSONTENTSONTENTS

Preface

1. Introduction 1

2. Education in Post-independent and Emerging India 33

3. Radhakrishnan Commission on Education 61

4. New Organisational Pattern ofSecondary Education 91

5. Curriculum in Secondary Schools 120

6. Dynamic Methods of Teaching 156

7. The Education of Character 180

8. Guidance and Counselling in Secondary Schools 195

9. A New Approach to Examination and Evaluation 211

10. Improvement of the Teaching Personnel 225

11. Problems of Administration 254

12. Financial Aid to Secondary Education 295

Bibliography 323

Index 325

161, 197, 200, 219, 244,245, 247, 248, 250, 253,280, 293, 300, 301, 303.

SSSSSSecondary Education, 21, 24,

25, 31, 36, 37, 39, 40,47, 49, 56, 57, 58, 59,61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66,67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73,74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 83,85, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,96, 100, 110, 111, 121,126, 127, 152, 167, 173,225, 258, 259, 285, 260,289, 295, 296, 299, 300,301, 302, 303, 304, 305,317, 318, 319, 322.

Secondary Schools, 22, 31, 38,44, 50, 62, 73, 74, 76,78, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97,98, 99, 103, 106, 109,110, 111, 113, 116, 117,120, 126, 129, 134, 135,136, 142, 146, 167, 178,195, 208, 222, 227, 228,229, 251, 255, 259, 262,267, 292, 303, 309.

Security, 225, 230, 231, 271.

TTTTTTeaching, 7, 8, 10, 15, 20,

21, 23, 28, 34, 36, 39,42, 43, 48, 49, 52, 57,58, 60, 71, 75, 76, 77,80, 81, 82, 83, 90, 103,109, 111, 113, 114, 115,116, 123, 125, 130, 133,135, 139, 141, 142, 144,145, 146, 156, 157, 158,159, 160, 161, 162, 163,

164, 165, 168, 170, 173,174, 175, 177, 178, 179,181, 187, 188, 191, 192,208, 210, 213, 215, 218,219, 225, 228, 229, 231,232, 233, 234, 235, 236,237, 238, 239, 241, 242,246, 248, 249, 250, 251,253, 258, 259, 261, 262,263, 265, 268, 271, 273,278, 281, 282, 283, 290,292, 296, 299, 303, 307,309, 311, 315, 316, 317,320, 321.

Technology, 34, 46, 50, 53,59, 60, 135, 175.

UUUUUUniversity, 12, 19, 23, 24, 25,

28, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36,37, 44, 48, 50, 57, 58,61, 62, 64, 68, 69, 73,74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80,92, 95, 96, 98, 110,112, 114, 115, 116, 121,122, 163, 212, 223, 229,240, 242, 243, 260, 264,285, 286, 287, 288, 294,318.

VVVVVVocational Education, 20, 24,

26, 31, 34, 41, 44, 47,57, 78, 98, 258, 260,261, 296, 297, 298, 299,300, 303, 304.

WWWWWWelfare, 24, 50, 68, 81, 186,

201, 202, 209, 243, 276,279, 306, 318, 319.

SSSSSYSTEMYSTEMYSTEMYSTEMYSTEM ANDANDANDANDAND I I I I ISSUESSSUESSSUESSSUESSSUES INININININ

IIIIINDIANNDIANNDIANNDIANNDIAN E E E E EDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATIONDUCATION

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