Talking, Linking, Clicking

8/4/2019 Talking, Linking, Clicking

1/30

Talking, Linking, Clicking: The Politics of AIDS and SARS in Urban China

Haiqing Yu

The sprng 2003 has been vvly escrbe as the sprng masks n

Chna. Sn ater the natn stage the largest ever AIDS campagn n

Wrl AIDS Day (December 1, 2002), the unknwn whte anxety

SARS (severe acute respratry synrme) tk the place the knwn rethreat HIV/AIDS (human mmunecency vrus/acqure mmun-

ecency synrme). Envelpe n a SARS panc, the whle natn was

ecrate by a varety masks that smelle snectant.

The successve re threat an whte anxety have brught abut a quet

cultural revlutn n Chnese scety. Unlke the Mast ne, ths revlutn

s nt ne elgy le by the state; rather, t s a revlutn nrma-

tn vectrs. It s part what has been calle the slent revlutn thats leang t the resubjectcatn pst-Ma ctzens. Upn clser lk,

positions 15:1 doi 10.1215/10679847-2006-023

Cpyrght 2007 by Duke Unversty Press


2/30

positions15:1 Spring 2007 36

thugh, these pst-Ma ctzens are nt slent: they talk, lnk, an clck. By

talkng n ra an televsn, lnkng wth thers thrugh real an vrtual

netwrkng, an clckng the keybar the mble phne an/r cm-

puter, these ctzens, especally thse rm the urban mle classes, are able

t apprprate an expan the crculatry matrx narratve, subjectvty,

an ctzenshp. New mea have becme the venues an means r pst-

Ma ctzens t re-rm subjectvtes an exercse ctzenshp, whch n turn

expses the pltcs AIDS an SARS n urban Chna.

AIDS an SARS, as ptental glbal epemcs that have aecte ml-lns lves n Chna alne, are stes sgncatn an knwlege n

cntemprary bpltcs. Snce they represent scal an cultural crses, as

well as bmecal nes, bth synrmes have prve pprtuntes r

the state an scety t recnsttute an restuate ther subjectve pstns n

relatn t each ther. AIDS an SARS have als pene up space t reex-

amne the nrmatn revlutn that s changng Chnas ppular mea

tplgy. Face wth a mralty-lae vrus (AIDS) an a hghly cnta-gus vrus (SARS), peple have reajuste ther strateges expressn an

nteractn thrugh the use new mea, whch er them channels

(relatve) reem an cnvenence at lw cst. As a result, cmmuncatn

has ncreasngly taken the rm wrtten rather than ral transmssns. I

the vruses have pene up space r the recnsttutn publc scurses

n subjectvty an ctzenshp, the use new mea has acltate the

rmatn an crculatn such scurses an prve new venues rsubject rmatn.

The term new media n ths artcle reers manly t the Internet an

mble phnes, the use whch sprea rst amng the urban eltes an

then prlerate amng the mle class an the vast scal strata urban

centers. Chna has the largest mble cmmuncatn market n the wrl

an the secn hghest Internet usage ater the Unte States; n 2003, the

numbers Chnas Internet an mble phne users ht 80 mlln an 250mlln respectvely. Bth BBS (bulletn bar system) an SMS (shrt mes-

sage servce, r text messagng) are partcularly ppular amng Chnese

new mea users: abut ne-th Internet users regularly make use

BBS, an 95 percent urban yuth preer SMS t cmmuncatn by any

ther means. Durng the SARS utbreak, r example, the Internet an


3/30

Yu The Politics of AIDS and SARS 37

mble phne were calle nt play r nearly every aspect nteractn

an cmmuncatn amng SARS-cnne urbantes. In ths way, new

mea cnsttute the everyay realty urban Chna, as well as the pltcs

AIDS an SARS.

Ths artcle examnes the practces talkng, lnkng, an clckng as

they ntersect wth the pltcs bth synrmes an the cncmtant

resubjectcatn urban ctzens n cntemprary Chna. I vew the prac-

tces talkng, lnkng, an clckng as part the revlutn n mea e-

lgy, as well as a scetal revlutn. The use new mea s transgurngthe prvate an the publc, as well as transrmng an slcatng netwrks

cmmuncatve practces. In the prcess, the subjectvtes thse wh

partcpate n such netwrks are regure.

By examnng the use new mea by Chnese urbantes t crculate

an scuss tpcs relate t the vruses between 2002 an 2003, I lk at

the ways that talkng, lnkng, an clckng have becme technlges

resubjectcatn, whereby peple remagne an recnsttute themselves assubjects that are vsble t the state, thugh wthut beng subjecte t ts

lgc nterpellatn, an as subjects that are nvsble t the state, wthut

unermnng ther refexve subjectvty. Whle ne becmes a vsble sub-

ject when ne s mae t talk by the state, ne becmes an nvsble subject

when ne talks n respnse t calls nes ntmate sel an ellw ctzens

va new mea. By enablng the rermatn pltcal subjectvtes, talk-

ng, lnkng, an clckng have becme mprtant means exercsng ct-zenshp r late-scalst subjects the Chnese plty.

Talking

In ths sectn, I cus n AIDS talk as a ste the emergence nvsble

subjectvty n Chna. Talking s use here n a bra sense t reer t spken

as well as wrtten rms cmmuncatns va cntemprary electrnc

platrms, anAIDS talk reers speccally t talks n AIDS gven by pe-

ple lvng wth HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). Spken rms talkng, whch are

usually carre ut thrugh tratnal bracast mea, rener the talkng

subjects physcally vsble t ther auences. Wrtten rms talkng, whch

are nrmally carre ut n the rms BBS (the Internet) an SMS (mble


4/30


phnes), rener the talkng subjects physcally nvsble t ther auences.

The act talkng, as I argue n the llwng, s the very technlgy

resubjectcatn, whether the talkng subjects are recgnze as auences,

mbzens, r netzens. Talkng (such as AIDS talk) allws the talkers t

recnsttute themselves as subjects whether vsble r nvsble n rela-

tn t the state.

Frm 1985, when Chna recgnze ts rst HIV/AIDS case, t m-

2003, an estmate 0.6 mlln t 1.3 mlln peple were necte wth HIV/

AIDS, wth an annual ncrease rate 30 percent an a male t emale rat 4:1. It s estmate that by 2010 Chna wll have ten mlln PLWHA

the epemc s nt brught uner eectve cntrl. Despte such an astn-

shng grwth rate, AIDS talk remane a senstve an prhbte zne n

Chnese publc scurses untl the turn the twenty-rst century, when

representatns HIV/AIDS shte rm cal scurse n statstcs

an plces t nvual scurse cnsstng persnal cnessns an

revelatns. In a ace-savng scety lke Chna, AIDS talk, especally talkrelate t sexualty, can be as racal as the gay rghts mvement n the

West, because cmng ut an lsng ace (an scal securty) are ne an

the same.

On the teenth Wrl AIDS Day n 2002, the News Probe (Xinwen

diaocha) a renwne news nvestgatn prgram n Chna Central

Televsn (CCTV) ntruce L Jamng n the eature stry as the

mst mysterus PLWHA n Chna.

Ths televse AIDS talk presenteJamng as a ark slhuette sttng ppste hs ully lt ntervewer, Dng

Qan, n a stu settng. Runnng thrugh the rty-mnute prgram were

ast fws nrmatn between ntervewer an ntervewee, accmpa-

ne by cnstant shts an cntrasts between the ark an brght televsual

rames the tw gures.

Jamng was nt the rst publc PLWHA, but he was the rst t per-

rm AIDS talk wth sexual mplcatns n Chnese natnal televsn.

Jamng stans ut rm ther PLWHA cvere n the natnal mea r

three reasns. Frst, he s prtraye as a mral persn suerng rm the

cnsequence an mmral actvty (prsttutn); secn, he cmes ut as

bth a vctm an warrr aganst the sease mernty nt, as ther

PLWHA chse t , n the name savng the natn, but n the name


5/30


eclarng a persnal war n HIV/AIDS; an thr, Jamng was persuae

byNews Probe t talk abut hs experence as a PLWHA ater he shk theInternet cmmunty by pstng hs persnal cnessns nlne. Hs cm-

ng ut s renere bth vsual (hence vsble) an maske (hence nvsble)

n new ways that mark hm as erent rm ther cases.

The nclusn Jamng n manstream mea sgnes a ecsve event

n the natnal scurses n HIV/AIDS, n whch the care natural le

rather than natnal ace takes center stage. The nclusn natural le n

pltcal le, r the entry zoe nt polis n Grg Agambens terms, scharacterze by pltcal technques thrugh whch the State assumes an

ntegrates the care the natural le nvuals nt ts very center. In

Jamngs case, the technque s the Althusseran subjectvzatn thrugh

vce. By subjectng hmsel t the gaze state pwer, Jamng becmes a

talkng subject whse subjectvty s slcte, r nterpellate. He becmes

a subject vsble t the scplnary technlges r the bpltcal lgc

the late-scalst state. Seen rm ths perspectve, Jamngs AIDS talk nCCTV s a rencarnatn speakng btterness (suku), the lgc cnes-

sn n Chnese pltcal culture.

In Chnese cmmunst hstry, all walks peple, rm peasants an

wrkers t ntellectuals, have been calle upn by the state t perrm the

rhetrc scalst revlutn n a speech rm knwn as speakng btter-

ness. Speakng btterness s a publc narratn past harshp an spec-

tacularze accusatn aganst enemes the peple, usually perrme byrnary ctzens. It s a hghly eectve perrmance, a narratve rm an

representatnal means that transrms scal cnscusness an enes an

cnsttutes the subaltern pstn scalst subjects. As Ann Anagnst

pnts ut, speakng btterness s a technlgy r nscrbng nt the scal

by the pwer structure the scplnary state. In speakng btterness,

I was a mute by mae t speak. Its allegrcal rce has cntnue t

haunt the natn n such rms as class struggle sessns urng the Cultural

Revlutn, scar lterature n the 1980s, an the lamentatns emale

slk wrkers n the 1990s as cumente by Lsa Rel. Speakng btter-

ness has been nsttutnalze t such an extent that t cntnues t subject

late-scalst subalterns (wmen, peasants, an ther subgrups) t the states

clams abut natural le, prucng what Anagnst has calle a lcally


6/30


specc pltc perceptn an experence that cnsttute lcal ent-

tes as well as natnal subjects. Even televsn talk shws, n the rm hghly cntrlle ntervew an auence partcpatn sessns, can be

vewe as a new rm cnessn that testes t state strateges abut

human mprvement an scal cntrl t acheve what Brge Bakken

calls the exemplary scety n Chna.

Jamng s mae nt an exemplary talkng subject n the cal HIV/

AIDS scurse when he s persuae (r mblze) t speak t the publc

as hs targete auence an the state as hs mple auence. In the speak-ng btterness tratn, wmen were usually mae nt vsble subjects t

artculate the patrarchal rer scurse ctate by the state. In AIDS

talk, hwever, the male by s mae vsble aganst the nvsble emale

by. As Jamng puts t, n the ay he un ut that he was necte wth

HIV/AIDS, he went back t the brthel where hs healthy by was necte

thrugh physcal ntmacy wth a emale sex wrker. He cul nt n the

wman wh necte hm; all he cul hear was wcke emale laughter.He rushe ut nt the sunlght wth the realzatn that he wul never

g back agan t that place, an he urges ther males t llw hs example.

It s at ths pnt n the narratn that he s transrme rm an necte

hetersexual male by nt an exemplary by mralty. Hs s nt the

healthy, hgh-qualty, an culture by that the state an elte ntellectuals

have trane an cultvate, but a by mralty requre late-scalst

subjects t realze a perect scal rer;

whle he s transrme, the sup-psely egenere narratves n the televse AIDS talk pnt t the nvs-

blty emale bes an narratves wthn male-mnate publc s-

curse. Jamng becmes a sgn that crculates thrughut the scal by

as a rencarnatn the pltcze by an pltcze subject.

The rencarnatn reners Jamng vsble t the state as he perrms

AIDS talk uner ts gaze. The gaze, hwever, es nt subject hm t ts

lgc verbalty. Unlke the speakng-btterness subjects wh talke n the

language the state, Jamng talks n hs wn language. Calle upn t

cness, he speaks abut hmsel as an nvual persn rather than a repre-

sentatve the masses PLWHA; he reveals hs wn secret an ntmate

ears, pans, an hpes, rather than the ears, hpes, an plces the state.

The prvatze AIDS talk an the ablty t cness ntmate persnal mat-


7/30


ter s a sgn pwer an cntrl n the part the cnessr, t use Jane

Shattucs wrs.

Talkng r Jamng s nt a smple rencarnatn speakng btterness,

but a reversal speakng btterness rm beng a technlgy the state t

a technlgy resubjectcatn. It becmes a sel-mlng prcess that

bns the talkng subject t hs ntmate cnscusness an subjectvty. In

perrmng AIDS talk n televsn, he becmes a sel-recverng subject,

rather than a revlutnary subject r a vctm speakng btterness. Jamngs

AIDS talk thus represents nt nly a prcess subjectcatn t the statepwer, but als resubjectcatn an ntmate sel.

Such resubjectcatn pses a threat t the perrmatve splay pwer

n speakng btterness, as talkng nw ccupes a prvate space reams an

antases rather than smply a publc splay nes subalternty. The talk-

ng subject s nt a mute by mae t speak, but a recverng nterlcu-

tr estrange rm the state nterpellatn. Whereas, n speakng btterness,

the by the talkng subject was renere vsble an that the state-nterlcutr nvsble, n Jamngs AIDS talk, the by the jurnalst-

nterlcutr was renere vsble an that the talkng subject nvsble a

reversal by pltcs n Chnese pltcal culture.

Jamng es nt talk thrugh the by language an ral vehemence

speakng btterness, but thrugh hs ngers. In hs televse AIDS talk,

the cus s n the lt ngers hs by s shae n arkness, except r

hs hans, an hs vce blurre thrugh techncal means. The vsual ram-ng shws hs ngers transmttng hs thughts an revelatns. Outse

the televsn stu, t s als hs ngers that tell hs esres an ears

thrugh hs wrtngs n the Internet. Inee, ngers seem t have becme

the embment Jamng an hs AIDS talk. But hs ngers are at the

same tme engule by hs spectral mage n televsn an spectral presence

n the vrtual wrl the Internet. Talkng has gne beyn physcalty

an transcene the crpreal: the talkng subject has been renere phys-

cally nvsble, yet hs wrs are hghly vsble. It s thrugh the transcenent

rm talkng that Jamng an hs ellw netzens regure an ntmate

an recverng subjectvty r themselves an becme subjects nvsble t

state pwer.

As an nvsble subject, Jamng has becme a sgn refexvty that cr-


8/30


culates reely n the Internet n a manner unthnkably speey r the speak-

ng btterness subjects. Jamngs vrtual hme has attracte a versty scurses n HIV/AIDS, rangng rm hetersexual an manstream t

hmsexual an therwse subaltern, that are nrmally exclue rm the

publc sphere. As Jamng amts, hs AIDS talk wth ther netzens has

enrche an enhance hs le, an he has begun t refect n le/eath an

rnge tpcs, such as hmsexualty, that he use t shun.

As nvsble subjects, Jamng an hs ellw netzens have reverse

the rer cnessn n speakng btterness. Cnessn nes subjec-tve pstns n sel an the external wrl s nt calle upn by the state

pwer, but elcts the pwer the speakng subjects t regster alenatn

as well as cnslatn. Numerus auence respnses t Jamngs AIDS

talk n the Internet testy that the crculatn an nvsble subjectvty

can rm an cnslate a cmmunty refexvty acrss age, class, an

ethnc erences. Subjectvty s a scal categry that can be pltcze,

genere, classe, an magne. It s nt a sngle attrbute but nterlckewth an nvuals relatns t external rces as well as t nes ntmate

sel. Jamngs case has shwn that the subjectvty a talkng subject can

be renere vsble as well as nvsble. Jamng s subjecte t the scpln-

ary technlges the state as ts vsble subject, but he subverts them as ts

nvsble subject when he assumes a spectral presence t hs auences. As a

vsble subject, he cnsttutes a sgn that crculates thrugh the scal by

t make supremely vsble the pwer the state an ts elgcal appara-tus. As an nvsble subject, he s able t regure hs subjectvty by return-

ng t hs ntmate sel an refexve subjectvty va new mea, an hence

becmes a sgn sel-empwerment an estrangement rm the hypervs-

blty the state pwer.

Subjectvty, refexvty, an technlgy have been central themes n

scal an cultural theres n mernty an pstmernty. As Frank

Webster wrtes, Where there s heghtene refexvty there must als be

means makng ths nrmatn avalable t thers, an accrngly there

s a central rle t be playe by mea all srts n tays wrl. Tech-

ncal mprvement n mea an cmmuncatns makes t pssble r the

talkng subject t rm an partcpate n cmmuncatve netwrks an t

acltate the crculatn nvsble subjectvty an refexvty. Talkng va


9/30


televsn an the Internet enables Jamng an hs auences t regure

ther subjectvtes as nvsble subjects wh speak rm ther ntmacy anprvacy as well as rm ther cmmtment t cmmn causes, rather than

merely as vsble subjects wh are slcte an mae t speak by the pwer

the state. New mea have been playng a central rle n acltatng the

resubjectcatn talkng subjects an prmtng cmmtment t ther

rghts an blgatns as ctzens the natn. As the llwng sectns

shw, Chnese netzens an mbzens have nt nly regure the cncept

subjectvty, but als rermulate the cncept ctzenshp thrugh thepractces lnkng an clckng.

Linking

Snce ther rst publc eclaratn pwer urng the Chnese Embassy

bmbng n 1999, Chnese netzens have stage several shck waves,

three whch ccurre n 2003.

One such shck wave the netzensrefectns n SARS nt nly brught abut an earthquake n Chnese

calm, but als evke a natnal refectn n Chnese scpltcal

systems. The requences a secn such shck wave the case Sun

Zhgang emtte rm the vrtual netwrks the Internet an perme-

ate the har netwrks actualty, resultng n natnal refectn n

Chnese legal an scal systems.

Sun, a twenty-seven-year-l graphc esgner rm Hunan, was etaneby plce n the suthern cty Guangzhu n March 17, 2003, n hs way

t an Internet ca, r alng t splay hs temprary resent car. He was

un beaten t eath n plce custy n March 20, 2003. Ater mre

than a mnth utle erts by Suns amly t get the authrtes t nves-

tgate hs eath, the case gt t the attentn Chen Feng, an nvestgatve

reprter wth Southern Metropolitan News (a lcal Guangzhu newspaper

knwn r ts crtcal an nvestgatve jurnalsm), thrugh Suns classrm

netwrk. It was publshe n the newspaper n Aprl 25, uner the ttle

The Death Detanee Sun Zhgang.

Immeately ater the expsure Suns case, all majr Chnese BBS,

persnal Weblgs, an e-mal grups were awash wth netzens utcres

emanng that Guangzhu authrtes n justce r the ea man.


10/30


Amng the utcres was an artcle pste n the cal Web ste Peoples

Daily, wrtten by a netzen calle Splen Artcle (Jn Xuwen), whch crt-cze the gvernment r neglectng ts uty an enyng ctzens rghts.

It trggere heate nlne scussns an eventually le t a strng wave

nlne prtest aganst state authrtes.

In the hgh te nlne prtest, a specal cmmttee was quckly rme

by the Guangzhu gvernment t nvestgate the case. The result the

nvestgatn, hwever, was the usual enal respnsblty by the lcal

plce, wh ha hpe t rce Suns amly nt slence an hence makethe case sappear rm the publc sphere. But that strategy ha wrke

bere, t nt wrk ths tme. The blunt enal respnsblty by the

lcal plce enrage Chnese netzens. They reacte mmeately by pstng

mre crtcal cmments that crtcze the legal prceure n nvestgatng

the case. A spntaneus nlne pettn quckly sprea thrughut the vr-

tual netwrks.

Onlne scussn, prtest, an pettn rme a strng publc pnnbase that prmpte cal rhetrc t algn mre clsely wth ppular eel-

ng. Manstream mea, nclung CCTV, reajuste ther agena an

starte t llw the case at the mpetus the vx ppul. Even the central

gvernment n Bejng became alert t the brewng scntent an unrest

n the vrtual wrl an nstructe Guangzhu authrtes t arrest thse

respnsble r Suns eath. Thrteen peple were arreste, as reprte n

May 13, an un gulty n an pen tral n June 5.Even bere the nal tral, crtcal analyses an refectns n the case

ha shte rm a call r justce t a reexamnatn the Chnese legal

system an ctzens rghts. On May 15, a netzen pste an artcle ttle

On the Vlatn Legslatn Law by the Hlng System: The Case

Sun Zhgang at the amus Peple Net (Renmin wang), whch nt-

ate a seres scussns n the accuntablty exstng antvagrancy

regulatns. A lse netwrk rermers an ctzens rghts avcates

was rme thrugh ths cyber-netwrkng. Tw appeals, ne n May 16

an ne n May 23, were sgne by nvuals an sent t the Natnal

Peples Cngress callng r state prsecutrs t refect n Suns case an

amen antvagrancy regulatns. In the en, natnal refectn n Suns


11/30


case resulte n the abltn the ecaes-l antvagrancy regulatns n

July 2003. A humantaran regulatn base n assstance rather than eten-tn an rce repatratn was ssue n August 2003.

Althugh ssatsactn wth an ngnatn at Chnese legal an plce

systems ha lng been brewng n Chnese scety, refectns n plce an

legal rerm were lmte n scpe an cverage n manstream mea. In

the case Sun Zhgang, hwever, a prevusly unacknwlege esre

r legal an plce rerm was brught ut nt the pen by the mpetus

Internet publc pnn. It was ne the rst cases ppular pnnverrng an resettng cal agenas an the rst emnstratn the

scpltcal pwer Chnese netzenshp. Never bere n Chnese hstry

ha nvuals rectly prpse legal rerms t the legslatve by n

the name ctzenshp, an never bere n Chnese scety ha a natnal

refectn n ctzenshp an human rghts, ntate an carre ut va the

Internet, brne rut n realty.

In the natnal refectn n the case Sun Zhgang, the Internet acl-tate publc expressn, scal nteractns, cvc asscatn, ppular prtest,

an mre mprtantly, the crculatn refexvty amng Chnese net-

zens. As nvsble subjects, netzens calle rth the pwer refexvty t

regster alenatn (rm cal scurse) as well as cnslatn (amng

scety) n the name ctzenshp. The Internet became a nexus nrma-

tn fw an (trans)natnal mblzatn. Furthermre, the nterpenetra-

tn ppular scurse n the nnmanstream mea (the Internet anlcal newspapers) wth cal scurse n the hghly cntrlle state mea

(CCTV an Peoples Daily, the mst mprtant muthpeces the party)

has brne rut r Chnese pltcal culture. Mblzatn s n lnger a

theatrcal splay the states pwer t summn ts subjects t ts pltcs

vsblty, but a subterranean fw ppular scurse that bns anny-

mus netzens t the pltcs nvsble subjectvty.

The pltcs nvsble subjectvty are clsely te wth the pltcs

vsblty (an hypervsblty) represente by Sun, wh was asscate wth

the pltcs SARS as a sgn an symbl ppular ctzenshp urng the

epemc utbreak n the sprng 2003. The exclusn r nclusn Sun n

the natnal scurse was nt slely epenent n the wll the state, but


12/30


negtate between the state an scety (represente by the netzens). The

hypervsble by Sun was use by the nvsble an yet refexve subjectsas a symbl t refect the Chnese legal system an ctzens rghts an t

rm an alternatve netwrk crculatn stll supervse by but semb-

e rm state cntrl. In ther wrs, the hypervsblty Sun a ea

by, a vctm the system rather than the SARS vrus tsel cnsttutes

the pltcs nvsble subjectvty, an the pltcs nvsble subjectv-

ty cnsttutes the new by pltcs n late-scalst Chna. As a new rm

talkng, lnkng tgether wth clckng has becme a technlgy resubjectcatn.

Clicking

Suns case shws that, n the practce lnkng, peple are cnsttute as

subjects whse nvsblty an refexvty are cnucve t natnal refec-

tns n ctzenshp an legal rghts. But the rmatn nvsble subjectv-ty s nt always mbue wth pensve elberatn; t can be smultaneusly

lghthearte an empwerng, as well as have elements wtty merrment.

Senng an SMS message va the mble phne an lnkng up va new

mea can be enjyable: prucng, reprucng, an crculatng a ppular

wtty SMS message nvlves pleasure an esre, as well as resstance an

cmprmse. Senng an SMS message can als be vewe as empwerng

as the cell phne textng n the Phlppnes that generate a ppulst mve-ment t ethrne a gvernment, r as racal as the pagng n Sngapre

that enables the extensn an mantenance lcal lesban cmmuntes.

Shrtly ater the Sprng Festval 2003, rumrs crculate wely n

urban Chna abut a mysterus vrus utbreak n Guangzhu an later n

Bejng: abut ts ncurable nature, abut a scarcty rce an salt (whch

cause large-scale panc shppng n Guangzhu an Bejng), abut sealng

the cty Bejng, an abut the mpstn martal law. Untl Aprl 20,

the ay that marke Chnas pen campagn n SARS, Chnese mbzens

an netzens were the majr surces an carrers nrmatn abut the

epemc: t was reprte that the number SMS messages n Guangng

prvnce alne reache rty mlln n January 8, rty-ne mlln n


13/30


January 9, an rty-ve mlln n January 10. Famles an rens wve

an extensve vrtual netwrk by clckng. The technlgy telecmmunca-tn became a supplement t the technlgy guanxi (persnal netwrks),

wheren clckng an lnkng were the means t gan an crculate nr-

matn nt accessble rm manstream mea. Fr mre than ur mnths,

peple were cnne nrs by the SARS panc, but ther wrs crculate

reely an happly n the ether wth the suns clckng.

SMS messagng became the everyay realty r SARS-cnne nv-

uals. Beses prvate SMS messages between amly members an rens,there was a huge by publc SMS messages crculatng wely thrugh-

ut Chnese scety. N ne knew r care abut the authrshp these

verses: peple smply clcke ther mble phne keybars, knwng that

ther ellw mbzens wul share a btter laugh r knwng smle when

reang them. The llwng are a ew examples these numerus shrt

messages sent va mble phnes an the Internet n the sprng masks.

Example 1:

SARS represents the eman a specal vrus r evelpment

SARS represents the avancement a culture terrr

SARS represents the basc nterests the bra masses wl anmals

Ths rst SMS rhyme, calle the Three Represents SARS, s a par-

y rmer Chnese Cmmunst Party Secretary Jang Zemns Three

Represents phlsphy.

It s a clear example apprpratn, by whchpeple transplant ther wn wsm nt cal ms. The rhyme neatly

summarzes bth the SARS panc an the evelpmental crss n Chna:

the lss cmplacency, as n the new entn evelpment, prev-

usly unerst as ecnmc evelpment; the eelng nsecurty, as n

the apprpratn the term culture terrr, remnscent the terrrst

attacks an the war n terrrsm; an the envrnmental crss, as n the

call r prtectn n behal wl anmals. By replacng pructve

rce n the rgnal verse wth specal vrus (SARS), avance culture

wth a culture terrr, an the peple wth wl anmals, the rhyme

generates a bzarre an humrus juxtapstn. It hyperlnks cal an

uncal elges n mckery.


14/30


Example 2:

The Party cant stp cals rm eatng an rnkng at publc expense,but SARS !

The Party cant stp junketeerng cals, but SARS !

The Party cant stp enless utle meetngs, but SARS !

The Party cant stp the eceptn superrs an the cheatng sub-

rnates, but SARS !

The Party cant stp prsttutn, but SARS !

The secn SMS rhyme s a sarcastc take n bureaucracy an crruptn

n the Chnese plty. SARS ha negatve mpacts n the Chnese ecn-

my, but t brught abut a cleaner Chna: cleaner nt nly n terms

mprve persnal hygene an publc health systems, but als n terms

better state gvernance. By parallelng the Party wth SARS an cn-

trastng the tw, the rhyme verthrws the party lgc SARS: t s nt the

party but SARS that has ne smethng g r Chnese scety. Ths

rhyme has been hale as the mst vv an accurate escrptn SARSs

cntrbutns t Chna, as peple all ages have taken t up an laughe n

apprecatn ts wtty lnes.

Example 3:

Guangng gt SARS then Bejng caught t

The gvernment snt s strct nw

Mea ares t speak upMany peple have SARS nw

The hsptals are ull

The ctrs an nurses are havng a tugh tme

The masses are scare ut ther wts

Wearng masks t cver ther aces

Internatnal rganzatns have cme t take charge

SARS wll sn be brught uner cntrl

Take yur Chnese mecne ble n the pt

Be sure t get sme exercse

The thr SMS rhyme s the mst accurate escrptn SARS-strcken

Chna urng the heght the ant-SARS campagn (Aprl t May 2003). It


15/30


tuches upn truths that everyby knew but ew wul venture t speak n

the manstream mea: truths abut the SARS cver-up, mea censrshp,pr mecal care, an an naequate emergency-respnse system an

the subsequent natnal panc an nternatnal nterventn. Am a cel-

ebratn SARS-nuce changes an SARS heres, ths rhyme remns

peple n a lghthearte way the mprtance Chnese cultural tra-

tns (r example, the avce abut Chnese mecne an takng exercse),

whch are ten rsaken n the natnal rush twar mernzatn an

glbalzatn.Lke shunkouliu (ppular sayngs), mst these SMS rhymes are qute

melus (a qualty that s lst n translatn) an easy t recte, as they

resemble verses an rhymes stre n Chnese cultural an pltcal mem-

res. Chna has a lng tratn rewrtng such verses n cntemprary

ppular culture. The apprpratn Ma themes n the recent Ma craze,

the playul rewrkng Re sngs n rck musc, an the nusn plt-

cal cns nt pltcal pp art, are akn t the SARS rhymes n ther playuluse wrs, symbls, an themes n a eant an smetmes subversve

manner.

Such repructn rhymes rm ther use n cal elgy s a cm-

plex scal an cultural phenmenn. It nvlves elberate playul msuse

an msnterpretatn the mnant elgy an represents the elgy

nvsble subjectvty; prucng an crculatng ppular scurse abut

the vrus enable peple t pruce meanngs an pleasures that are, nther wn rght, a rm scal pwer. As the SMS rhymes emnstrate,

the semtc pwer the ppular s maneste n prucng symblc

meanngs that cmpete wth thse the state an the pwer t cnstruct

alternatves n the pleasure shwng , scanalzng, resstng.

Prucng an crculatng SMS rhymes are acts encng/ecng by

the annymus netzens. They are als emnstratns a ppular tactc

knwn as transmess, whch can mean bthtranslation plus mimesis as well

as transgression plus mimesis. These SMS rhymes are mmess an trans-

gressn the cal elgy. In act, they are able t crculate as wely as

they n the publc sphere because ther subtle transgressns perms-

sble bunares. Lke the rway cuplets stue by Patrca Thrntn

an the rck musc nterprete by Rey Chw, the SMS rhymes serve as an


16/30


evcatve transcrpt that masqueraes as un an pltcally rrelevant n

rer t crculate thrughut the scal by. Clckng becmes an nnva-tve an ecent means t translate an renterpret the pltcs SARS.

Playng wth wrs, hwever, es nt necessarly generate cunters-

curse. These SMS rhymes are better rea as a tactcal expressn the

semtc pwer nvsble subjects t rm a new nterpretve ramewrk

ther aly realtes n parallel wth, rather than aganst, the nterpre-

tve ramewrk prmulgate by the state. Lke subttlng n televsn an

stan-up cmey n Hng Kng, the ambguty language an structureuse n the SMS rhymes subverts the state system subjectcatn by s-

turbng the acle cnerral subjectvty, even thugh t cannt alter the

law subjectcatn tsel. Imple n the pructn an crculatn

nvsble subjectvty are bth resstance an cmprmse.

Clckng, tgether wth lnkng an talkng, becmes the technlgy

resubjectcatn, wheren the subject becmes vsble t the state wthut

beng subjecte t ts lgc nterpellatn. The resubjectcatn createsa subjectvty bth ntmate an nvsble amng the talkng, lnkng, an

clckng subjects. As subjects wh are nvsble t the state an t ne anther,

they have apte a refexve subjectvty va the sphere new mea. Talk-

ng, lnkng, an clckng are bth armatns the semtc pwer the

nvsble subjects as nvual ctzens an armatns ther membershp

n a pructve an cmmuncatve cmmunty. These practces have nt

nly nrme the pltcs AIDS an SARS, but als cnsttute pstm-

ern technlges ctzenshp n late-scalst Chna.

Media Citizenship

Ctzenshp s an elusve cncept. It has been cnstructe n erent ways

n erent scetes an at erent hstrcal stages. As a multtere

cnstruct, ctzenshp may apply t peples membershp n cmmuntes

accrng t pltcal an cultural erences at lcal, natnal, an transna-

tnal levels, r accrng t subcultural an subpltcal erences n gen-

er, sexual, ethnc, blgcal, an techncultural agenas. The typlgy

ctzenshp s als wtnesse n Chnese ctzenshp stues. Fr example,

Changing Meanings o Citizenship in Modern China, cete by Merle Gl-


17/30


man an Elzabeth J. Perry, captures the ynamc an elusve eatures

ctzenshp n the Chnese cntext. As the bk shws, varus hstr-cal actrs have mpse qute erent cnceptns ctzenshp upn the

ppulatn twenteth-century Chna: the Manchus, warlrs, regn

mperalsts, Natnalsts, Cmmunsts, mern ntellectuals, an rnary

peple (wmen, wrkers, peasants, stuents) have all playe mprtant rles

n enng ctzenshp. Awakenng r beng awakene t the (West-

ern) Enlghtenment cncept has mnate varus scurses n natn,

state, an sel snce the nset Chnese mernty n the early twentethcentury.

Despte varus awakenng scurses, a state-centrc vew ctzenshp

has prevale n Chnese ntellectual an pltcal thnkng an cntnue

t subject the peple t varus metascurses natnalsm n Chnas

natn-bulng prject. Ths vew has been successully establshe thrugh

mblzatn the masses (qunzhong) n pltcal an ecnmc actvtes

selecte an ene by the party-state. As Glman an Perry summarze,The exclusn r nclusn varus scal categres whether base

upn pltcal cnscusness, ecnmc class, ethncty, gener, r ther

crtera by the authrtaran state has been a ntable eature Chnese

ctzenshp ver the past century.

The state-centrc vew ctzenshp has never been unchallenge n

mern Chnese hstry. Despte the lngerng eects cmmunst tra-

tns such as speakng btterness, the rse ppular scurse n ctzenshp

that centers n sel an selh, rghts an sel-entty, s urther cmpl-

catng ctzenshp n pst-Ma Chna. As such, street pltcs have ccupe

pst-Ma ctzenshp stues. Takng t the street an publc squares has

becme characterstc ppular cntestatns ctzenshp, whether t s

n the rm ntellectuals an stuents premcracy mvements, wrk-

ers prtests, peasants rts, r grumbles the fatng ppulatn n the

cty.

An emphass n the nsttutnal bass ctzenshp publc prtests,

cvc asscatns, a burgenng press, an an electral prcess stll char-

acterzes stues n ctzenshp an the publc sphere/cvl scety n Chna,

espte varus thr-way appraches t harmnze the ppstns between

the state an scety. Sme have nte the eects mern jurnalsm an


18/30


the press n sterng a new auence r pnn, nrmatn, an mblza-

tn; mlng a natnal entty; an bulng a mern natn-state. Butew have nte the subtle change n ctzenshp cause by the mpact new

mea. As ths artcle has emnstrate, a new subjectvty an ctzenshp

has emerge n the practces talkng, lnkng, an clckng. New mea

nt nly cntrbute t the emergence nvsble subjects an the rmatn

refexve subjectvty, but als cnsttute a new ctzenshp base n spn-

taneus an nvualze elberatn n matters publc mprtance,

thrugh textual fws wrtten wrs rather than rect ral an/r physcalengagements. New mea have becme an mprtant venue n whch t

exercse ctzenshp t express, prtest, an mck.

Ths apprach alls wthn a pstmern cnceptual ramewrk the

relatns between mea, ctzenshp, an the publc sphere n Western mea/

cultural stues. Pstmernsts see new mea (the Internet, mble phnes,

ve, the Walkman) as new venues t rm publcness base n nnlcal-

ze, nncrpreal, nnalgc, an nnrecprcal rms cmmuncatnacrss natnal an cultural bunares, an t pen new pssbltes r

vces that have prevusly been exclue rm publc cultures. Hence a

pstmern ramewrk encmpasses such categres as ntmate ctzenshp,

termnal ctzenshp, DIY (D It Yursel) ctzenshp, an csmpltan/

glbal ctzenshp.

Jhn Urrys ntn ctzenshp fws captures the pstmern cn-

tn ctzenshp n ur techn-mea cultures. Fr Urry, a ctzenshp

stass s lnke t membershp n certan natn-states, whle a ctzen-

shp fws escrbes fws r mvements peple, tgether wth thngs,

mages, an cncepts, acrss natn-state bunares. Mea ctzenshp s

als a ctzenshp fws. But t s less abut transnatnal fws peple

an rghts than meate fws wrs an subjectvty acrss spatal, tem-

pral, an scal bunares. Once a message s pste n a BBS r sent ut

va an SMS message, t s mpssble t track ts rgn an estnatn wth-

ut hghly sphstcate technlges an expertse. As the case stues n

ths artcle have emnstrate, the fws wrs an subjectvty nt nly

break wn natnal, scal, an pltcal bunares, but als vercme

barrers amng SARS-cnne nvuals an peple wh are lvng wth

an/r care abut HIV/AIDS. These fws can generate netwrks publc


19/30


pnn strng enugh t nfuence the agenas manstream mea an

state plces. In the meate nteractns between natn an state, the sub-jects wh acltate the fws are transrme nt mea ctzens, r whm

meanngul an cnstructve engagement wth (new) mea s equvalent t

exercsng ctzenshp. As a ctzenshp fws, mea ctzenshp heghtens

refexve subjectvty amng the talkng, lnkng, an clckng subjects.

Peter Glng nce cmmente, Cmmuncatve cmpetence an actn,

an the resurces requre t exercse them, are requstes r ctzenshp.

Ths artcle has shwn that cmmuncatve means an reem areprereq-uisites r the exercse mea ctzenshp n late-scalst Chna. I ctzen-

shp can be magne spatally, t s nt just a cntestatn ver the rght t

urban spaces, streets, an squares, but als a cntestatn ver the rght t

cmmuncatve means an space. Frm the Internets rle n L Jamngs

AIDS talk an the case Sun Zhgang, t the use mble phnes n s-

semnatng SARS-relate SMS rhymes, new mea have becme prvatze

publc space t exercse ctzenshp n urban Chna.Lke the new nvualsm n pst-Ma Chna, whch, as Lucan W.

Pye has nte, represents r the nvual a hal-way pnt between

the tratn beng a passve, parchal partcpant n ace-t-ace grup

structures an beng an autnmus ctzen capable pltcal relatn-

shp wth the Chnese state, mea ctzenshp represents a halway pnt

between nrme ctzenshp capable rect pltcal engagement wth

the state an actve cnsumershp an auenceshp that celebrates nvu-

alty an pleasure. Senng an SMS message r pstng a message/artcle

n a BBS s the very technlgy mea ctzenshp, thrugh whch peple

can turn themselves rm cnsumers mea nt ctzens mea. As

mea ctzens, peple may apprve, applau, pettn, an ebate ssues

persnal, natnal, an nternatnal sgncance, even thugh they may

nt even have a vte n realty. In ther wrs, as netzens an mbzens

peple are nvsble subjects n respnse t the call ther ellw ctzens

an ntmate selves, rather than vsble subjects n respnse t the nterpella-

tn the state. But when fne an nt SMS messagng, r when targete

by cyber-plce, they may becme vsble subjects agan t the scplnary

technlges the state. Such s the parax ctzenshp n authrtaran/

ttaltaran states.


20/30


Conclusion

The fw wrs s always mbrcate wth pwer. Actns such as talk-

ng, lnkng, an clckng, as well as marches, paraes, an st-ns are plt-

cal, snce they am at changng peples lves an perceptns; they are als

nseparable rm the nherent pwer the scety. They nt necessarly

ppse the pwer rm abve, but rather ster an sprea the cmmun-

catve netwrks refexve subjectvty, whch s eventually cnucve t

the exercse ctzenshp. The space the Internet can be cntrlle an

mble phne text messages can be regulate, but as lng as the wrs cn-tnue t fw, there s the ptental r nvsble subjects t assert the pwer

ther refexvty anytme an anywhere.

Clckng an lnkng are ganng a prmnence smlar t reang (r

example, a newspaper) an watchng (r example, a televsn) as new

technlges ctzenshp n urban Chna, especally amng yunger gen-

eratns. The cnsumptn new mea rms the bass a new au-

enceshp an ctzenshp that has rts n the tratnal cncept bengnrme thrugh reang, brwsng, an scussng. The cases L

Jamng, Sun Zhgang, an SARS SMS messages suggest that the (relatve)

reem an equalty ere by the electrnc platrms are empwerng

nvuals t use semtc pwer t (re)cnstruct subjectvtes an exercse

ctzenshp, especally n tmes crss.

Wrtng an senng shrt messages va the Internet an mble phnes

are smultaneusly acts nby, because ther authrs are annymus,an everyby, wng t ther we crculatn. New mea are prtable an

prvatzng technlges that nt nly slcate mestcty but als sjn

subjectvty rm ts state nscrptn. Crculatn va new mea expans

scursve spaces an encurages nteractns amng thse wh talk, lnk,

an clck, an thse wh hear, rea, an cntnue t talk, lnk, an clck.

New mea have been regare as the ste a quet scal test emc-

racy n Chna.

In ths revlutn, the nvsble subjects be they au-ences, mbzens, r netzens are becmng cauthrs scal texts, wh

scrpt ther wn stres an/r creatvely rea an rewrte plts prve by

exstng nsttutns. In talkng, clckng, an lnkng, peple have becme,

t brrw rm W. R. Fsher, ull partcpants n the makng messages,


21/30


whether they are agents (authrs) r auence members (c-authrs). In

mvng ther wrs, they are mvng the(r) wrl.

Notes

I am grateul t the tw annymus revewers r ther nsghtul cmments an sugges-

tns r revsns n earler rats ths artcle. My grattue als ges t Dr. Aurey Yue

at the Unversty Melburne r her help an encuragement urng my ratng an

revsng the artcle.

1 The sprng masks (dai kouzhao de chuntian) s a ppular term n Chnese t escrbe the

sprng 2003 when peple ha t wear masks r ear cntractng the SARS vrus.

2 Here I use red threat t reer t the HIV/AIDS crss, r ts asscatn wth bl, an

white anxiety t reer t the SARS crss, r the unknwn nature the vrus an the exten-

sve mea cverage mecal wrkers ressng up n whte.

3 I we the term silent revolution t L Fan,Jing qiao qiao de geming: zhongguo dangdai shimin

shehui (Silent Revolution: Becoming Civil Society in China) (Hng Kng: Mrrr Bks, 1998).

L Fan uses ths term t ente the emergence an evelpment cvl scety n pst-Ma

Chna.

4 Xa Qang, The Rsng Te Internet Opnn n Chna,Nieman Reports, Summer

2004, www.neman.harvar.eu/reprts/04 2NRSummer/103 104V58N2.p; Cellphnes

Rng n Sparkle G Sprt, Peoples Daily, May 16, 2004, englsh.peplealy.cm

.cn/200405/16/20040516_143418.html.

5 There s a huge by lterature n the transrmatn prvate an publc spaces n the

age new mea. They all agree that new mea have prvatze the publc an publcze

the prvate an therere the bunary between the prvate an the publc s calle nt

questn. Fr example, see Mm Sheller an Jhn Urry, Mble Transrmatns Pub-

lc an Prvate Le, Theory, Culture, and Society 20 (2003): 107 25.

6 Mobizens reers t actve partcpants n mble cmmuncatns. They are actve mble

phne users wh becme actve ctzens thrugh engagng n publc scussns an expres-

sns ctzenshp. The term s cne n reerence tnetizens, the term r actve partc-

pants n the nlne cmmunty the Internet.

7 State Cuncl AIDS Wrkng Cmmttee Oce an UN Theme Grup n HIV/AIDS

n Chna, A Jnt Assessment HIV/AIDS Preventn, Treatment an Care n Chna,

UNAIDS-China, December 1, 2003, www.unchna.rg/unas.8 Zha Fe an Zhang Jngpng, Manu gunan: Az jang rang zhnggu sunsh 700 y

(Facng Natnal Dsaster: AIDS Wll Cause Chna t Lse RMB 70 Blln), n Zhong-

guo zhi tong ( Pain o China), e. Lu Nng an Tan Humng (Bejng: Wenhua Yshu

Chubanshe, 2001), 158 77.


22/30


9 Fr a stuy ace culture n Chna, see Anrew Kpns, Face: An Aaptable Dscurse

Scal Suraces,Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 3 (1995), 119 48. See als Sng MeLee-Wng,Politeness and Face in Chinese Culture (Frankurt am Man: P. Lang, 2000).

10 News Probe ( Xinwen diaocha), The Last Warnng (Zuhu e jngsh), Chna Central

Televsn, December 7, 2002.

11 The majrty mea representatns HIV/AIDS are relate t bl (r example,

bl transusn r bl cntamnatn). HIV/AIDS cases relate t sexualty are ten

lae wth mral jugment n Chna. Jamng cntacte the vrus thrugh sexual trans-

mssn rm a prsttute. Ater a ew mnths struggle, he starte an nlne rum calle

L Jamng e ja (L Jamngs hme) at Rngshuxa, a ppular lterary Web ste, nJuly 2001: www.rngshuxa.cm/channels/zl/ljamng/nex.htm. Thugh enunce,

questne, an cnemne by many peple as a snner an hypcrte, Jamng has nt

stppe wrtng n the Internet abut hs ght wth the vrus n rer t warn ther peple,

especally yung peple lke hm, the angers mpruent an rrespnsble behav-

rs. He has hence been acclame by the majrty hs auences as a mral persn wh

eserves sympathy, unerstanng, an supprt. Hs nlne publcatns quckly attracte a

publsher wh saw the value hs cnessnal stres. The publcatn hs bk,Zuihou

de xuanzhan (The Last Declaration o War) (Tanjn: Tanjn Peples Press, 2002), maeJamng the mst mysterus an amus PLWHA n Chna. Jamngs BBS was subse-

quently set up at: my.clubh.cm/bbs/660777/. It s uner such crcumstances that News

Probe chse Jamng t perrm AIDS talk t cmmemrate Wrl AIDS Day n 2002.

12 Grg Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Lie (Stanr, CA: Stanr

Unversty Press, 1998), 7.

13 Lus Althusser,Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New Yrk:

Mnthly Revew Press, 1971), 174.

14 Ann Anagnst,National Past-Times: Narrative, Representation, and Power in Modern China

(Durham, NC: Duke Unversty Press, 1997), 39.

15 Lsa Rel, Other Modernities: Gendered Yearnings in China ater Socialism (Berkeley: Unver-

sty Calrna Press, 1999), 137 49.

16 Ann Anagnst, Wh s Speakng Here? Dscursve Bunares an Representatn n

Pst-Ma Chna, nBoundaries in China, e. Jhn Hay (Lnn: Reaktn Bks, 1994),

260.

17 Brge Bakken, The Exemplary Society: Human Improvement, Social Control, and the Dangers

o Modernity in China (Oxr: Oxr Unversty Press, 2000).

18 Anne E. McLaren, The Grevance Rhetrc Chnese Wmen: Frm Lamentatn t

Revlutn,Intersections 4 (2000), www.sshe.murch.eu.au/ntersectns/ssue4/mclaren

.html.

19 By pltcs has always been central t Chnas natn-bulng an natn-strengthenng

prjects. T tran an cultvate the esre bes ts ctzens s an ntegral part ts


23/30


mssn t mantan scal rer r natnal (ecnmc) evelpment. See Susan Brwnell,

Training the Body or China: Sports in the Moral Order o the Peoples Republic (Chcag: Un-versty Chcag Press, 1995). Als see Ann Anagnst, The Crpreal Pltcs Qualty

(Suzh),Public Culture 16 (2004): 189 208.

20 Female scurses n an representatves HIV/AIDS are vershawe by the m-

nant masculne scurses n the manstream mea n Chna. When they appear n the

mea, wmen are represente ether as evte partners t the male PLWHA r allen

angels wh eserve bth espte an sympathy. In the latter case, the uncvlze, mmral,

an nvsble emale by s ten mplcate thrugh the cus n the cvlze, mral, an

vsble male by. In bth cases, emales are mae mute: they are represente by thermale cunterparts.

21 Frpoliticized body, see Ann Anagnst, The Pltcze By, nBody, Subject and Power

in China, e. Angela Zt an Tan E. Barlw (Chcag: Unversty Chcag Press, 1994),

131 56. In the artcle, Anagnst explres pst-Ma by pltcs n relatn t the ssue

subjectvty thrugh clse reang a realst text. She argues that the by (bth nvual

an cllectve) s pltcze by the party-state t ensure ts scal an elgcal mna-

tn ver the peple an t create an cnslate ts wn sel-entty as the way anthe

hstry.22 Jane M. Shattuc, The Talking Cure: TV Talk Shows and Women (New Yrk: Rutlege,

1997), 136.

23 Jamngs hme at Rngshuxa attracte mre than ur mlln vsts by May 2002 when

hs wrtngs were rmally publshe asZuihou de xuanzhan, wth a aly vst rate thrty

thusan n sme ays. Ater hs talk n CCTV, Jamng receve even mre auence

respnses thrughNews Probe an mst all at hs Rngshuxa rum. See Jamng,Zui-

hou de xuanzhan, 3, 249.

24 I we the pnt n hypervsblty the state pwer t Ann Anagnst. In The Pltcze

By, Anagnst explres hw the peratns pwer n the Chnese scalst cntext can

pruce a hypervsble by the party whle at the same tme makng ts subjects vs-

ble.

25 The by lterature n subjectvty, refexvty, an technlgy s t bg t cte here, an

t s nt the task ths artcle t engage n lterature revew n the subject. Sme classc

stues n the subject wul be: Anthny Gens, Modernity and Sel-Identity: Sel and

Society in the late Modern Age (Cambrge: Plty, 1991) an Ulrch Beck, Anthny Gens,

an Sctt Lash, Reexive Modernization: Politics, Tradition, and Aesthetics in the Modern

Social Order (Cambrge: Plty Press, 1994).

26 Frank Webster, Theories o the Inormation Society (Lnn: Rutlege, 2002), 206.

27 The prleratn nlne prtests aganst the bmbng the Chnese Embassy n Bel-

grae by Amerca-le NATO rces n May 1999 s regare as the rst shwcase net-

zens pwer n aectng publc pnn. See Tang Dayng an Sh Je, Xun shequn y


24/30


hu gnggng lngyu y qanggu luntan zhuang j shjan e talun we l (Vrtual

Cmmunty r Publc Sphere The Case Strng Natn Frum n Spy Plane Crash),n Wangluo chuanbo yu xinwen meiti ( Internet Communication and News Media), e. Deng

Xnxn an L Xnggu (Bejng: Bejng Guangb Xueyuan Chubanshe, 2001), 396.

28 The three shck waves reer t the case Sun Zhgang, refectns n SARS, an the rever-

sal the verct n the case Lu Yng by the Lanng Supreme Curt. All are avalable

nlne rm majr Chnese language prtals. The earthquake n Chnese calm

reers t the smssal Zhang Wenkang as mnster publc health an Meng Xuenng

as mayr Bejng n Aprl 2003.

29 Jang Xn an Yu Ren, Wu zanzhuzheng be shurng, sanr hu swang, axueshengmng sang Guangzhu (Arreste r Nt Carryng Temprary Resent Car, De

Three Days Later A Cllege Grauate Lst Hs Le n Guangzhu), Beijing Youth

( Beijing qingnian bao), Aprl 26, 2003, www.peple.cm.cn/GB/shehu/20030426/980262.

html.

30 Da Hngbng, Nanwang e 84 ge rr yeye Sun Zhgang jaren za Guangzhu e rz

(Unrgettable 84 Days an Nghts Sun Zhgangs Famly n Guangzhu), June 14,

2003, news.tm.cm/Archve/1002/2003/14-47995.html.

31 Jn Xuwen, Sun zhgang an: sh shu za zhuang lng zu ya? (The Case Sun Zh-

gang: Wh Is Pretenng t Be Dea an Mute?),Renmin wang (People Net), May 4, 2003,

www.peple.cm.cn/GB/guanan/30/20030504/984197.html.

32 Jang Xn an Yu Ren, Daxuesheng mng sang shurngsu, jngang sng 2000 yuan

jashu we jeshu (Cllege Grauate De n Plce Custy; Relatves Reuse 2000

Yuan rm Plce),Beijing Youth (Beijing qingnian bao), May 1, 2003, www.peple.cm.cn/

GB/keja/40/20030501/983210.html.

33 Xa Shan, Png Sun Zhgang an: zw acha webe chengxu zhengy (Cmments

n the Case Sun Zhgang: Sel-Investgatn Is a Breach Prceural Justce), Ren-

min wang (People Net), June 5, 2003, www.peple.cm.cn/GB/shehu/46/20030605/1009157

.html.

34 Manstream mea were rawn nt the case Sun Zhgang n May, less than a mnth

ater Guangzhu lcal newspapers expse the case that cause an uprsng amng Chnese

netzens. CCTV llwe the case, nclung the tral (June 5, 2003) an llw-ups, mak-

ng the case Sun a natnal mea event.

35 Zu Yunxang, Cng Sun Zhgang an kan yuguan shurng e agu wean la a

(On the Vlatn Legslatn Law by the Hlng System: The Case Sun Zh-

gang), Renmin wang ( People Net), May 15, 2003, www.peple.cm.cn/GB/guanan/

30/20030515/992427.html.

36 Ha Hng, Sun Zhgang an ha neng zu u yuan? (Hw Much Further Can the Case

Sun Zhgang Prcee?),Renmin ribao (Peoples Daily), May 30, 2003, www.peple.cm

.cn/GB/shehu/43/20030517/994550.html.


25/30


37 The new vagrancy law stpulates that plce cannt hl (arrest) peple wthut ent-

catn cars r mprsn them as vagrants. Instea, plce have the uty t nrm beg-gars an vagrants that they can ask r shelters. See Chnas New Vagrancy Regulatn

Cmes nt Eect, Chna Central Televsn, August 1, 2003, www.cctv.cm/englsh/news/

TVNews/MrnngNews/20030801/100118.html.

38 Onlne Chnese-language rums, whether base nse r utse Chna, rm a Chnese

cultural sphere that s transnatnal by nature, as the rums are accessble rm any net-

wrke cmputer n the wrl. Overseas rums can spll ver nt manlan rums an

manlan rums can ee verseas rums. As Gubn Yang has nte, these nlne cul-

tural spaces have the ptental t mblze transnatnal actvsm an acltate wrlweprtests. They can als mpnge n cvl scety evelpment n Chna. See Gubn Yang,

The Internet an the Rse a Transnatnal Chnese Cultural Sphere,Media, Culture,

and Society 25 (2003): 469 90. The case Sun Zhgang, amng ther Internet waves an

the cases scusse n ths artcle, has als ha a transnatnal nput an mpact. Overseas

Chnese-language rums such as Current Aar Revew (Shsh pngshu) at wenxuecty.

cm base n Nrth Amerca an Unte Mrnng Pst Frum (Zaba luntan) at za-

ba.cm base n Sngapre eature extensve scussns n SARS an Suns case. Ch-

nese wh are base verseas (such as the authr ths artcle) als cntrbute t the mre

mestc nlne scussns n such rums as Strng Natn Frum (Qanggu luntan)

at peple.cm.cn. It s nt the cus ths artcle, hwever, t aress the tpcs relate t

transnatnal utreach an sgncance these nlne spaces.

39 Vcente L. Raael, The Cell Phne an the Crw: Messanc Pltcs n Cntemprary

Phlppnes,Public Culture 15 (2003): 399 425; Aurey Yue, Pagng New Asa: Sambal Is

a Feeback Lp, Ccnut Is a Ce, Rse Is a System, n Mobile Cultures: New Media in

Queer Asia, e. Chrs Berry, Fran Martn, an Aurey Yue (Durham, NC: Duke Unversty

Press, 2003), 245 66.

40 Qu Je-jun, Cng sas baa kan gnggng zhqngquan e manzu (An Enqury nt

the Publcs Rght t Knw rm SARS Reprtage),Zijin Wang, Nvember 8, 2003, www

.zjn.net/gb/cntent/2003 11/08/cntent_4341.htm.

41 I cllecte the shrt messages rm rens n Shangha, Bejng, Nanjng, an Jnan urng

my el trp t Chna n August 2003. Many the SMS rhymes are als wely crculate

an accessble va the Internet, such as Xu Xnghan, Tebe cehua: ean shq e eanx-

ng yum (Specal eature: A-typcal Humr Durng SARS),Renmin wang (People Net),

June 12, 2003, www.peple.cm.cn/GB/news/9719/9720/20030509/987752.html.

42 Example 1, n the rgnal Chnese (n cmparsn wth Jang Zemns Three Represents

thery):

SARS ( )

SARS ( )

SARS ( )


26/30


Jang Zemns Three Represents phlsphy CCP represents the emans avance

pructve rce; CCP represents the avancement avance culture; CCP represents thebasc nterests the bra masses the peple s an ert t reene the CCP (Ch-

nese Cmmunst Party), rgnally ene as an avant-gare party prletarans, n rer

t expan the scal strata ts members.

43 Example 2, n the rgnal Chnese:

,

,

,

,

,

We Lanen, a retre ctr lvng n Qnga, Shanng Prvnce, cmmente t the

authr wth a bg smle upn reang the shrt message: Hw rght t s. SARS s nt all

ba. We shul nw vew the vrus n a alectc way accrng t Marxsm. Such ppular

apprecatn the sarcastc SMS rhymes explans ther we crculatn n Chnese sc-

ety.

44 Fr a stuy shunkouliu an ts rle n Chnese ppular culture, see Perry Lnk an Kate

Zhu, Shunkulu: Ppular Sayngs an Ppular Thught, n Popular China: Unofcial

Culture in a Globalizing Society, e. Perry Lnk, Rchar P. Masen, an Paul G. Pckwcz

(Lanham, MD: Rwman an Lttleel, 2002), 89 110.

45 Example 3, n the rgnal Chnese:

Fr a stuy the Ma craze, see Da Jnhua, Tuwe bayan (Perrmance Break-

thrughs),Zhongshan 6 (1994): 97 104; an Da Jnhua, Juu yu xae (Salvatn an

Cnsumptn), Zhongshan 2 (1995): 194 200. Fr stues Chnese rck musc an plt-

cal pp art, see Clare Hut, Chinas New Cultural Scene: A Handbook o Changes (Durham,

NC: Duke Unversty Press, 2000), chaps. 5 an 6.

46 Jhn Fske, Television Culture (Lnn: Methuen, 1987), 314.

47 Ib.

48 These SMS messages are pructs cllectve wsm. They g thrugh cnstant rewrt-

ng an renng n the prcess crculatn. Crculatn s therere als repructn,

whch n turn s a prcess encng an ecng. Fr therzatns n encng/ec-


27/30


ng, see Stuart Hall, Encng/Decng, The Cultural Studies Reader, 2n e., e. Smn

Durng (Lnn: Rutlege, 1999), 507 17.49 Transmesis s a term prpse by Thmas Beebee, wh eplys t t penetrate the black

bx translatn n pstclnal wrtngs. He argues that the black bx cntans the

mpure reasn pstclnal subjects, whse esre t prtray a state pure language

betrays the Kantan pure reasn thrugh the verse phenmenn transmess, that

s, translatn plus mmess. See Thmas Beebee, Inse the Black Bx: Transmess an

Pstclnal Reasn (paper presente at the Internatnal Cnerence n Crtcal Inqury:

En Thery, Bejng, June 1115, 2004). Here I expan Beebees rgnal cncept by a-

ng a secn meanng t t: transgressn plus mmess.50 Patrca Thrntn, Framng Dssent n Cntemprary Chna: Irny, Ambguty an

Metnymy, The China Quarterly, n. 171 (2002): 666 72; Rey Chw, Lstenng Otherwse,

Musc Mnaturze: A Derent Type Questn abut Revlutn, n Durng, Cultural

Studies Reader, 462 76. Fr evcatve transcrpt, see Carl Humphrey, Rememberng

an Enemy: the Bg Khaan n Twenteth-Century Mngla, n Memory, History, and

Opposition under State Socialism, e. Rube S. Watsn (Santa Fe, NM: Schl Amercan

Research Press, 1994), 23. Humphrey uses the term t reer t texts that are ambguus

by esgn an ntene t elct r evke a partcular nterpretatn beyn the surace

meanng.

51 Many schlars have warne verly rmantczng the semtc pwer the ppular as

resstance. Fr example, Nck Stevensn crtczes Jhn Fske r rmantczng ppular

resstance; Mchael Duttn avses peple nt t verly rmantcze playng wth wrs n

the Chnese cntext. See Nck Stevensn, Understanding Media Cultures: Social Theory and

Mass Communication (Lnn: Sage, 2002), 89 101; an Mchael Duttn, Streetlie China

(Cambrge: Cambrge Unversty Press, 1998), 278.

52 Fr stues subttlng an stan-up cmey n Hng Kng, see Kwa-Cheung L, Lk

Whs Talkng: The Pltcs Oralty n Transtnal Hng Kng Mass Culture, nMod-

ern Chinese Literary and Cultural Studies in the Age o Theory: Reimagining a Field , e. Rey

Chw (Durham, NC: Duke Unversty Press, 2000), 181 98.

53 Ctzenshp has been prblematze qute heavly snce T. H. Marshalls classc stues

ctzenshp n Western Eurpe. See T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (Cam-

brge: Cambrge Unversty Press, 1950) an Class, Citizenship, and Social Development

(New Yrk: Dubleay, 1964). A barrage categres has been use t escrbe ctzenshp.

Beses Marshalls amus trplet cvl ctzenshp, pltcal ctzenshp, an scal ctzen-

shp, we have cultural ctzenshp, racal ctzenshp, sexual/gener ctzenshp, ecnmc

ctzenshp, blgcal ctzenshp, eclgcal ctzenshp, glbal/wrl ctzenshp, asprc

ctzenshp, fexble ctzenshp, cyber-ctzenshp, an the lke. The by lterature n

the subject s t huge t cte.

54 Merle Glman an Elzabeth J. Perry, es., Changing Meanings o Citizenship in Modern

China (Cambrge, MA: Harvar Unversty Press, 2002).


28/30


55 See Jhn Ftzgeral,Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolu-

tion (Stanr, CA: Stanr Unversty Press, 1996).56 Glman an Perry, Changing Meanings o Citizenship, 7.

57 See Jerey N. Wasserstrm an Elzabeth J. Perry, es.,Popular Protest and Political Culture

in Modern China (Buler, CO: Westvew Press, 1994); an Drthy J. Slnger, Contesting

Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic o the Market (Berkeley:

Unversty Calrna Press, 1999).

58 Phlp Huang was ne the rst t prpse a thr-way apprach t stuate cllabra-

tn rather than ppstn between state an scety n mern Chna. See Phlp Huang,

Publc Sphere/ Cvl Scety n Chna: The Thr Realm between State an Scety,

Modern China 19 (1993): 216 40.

59 See Jan Juge, Publcsts an Ppulsts: Inclung the Cmmn Peple n the Late Qng

New Ctzen Ieal, nImagining the People: Chinese Intellectuals and the Concept o Citizen-

ship, 1890 1920, e. Jshua A. Fgel an Peter G. Zarrw (Armn, NY: M. E. Sharpe,

1997), 165 82; an Dav Stran, Ctzens n the Auence an at the Pum, n Gl-

man an Perry, Changing Meanings o Citizenship, 44 69.

60 Fr ebates n the relatnshp between mea, ctzenshp, an publc sphere, an sme

the terms mentne, see Dav Mrley an Kevn Rbns, Spaces o Identity: Global Media,

Electronic Landscapes, and Cultural Boundaries (Lnn: Rutlege, 1995); J. B. Thmpsn,

The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory o the Media (Cambrge: Plty Press, 1995);

K. Plummer, Telling Sexual Stories: Power, Change, and Social Worlds (Lnn: Rutlege,

1995); Duglas Kellner, Intellectuals an New Technlges,Media, Culture, and Society

17 (1995): 427 48; an Jhn Hartley, The Uses o Television (Lnn: Rutlege, 1999).

61 Jhn Urry, Glbal Flws an Glbal Ctzenshp, nDemocracy, Citizenship, and the Global

City, e. E. F. Isn (Lnn: Rutlege, 2000), 62 78.

62 Peter Glng, Pltcal Cmmuncatn an Ctzenshp: The Mea an Demcracy

n an Inegaltaran Scal Orer, n Public Communication: The New Imperatives: Future

Directions or Media Research, e. Marjre Fergusn (Lnn: Sage, 1990), 99.

63 Fr a spatal cnceptualzatn ctzenshp n Chna, see L Zhang, Spatalty an Urban

Ctzenshp n Late Scalst Chna,Public Culture 14 (2002): 311 34.

64 Lucan W. Pye, The State an the Invual: An Overvew Interpretatn, n The Indi-

vidual and the State in China, e. Bran Hk (Oxr: Clarenn Press, 1996), 38.

65 There s a huge by lterature n bth jurnalstc an acaemc wrtngs n the cntrl

the Internet n Chna. See, r example, Erc Harwt an Duncan Clark, Shapng the

Internet n Chna: Evlutn Pltcal Cntrl ver Netwrk Inrastructure an Cntent,

Asian Survey 41 (2001): 377 408; Amnesty Internatnal, State Cntrl the Internet n

Chna,Amnesty International, Nvember 2002, web.amnesty.rg/a.ns/Inex/ASA1700720

02?OpenDcument&=COUNTRIESCHINA; an Open Net Intatve, Internet Flter-

ng n Chna n 2004 2005: A Cuntry Stues, Aprl 14, 2005, www.pennetntatve.net/

stues/chna. Fr mble phne text message censrshp, see Jseph Kahn, Chna Is Flter-


29/30


ng Phne Text Messages t Regulate Crtcsm,New York Times, July 3, 2004, www.nytmes

.cm/2004/07/03/nternatnal/asa/03chn.html.66 A survey n the use the Internet n urban Chna cnucte by the Chnese Acaemy

Scal Scences un that 25 percent the urban ppulatn an 63.3 percent urban

yuths are requent Internet users wh use the Internet r cmmuncatn, stuy, an

entertanment. See Leng Xa, Zhnggu 12 chengsh hulanwang shyng zhuangkuang

j yngxang acha baga abu (The Release Reprt n the Survey Internet Usage

an Infuence Twelve Ctes n Chna), Renmin Wang (People Net), September 17, 2003,

www.peple.cm.cn/GB/t/1067/2094103.html.

67 The term scal test emcracy was rst prpse by a netzen calle Sha Dash-

eng n an nlne artcle t celebrate the cntrbutn netzens t the emcratzatn

Chnese scety. See Sha Dasheng, Huanyng hulanwang sh e mnzhu e shehu

shyan (Welcme the Scal Test Internet Demcracy),Renmin wang (People Net),

September 24, 2003, www.peple.cm.cn/GB/guanan/1036/2104649.html.

68 W. R. Fsher, The Narratve Paragm: In the Begnnng,Journal o Communication, n.

35 (1985): 86.


30/30

Documents

Talking, Linking, Clicking