World Almanac/2019 InDesign CS4 Files 28-Technology 10:55PM GMT+05:30 10/09/2018 page 299 of 306

TECHNOLOGYComputer Milestones

1623: German mathematician Wilhelm Schickard devel-oped the first mechanical calculator, capable of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing.

1642: French mathematician Blaise Pascal built the first of more than four dozen copies of an adding and subtracting machine that he invented.

1801: French inventor Joseph Marie Jacquard demonstrated a new control system for looms. He “programmed” the loom, communicating desired weaving operations to the machine via patterns of holes in paper cards.

1833-71: British mathematician and scientist Charles Bab-bage used the Jacquard punch-card system in his design for a sophisticated, programmable “Analytical Engine” that foreshadowed basic features of today’s computers. Babbage’s concept was beyond the capabilities of the technology of his time, and the machine remained unfin-ished at his death in 1871.

1889: American engineer Herman Hollerith patented an elec-tromechanical punch-card tabulating system that facilitated the handling of large amounts of statistical data and quickly found use in censuses in the U.S. and other countries.

1911: Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company merged with two other enterprises to form the Computing- Tabulating-Recording Company, which was renamed the Inter-national Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in 1924.

1941: German engineer Konrad Züse completed the Z3, the first fully functional digital computer to be controlled by a program; the Z3 was not electronic—it was based on elec-trical switches called relays.

1942: Iowa State Coll. physicist John Vincent Atanasoff and assistant Clifford Berry completed a working model of the first fully electronic computer using vacuum tubes, which could operate much more quickly than relays; the rudi-mentary machine was not programmable.

1943: IBM and Harvard professor Howard Aiken completed the first large-scale automatic digital computer, the Mark I, a relay-based machine 55-ft long and 8-ft high. British scientists built their first Colossus machine, an electronic computer for breaking German codes during World War II.

1946: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Com-puter), a 30-ton room-sized electronic computer with more than 18,000 vacuum tubes, was completed by physi-cist John Mauchly and engineer J. Presper Eckert at the Univ. of Pennsylvania for the U.S. Army. ENIAC could be programmed to do different tasks, but cables had to be plugged in, and switches had to be set by hand.

1951: Eckert and Mauchly’s UNIVAC (Universal Auto-matic Computer) became the first commercially available computer in the U.S. Its first customer was the Census Bureau. CBS-TV used a UNIVAC in 1952 to predict pres-idential election results.

1959: COBOL, a computer programming language designed for business use, first appeared, based on programming language innovations of American mathematician Grace Hopper.

1967: American computer pioneer Doug Engelbart applied for a patent on the mouse.

1969-71: The powerful Unix operating system was devel-oped at Bell Laboratories; later versions became widely used on large computers and formed the basis for the Macintosh OS X operating system.

1971: Intel released the 4004, the first commercial micro-processor (an entire computer processing unit on a chip).

1973: The Alto computer, developed at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center, became operational, implementing many features of modern commercial personal computers, including a graphical user interface (GUI) featuring win-dows, icons, and pointers that could be manipulated by a mouse.

1975: The first widely marketed personal computer (PC), the MITS Altair 8800, was introduced in kit form, with no keyboard, video display, or printer, for under $400. Micro-soft was founded by Americans Bill Gates and Paul Allen.

1976: The first word-processing program for personal com-puters, Electric Pencil, was written. Apple Computer Company was founded by Americans Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak.

1977: Apple introduced the Apple II; capable of displaying text and graphics in color, the machine enjoyed phenome-nal success.

1981: IBM unveiled its Personal Computer (IBM 5150), which used an operating system from Microsoft known as MS-DOS (Disk Operating System).

1984: Apple introduced the first Macintosh. The easy-to-use Macintosh came with a proprietary operating system and was the first popular computer to have a GUI and a mouse.

1990: Microsoft released Windows 3.0, the first workable version of its own GUI.

1991: The Unix-like Linux operating system was invented by Helsinki Univ. student Linus Torvalds and made avail-able for free.

1996: The Palm Pilot, the first widely successful handheld computer and personal information manager, arrived.

1997: The IBM supercomputer Deep Blue beat Russian world chess champion Garry Kasparov in a 6-game match, 2-1, with 3 draws.

2001: Apple introduced the Unix-based operating system OS X for the Macintosh.

2002: The total number of personal computers, includ-ing desktop and laptop machines of all types, shipped by manufacturers since 1975 reached 1 bil.

2007: Amazon launched the Kindle, a hardware/ software system for displaying books electronically.

2008: Google released the Linux-based Android operating system for mobile devices.

2010: Apple released the iPad tablet computer and sold more than 3 mil devices in the first 80 days.

2012: Microsoft released Windows 8, featuring enhanced support for touchscreens and an interface with a grid of tiles displaying actively updated content and apps.

2015: Microsoft released Windows 10, promising faster startup and improved security, along with features like a personal digital assistant and a new web browser, Microsoft Edge.

2016: Univ. of Maryland scientists developed the first repro-grammable quantum computer; it used lasers to manipulate its five qubits, or bits of quantum information.

2018: Apple became the world’s first company to achieve a stock market value of $1 tril.

Nations With the Most Personal Computers in Use, 2017Source: Computer Industry Almanac, year-end 2017

PCs in use (mil)

% of world totalRank Nation

1. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482.4 18.05%2. U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391.9 14.673. India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159.7 5.974. Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123.7 4.635. Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.7 3.806. Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87.0 3.257. Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77.7 2.918. United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . 68.0 2.549. France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67.6 2.53

PCs in use (mil)

% of world totalRank Nation

10. Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.8 2.24%11. South Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.4 1.9212. Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.9 1.9113. Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1 1.5414. Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.0 1.4215. Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3 1.21

Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839.3 31.41Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,672.5 100.00

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300 Technology — SupercompuTerS; hArDWAre; InTerneT hISTory

World’s Fastest Supercomputers, 2018Source: Top500.org, as of midyear 2018

Rank Name LocationManufacturer/

vendorProcessors

(cores)Top

speed1

1. Summit . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IBM 2,282,544 122.302. Sunway TaihuLight . . . . National Supercomputing Center, Wuxi, China. . . . . . . . . . . NRCPC2 10,649,600 93.013. Sierra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, CA, U.S. . . . . . . . IBM 1,572,480 71.614. Tianhe-2A (Milky

Way-2A) . . . . . . . . . . National Supercomputing Center, Guangzhou, China . . . . . NUDT3 4,981,760 61.445. AI Bridging Cloud

Infrastructure. . . . . . . National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and

Technology, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fujitsu 391,680 19.886. Piz Daint . . . . . . . . . . . . Swiss National Supercomputing Centre, Switzerland. . . . . . Cray 361,760 19.597. Titan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cray 560,640 17.598. Sequoia . . . . . . . . . . . . Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, CA, U.S. . . . . . . . IBM 1,572,864 17.179. Trinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cray 979,968 14.14

10. Cori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National Energy Research Computing Center, CA, U.S. . . . Cray 622,336 14.01Note: The 500 fastest supercomputers use a version of the Linux operating system. (1) Top speed, in petaflops, achieved as measured according to the Linpack Benchmark. 1 petaflop = 1 quadrillion floating-point operations per sec. (2) NRCPC = National Research Center of Parallel Computer Engineering and Technology. (3) NUDT = National University of Defense Technology.

U.S. Sales and Household Penetration of Selected Hardware, 2015-17Source: Consumer Technology Association (fmr. Consumer Electronics Association)

(factory sales to dealers in thousands of units and millions of dollars; percent of all households for Jan. of year shown)

2015 2016 2017Hardware Units Sales % Units Sales % Units Sales %Desktop computers1,2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,472 $11,780 55% 18,109 $10,684 52% 16,745 $9,746 51%Laptop/notebook/netbook PCs2 . . . . . 45,606 28,732 67 46,974 28,114 68 48,778 28,318 69Tablet computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66,315 20,425 54 61,673 17,856 59 51,688 14,454 62E-readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,534 527 32 6,630 477 29 5,923 430 30Smartphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174,641 52,916 72 179,880 54,504 74 186,121 60,861 87Digital video recorders (DVRs) . . . . . . 16,750 2,337 47 14,040 1,916 46 NA NA NADigital cameras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,336 2,684 64 5,171 2,174 61 5,339 2,186 53Camcorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777 187 28 513 126 27 378 109 23Smart watches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,598 3,052 NA 9,008 2,465 NA 12,120 3,091 12NA = Not available. Note: Based on sales data tracking and consumer surveys conducted by CEA/CTA. (1) Includes all-in-one computers. (2) Includes commercial and consumer shipments.

About the InternetThe internet is not owned or funded by any one institution, organization, or government. It has no CEO and is not a com-

mercial service. Its development is guided by the Internet Society (ISOC), a nonprofit formed in 1992. The Internet Society helps fund the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which deals with short-term issues of standards and the internet’s architecture. The Internet Architecture Board (IAB), a committee of the IETF, oversees the latter’s work and appoints the chair of the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF). The IAB and IRTF focus on long-term issues.

Major Historical Highlights1969: ARPANET, an experimental four-computer network,

was established by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Defense Dept. Two years later, ARPA-NET linked about 23 computers (“hosts”) at 15 sites, includ-ing MIT and Harvard.

1971: Engineer Bob Thomas created Creeper, generally con-sidered the first worm, a virus able to self-replicate over a network.

1978: The first spam, or junk email, was sent over ARPANET.1982: Author William Gibson coined the term “cyberspace” in

the story “Burning Chrome.”1983: The set of communications rules (protocol) known as

TCP/IP became the main networking protocol of ARPANET. Its adoption was tantamount to the birth of the internet. The military portion of ARPANET was moved onto MILNET.

1986: The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) launched NSFNET, the first large-scale network using internet tech-nology.

1988: Internet Relay Chat (IRC) was developed by Finnish stu-dent Jarkko Oikarinen, enabling people to communicate via the internet in “real time.”

1988: A worm crafted by Cornell Univ. computer science grad-uate student Robert Morris Jr. infected thousands of comput-ers, shutting many down and causing millions of dollars of damage—the first known case of large-scale damage caused by a computer virus spread via the internet.

1989: Massachusetts-based The World—the first commercial internet service provider supplying dial-up access—debuted.

1989-90: English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. Created as an environment in which scientists at the European Center for Nuclear Research in Switzerland could share information, it gradually evolved into a medium with text, graphics, audio, animation, and video.

1990: ARPANET was disbanded.

1991: NSFNET was opened to commercial traffic. Berners-Lee introduced the first browser, or software for accessing the web.

1993: The National Center for Supercomputing Applications (U.S.) released versions of Mosaic, the first web browser able to present both text and images on a single page.

1994: Netscape Communications released the Netscape Navi-gator browser.

1995: Microsoft released its Internet Explorer browser. It initially failed to make a dent in Netscape’s dominance of the browser market, but Internet Explorer surpassed Netscape by 1999.

1998: Under a contract with the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, the nonprofit Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) took over the management of assigning domain names and internet protocol (IP) addresses.

1999: Release of the free Napster file-sharing service en-abled users to easily exchange files containing music or other content without regard to copyright restrictions.

2000: Estonia became the first country to pass a law declaring internet access a fundamental human right of its citizens.

2004: A group of Harvard students founded social network TheFacebook (later just Facebook).

2004: The Mozilla Foundation released the first official version of the open-source browser Mozilla Firefox.

2006: The microblogging and social networking service Twitter was introduced.

2008: Google introduced its Chrome browser. By 2012, Chrome ranked as the most widely used browser in the world, according to StatCounter.com.

2009: The software for Bitcoin, the world’s first “cryptocur-rency,” was released. It relied on cryptography and a com-plex decentralized public ledger to secure transactions.

2011: ICANN decided to allow the use of almost any characters in any language for the names of generic top-level domains.

2012: The number of Facebook users surpassed 1 bil.

ENVIRONMENTU.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Human Activities, 1990-2016

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Gas and major source(s) 1990 2005 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

% change,

1990-2016

Carbon dioxide (CO2) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 5,121�3 6,132�0 5,366�7 5,519�6 5,568�8 5,420�8 5,310�9 3�7% Fossil fuel combustion � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 4,740�3 5,746�9 5,024�4 5,156�9 5,200�3 5,049�3 4,966�0 4�8Methane (CH4) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 779�9 688�6 662�5 662�6 664�0 665�4 657�4 –15�7 Enteric fermentation � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 164�2 168�9 166�7 165�5 164�2 166�5 170�1 3�6 Natural gas systems1 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 195�2 169�1 159�6 163�8 164�3 166�3 163�5 –16�2 Landfills � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 179�6 132�7 117�0 113�3 112�7 111�7 107�7 –40�0 Manure management � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 37�2 56�3 65�6 63�3 62�9 66�3 67�7 82�0Nitrous oxide (N2O) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 354�8 357�8 335�8 363�2 361�2 379�6 369�5 4�1 Agricultural soil management � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 250�5 253�5 247�9 276�6 274�0 295�0 283�6 13�2Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), etc�2 � � � � � � � � � � � � � 99�7 142�0 163�7 163�8 169�2 172�4 173�4 73�9Total U.S. emissions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 6,355.6 7,320.3 6,528.8 6,709.1 6,763.1 6,638.1 6,511.3 2.4Net U.S. emissions3 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 5,536.0 6,589.1 5,775.3 5,973.3 6,022.8 5,942.9 5,794.5 4.7Note: Emissions given in terms of equivalent emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), using units of million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MMT CO2 eq�)� (1) Digestive process of ruminant animals, such as cattle and sheep, producing methane as a byproduct� (2) Includes HFCs, PFCs (perfluorocarbons), SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), and NF3 (nitrogen trifluoride)� (3) Total emissions minus the net sum of all emissions (i�e�, sources) of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere plus removals of CO2 (i�e�, sinks or negative emissions) from the atmosphere�

U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2016 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

World Carbon Dioxide Emissions From the Use of Fossil Fuels, 2015 Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

HFC = hydrofluorocarbon; PFC = perfluorocarbon; SF6 = sulfur hexafluoride; NF3 = nitrogen trifluoride� Note: Emissions sources are independently rounded; percentages may not add up to 100�

Top 20 Nations Producing Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1980-2015Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Dept. of Energy

(in million metric tons of carbon dioxide emitted from the consumption of energy; ranked by 2015 totals)

Country 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2014 2015

% change,

1980-2015

% change,

1990-2015China � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1,486 2,363 3,163 5,738 8,111 9,014 8,866 496�8% 275�2%United States � � � � � � � � 4,680 4,981 5,829 6,000 5,580 5,417 5,269 12�6 5�8India � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 263 529 874 1,191 1,779 1,856 1,894 621�4 257�8Russia1 � � � � � � � � � � � � � 3,247 3,975 1,484 1,593 1,660 1,701 1,687 –48�1 –57�6Japan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 939 1,044 1,157 1,247 1,156 1,157 1,126 19�9 7�9Germany2 � � � � � � � � � � � 739 648 813 833 795 741 743 0�5 14�6Iran � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 118 201 320 450 565 647 654 454�9 226�1Korea, South� � � � � � � � � 138 245 435 506 598 632 644 368�5 162�7Saudi Arabia � � � � � � � � � 177 208 291 405 510 575 606 242�2 190�7Canada � � � � � � � � � � � � � 430 438 525 609 586 603 600 39�6 37�0Brazil� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 185 238 347 367 458 541 541 192�6 127�4Indonesia � � � � � � � � � � � 85 158 264 327 448 493 502 492�3 218�2Mexico � � � � � � � � � � � � � 239 300 379 402 446 442 453 89�8 50�9United Kingdom � � � � � � 597 575 555 583 532 443 430 –28�1 –25�2South Africa � � � � � � � � � 225 324 386 428 464 455 406 80�0 25�3Australia � � � � � � � � � � � � 191 261 335 402 422 370 371 94�0 42�2Italy � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 371 410 442 470 421 341 351 –5�3 –14�5France� � � � � � � � � � � � � � 482 364 399 415 381 327 331 –31�3 –9�0Turkey � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 75 152 231 230 268 318 329 338�8 117�0Thailand � � � � � � � � � � � � 34 91 165 242 286 316 316 818�7 247�6World3 � � � � � � � � � � � � � 18,430 21,689 24,098 28,479 31,943 32,929 32,722 77.6 50.9(1) Numbers for 1980-90 are for the former Soviet Union� (2) Numbers for 1980-90 are for former West Germany� (3) Includes nations not listed�

Africa, 3.7%

Eurasia, 7.4%

Middle East, 6.5%

Asia andOceania,

46.5%

N America,19.3%

(U.S., 16.1%)

Europe,12.2%

Central and S America, 4.4%

Nitrous oxide, 5.7%

Methane, 10.1%

HFCs, PFCs, SF6, andNF3, 2.7%

Carbon dioxide,81.6%

World Almanac/2019 InDesign CS4 Files 29-Environment 04:34PM GMT+05:30 10/09/2018 page 307 of 312

ENVIRONMENT — CO2; AIR POLLUTANTS; AVERAGE GLOBAL TEMPERATURE 308

Atmospheric Concentration of Carbon Dioxide, 1744-2017Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, U.S. Dept. of Energy; Earth System Research Laboratory, Natl. Oceanic

and Atmospheric Admin., U.S. Dept. of Commerce

Year1CO2

in ppm1744 � � � � � � � � 2771791 � � � � � � � � 2801816 � � � � � � � � 2841843 � � � � � � � � 2871869 � � � � � � � � 289

Year1CO2

in ppm1878 � � � � � � � � 2901903 � � � � � � � � 2951915 � � � � � � � � 3011927 � � � � � � � � 3061943 � � � � � � � � 308

Year1CO2

in ppm1960 � � � � � � � � 3171970 � � � � � � � � 3261980 � � � � � � � � 3391990 � � � � � � � � 3542000 � � � � � � � � 370

Year1CO2

in ppm2005 � � � � � � � � 3802009 � � � � � � � � 3872010 � � � � � � � � 3902011 � � � � � � � � 3922012 � � � � � � � � 394

Year1CO2

in ppm2013 � � � � � � � � 3972014 � � � � � � � � 3992015 � � � � � � � � 4012016 � � � � � � � � 4042017 � � � � � � � � 407

ppm = Parts per million� (1) Measurements for 1744-1943 were derived from a 200-m-deep ice core sample drilled near Siple Station in Antarctica in 1983-84� Measurements for 1960-2017 were taken directly from the atmosphere at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii�

Emissions of Principal Air Pollutants in the U.S., 1970-2017Source: Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; in million tons

Pollutant 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017Carbon monoxide � � � � � � � � � � 204�0 188�4 185�4 176�8 154�2 126�8 114�5 88�5 73�8 60�1Nitrogen oxides1 � � � � � � � � � � � 26�9 26�4 27�1 25�8 25�5 25�0 22�6 20�4 14�8 10�8Particulate matter2 PM10 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 13�0 7�6 7�0 41�3 27�8 25�8 23�7 21�3 20�8 18�2 PM2�5 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � NA NA NA NA 7�6 6�9 7�3 5�6 6�0 5�3Sulfur dioxide � � � � � � � � � � � � � 31�2 28�0 25�9 23�3 23�1 18�6 16�3 14�5 7�7 2�8Volatile org� compounds1 � � � � 34�7 30�8 31�1 27�4 24�1 22�0 17�5 17�8 17�8 16�2Ammonia � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � NA NA NA NA 4�3 4�7 4�9 3�9 4�3 3�6Total3 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 309.8 281.2 276.5 294.6 266.6 229.8 206.8 172.0 145.2 117.0NA = Not available� (1) Ozone, a major air pollutant and the primary constituent of smog, is not emitted directly to the air but is formed by sunlight acting on emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds� (2) PM10 = particulates 10 microns or smaller in diameter� PM2�5 = particulates 2�5 microns or smaller in diameter� (3) Totals are rounded, as are components of totals�

Sources of Air Pollutants in the U.S., 1970-2017Source: Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; in thousand tons

Carbon monoxide sources 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017Fuel combustion, elec� util� � � � 237 276 322 291 363 372 484 643 766 731Industrial processes1 � � � � � � � 10,610 8,304 7,700 5,894 5,572 5,631 3,628 3,074 2,807 2,951Transportation2 � � � � � � � � � � � � 174,602 167,884 160,512 153,216 131,702 107,755 92,239 64,729 43,596 32,162Total carbon monoxide3 � � � � 204,042 188,398 185,408 176,845 154,188 126,778 114,467 88,546 73,771 60,109Nitrogen oxide sourcesFuel combustion, elec� util� � � � 4,900 5,694 7,024 6,127 6,663 6,384 5,330 3,792 2,458 1,155Industrial processes1 � � � � � � � 5,100 4,546 4,110 4,009 3,831 3,909 3,518 2,783 2,406 2,308Transportation2 � � � � � � � � � � � � 15,276 15,029 14,846 14,508 13,373 12,989 12,560 12,612 9,017 6,355Total nitrogen oxide3 � � � � � � 26,882 26,378 27,080 25,757 25,527 24,955 22,598 20,355 14,846 10,776Sulfur dioxide sourcesFuel combustion, elec� util� � � � 17,398 18,268 17,469 16,272 15,909 12,080 11,396 10,404 5,696 1,385Industrial processes1 � � � � � � � 11,661 7,993 6,725 5,597 5,402 4,945 3,515 2,721 1,447 1,033Transportation2 � � � � � � � � � � � � 551 635 717 809 874 741 697 682 158 96Total sulfur dioxide3 � � � � � � � 31,218 28,044 25,926 23,307 23,077 18,619 16,347 14,546 7,732 2,815(1) Industrial fuel combustion, chemical and allied manufacturing, metals processing, and petroleum and other industrial sectors� (2) Highway and off-highway vehicles� (3) Numbers may not add up to totals because not all categories are listed�

Average Global Temperature and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, 1880-2017Source: Goddard Institute for Space Studies, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, via Earth Policy Institute; National

Centers for Environmental Information, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin. (NOAA), U.S. Dept. of Commerce

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ASTRONOMYEdited by Laurence A. Marschall, Prof. Emeritus, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Gettysburg College

Celestial Events Summary, 2019There are five eclipses in 2019: one partial solar eclipse,

one total solar eclipse, one annular solar eclipse, a total lunar eclipse, and a partial lunar eclipse. The total solar eclipse of July 2 is the most notable of the year and will be best seen from Chile and Argentina. The total lunar eclipse of Jan. 21 is the more prominent of the lunar eclipses, with far more evi-dent darkening than the partial lunar eclipse, and will be vis-ible to observers across North and South America, Europe, and Africa.

A rare transit of Mercury occurs Nov. 11, when the silhou-ette of the planet passes directly across the face of the Sun. The entire sequence of events, visible through a telescope properly equipped to reduce the intensity of the Sun, can be viewed from Eastern North America, South America, and West Africa.

The best meteor shower viewing will be the Quarantids in Jan., and to a lesser extent the low intensity Eta Aquarids in May, both of which occur near the new Moon. Other meteor showers will be hampered by unfavorably bright Moon phases in 2019. At the start of the year, Jupiter and Venus will be visible in the predawn sky and Mars is in the evening sky. Venus remains in the predawn sky until late May, when it disappears into the vicinity of the Sun, re-emerging in the evening sky by mid Nov. to be seen as an “evening star” for the rest of the year. Mars is in the evening sky into June, disappearing into twilight, and returning to the predawn sky

in late Nov. Jupiter is a morning object Jan. through June, becoming visible all night long in July and then an evening object until late Nov. Saturn begins the year too close to the Sun to be visible, becoming a predawn object from Feb. to June, after which it is visible in the evening until late Dec. Mercury, frequently too close to the Sun for easy viewing, is first visible in the dusk sky in late Feb. It is back in the morn-ing sky in mid-Apr., the evening sky in June, evening in late Oct., and the morning sky in late Nov. to finish the year. The best opportunities for seeing Mercury in the morning sky are in Apr., while the best opportunities to see it in the evening sky occur in late June and Oct.

The crescent Moon, with its subdued light, regularly pairs with the two brightest planets, Venus and Jupiter. Waxing crescent pairings are visible in the early evening soon after sunset, while waning crescent pairings are visible in the early morning before sunrise. The waxing crescent Moon pairs with Venus in Dec., while the waning crescent pairs with Venus in the early morning sky in Jan. through May. The waxing crescent Moon pairs with Jupiter in the evening in July-Nov.; the waning crescent pairs with Jupiter in the pre-dawn sky from Jan.-June. Venus and Jupiter are paired in the morning sky on Jan. 22, and Venus and Saturn are paired in the morning sky on Feb. 18. Mercury and Mars have a very close encounter in the evening sky on June 19. Jupiter and Venus will have a close encounter on the evening of Nov. 24.

Astronomical Positions and ConstantsTwo celestial bodies are in conjunction when they are due

north and south of each other, either in right ascension (with respect to the north celestial pole) or in celestial longitude (with respect to the north ecliptic pole). Celestial bodies in conjunction will rise and set at nearly the same time. For the inner planets—Mercury and Venus—inferior conjunction occurs when either planet passes between Earth and the Sun, while superior conjunction occurs when either Mercury or Venus is on the far side of the Sun. Celestial bodies are in oppo-sition when their right ascensions differ by exactly 12 hours, or when their celestial longitudes differ by 180°. In this case one of the two objects in opposition will rise while the other is setting. Quadrature refers to the arrangement where the coordinates of two bodies differ by exactly 90°. These terms may refer to the relative positions of any two bodies as seen from Earth, but one of the bodies is so frequently the Sun that mention of the Sun is omitted in that case.

When objects are in conjunction, the alignment is not perfect, and one usually passes above or below the other. The geocentric angular separation between the Sun and

an object is termed elongation. Elongation is limited only for Mercury and Venus; the greatest elongation for each of these bodies is approximately the time for longest obser-vation. Perihelion is the point in an object’s orbit when it is nearest to the Sun, and aphelion is the point when it is farthest from the Sun. Perigee is the point in an orbit where an object is nearest Earth, apogee the point when it is far-thest from Earth. An occultation of a planet or a star is an eclipse of it by some other body, usually the Moon. A transit of the Sun occurs when Mercury or Venus passes directly between Earth and the Sun, appearing to cross the Sun’s disk.

The following were adopted as part of the Interna-tional Astronomical Union System of Astronomical Con-stants (1976/2009): Speed of light, 299,792.458 km per sec., or about 186,282 statute mi per sec.; solar parallax, 8”.794143; astronomical unit (AU, mean distance between the Earth and Sun), 149,597,870 km, or 92,955,807 mi; constant of nutation, 9”.2025; and constant of aberration, 20”.49552.

Celestial Events Highlights, 2019(In Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC, the standard time of the prime meridian.)

JanuaryMercury and Saturn are too close to the Sun to be readily

observable.Venus is in the morning sky, reaching its highest before dawn

early in the month.Mars, Uranus, and Neptune are low in the SW at sunset.Jupiter is in the SE just before sunrise all month.

Jan. 1: Venus 1.3° S of MoonJan. 2: Saturn at conjunctionJan. 3: Earth at perihelion, Jupiter 3.1° S of MoonJan. 4: Quarantid Meteor ShowerJan. 6: New Moon; Partial Solar Eclipse; Venus at greatest

elongation 47° W of SunJan. 9: Moon at apogeeJan. 12: Mercury at aphelion; Mars 5.3° N of MoonJan. 14: First Quarter MoonJan. 17: Aldebaran 1.6° S of Moon

Jan. 21: Full Moon; Moon at perigee; Total Lunar Eclipse; Beehive star cluster 0.6° N of Moon

Jan. 23: Regulus 2.5° S of Moon Jan. 27: Last Quarter MoonJan. 30: Mercury at superior conjunction; Jupiter 2.8° S of

MoonJan. 31: Venus 0.1° S of Moon; occultation of Venus by

Moon

FebruaryMercury is too close to the Sun to be visible early in the

month, but by the end of the month is low in the W at sunset.

Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn are in the SE before dawn.Mars and Uranus are in the SW at sunset. Neptune is too close to the Sun for easy visibility.

Feb. 2: Saturn 0.6° S of MoonFeb. 4: New Moon

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Astronomy — eClipses 347

Eclipses and Transits, 2019(In Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC, the standard time of the prime meridian.)

A relatively rare transit of Mercury will take place Nov. 11, 2019. This occurs when the planet passes between the Earth and the Sun close enough to the ecliptic to be seen in silhouette against the solar disk. On average, it occurs 13 times in a century. The transit will only be visible through telescopes, with precautions to avoid the intense light of the Sun, just as at solar eclipses.

The tables below give the times in UTC of when the Moon or Sun will reach certain phases of each event. In the case of the lunar eclipses, the times are relevant for any observer who can see the Moon. In the case of solar eclipses, the tabulated times refer to when the given event begins or ends from specific points along the eclipse path; as the Moon’s shadow sweeps quickly across the Earth, the observed duration and degree of eclipse depends on the observer’s precise location. Interactive maps are available on the internet to calculate times for specific locations.

I. Partial Eclipse of the Sun: Jan. 6This eclipse will be visible only to observers in northeast

Asia and the North Pacific. Times are for the midpoint of the eclipse path in far northeast Siberia.

Event Date Hr. Min.Partial eclipse begins . . . . . Jan. 5 23 34Greatest eclipse . . . . . . . . . Jan. 6 01 41Partial eclipse ends . . . . . . Jan. 6 03 49

II. Total Eclipse of the Moon: Jan. 21This eclipse will be visible to observers in the central

Pacific, North and South America, Europe, and Africa. Even though the Moon passes north of the center of the Earth’s shadow, totality will be relatively long and dark because the Moon will be near perigee (closest approach to Earth).

Event Date Hr. Min.Penumbral eclipse begins. . Jan. 21 02 37Partial eclipse begins . . . . . Jan. 21 03 34Total eclipse begins . . . . . . Jan. 21 04 41Greatest eclipse . . . . . . . . . Jan. 21 05 12Total eclipse ends . . . . . . . . Jan. 21 05 43Partial eclipse ends . . . . . . Jan. 21 06 51Penumbral eclipse ends . . . Jan. 21 07 48

III. Total Eclipse of the Sun: July 2The path of totality is primarily across the South Pacific,

with the only landfalls in Chile and Argentina. Times are for an observer near the Chile-Argentina border.

Event Date Hr. Min.Partial eclipse begins . . . . . July 2 19 24Total eclipse begins . . . . . . July 2 20 39Greatest eclipse . . . . . . . . . July 2 20 40Total eclipse ends . . . . . . . . July 2 20 41Partial eclipse ends . . . . . . July 2 21 47

IV. Partial Eclipse of the Moon: July 16-17This eclipse will be visible to observers across most of

Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and South America. This is a relatively shallow eclipse, and thus relatively inconspicu-ous, with slightly more than half of the Moon’s disk passing through the Earth’s umbra at maximum.

Event Date Hr. Min.Penumbral eclipse begins July 16 18 43Partial eclipse begins . . . . July 16 20 01Greatest eclipse . . . . . . . . July 16 21 31Partial eclipse ends . . . . . July 16 23 00Penumbral eclipse ends . . July 17 00 18

V. Transit of Mercury: Nov. 11The complete transit, which lasts about 5 hr., 30 min., will

be visible from Eastern North America, all of South America, and parts of West Africa, with parts of the transit visible from Western North America, Europe, and Africa.

Event Date Hr. Min.1st contact . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 11 12 352nd contact . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 11 12 37Transit center . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 11 15 203rd contact . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 11 18 034th contact . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 11 18 04VI. Annular Eclipse of the Sun: Dec. 26

Observers in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, southern India, northern Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Malay-sia, Indonesia, Singapore, parts of Borneo, and Guam will see an annular eclipse of the sun. Times are for an observer at the midpoint of the path.

Event Date Hr. Min.Partial eclipse begins . . . . Dec. 26 03 31Annular eclipse begins . . . Dec. 26 05 27Greatest eclipse . . . . . . . . Dec. 26 05 28Annular eclipse ends . . . . Dec. 26 05 30Partial eclipse ends . . . . . Dec. 26 07 22

Total Solar Eclipses, 2019-35Total solar eclipses actually take place nearly as often as total lunar eclipses. Total lunar eclipses are visible over at least half

of the Earth, while total solar eclipses can be seen only along a very narrow path up to a few hundred miles wide and a few thousand miles long. Observing a total solar eclipse is thus a rarity for most people.

Solar eclipses can be dangerous to observe. This is not because the Sun emits more potent rays, but because the Sun is always dangerous to observe directly, and people are particularly likely to stare at it during a solar eclipse.

DateDuration1 Width

Path of totalitymin. sec. (mi)2019, July 2 4 33 125 S Pacific Ocean, S America2020, Dec. 14 2 10 56 S Pacific Ocean, S America, S Atlantic Ocean2021, Dec. 4 1 54 260 Antarctica2024, Apr. 8 4 28 123 Mexico, midwestern U.S., E Canada2026, Aug. 12 2 18 183 Greenland, Iceland, Spain2027, Aug. 2 6 23 160 Spain, N Africa, Arabian peninsula2028, July 22 5 10 143 Indian Ocean, Australia, New Zealand2030, Nov. 25 3 44 105 Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Indian Ocean, E Australia2033, Mar. 30 2 37 485 Alaska, E Russia, Arctic2034, Mar. 20 4 9 99 Central and NE Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Central and E Asia2035, Sept. 2 2 54 72 China, Korea, Japan, Pacific Ocean(1) Length of time at optimal viewing area.

Total Solar Eclipses in the U.S. in the 21st CenturyDuring the 21st century, there are eight total solar eclipses visible somewhere in the continental U.S. The first came after a

long gap, in 2017. The last total solar eclipse had been on Feb. 26, 1979, in the northwestern U.S.

Date Path of totalityAug. 21, 2017 Oregon to South CarolinaApr. 8, 2024 Mexico to Texas and N through MaineAug. 23, 2044 Montana to North DakotaAug. 12, 2045 Northern California to Florida

Date Path of totalityMar. 30, 2052 Florida to GeorgiaMay 11, 2078 Louisiana to North CarolinaMay 1, 2079 New Jersey to the lower edge of New EnglandSept. 14, 2099 North Dakota to Virginia

World Almanac/2018 InDesign CS4 Files 33-Astronomy 04:43PM GMT+05:30 10/09/2018 page 353 of 357

Astronomy — DwArf plAnets 353

Ceres. Dawn has produced high-resolution maps of the entire surface and the most accurate measurements of Ceres’s size and mass. The images show a heavily cratered surface with features such as extremely reflective spots within a crater—thought to be freshly exposed water ice—and at least one mountain several miles high. Orbit and rotation. Ceres orbits the Sun in the asteroid belt region between Mars and Jupiter.Surface and composition. Ceres’s composition is similar to that of the stony meteorites known as carbonaceous chon-drites. These are considered to be the oldest materials in the solar system, with a composition reflecting that of the primi-tive solar nebula. Extremely dark in color, probably because of their hydrocarbon content, they show evidence of having absorbed water. Thus, unlike the Earth and the Moon, they have never melted nor been reheated since they first formed. Dawn observations suggest that the surface of Ceres consists largely of water ice, though its interior is mostly rock. Up to 25% of Ceres’s mass may be water ice. There is evidence for hydro-thermal vents at the surface of Ceres, perhaps indicating that liquid water existed below the surface in the recent past. Further study using Dawn will try to confirm observations suggesting that water evaporates from the surface and produces a diffuse atmosphere.

Pluto

Distance from the Sun Perihelion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,756.9 mil mi Semi-major axis (mean distance) . . . . . . . . . . .3,670.1 mil mi

(39.482 AU) Aphelion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,583.2 mil mi Period of revolution around Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247.74 yr. Orbital eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2502 Orbital inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.09° Synodic day (midday to midday). .6 d., 9 hr., 17 min. (retrograde) Sidereal day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 d., 9 hr., 18 min. (retrograde) Rotational inclination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119.59° Mass (Earth = 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0022 Mean radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736.5 mi Mean density (Earth = 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.339 Natural satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Average surface temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .–369°F

Pluto, named for the Roman god of the underworld, is the largest Kuiper Belt object (KBO) by radius, and the second largest by mass. It was first discovered in 1930 by American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh and classified as a planet until 2006, when the IAU changed its designation to dwarf planet. In 2008, Pluto was designated by the IAU as the prototype for a class of objects called plutoids, bodies that (a) have an aver-age distance from the Sun greater than Neptune’s; (b) are large enough that gravity determines their shape; and (c) have not cleared their orbit of other objects. Haumea, Makemake, and Eris are also plutoids. The New Horizons spacecraft, launched on a voyage to Pluto and beyond in 2006, made the first flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015, and is on its way to a Kuiper belt object, 2014 MU69, with a scheduled flyby on New Year’s Day 2019.

Orbit and rotation. Pluto’s orbit is highly eccentric; although its average distance from the Sun is 3.7 bil mi, it may get as close as 2.76 bil mi and as far as 4.58 bil mi. For about 20 years of its 248-year orbit, it is closer to the Sun than Neptune. Cur-rently, it is beyond Neptune’s orbit.

Atmosphere and surface. Before the New Horizons flyby, all observations of Pluto had been made with telescopes nearly 3 bil mi away, so the mission brought new data to light. The mass and density of Pluto suggests that it is composed of a rocky core with an overlying water-ice mantle. New Horizons’s close-up observations of Pluto revealed a mixed surface, with some ancient, heavily cratered terrain and other younger, smoother plains with no craters. The smooth terrain, estimated to be no more than 100 mil years old, is much younger than scientists expected and may indicate that geologic processes continue to modify Pluto. Nitrogen ice on the smooth plains appears to be flowing, like glaciers on Earth, onto the more heavily cratered surface. Compositional evidence shows that the smooth areas contain nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide ices. Scien-tists also found several mountain ranges rising more than 2 mi above the smooth plains; they speculated that the mountains

are made of water ice thrust up from below Pluto’s nitrogen-rich icy surface.

New Horizons also provided the first close-up measurements of Pluto’s atmosphere, confirming earlier measurements of methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide, the same molecules that form ice on Pluto’s surface. Scientists speculate that the atmosphere forms from evaporation of surface ices when the dwarf planet is closer to the Sun. The new measurements also revealed hydrocarbon hazes as much as 50 mi above Pluto’s sur-face. The hazes are thought to form when Pluto’s tenuous atmo-sphere is exposed to the Sun’s ultraviolet rays. Dark regions on Pluto’s surface likely result from these hydrocarbons settling. Knowledge of Pluto will continue to improve as more data is analyzed.Natural satellites. Pluto has five known natural satellites. Charon, the biggest, has a diameter of 750 mi—about half of Pluto’s diameter of 1,474 mi. No other planet or dwarf planet has a moon so close to its size. Discovered in 1978, Charon orbits Pluto at a distance of 12,200 mi and takes 6.39 days to move around the dwarf planet. In this same length of time, Pluto and Charon both rotate once on their axes, meaning that the Pluto-Charon system appears to rotate as virtually a rigid body. Both worlds are roughly spherical and have comparable densities. Because of these similarities and their peculiar rela-tionship, there is debate as to whether Charon should one day be designated a dwarf planet. New Horizons provided the first detailed look at Charon, revealing a surface with less color and likely dominated by water ice. New evidence suggests Charon may have had a water ocean in the past. Much of Charon’s surface is smoother than expected, with few craters, implying that Charon has an active geology capable of resurfacing. The images also reveal fractures extending hundreds of miles and a canyon around 5 mi deep.

Two other moons, discovered in 2005 and 2006, were offi-cially named Nix and Hydra. Two additional moons, discovered in 2011 and 2012, were officially named Kerberos and Styx by the IAU in 2013. In late 2015, NASA released New Horizons-sourced images of Nix and Hydra, revealing irregularly shaped objects about 25 and 35 mi across, respectively. Astronomers examining New Horizons data have been surprised to find no additional moons, down to the roughly 1-mi-diameter limit of detectability by the spacecraft.

HaumeaDistance from the Sun

Semi-major axis (mean distance) . . . . . . . . . . . 43.355 AUPeriod of revolution around Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.48 yr.Orbital eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.189Orbital inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28.20°Mass (Earth = 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0007Mean radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 miNatural satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Haumea was discovered in 2004 and was accepted as a dwarf planet by the IAU in 2008.Orbit and rotation. Haumea has a moderately eccentric orbit and takes about 285 years to go around the Sun.Surface and composition. Spectra of Haumea indicate the pres-ence of almost pure crystalline water ice. The surface reflects about 60% of the sunlight that reaches it. Haumea has a very oblong shape, twice as long as it is wide.Natural satellites. Haumea has two natural satellites, Hi’iake and Namaka.

Makemake

Distance from the SunSemi-major axis (mean distance) . . . . . . . . . . 45.715 AU

Period of revolution around Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309.1 yr.Orbital eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.155Orbital inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.99°Mass (Earth = 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0007Mean radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 miNatural satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Makemake was discovered in 2005 and was accepted as a dwarf planet by the IAU in 2008.Orbit and rotation. Makemake has a moderately eccentric orbit and takes about 310 years to go around the Sun.