Taking Measure of Work

Taking Measure of WorkTaking Measure of Work

A Guide to Validated Scales for A Guide to Validated Scales for Organizational Research and Organizational Research and

DiagnosisDiagnosis

Author: Dail L. FieldsAuthor: Dail L. Fields

SYNOPSIS

Synopsis of the Following ChaptersSynopsis of the Following Chapters

Chapter 1 – Job SatisfactionChapter 1 – Job SatisfactionChapter 2 – Organizational CommitmentChapter 2 – Organizational CommitmentChapter 3 – Job CharacteristicsChapter 3 – Job CharacteristicsChapter 4 – Job StressChapter 4 – Job StressChapter 5 – Job RolesChapter 5 – Job RolesChapter 7 – Work-Family ConflictChapter 7 – Work-Family ConflictChapter 8 – Person-Organization FitChapter 8 – Person-Organization FitChapter 10 – Workplace ValuesChapter 10 – Workplace Values

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Defined as an employee’s affective Defined as an employee’s affective reactions to a job based on comparing reactions to a job based on comparing actual outcomes with desired outcomes.actual outcomes with desired outcomes.

Employees expect their job to provide a Employees expect their job to provide a mix of features (e.g., pay, promotion, mix of features (e.g., pay, promotion, autonomy for which the employee has autonomy for which the employee has certain preferential values.certain preferential values.

Job Satisfaction (cont’d)Job Satisfaction (cont’d)

Measures of job satisfaction may assess Measures of job satisfaction may assess global satisfaction with a job or satisfaction global satisfaction with a job or satisfaction with key aspects of the job (e.g. pay, with key aspects of the job (e.g. pay, supervision, promotion).supervision, promotion).

Job satisfaction can be measured by using Job satisfaction can be measured by using a series of surveys.a series of surveys.

Extensive amounts of surveys are Extensive amounts of surveys are provided from pages 5 through 42.provided from pages 5 through 42.

Recommended Surveys:Recommended Surveys:– Overall Job Satisfaction (p. 5)Overall Job Satisfaction (p. 5)– Job in General Scale (p. 9)Job in General Scale (p. 9)– Overall Job Satisfaction (p. 11)Overall Job Satisfaction (p. 11)– Job Satisfaction Survey (p. 14)Job Satisfaction Survey (p. 14)– Job Perception Scale (p. 17)Job Perception Scale (p. 17)– Job Diagnostic Survey (p. 20)**Job Diagnostic Survey (p. 20)**– Index of Organizational Reactions (p. 35)Index of Organizational Reactions (p. 35)

(**highly recommended)(**highly recommended)

Job Satisfaction (cont’d)Job Satisfaction (cont’d)

Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment

Defined as an attitude or an orientation Defined as an attitude or an orientation that links the identity of the person to the that links the identity of the person to the organization. organization. As such the goals of the organization and As such the goals of the organization and those of the individual become congruent.those of the individual become congruent.An Employees liking for an organization is An Employees liking for an organization is termed affective commitment—includes termed affective commitment—includes identification with and involvement in the identification with and involvement in the organization.organization.

Three major issues: Three major issues: – the basis for the commitment (how does it the basis for the commitment (how does it

form?)form?)– The manifestation of the commitment (what is The manifestation of the commitment (what is

evidence of commitment—attitude or evidence of commitment—attitude or behavior?)behavior?)

– The focus of the commitment (what or who is The focus of the commitment (what or who is the employee committed to?)the employee committed to?)

Organizational Commitment Organizational Commitment (cont’d)(cont’d)

Recommended Surveys:Recommended Surveys:– Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (p. Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (p.

46)46)– Affective, Normative, and Continuance Affective, Normative, and Continuance

Commitment (p. 51)Commitment (p. 51)– Organizational Commitment Scale (p. 59)Organizational Commitment Scale (p. 59)– Career Commitment (p. 63)Career Commitment (p. 63)– Supervisor-Related CommitmentSupervisor-Related Commitment

Organizational Commitment Organizational Commitment (cont’d)(cont’d)

Job CharacteristicsJob Characteristics

Job characteristics is driven by continuing efforts Job characteristics is driven by continuing efforts in organizations to determine the features of in organizations to determine the features of jobs that induce employees to work harder and jobs that induce employees to work harder and perform better.perform better.Job Characteristics Model (JCM) developed by Job Characteristics Model (JCM) developed by Hackman and Oldham (1980) predicts that if a Hackman and Oldham (1980) predicts that if a job is well designed, it can lead to higher levels job is well designed, it can lead to higher levels of 3 critical psychological states.of 3 critical psychological states.Three states are: experienced meaningfulness; Three states are: experienced meaningfulness; experienced responsibility; and knowledge of the experienced responsibility; and knowledge of the results.results.

Five key characteristics of that JCM predicts are Five key characteristics of that JCM predicts are well designed:well designed:– Skill Variety – the extent to which a job Skill Variety – the extent to which a job

requires the use of different skills and talentsrequires the use of different skills and talents– Task identity – describes the extent to which a Task identity – describes the extent to which a

job involves completing a whole identifiable job involves completing a whole identifiable outcomeoutcome

– Task significance – the degree to which a job Task significance – the degree to which a job has impact on the lives of people in an has impact on the lives of people in an organization or society in generalorganization or society in general

Job Characteristics (cont’d)Job Characteristics (cont’d)

– Autonomy – describes the extent to which a job Autonomy – describes the extent to which a job provides the employee with discretion to choose how provides the employee with discretion to choose how the work is done and to set the schedule for the work is done and to set the schedule for completing the work activities.completing the work activities.

– Job Feedback – indicates the extent to which carrying Job Feedback – indicates the extent to which carrying out the work activities provides the employee with out the work activities provides the employee with clear information about his or her performanceclear information about his or her performance

JCM provides the framework from which to view JCM provides the framework from which to view the effects that job characteristics have on the effects that job characteristics have on employee outcomes such as satisfaction, employee outcomes such as satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intention to organizational commitment, and intention to remain with an organization (Hochwarter, remain with an organization (Hochwarter, Zellars, et al., 1999)Zellars, et al., 1999)


Recommended Surveys:Recommended Surveys:– Job Diagnosis Survey, With Revisions (p. 71)Job Diagnosis Survey, With Revisions (p. 71)

*very extensive, developed by Hackman & Oldham (1974).*very extensive, developed by Hackman & Oldham (1974).

– Job Characteristics Invetory (p. 76)Job Characteristics Invetory (p. 76)– Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (p. 78)Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (p. 78)

*very extensive*very extensive

– Job Cognitions (p. 88)Job Cognitions (p. 88)– Job Overload (p. 90)Job Overload (p. 90)– Job Control, Cognitive Demand, and Production Job Control, Cognitive Demand, and Production

Responsibility (p. 96)Responsibility (p. 96)– Perceived Organizational Support (p. 117)Perceived Organizational Support (p. 117)

**List of surveys is extensive (pps 70-120)**List of surveys is extensive (pps 70-120)


Job StressJob Stress

Job stressors are defined as those aspects of a Job stressors are defined as those aspects of a job that produce excessive and undesirable job that produce excessive and undesirable constraints or demands on the individual constraints or demands on the individual (Scheck, Kinicki, & Davy, 1995).(Scheck, Kinicki, & Davy, 1995).Two models have been used to describe the Two models have been used to describe the process by which aspects of a job and its process by which aspects of a job and its environment lead to stress and strain.environment lead to stress and strain.One model focuses on fit between stressors. One model focuses on fit between stressors. The second model is the Job Demands-Control The second model is the Job Demands-Control Perspective (Karasek, 1979).Perspective (Karasek, 1979).

A major hypothesis of the Job Demands-A major hypothesis of the Job Demands-Control Model is that high job demands Control Model is that high job demands produce a state of physical arousal in a produce a state of physical arousal in a worker. worker. When both demands and control are high, When both demands and control are high, an individual will experience increased an individual will experience increased motivation to perform.motivation to perform.This model predicts that some job This model predicts that some job conditions may buffer the negative effectis conditions may buffer the negative effectis of other job dimensions.of other job dimensions.

Job Stress (cont’d)Job Stress (cont’d)

Both models indicate some variables such Both models indicate some variables such as social support from employees as social support from employees supervisor and co-workers may reduce supervisor and co-workers may reduce effects of stressors.effects of stressors.

Stress measurement has been criticized Stress measurement has been criticized for having too much focus on identification for having too much focus on identification and classification of job and work and classification of job and work characteristics.characteristics.


Recommended surveys:Recommended surveys:– Job-Related Tension Index (p. 124)Job-Related Tension Index (p. 124)– Burnout Measure (p. 126)Burnout Measure (p. 126)– Work-Related Depression, Anxiety, and Work-Related Depression, Anxiety, and

Irritation (p. 127)Irritation (p. 127)– Stress Diagnostic Survey (p. 129) Stress Diagnostic Survey (p. 129) *extensive *extensive

surveysurvey

– Job Stress Scale (p. 132)Job Stress Scale (p. 132)– Perceived Job Stressors (p. 137)Perceived Job Stressors (p. 137)


Job RolesJob Roles

Most of the Research about job roles has Most of the Research about job roles has focused on the role of conflict and ambiguity.focused on the role of conflict and ambiguity.

Every role in an organization should have a Every role in an organization should have a clear set of responsibilities so that clear set of responsibilities so that management can provide appropriate management can provide appropriate guidance.guidance.

Clear job roles tend to increase employee Clear job roles tend to increase employee feelings of competency…(Jackson & Schuler, feelings of competency…(Jackson & Schuler, 1985).1985).

Role conflict is defined as incompatibility Role conflict is defined as incompatibility between the expectations of parties or between between the expectations of parties or between aspects of a single role.aspects of a single role.

It is possible that role conflict, ambiguity, and It is possible that role conflict, ambiguity, and overload have direct effects on key employee overload have direct effects on key employee outcomes.outcomes.

In a meta-analysis conducted by Jackson and In a meta-analysis conducted by Jackson and Schuler (1985), conflict, ambiguity, and overload Schuler (1985), conflict, ambiguity, and overload affected organizational commitment.affected organizational commitment.

Job Roles (cont’d)Job Roles (cont’d)

Recommended surveys:Recommended surveys:– Role Conflict and Ambiguity (p. 147 & 149)Role Conflict and Ambiguity (p. 147 & 149)– Role Overload (p. 153)Role Overload (p. 153)– Cross-cultural Role Conflict, Ambiguity, and Cross-cultural Role Conflict, Ambiguity, and

Overload (p. 154)Overload (p. 154)– Job Role Ambiguity (p. 158)Job Role Ambiguity (p. 158)– Goal and Process Clarity (p. 160)Goal and Process Clarity (p. 160)

Job Roles (cont’d)Job Roles (cont’d)

Work-Family ConflictWork-Family Conflict

Balancing the demands of work and Balancing the demands of work and Family.Family.Defined as a form of interrole conflict in Defined as a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually and family domains are mutually incompatible.incompatible.Work-family conflict has been shown to Work-family conflict has been shown to affect employees’ well being and work-affect employees’ well being and work-related attitudes (Aryee et al., 1998)related attitudes (Aryee et al., 1998)

Studies have found varying degrees of strength Studies have found varying degrees of strength in the relationship between work-family conflict in the relationship between work-family conflict and job and life satisfaction (Kossek & Ozeki, and job and life satisfaction (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998)1998)Evidence also suggests that work and family Evidence also suggests that work and family conflicts should be measured separately for men conflicts should be measured separately for men and women.and women.Recent studies have found evidence that work-Recent studies have found evidence that work-family conflict (work interfering with family) and family conflict (work interfering with family) and family-work conflict (family interfering with work) family-work conflict (family interfering with work) are related but distinct constructs (Frone et al., are related but distinct constructs (Frone et al., 1992)1992)

Work-Family Conflict (cont’d)Work-Family Conflict (cont’d)

Recommended surveys:Recommended surveys:– Work Interference With Family and Family Work Interference With Family and Family

Interference With Work (p. 199)Interference With Work (p. 199)– Work-Family Conflict (p. 201)Work-Family Conflict (p. 201)– Job-Family Role Strain Scale (p. 204)Job-Family Role Strain Scale (p. 204)– Career-Family Attitudes (p. 206) Career-Family Attitudes (p. 206) *extensive survey*extensive survey

– Control Over Areas of Work and Family (p. Control Over Areas of Work and Family (p. 215)215)

Work-Family Conflict (cont’d)Work-Family Conflict (cont’d)

Person-Organization Fit Person-Organization Fit (Culture Fit)(Culture Fit)

Person-organization fit refers to the degree of Person-organization fit refers to the degree of congruence or compatibility between the congruence or compatibility between the attributes of an organization member and those attributes of an organization member and those of the organization.of the organization.Person-organizational fit can be viewed as the Person-organizational fit can be viewed as the match between the personality characteristics of match between the personality characteristics of an individual employee and organizational an individual employee and organizational climate.climate.Attributes for individuals (employees) may Attributes for individuals (employees) may include personality, traits, beliefs, values and include personality, traits, beliefs, values and interests.interests.

Congruence occurs when a person Congruence occurs when a person supplements or matches with other supplements or matches with other individuals in an environment.individuals in an environment.

Value congruence is an important form of Value congruence is an important form of fit because organizational values are fit because organizational values are fundamental components of organizational fundamental components of organizational culture that affect employees’ attitudes culture that affect employees’ attitudes and behaviors (Chatman, 1989).and behaviors (Chatman, 1989).

Person-Organization Fit (cont’d)Person-Organization Fit (cont’d)

Measurement of person-organization fit depends Measurement of person-organization fit depends on the ability to assess relevant aspects of the on the ability to assess relevant aspects of the person and the organization (to determine the person and the organization (to determine the degree of match)degree of match)Techniques for measuring person-organization Techniques for measuring person-organization fit: fit: – cross-level measurementcross-level measurement– Individual employee perceptions (of their preferences Individual employee perceptions (of their preferences

and perceptions of org values)and perceptions of org values)– Polynomial regression (Edwards and Van Harrison, Polynomial regression (Edwards and Van Harrison,

1993)1993)


Recommended Surveys:Recommended Surveys:– Organizational Culture Profile (p. 220) Organizational Culture Profile (p. 220)

*extensive survey*extensive survey

– Goal Congruence (p. 224)Goal Congruence (p. 224)– Person-Organization Fit Scale (p. 225)Person-Organization Fit Scale (p. 225)– Perceived Person-Organization Fit (p. 227) Perceived Person-Organization Fit (p. 227)

*extensive survey*extensive survey

– Perceived Ability-Job Fit (p. 233)Perceived Ability-Job Fit (p. 233)


Workplace ValuesWorkplace Values

Values (as applied within the workplace) Values (as applied within the workplace) can mean different things.can mean different things.Values have been described as beliefs, Values have been described as beliefs, needs, goals, criteria for choosing goals, needs, goals, criteria for choosing goals, criteria for choosing behaviors, and criteria for choosing behaviors, and preferences (Dose, 1997; Froelich & preferences (Dose, 1997; Froelich & Kottke, 1991).Kottke, 1991).Values may be comprised of cognitive, Values may be comprised of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components.affective, and behavioral components.

Relative to work values, studies have Relative to work values, studies have tended to focus on the following:tended to focus on the following:– Vocational work valuesVocational work values– Importance of various aspects of a job or Importance of various aspects of a job or

organizationorganization– Preferences for the characteristics of a jobPreferences for the characteristics of a job– The extent to which individuals adhere to The extent to which individuals adhere to

aspects of the Protestant work ethic (The key aspects of the Protestant work ethic (The key elements of the Protestant ethic were elements of the Protestant ethic were diligence, punctuality, deferment of diligence, punctuality, deferment of gratification, and primacy of the work domain gratification, and primacy of the work domain (Rose, 1985)). (Rose, 1985)).

Workplace Values (cont’d)Workplace Values (cont’d)

In general, business ideology and country In general, business ideology and country culture are primary forces that may shape culture are primary forces that may shape employee’s work-related values.employee’s work-related values.

Different business ideologies are:Different business ideologies are:– Convergence theory indicates that as nations Convergence theory indicates that as nations

embrace capitalism, their value systems will embrace capitalism, their value systems will evolve toward the value systems established evolve toward the value systems established Western capitalistic economies.Western capitalistic economies.


– Divergence theory suggests that country culture Divergence theory suggests that country culture drives values (even if a country adopts capitalism, the drives values (even if a country adopts capitalism, the value system of the workforce will remain unchanged.value system of the workforce will remain unchanged.

– ““Cross-vergence” – suggests that work ideology and Cross-vergence” – suggests that work ideology and country culture interact to create a new and unique country culture interact to create a new and unique value system that is based on the melding of both value system that is based on the melding of both cultural and ideological influences (Talston, Holt, cultural and ideological influences (Talston, Holt, Terpstra, & Kai-cheng, 1995)Terpstra, & Kai-cheng, 1995)

Major issue of measuring work-related values:Major issue of measuring work-related values:– Extent to which responses about values may reflect Extent to which responses about values may reflect

the desire to appear as much like a socially desirable the desire to appear as much like a socially desirable modelmodel


Recommended surveys:Recommended surveys:– Value Attainment (p. 266)Value Attainment (p. 266)– Work Values Inventory (p. 268)Work Values Inventory (p. 268)– Protestant Work Ethic (p. 270)Protestant Work Ethic (p. 270)– Work Value Survey (p. 275)Work Value Survey (p. 275)– Measure of Ethical Viewpoints (p. 278) Measure of Ethical Viewpoints (p. 278) – * extensive survey* extensive survey

– Perceived Importance of Workplace Values Perceived Importance of Workplace Values (p. 284)(p. 284)


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Taking Measure of Work