Teachers in Anglophone Africa: Issues in Teacher Supply, Training, and Management

8/14/2019 Teachers in Anglophone Africa: Issues in Teacher Supply, Training, and Management

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ecicssor`ly rcjlcit tmc v`cws dj tmc Cxciut`vc H`rcitdrs dj Xmc Vdrlh Boeg dr tmc fdvcreacets tmcy

rcprcscet.

Xmc Vdrlh Boeg hdcs edt fuoroetcc tmc oiiuroiy dj tmc hoto èiluhch è tm`s wdrg. Xmc bduehor`cs,

idldrs, hcedaèot`des, oeh dtmcr èjdraot`de smdwe de oey aop è tm`s wdrg hd edt àply oey

kuhfacet de tmc port dj Xmc Vdrlh Boeg ideicreèf tmc lcfol stotus dj oey tcrr`tdry dr tmc cehdrscacet

dr oiicptoeic dj suim bduehor`cs.

R`fmts oeh ^cra`ss`des

Xmc aotcr ol è tm`s publìot`de s idpyr`fmtch. Idpy ef oeh/dr troesa`ttèf pdrt des dr oll dj tm`s wdrg

w`tmdut pcra`ss`de aoy bc o v dlot`de dj opplìoblc low. Xmc @etcreot`deol Boeg jdr Rcidestruit`de

oeh Hcvcldpacet / Xmc Vdrlh Boeg ceidurofcs h`sscaèot`de dj `ts wdrg oeh w`ll edraolly froet

pcra`ss`de td rcprdhuic pdrt`des dj tmc wdrg prdaptly.

Jdr pcra`ss`de td pmdtdidpy dr rcprèt oey port dj tm`s wdrg, plcosc sceh o rcqucst w`tm idaplctc

èjdraot`de td tmc Idpyr`fmt Ilcoroeic Icetcr @ei., 222 Rdscwddh Hr`vc, Hoevcrs, AO >?029, SYO7

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Oll dtmcr qucr`cs de r`fmts oeh lìcescs, èiluhèf subs hòry r`fmts, smdulh bc ohhrcssch td tmcDjjìc dj tmc ûbl`smcr, Xmc Vdrlh Boeg, ?=?= M Ytrcct EV, Vosmèftde, HI 2>899, SYO7

jox; 2>2-322-28227 c-ao`l; pubr`fmtsNwdrlhboeg.drf.

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Oigedwlchfacets x```

Obbrcvòt`des xv

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St`l`zot`de 9

@apoit dj M@Z 8

Xcoimcr Xroèèf 8Aoeofcacet 3

Xmc Xcoimcr Iorccr Ytruiturc :

Xcoimcr Jèoeic 6

Xcoimcr @ssucs‘Oe @etcrideecitch Yystca =

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IMO^XCR ?. @EXRDHSIX@DE ?9

Idetcxt; Xcoimcrs oeh Xrcehs ?3

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IMO^XCR 2. XCOIMCR YS^^LP 29

Xcoimcr Ymdrtofcs 28

Yubkcit-Ypci`jì Ymdrtofcs 26

Yimddl Lcovcrs os o Idestroèt de Xcoimcr Xroèèf 2=

^loeeèf jdr Xcoimcr Yupply 9>

Fu`hclècs jdr ^loeeèf Xcoimcr Yupply 93

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs 9=

Idetcets



v` • Idetcets

IMO^XCR 9. XCOIMCR HC^LDPACEX; FCXX@EF XCOIMCRY XD XMC R@FMX ^LOICY 8?

Secvce Xcoimcr H`str`but`de 82

Hcpldyacet Yystcas 83

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs 32

IMO^XCR 8. XCOIMCR SX@L@[OX@DE :?

Xcoimcr Vdrgldohs :2

Hdublc-Ym`jt Xcoimèf ::

Ault`frohc Xcoimèf :=

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs :=

Edtc 6>

ÔRX @@. XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

IMO^XCR 3. ^RC-YCRZ@IC XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF 69

Ytruiturc oeh Hurot`de dj @e`tòl Xcoimcr Xroèèf 69

Idetcet dj @e`tòl Xcoimcr Xroèèf =?

Xcoimèf ^roitìc =8

Xcoimcr Xroècrs =6

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs ==

Edtc 0>

IMO^XCR :. @E-YCRZ@IC XRO@E@EF JDR SE_SOL@J@CH

OEH S^FROH@EF XCOIMCRY 0?

@e-scrvìc Xroèèf jdr Sequol`j`ch Xcoimcrs 0?

Spfrohèf _uol`jìot`des 03

@e-scrvìc Idetèuèf ^rdjcss`deol Hcvcldpacet (I^H)

oeh Yuppdrt Yystcas 0:

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs ?>?

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IMO^XCR 6. YS^CRZ@Y@DE DJ XCOIMCRY ?>6

Yimddl Mcoh Xcoimcrs ?>=

Yupcrv`s`de oeh @espcit`de ??2

Xcoimcrs Se`des ??:

Idaaue`ty @evdlvcacet; ^XOs oeh YAIs ??=

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs ?2>

Edtc ?22



Idetcets • v``

IMO^XCR =. XCOIMCR OBYCEIC, OP H@YXR@BSX@DE, OEH H@YI@^L@EC ?29

Xcoimcr Obscetcc`sa ?29

Rcspdescs td Obscetcc`sa ?2:

Fmdst Xcoimcrs ?9?

Hcl`vcry dj ôy ?9?

H`si`plèory Yystcas ?93

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs ?9:

IMO^XCR 0. XMC XCOIM@EF IORCCR ?90

Xmc Hdaèoeic dj ^craoecet ûblì-Ycrvìc Xcoimcrs ?8>

Xcoimcr Yolory ^rdfrcss`de ?82

Dppdrtue`t`cs jdr ^rdadt`de ?89ô`h Ytuhy Lcovc ?8:

H`rcit`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs ?86

ÔRX @Z. J@EOEI@EF XCOIMCRY

IMO^XCR ?>. XCOIMCR J@EOEIC ?3?

Xmc Imollcefc dj Chuiot`de Jèoeic ?32

^ràory Xcoimcr Rcauecrot`de ?33

Jèoeièf tmc Cxpoes`de dj Ycidehory Chuiot`de ?:?

@aplìot`des jdr ^dlìy Aogcrs ?:9

Edtc ?:8

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IMO^XCR ??. IMOLLCEFCY, XRCEHY, OEH ^RDA@Y@EF ^ROIX@ICY ?:6

Yupply ?:6

H`str`but`de ?6>

St`l`zot`de ?62

Xroèèf ?69Aoeofcacet ?63

Xcoimcr Jèoeic ?60

Fcehcr ^crspcit`vc ?=>

M@Z ?=>

Xcoimcr @ssucs’Oe @etcrideecitch Yystca ?=2

^rda`sèf ^roitìcs ?=3

RCJCRCEICY ?=0

@EHC] ?09



v``` • Idetcets

BD]CY

2.? Mdw Aoey Xcoimcrs Orc Ecchch4 92

2.2 Rop`h Xcoimcr Rcqu`rcacet ^rdkcit`de Adhcl 9:

2.9 Ioliulotèf Xcoimcr Rcqu`rcacets Vmcrc Xcoimcrs Ypciòl`zc 969.? Foabò‐s Ypciòl Olldwoeic jdr Morhsm`p Yimddls 3>

8.? Aolow ; Xcoimcr St l`zot`de è Luabohz ^ràory Yimddl ( cr`-Srboe) :3

:.? [oabò‐s M`crorimy dj I^H Yuppdrt Ytruiturcs 00

:.2 Lcsdtmd; H`strìt Rcsduric Xcoimcrs ?>>

6.? Cr`trco; Xmc Xcoimcr Yupcrv`s`de Yystca ??9

=.? Vmy Imddsc r`votc Yimddls4 ?28

=.2 Sfoeho; ôttcres dj Xcoimcr Obscetcc`sa ?2:

?>.? Xcoimcr Yolor`cs Rclot`vc td FH^ cr Iop to ?32

XOBLCY

?.? Frdwtm è Ytuhcet Cerdllacet, 2>>>’>: ?6

?.2 Frdss Cerdllacet Rotcs è tmc C`fmt Iduetr`cs Ytuh`ch ?6

?.9 ûp`l-Xcoimcr Rot`d è tmc C`fmt Iduetr`cs Ytuh ch ?6

?.8 Euabcr dj Xcoimcrs oeh tmc ^rdpdrt`de Vmd Vcrc _uol j`ch ?=

?.3 ^cricetofc dj Xcoimcrs Vmd Vcrc Jcaolc ?0

?.: Yuaaory dj M@Z Hoto Rclotch td Xcoimcrs ?0

2.? Dutput dj ^r aory Xcoimcrs os o cricetofc dj tmc

^ràory Xcoimcr Euabcrs 23

2.2 @etogc td tmc Ldwcr Bosì, ^r aory Xcoimcrs Icrt`j iotc Idursc è

Foabò Idllcfc, 2>>?’>: 202.9 Oeeuol Xcoimcr Ottr`t de Rotcs 99

2.8 Xcoimcr Ottr`t`de è Lcsdtmd, 2>>8; Rcosdes jdr Lcov ef 98

9.? Aolow ; Yimddls oeh ^XR e Hz`wc [dec, Bloetyrc Rurol H`str it 89

9.2 ^cricetofc dj Ycidehory Xcoimcrs Vmd Orc Jcaolc è Yclcitch Rurol oeh

Srboe Orcos 88

9.9 Loefuofc dj @estruit`de, Yuaaory dj roit ics 8:

9.8 M@Z oeh Hcpldyacet, Yuaaory dj roit ics 8:

9.3 Aolow ; Xcoimcr Euabcrs oeh XR è ràory

oeh Ycidehory Yimddls (CA@Y 2>>:) 80

9.: Idapor sde dj Xwd Yimddls è Aolow` 80

9.6 Lcsdtmd; H`str`but`de dj _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcrs (2>>3 CA@Y Hoto) 3?

9.= [oabò; rdv eiòl H`jjcrceics è Ovcrofc XR jdr

Bosì Yimddls (CA@Y 2>>:) 32

9.0 [oabò; Ovo`lob`l ty dj Ytojj Mduscs (CA@Y 2>>:) 39

9.?> Yuaaory dj Mdusèf ^roit ics è tmc Iosc Ytuhy Iduetr`cs 38

9.?? Xmc Foab o; Yiolc dj Ohh`t`deol Olldwoeics Bosch de

Fcdfropmìol Ldiot`de 36

9.?2 Yuaaory dj ^roit ics; @eicet`vcs jdr Xcoimcrs è Rurol Orcos 36

8.? Djjì ol Vccgly Xcoimèf Mdurs jdr Xcoimcrs è ^ràory oeh Ycidehory

Yimddls :2

8.2 Djjì ol Oeeuol Xcoimèf Mdurs jdr Xcoimcrs è ^ràory oehYcidehory Yimddls :9



Idetcets • `x

8.9 Xcoimcr St`l`zot`de è Xmrcc Lcsdtmd Ycidehory Yimddls ::

8.8 Yuaaory dj ^roit ics; Hdublc-Ym`jt Xcoimèf :6

8.3 Yuaaory dj roit ics; Ault`frohc Xcoimèf :0

3.? ^rc-scrvìc Xroèèf jdr ^r aory Xcoimcrs, Cetry Lcvcl oeh Hurot`de 683.2 Xdtol Pcors dj Ytuhy (Yimddl oeh Xroèèf Idllcfc) jdr ^ràory Xcoimcrs 63

3.9 Cetry Rcqu`rcacets jdr ^r aory Xcoimcr Xroèèf 6:

3.8 Xroèèf dj Ycidehory Xcoimcrs, Hurot`de 6=

3.3 Euabcr dj Xcoimèf Yubkcits 60

3.: Lceftm dj @e-simddl Xcoimèf roitìc =3

3.6 Ytuhcets pcr Xcoimcr è ^ràory Xcoimcr Xroèèf Idllcfcs =6

:.? @e-scrvìc ^rdfroas jdr Sequol`j`ch ràory Xcoimcrs 02

:.2 Cetry Rcqu`rcacets jdr ^rc-scrvìc oeh @e-scrv ic Idurscs è

Yclcitch Iduetr`cs 08

:.9 Hurot`de oeh Hcl`vcry dj @e-scrvìc Spfrohèf Idurscs jdr _uol j`ch

^ràory Xcoimcrs 03

:.8 Idetèuèf ^rdjcss`deol Hcvcldpacet (I^H) ^rdv`s`de, Yuaaory

dj ^roitìcs 0=

6.? Xcoimèf Ldoh dj Mcoh Xcoimcrs ?>0

6.2 Yclcit`de dj Mcoh Xcoimcrs, Ydac Cxoaplcs ??>

6.9 Xroèèf dj Mcoh Xcoimcrs, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs ???

6.8 Euabcr dj Xcoimcrs oeh @espcitdrs ??2

6.3 @espcit`de Yystcas oeh Jrcquceiy dj @espcit`de Z`s ts,

Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs ??8

6.: Oeeuol Rcpdrt td ^dl iy Aogcrs, Yuaaory dj roitìcs ??3

6.6 Imoroitcr`st is dj Xcoimcr Se`des è C`fmt Iduetr`cs ??66.= Frossrddts Oit`v`t cs dj Xcoimcrs Se`des, Yuaaory dj roitìcs ??0

=.? Rcidrhèf dj Xcoimcr Ottcehoeic ?2=

=.2 Xmc Foabò; Yolory Hchuit`des oeh Ytdppofcs è Rcf`de 2, 2>>: ?9>

=.9 ôyacet Actmdhs, Yuaaory dj roitìcs ?99

=.8 Lcsdtmd; H`si`plèc Ioscs Brdufmt td Ohkuhìot`de, 2>>8 (XYI Hoto) ?9:

0.? Capldyacet Ytotus dj _uol`j ch Xcoimcrs è ûbl i Yimddls ?8>

0.2 Capldyacet Ytotus dj Sequol`j`ch ràory Xcoimcrs ?8?

0.9 Idapor`sde dj Sequol j`ch oeh _uol`j ch Xcoimcr Yolor`cs ?8?

0.8 Yolory dj o _uol`j ch ^ràory Xcoimcr os o ^cricetofc dj Ytortèf Yolory,

Ossuaèf Dely Outdaotì ^rdadt`des ?89

0.3 Acr`t-bosch rdadt`des, Yuaaory dj roitìcs ?88

0.: Lcsdtmd; ^r aory Xcoimcr Yolory Yiolcs, 2>>: ?83

0.6 [oabò; Ycidehory Xcoimcr Yolory Yiolcs, 2>>6 ?83

0.= Xmc Foabò; ^rdpdrt`de dj Ldwcr Bos i Xcoimcrs Vmd Orc ^rdadtch ?8:

?>.? Adhcl dj Ojjdrhob`l`ty dj Se`vcrsol Chuiot`de, Yàpl`j`ch jrda CJO-JX@

@ehìot`vc Jroacwdrg ?39

?>.2 ^cricetofc dj Chuiot`de Cxpceh`turc Olldiotch td Bosì Chuiot`de ?38

?>.9 Ytort ef Yolory jdr o _uol`j ch ^ràory Xcoimcr (Cxiluhèf Olldwoeics) ?33

?>.8 Oeeuol Ytortèf Yolor`cs jdr o _uol`j`ch ràory Xcoimcr oeh

^cr Iop`to FH^ ?33

?>.3 Xmc Foabò; @apoit dj Olldwoeics de Xcoimcr oy ?36



x • Idetcets

?>.: Yuaaory dj Olldwoeics o`h td Xcoimcrs ?36

?>.6 Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ràory Xcoimcr ?30

?>.= Lcsdtmd; Eot`deol Aèàua Vofc, 2>>3, oeh Yclcitch Xcoimcr

Yolor`cs ?30?>.0 Lcsdtmd; Idapor`sde dj Yolor cs è Mcoltm oeh Chuiot`de ?:>

?>.?> Frdss Cerdllacet Rotcs è tmc C`fmt Iduetr`cs Ytuh`ch ?:?

?>.?? Xcoimcr Idst ^cr Ytuhcet è Ldwcr oeh Sppcr Ycidehory, Cxprcssch os o

^cricetofc dj tmc Idst ot ^ràory Lcvcl ?:2

?>.?2 Xcoimcr Idst ^cr Ytuhcet (I^Y) ot ^ràory oeh

Ycidehory Lcvcls (è SY$) ?:2

??.? Dutput dj ^ràory Xcoimcrs os o ^cricetofc dj tmc ^ràory Xcoimcr

Euabcrs ?:=

??.2 Hurot`de dj ^rc-scrvìc Xcoimcr Xroèèf ?69

??.9 Yuaaory dj M@Z @ejcit`de Rotcs oeh Xcoimcr Ottr t`de Rotcs ?=?

??.8 Xmc Idetr but`de dj Xcoimcrs‐ Hcotm oeh @llecss td Ottr`t`de ?=2

J@FSRCY

? Xcoimcr dl iy; Jdur @etcrrclotch Hàces`des =

?.? Pcors dj Yimddl ef è ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Chuiot`de ?:

9.? Zoròt`de è H`strìt Ovcrofc ûp`l-Xcoimcr Rot`d (^XR) e ^ràory Yimddls 82

9.2 Cr`trco; ^ldt dj Xcoimcr oeh ûp`l Euabcr è Coim Yimddl, by [dbo,

Ymdwèf tmc Zcry Cvce H`str`but`de ôttcre (CA@Y Hoto 2>>8’>3) 86

9.9 Xmc Foabò; O Mcoh Xcoimcr‐s Mdusc 38

9.8 Aolow ; Abcefwc ^r aory Yimddl, Bloetyrc Rurol H`strìt 30=.? Sfoeho; Xcoimcr Obscetcc`sa ?28

=.2 [oez bor; Ottcehoeic pdstcr ?26

0.? Yolory ^rdfrcss de dj _uol`j ch ^ràory Xcoimcr (w`tmdut rdadt de),

Cxprcssch os o ^cricetofc dj tmc Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory

Xcoimcr ?82

?>.? ^cricetofc dj ûblì Cxpceh`turc Olldiotch td Chuiot`de Idaporch w`tm

JX@ Bceimaorg ?38

?>.2 Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr oeh FH^ ^cr Iop`to ?3:

?>.9 Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr oeh FH^ ^cr Iop`to ?3:

?>.8 Xcoimcr Idst ^cr Ytuhcet ot ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Lcvcl ?:9

??.? Xcoimcr ^dlìy; Jdur @etcrrclotch Hàces`des ?=2



Xmc lost twd hciohcs movc scce o prdjdueh imoefc e portì`pot`de e chuiot`deè Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo. Cerdllacet è pràory chuiot`de mos frdwe rop`hly,

tmcrc orc edw adrc im`lhrce è simddl è Ojrìo tmoe ot oey dtmcr tàc è m`s-

tdry, oeh adst Ojrìoe im`lhrce edw cerdll e simddl ot sdac pdèt. Xm`s rcaorgoblc

oim`cvcacet mos èvdlvch èircoscs è tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs oeh mos ploich

eot`deol systcas jdr tcoimcr prdv`s`de oeh aoeofcacet uehcr èircosch strcss.

Iduetr`cs movc strufflch td rciru`t sujjì`cet quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, td hcpldy tmca td

wmcrc tmcy orc ecchch, oeh td prdv`hc tmc aoeofcacet oeh suppdrt struiturcs

td cesurc tmot quol`ty chuiot`de `s hcl`vcrch.

Jdr aoey iduetr`cs è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo, tmc imollcefcs dj chuiot`de cxpoe-s`de orc imoefèf. Jdlldwèf tmc rop`h cxpoes`de dj oiicss td pràory chuiot`de,

iduetr`cs orc edw str`vèf td idaplctc tmc hr`vc td ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de,

idesdl`hotc foès by aprdvèf tmc quol`ty dj lcoreèf, oeh bu`lh de tmc suiicsscs

è pràory chuiot`de by cxpoehèf oiicss td scidehory chuiot`de.

Os tmcsc ecw pr`dr`t`cs cacrfc, `t `s oe dppdrtuec tàc td rcv`cw tmc pdlì`cs

tmot fu`hc tmc prdv`s`de dj tcoimcrs. Xcoimcr pdlìy s o idaplcx oeh ault`-joictch

orco, oeh djtce cvdlvcs tmrdufm m`stdrìol cvcets rotmcr tmoe systcaotì ploeeèf.

Xm`s bddg cxoaècs tcoimcr pdlì`cs oeh `ssucs è c`fmt oefldpmdec iduetr`cs

è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo. Xmcsc iosc stuh`cs prdv`hc o syetmcs`s dj tmc aokdr `ssucs ètcoimcr supply, hcpldyacet, troèèf, aoeofcacet, oeh jèoeic.

Xm`s bddg `s ètcehch td uehcrlèc tmc ecch jdr iorcjul ploeeèf jdr tmc prdv`-

s`de dj tcoimcrs. Aoey dj tmc h`jjìult`cs è tcoimcr prdv`s`de ioe bc oetì`potch

oeh oacl`drotch tmrdufm opprdpròtc pdlì`cs. Ecvcrtmclcss, tcoimcr pdlì`cs jdra

o idaplcx etcrideecitch systca, oeh pdlìy hcvcldpacet smdulh bc bosch de oe

dvcrv`cw dj tmc `ssucs, os pdlì`cs td ohhrcss dec h`jjìulty ioe cos`ly movc oe

ohvcrsc àpoit de oedtmcr.

Rcohcrs aoy jèh tm`s syetmcs`s uscjul è jdur h`jjcrcet woys. J`rst, `t prdv`hcs

o bdhy dj idaporot`vc èjdraot`de de tcoimcr `ssucs è tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs. Ycideh, `t hcsir`bcs tmc pdlì`cs iurrcetly è usc oeh tmc èhìot`des dj

Jdrcwdrh

x`



x`` • Jdrcwdrh

tmc`r àpoit. Xm`rh, `t prdv`hcs o adhcl dj tmc ètcrlègch eoturc dj tcoimcr pdl`-

i`cs. Jdurtm, `t hrows tdfctmcr o scr`cs dj prda`sèf oit`des tmot ioe scrvc os pds-

`t`vc suffcst`des jdr iduetr`cs sccgèf td àprdvc tmc`r tcoimcr pdlì`cs.

Vc mdpc tmot tmc hcvcldpacets e tmcsc iduetr`cs, oeh tmc lcssdes hrowe jrda

tmca, w`ll bc dj oss`stoeic td pdlìy aogcrs tmrdufmdut tmc rcf`de os tmcy ohhrcss

tmc imollcefcs dj tmc ecxt pmoscs dj cxpoes`de è chuiot`de.

Pow Oesu

Ycitdr H`rcitdr, Muaoe Hcvcldpacet

Ojrìo Rcf`de

Xmc Vdrlh Boeg



Xm`s syetmcs`s wos prcporch by O`hoe Aulgcce, bosch de iosc stuh`cs è c`fmt iduetr`cs. Acfoe Moffcrty prdv`hch èvoluoblc oss`stoeic è tmc wr`tèf oeh

ch`tèf dj tmc tcxt, oeh Aìmcllc Huvoll-Golèsg` oss`stch e tmc oeolys`s dj tmc

hoto. Xmc c`fmt ioscs stuh`cs wcrc prcporch by O`hoe Aulgcce w`tm tmc oss`stoeic dj

Oehy Burgc (Xmc Foabò), Yuzoeec A`rì oeh ûlcef Aopuru (Lcsdtmd), ôhro f

Ioradhy oeh Hca`s Guekc (Aolow`), Idlè Boefoy (Sfoeho), oeh J`deo Chworhs

([oabò).

Ypciòl tmoegs orc huc td tmc euacrdus stojj è tmc aè`str`cs dj chuiot`de è

coim dj tmc iduetr`cs, wmd fovc tmc`r tàc è prdv`hèf bdtm hoto oeh tmc`r pcrspci-

t`vcs, wmìm idetr`butch frcotly td tmc iosc stuh`cs. Xmoegs orc olsd huc td tmc VdrlhBoeg tosg tcoa lcohcrs oeh chuiot`de spciòl`sts wmd joi`l`totch tmc iosc stuh`cs è

coim iduetry; Hoehoe Imce (Cr`trco oeh [oabò), L`ly Aulotu (Xmc Foabò),

]òdyoe Lòef (Lcsdtmd), ^ctcr Horvos oeh Eotmol`c Lom`rc (L`bcrò), Aìmocl

Aoabd (Aolow`), Morr`ct Eoeeydekd (Sfoeho), oeh @vor Ytroeh ([oez`bor).

Xmc syetmcs s bcecj`tch jrda rcv`cws by Kcc- cef Xoe, Lu`s Bcevce`stc, Ca`lòeo

Zcfos, Mclce Iro`f, L`ly Aulotu, Aìmcl Vcladeh, oeh Bdb ^rduty.

Xmc iosc stuh`cs, tmc oeolys`s, oeh tm`s publìot`de wcrc suppdrtch by tmc

Vdrlh Boeg‐s Ojrìo Rcf`de oeh tmc @r`sm Chuiot`de Xrust Jueh.

Oigedwlchfacets

x```





OXC@ Osaoro Xcoimcr Chuiot`de @est`tutcBCXS[ Bos i Chuiot de Xcoimcrs Se`de dj [oabò

IIX iddrhèotèf icetcr tutdr (Sfoeho)

IHYY Idaaue`ty Hoy Ycidehory Yimddls (Aolow`)

ICJ Ioapo`fe jdr Chuiot`de Jdrua (Lcsdtmd)

IDYI Ioabr hfc Dvcrscos Yimddl Icrt j iotc (Lcsdtmd)

I^H idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet

I^Y idst pcr stuhcet

IYI_BC I`v`l Ydi`cty Idol t`de jdr Bosì Chuiot de (Aolow`)

HO^^ Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda cdplc td cdplcHCBY h`strìt chuiot`de bdorh scirctor`cs ([oabò)

HCA h`strìt chuiot`de aoeofcr (Aolow`)

H@I H`strìt @EYCX Iddrhèotdr ([oabò)

HdYC Hcportacet dj Ytotc jdr Chuiot`de (Xmc Foabò)

HRI H`strìt Rcsduric Icetcr ([oabò)

HRX h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcr (Lcsdtmd)

HXC^ H`stoeic Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroaac (Lcsdtmd)

CJO Chuiot`de jdr Oll

C@X Cr`trco @est`tutc dj XcimedldfyCAOY Chuiot`de Actmdhs Ohv`sdry Ycrvìc

CA@Y Chuiot`de Aoeofcacet @ejdraot`de Yystca

CYO Chuiot`de Ytoehorhs Ofceiy (Sfoeho)

JCES Jdrua jdr Chuiot`de EFDs e Sfoeho

JX@ Jost Xroig @e`tòt`vc

FCR frdss cerdllacet rotc

FAH holos` (iurrceiy, Xmc Foabò)

FÔ frohc pdèt ovcrofc

FXS Foabò Xcoimcrs‐ Se`deMXI M`fmcr Xcoimcr‐s Icrt`jìotc (Xmc Foabò)

xv

Obbrcvòt`des



xv` • Obbrcvòt`des

@EYCX è-scrvìc chuiot`de oeh troèèf

LOX Lcsdtmd Ossdiòt`de dj Xcoimcrs

LIC Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuiot`de

LCXIDA L`bcrò Chuiot`de jdr Oll Xcimeìol Idaa`ttcc

LRH L`bcròe hdllor (iurrceiy)

LXXS Lcsdtmd Xcoimcrs Xrohc Se`de

LYL ldt` (iurrceiy7 plurol aoldt`, Lcsdtmd)

A@@XC^ Aolow` @etcfrotch @e-scrvìc Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroaac

AdC Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de

AdCY Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Ypdrts (Sfoeho)

AdCX Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Xroèèf (Lcsdtmd)

AdCZX Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Zdiot`deol Xroèèf ([oez`bor)

AYYY^ Aolow` Yimddl Yystcas Yuppdrt ^rdfroaacAVG Aolow` gwoimo (iurrceiy)

EFD edefdvcreacetol drfoe`zot`de

E@YXIDL Eot deol H`stoeic Chuiot`de Idllcfc jdr Xcoimcrs

EXOL Eot`deol Xcoimcr‐s Ossdiòt`de dj L`bcrò

EXI Eot`deol Xcoimcrs Idllcfc (Sfoeho)

DCIH Drfoe`sot`de jdr Cidedaì Id-dpcrot de oeh Hcvcldpacet

DYI Dr`cetot`de Ycidehory Iloss ([oez`bor)

^CO pràory chuiot`de ohv`scr

^CD pràory chuiot`de djjìcr ([oabò)^CR publì cxpceh`turc rcv`cw

^^^ purimosèf pdwcr por`ty

^YCSA ^r`votc Yimddls Capldyccs Se`de dj Aolow`

^XO porcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`de

^XI ^ràory Xcoimcr‐s Icrt`jìotc (Xmc Foabò)

^XI ^ràory Xcoimcr Idllcfc (Sfoeho)

^XI-C ^ràory Xcoimcr‐s Icrt jìotc, Cxtces`de (Xmc Foabò)

^XHHL ^ràory Xcoimcr H`pldao by H`stoeic Lcoreèf ([oabò)

^XR pup`l-tcoimcr rot`dR@JX Rcachòl @e tòt`vc jdr Jcaolc Xcoimcrs (Xmc Foabò)

YCY Ydiòl oeh Cev`rdeacetol Ytuh`cs (Xmc Foabò)

YCYXS[ Ycidehory Yimddl Xcoimcrs Se`de dj [oabò

Y@I Yimddl @EYCX Iddrhèotdr ([oabò)

YAI simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttcc

YS[O Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor

XOC Xcoimcrs‐ Ossdiòt`de dj Cr`trco

XHI Xcoimcr Hcvcldpacet Icetcr (Aolow`)

XYI Xcoimèf Ycrvìc Idaa`ss`de (Lcsdtmd oeh Aolow`)



Obbrcvòt`des • xv``

XSA Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de dj Aolow`

X[Y sm`llèf (iurrceiy, [oabò)

SOIC Sfoeho Ohvoeich Icrt`jìotc dj Chuiot`de

SEOXS Sfoeho Eot deol Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de

S^C ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de

VOYYIC Vcst Ojrìoe Yce`dr Yimddl Icrt`jìotc Cxoaèot`de

[ODS [oabò Dpce Se`vcrs`ty

[OXCI [oabò Xcoimcr Chuiot`de Idursc

[OXS [oez`bor Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de

[@I [deol @EYCX Iddrhèotdr ([oabò)

[AG [oabòe gwoimo (iurrceiy)

[ESX [oabò Eot`deol Se`de dj Xcoimcrs





?

Dvcrv`cw

Xcoimcr pdlìy `s icetrol td tmc imollcefcs dj bdtm cxpoes`de oeh quol`ty dj chuiot`de è Ojrìo. ^rdv`s`de dj oe cjjcit`vc tcoimcr è cvcry ilossrdda

rcqu`rcs o sct dj pdlì`cs tmot cesurc; (`) oe ohcquotc supply dj tcoimcrs7

(``) tmc ob`l`ty td ldiotc tcoimcrs wmcrc tmcy orc rcqu`rch7 (```) troèèf systcas

tmot cqu`p tcoimcrs w`tm tmc rcqu`rch sg`lls7 oeh (`v) aoeofcacet oeh iorccr

struiturcs tmot rcsult è ides`stcet, m`fm-quol`ty pcrjdraoeic by tcoimcrs. Ldw-

èidac iduetr`cs è Ojrìo aust ohhrcss tmcsc pdlìy imollcefcs è tmc idetcxt dj

scvcrcly idestroèch chuiot`de buhfcts. Vm`lc `t `s tcaptèf td v`cw tmcsc imol-

lcefcs è `sdlot`de, è rcol`ty tmcy orc ètcrlègch. @etcrvcet`des ètcehch td sdlvc

prdblcas è dec dj tmcsc orcos jrcqucetly movc ueoetì`potch àpoits è oedtmcr

orco dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de. Hcvcldpèf oe opprdpròtc boloeich sct dj pdlì`cs

rcqu`rcs o mdl`stì v`cw dj tmc `ssucs.

V`tm tmc ètcreot`deol hr vc tdworh Chuiot`de Jdr Oll, ldw-èidac iduetr`cs e

Ojrìo movc scce rop`h cxpoes`de dj oiicss td chuiot`de, oeh oe èircosch sdiòl

oeh fcdfropmì h`vcrs`ty dj simddl cerdllacet. Xmcsc m`stdrìolly ueprcichcetch

cxpoes`des è oiicss rcqu`rc frcotcr euabcrs dj tcoimcrs, pdsc imollcefcs jdr

tcoimcr hcpldyacet oeh aoeofcacet, oeh stroè tmc jèoeiòl rcsdurics ovo`loblc.

@e tmc idetcxt dj tmcsc imollcefcs, tm`s bddg oàs td suppdrt tmc hcvcldpacet dj

tcoimcr pdlì`cs, portìulorly è tmc Oefldpmdec iduetr`cs è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo,

by prdv`hèf o mdl`stì v`cw dj idetcapdrory trcehs, ssucs, oeh pdlì`cs. Xmc wdrg

`s o syetmcs`s dj c`fmt iosc stuh`cs idehuitch è Cr`trco, Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd,

L`bcrò, Aolow`, Sfoeho, [oabò, oeh [oez`bor bctwcce 2>>: oeh 2>>=. Xmc sye-

tmcs`s cxoaècs tmc `ssucs dj tcoimcr supply, hcpldyacet, troèèf, oeh aoeofc-

acet è coim dj tmc c`fmt ioscs. Bosch de tm`s oeolys`s, `t `hcet`j`cs idaade imol-

lcefcs oeh prda`sèf proitìcs.

YS^^LP

Xmcsc iosc stuh`cs m`fml`fmt tmc ecch jdr bcttcr ploeeèf oeh aoeofcacet dj

tcoimcr supply. @e oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs tmcrc wos o a`saotim bctwcce tmc



2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

eot`deol rcqu`rcacet jdr ecw tcoimcrs oeh tmc dutput dj ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

@e s`x dj tmc c`fmt ioscs, tmc oeeuol dutput dj troèch pràory tcoimcrs wos lcss

tmoe : pcricet dj tmc tcoimcr wdrgjdric (wmìm a`fmt bc ides`hcrch o edraol

ottr`t`de rotc). Ymdrtofcs dj pràory tcoimcrs rcsultch e w`hcsprcoh usc dj uequol-

`j`ch tcoimcrs. Ymdrtofcs dj quol`j`ch scidehory tcoimcrs lch td usc dj uehcrquol`j`ch

tcoimcrs, usc dj pràory tcoimcrs è scidehory simddls, oeh è twd iduetr`cs, lch

td rclòeic de cxpotròtc tcoimcrs. Xmc prdpdrt`de dj scidehory tcoimcrs spciòl-

`zch è coim subkcit wos pddrly aotimch w`tm ecchs, rcsultèf è dvcrsupply è

sdac subkcits oeh smdrtofcs è dtmcrs. Yystcas jdr aoeofcacet dj supply wcrc

djtce wcog oeh, os o rcsult, ètogc td tcoimcr idllcfcs wos djtce edt ohkustch è

rcspdesc td tmc eot`deol ecchs. @e sdac ioscs tmc ob`l`ty td idetrdl tcoimcr supply

wos bcèf rchuich w`tm èircosèf outdeday dj tmc tcoimcr-troèèf èst`tut`des.

Aoeofcacet dj tcoimcr supply w`ll rcqu`rc tmc ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcr ottr`t`de. Ottr`t`de rotcs scca l`gcly td jluituotc w`tm lobdr aorgct dppdrtue`t`cs, os è adst

dj tmc iduetr`cs wmcrc hoto wcrc ovo`loblc, tmc adst jrcqucet iousc dj tcoimcr ottr`-

t`de wos vdluetory rcs`feot`de, prcsuaobly td togc oedtmcr kdb. @e fcecrol, tmc

ottr`t`de rotc dj scidehory tcoimcrs wos m`fmcr tmoe tmot dj pràory tcoimcrs. Xmcrc

wcrc olsd rcpdrts tmot ottr`t`de wos m`fmcr jdr bcttcr-chuiotch tcoimcrs, oeh tcoim-

crs dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic.

@e scvcrol dj tmc iduetr`cs, portìulorly Lcsdtmd, Xmc Foabò, oeh Cr`trco, tmc

supply dj tcoimcrs wos idestroèch by tmc là`tch dutput dj su`tobly quol`j`ch

simddl lcovcrs. Os o rcsult, tmc ovo`loblc ploics è tcoimcr idllcfcs idulh edt bcj`llch w`tmdut o rchuit`de dj cetry stoehorhs. Xm`s pottcre rcjlcits o struiturol

àboloeic e chuiot`de systcas, w`tm o là`tch dutput jrda scidehory chuiot`de,

èsujjì`cet td j`ll tmc ovo`loblc ploics è m`fmcr chuiot`de oeh tcoimcr troèèf.

Xm`s prdblca moh bcce cxoicrbotch by bdtm tmc cxpoes`de dj tmc iopoi`ty dj

m`fmcr chuiot`de systcas oeh tmc èircosèf hcaoeh jdr pràory tcoimcrs.

Xmcrc wcrc portìulor h`jjìult`cs w`tm tmc supply dj tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs

oeh tmc si`ceics. Xm`s wos rcjlcitch e smdrtofcs dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoim-

crs ot tmc scidehory simddl lcvcl oeh è pràory tcoimcrs w`tm pddr uehcrstoehèf

dj aotmcaotìol oeh si`cet`jì idetcet. Xmcrc `s o vì`dus iyilc wmcrc pddr tcoim-èf dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceics rcsults è pddr pcrjdraoeic è tmcsc subkcits,

là`tch ovo`lob`l`ty dj stuhcet tcoimcrs w`tm uehcrstoehèf dj aotmcaotìs oeh

si`ceic, oeh o smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs è tmcsc subkcits.

HC^LDPACEX

Xcoimcr hcpldyacet prcscetch imollcefcs è oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, w`tm

tcoimcr smdrtofcs e icrtoè ldiot`des, usuolly rcadtc rurol orcos. Xmcrc wcrc djtce

frcotcr h`jjcrceics bctwcce simddls w`tmè o h`strìt tmoe bctwcce h`strìts, oehtmcsc ètroh`strìt ècqu`t`cs wcrc djtce aosgch by tmc usc dj h`strìt ovcrofcs



Dvcrv`cw • 9

è rcpdrtèf. Xmc h`str`but`de dj tmc bcttcr-quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, oeh tcoimcrs dj

aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceics, wos m`fmly ècqu`toblc, os tmcsc tcoimcrs wcrc adrc

ideicetrotch e tmc urboe orcos. Xmcrc wos o strdef fcehcr pottcre e hcpldyacet,

w`tm jcaolc tcoimcrs uehcrrcprcscetch e tmc rurol simddls. @e iduetr`cs w`tm aul-

t`plc lèfu`stì oeh ctmeì frdups, hcpldyacet dj tcoimcrs td orcos dj lèfu`stì

aèdr`t`cs sccach portìulorly h`jjìult.

Ottcapts td hcpldy tcoimcrs rot`deolly tmrdufm icetrol ploeeèf h`h edt oppcor

td bc cjjcit`vc è adst ioscs. Xcoimcrs oss`fech td uepdpulor pdsts djtce jo`lch td

togc up tmc pdst, dr quìgly orroefch td troesjcr. Jdr rcadtc simddls, tm`s rcsultch

è adrc uej`llch pdsts, m`fmcr turedvcr, oeh lcss cxpcr`ceich stojj. Jèoeiòl eice-

t`vcs td ceidurofc tcoimcrs td oiicpt morhsm`p pdsts wcrc prdv`hch è adst idue-

tr`cs, but tmc`r àpoit wos là`tch. Dec cxicpt`de suffcstch tmot èicet`vcs ioe

ottroit tcoimcrs, `j bdtm substoetòl oeh wcll torfctch. @e Xmc Foabò, o iorcjully torfctch morhsm`p bdeus dj up td 8> pcricet dj solory moh rcsultch è lorfc eua-

bcrs dj tcoimcrs olrcohy è rurol simddls, rcqucstèf troesjcr td o morhsm`p simddl.

F`vèf tcoimcrs sdac imdìc dj ldiot`de olsd oppcorch td àprdvc tmc cqu`ty

dj tcoimcr hcpldyacet. @e Lcsdtmd, o systca dj ldiol rciru`tacet, wmcrc simddls

ohvcrt`sc jdr oeh rciru`t tmc`r dwe tcoimcrs, mos rcsultch è rclot`vcly cvce tcoimcr

h`str`but`de. [oabò oeh Sfoeho wcrc bdtm usèf adrc ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`t-

acet è oe ottcapt td j`ll ploics è rcadtc simddls. @e sdac iduetr`cs, tmc proi-

tìc dj rciru`tèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oeh tmce prdv`hèf è-scrvìc troèèf wos

oe àpdrtoet acimoe`sa jdr prdv`s`de dj tcoimcrs, os simddls è rcadtc orcos wcrc djtce oblc td rciru`t uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ldiolly. ^rdv`hèf troèèf oeh o

iorccr potm jdr ldiol pcdplc w`llèf td wdrg è rcadtc simddls aoy bc port dj oe

cjjcit`vc rcspdesc td tmc hcpldyacet prdblca.

SX@L@[OX@DE

^ràory tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de vor`ch w`hcly, w`tm tcoimcrs cxpcitch td tcoim bctwcce

?2.3 oeh 26 mdurs pcr wccg. @e proitìc, rcol wdrgldohs wcrc djtce ldwcr tmoe tmc

djjìòl cxpcitot`de, rchuich by oe dvcrsupply dj tcoimcrs è sdac ploics, uedjjìòlsmdrtceèf dj tmc simddl wccg, oeh ueoutmdr`zch obsceics. ^ràory tcoimcrs wcrc

fcecrolly cxpcitch td tcoim oll subkcits td dec iloss, but tmcrc wos sdac èjdraol

tcoimcr spciòl`zot`de, cspciòlly è tmc uppcr frohcs dj pràory chuiot`de. Ault`-

frohc tcoimèf wos w`hcly usch, portìulorly è rurol orcos. @e sdac ioscs, tm`s wos

o rcsult dj o hcl`bcrotc tcoimcr hcpldyacet pdlìy7 è dtmcr ioscs, `t wos o ecicss`ty

rcsultèf jrda jo`lurc td hcpldy tcoimcrs td rcadtc simddls. Hcsp`tc `ts w`hcsprcoh

usc, ault`frohc tcoimèf wos edt wcll ètcfrotch ètd pdlìy dr tcoimcr troèèf.

@e fcecrol, tmc cjjì`ceiy dj ut`l`zot`de wos ldwcr ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, bdtm

bciousc scidehory tcoimcrs fcecrolly moh smdrtcr wdrgèf mdurs tmoe pràory tcoimcrs, oeh bciousc dj saollcr ilosscs rcsultèf jrda tmc prdv`s`de dj ault`plc




dpt`deol subkcits. Xmc pottcre dj tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de ot tmc scidehory lcvcl moh o

vcry s`fe`jìoet apoit de tmc idst pcr stuhcet dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de, wmìm è sdac

iduetr`cs wos adrc tmoe tce tàcs tmc idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc pràory lcvcl. Xmcsc

idst struiturcs orc o borr`cr td tmc cxpoes`de dj scidehory chuiot`de.

@AÔIX DJ M@Z

M@Z èjcit`de rotcs vor`ch w`hcly oirdss tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, roefèf

jrda ?.2 pcricet td 26 pcricet. Xcoimcr hcotm oeh `llecss (jrda oll iouscs) oiiduetch

jdr ottr`t`de dj bctwcce >.:: pcricet oeh 9 pcricet dj tmc tcoimcr wdrgjdric oeeu-

olly. M@Z/O@HY wos djtce o joitdr è tcoimcr hcpldyacet, os `ll tcoimcrs wcrc troes-

jcrrch td simddls ecor achìol joi`l`t`cs, prchdaèoetly e urboe orcos. Os o rcsult,

tmc pcricetofc dj sìg tcoimcrs è urboe orcos wos m`fmcr, idetr`butèf td m`fmcr obscetcc`sa è tmcsc orcos.

Xmc burhce dj tmc M@Z poehcaì olsd jcll de tmc chuiot`de systca è o vor`cty

dj dtmcr woys. @e Aolow`, m`fm ottr`t`de dj h`strìt chuiot`de djjìòls huc td llecss

wos rcpdrtch, rchuièf tmc aoeofcacet iopoi`ty. Jurtmcr, tcoimcrs ecchch td lcovc

tmc`r pdsts td oss`st `ll jr`cehs oeh rclot`vcs, oeh ottceh juecrols. @e Aolow`, wmce

tcoimcrs dr tmc`r rclot`vcs h`c, tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de poys jdr tmc troespdrtot`de

dj tmc bdhy td tmc mdac orco. F`vce tmc lorfc euabcr dj hcotms, tm`s àpdscs o

ides`hcroblc idst, obsdrbèf auim dj tmc h`sirct`deory buhfct dj sdac h`strìts

oeh rchuièf tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj aè`stry vcmìlcs jdr dtmcr purpdscs.

XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

^rc-scrvìc troèèf dj pràory tcoimcrs roefch jrda ?2 wccgs td tmrcc ycors, jdl-

ldwèf c`tmcr uppcr dr ldwcr scidehory chuiot`de. Jdr scidehory tcoimcrs, adst

iduetr`cs moh huol systcas, w`tm h`pldao idurscs dj twd dr tmrcc ycors, oeh hcfrcc

idurscs dj tmrcc dr jdur ycors. Cetry td tcoimcr troèèf wos adstly bosch de oio-

hcaì pcrjdraoeic oldec. Xmc oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic rcqu`rch td cetcr tcoimcr

troèèf wos qu`tc ldw, oeh è sdac ioscs hcilèèf. Os o rcsult dj tmc pddr pcr-icpt`des dj tmc tcoimèf iorccr, tcoimcr troèèf tcehch td obsdrb tmc simddl

lcovcrs wmd moh jo`lch td fct ploics è dtmcr m`fmcr chuiot`de idurscs. Xmc tcoim-

èf idurscs moh portìulor h`jjìulty è ottroitèf sujjì`cet stuhcets w`tm quol`j`-

iot`des è aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. Xmc pddr chuiot`deol stoehorh dj cetroets

prcscetch quol`ty prdblcas, rcjlcitch è m`fm jo`lurc rotcs è sdac ioscs.

Xmc tcoimcr-troèèf iurrìulua wos edt olwoys wcll aotimch td tmc ecchs dj

stuhcet tcoimcrs. J`rst, troèèf è pchofdfìol actmdhs wos djtce tmcdrctìol,

aogèf `t lcss l`gcly td movc oe àpoit de ilossrdda proitìcs. Ycideh, tmc tcoimèf

dj tmc idetcet gedwlchfc wos djtce edt ildscly ol`fech td tmc simddl iurrìulua. Xm`rh, tmc h`jjìult`cs wcrc djtce idapduehch by tmc stuhcets‐ pddr prdjì`ceiy è



Dvcrv`cw • 3

tmc loefuofc dj estruit`de (Cefl`sm). @e ohh`t`de, tcoimcr troècrs wcrc edt olwoys

wcll cqu`ppch td hcl`vcr troèèf è o proitìol oeh rclcvoet aoeecr. Ydac, portì-

ulorly e pràory tcoimcr troèèf, moh l`ttlc cxpcr`ceic tcoimèf ot tmc opprdpròtc

lcvcl. Ycvcrol iduetr`cs wcrc ottcaptèf td rcjdra è`tòl tcoimcr chuiot`de td

àprdvc `ts quol`ty oeh rclcvoeic.

@e-scrvìc troèèf; @e oladst cvcry iosc tmcrc wos oe è-scrvìc troèèf sys-

tca jdr uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xmcsc vor`ch è hurot`de oeh struiturc, but typìolly

èvdlvch o a`x dj tcxt aotcròls, rcs`hcetòl troèèf scss`des è o tcoimcr troèèf

idllcfc, oeh sdac tutdròls prdv`hch ldiolly. Vmcrc è-scrvìc systcas wcrc àplc-

acetch wcll, tmcy prdv`hch o scideh potmwoy ètd tcoimèf, oeh moh portìulor

ohvoetofcs jdr tcoimcr hcpldyacet, os tmcy prdv`hch dppdrtue`t`cs jdr pcdplc

jrda rurol orcos td foè o prdjcss`deol quol`jìot`de wm`lc rcaoèèf è tmc`r

mdac orcos. Oltmdufm tmcrc wos l`ttlc dbkcit`vc idaporot`vc hoto, è-scrvìc troè-èf systcas sccach td rcsult è quol`ty idaporoblc td tmot dj prc-scrvìc troèèf.

Xmc siolc dj tmc è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf idurscs aogcs `t uel`gcly tmot oll dj tmc

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ioe bc troèch quìgly. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, coim idmdrt

dj tcoimcrs togce ètd tmc è-scrvìc idursc wos opprdxàotcly ?> pcricet dj tmc

tdtol dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet; Yystcas jdr idetèuèf prdjcss`deol

hcvcldpacet dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc rclot`vcly uehcvcldpch. Xmc adst idaade

adhol`ty wos icetrolly ploeech hcl`vcry dj smdrt idurscs de spci`jì tdpìs, suim os

tmc ètrdhuit`de dj o ecw iurrìulua. O jcw iduetr`cs moh hcvcldpch oltcreot`vcsystcas. @e [oabò, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc wcrc zdeol rcsduric icetcrs, scrvèf saoll

euabcrs dj simddls, oeh stojjch by o tcoimcr de o vdluetccr bos`s. Xcoimcrs w`tmè

tmc zdec wcrc cxpcitch td `hcet`jy tmc`r dwe troèèf ecchs, usuolly hrowèf de

ldiolly ovo`loblc cxpcrt`sc.

AOEOFCACEX

Yystcas jdr aoeofèf tcoimcrs wcrc wcog. Mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc rcidfe`zch td ploy

àpdrtoet rdlcs e aoeofèf, supcrv`sèf, oeh acetdrèf tcoimcrs, but e proitìcmcoh tcoimcrs hcvdtch auim dj tmc`r tàc td rclot`des w`tm ohaè`strot`vc outmdr-

`t`cs duts`hc tmc simddl. Xroèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs wos spdrohì oeh h`h edt rcoim

tmc aokdr`ty dj mcoh tcoimcrs.

Oll dj tmc iduetr`cs moh systcas jdr cxtcreol ade`tdrèf dr èspcit`de dj

simddls, but è adst ioscs tmc jrcquceiy dj v`s`ts wos tdd ldw td cjjcit`vcly ade`-

tdr quol`ty. Xcoimcr-èspcitdr rot`ds wcrc os m`fm os 6>>;?, oeh è s`x dj tmc c`fmt

iduetr`cs simddls wcrc v`s`tch deic o ycor dr lcss. Ydac iduetr`cs moh oim`cvch

auim adrc jrcqucet supcrv`s`de by ldiotèf supcrv`sdrs ot saoll ilustcrs dj

simddls. @e Xmc Foabò, simddls wcrc v`s`tch cvcry wccg dr twd by ilustcr ade`-tdrs wmd wcrc rcspdes`blc jdr opprdxàotcly tce simddls coim, oeh trovclch by



: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

adtdrb`gc. @e Cr`trco, ilustcr supcrv`sdrs wcrc rcspdes`blc jdr => tcoimcrs coim,

oeh trovclch by bìyilc dr de jddt, aoeofèf td v`s`t coim tcoimcr twìc pcr ycor.

Obscetcc`sa wos edt wcll rcidrhch, but rcpdrtch td bc os m`fm os 23 pcricet e

sdac iduetr`cs. Jcw proitìol acosurcs wcrc è ploic td rchuic obscetcc`sa. @e

adst iduetr`cs tcoimcr ottcehoeic wos rcidrhch ot tmc simddl lcvcl, but edt oeo-

lyzch dr rcpdrtch. Xmcrc wos sdac èhìot`de tmot tcoimcr obsceic wos rcspdes`vc

td ade`tdrèf. @e Xmc Foabò, w`tm tmc ètrdhuit`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs oeh

rcfulor cxtcreol v`s`ts td simddls, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot tcoimcr obsceic moh jollce.

Ydac dj tmc tcoimcr obsceic wos wdrg rclotch, èiluhèf obsceic td ohhrcss

ohaè`strot`vc `ssucs, oeh obsceic td ottceh troèèf. @aprdvcacets è ohaè`s-

trot`vc systcas oeh pdlì`cs de prdv`s`de dj troèèf idulh idetr`butc td rchuièf

tcoimcr obsceic.

H`si`plèory systcas wcrc fcecrolly pcric`vch td bc tdd sldw, ueprchìtoblc, oeh“m`fm stogcs‑ td bc usch td ohhrcss obscetcc`sa. Xmcrc wcrc sdac suffcst`des tmot

sàplc “ldw-stogcs‑ soeit`des idulh olsd bc cjjcit`vc. @e L`bcrò, simddls wcrc oblc

td w`tmmdlh tmc solory dj o tcoimcr wmd moh bcce obscet uet`l o saoll jèc wos po`h

ot tmc ldiol rcvceuc djjìc. @e Xmc Foabò, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc po`h è iosm,

oeh mcoh tcoimcrs moh tmc h`sirct`de td w`tmmdlh poyacet è ioscs dj obsceic.

Cesurèf cjjì`cet hcl`vcry dj poy aoy olsd rchuic obscetcc`sa. @e L`bcrò

oeh [oabò, sdac rcadtc simddls rdutècly ildsch jdr up td o wccg coim adetm

os tcoimcrs trovclch td idllcit tmc`r poy. @eircosèfly iduetr`cs (èiluhèf Xmc

Foabò, Lcsdtmd, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò) orc a`frotèf td tmc usc dj clcitrdeì troesjcrs ètd tcoimcrs‐ boeg oiiduets. Xm`s àprdvcs tmc cjjì`ceiy dj hcl`vcry,

but w`tmdut ohcquotc idetrdls, `t aoy rchuic tmc ob`l`ty dj tmc systca td

rcspdeh quìgly td tcoimcr obscetcc`sa dr advcacet td dtmcr simddls.

ôrcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`des dr simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs moh l`ttlc

èvdlvcacet è ade`tdrèf tmc simddls, oeh wcrc aoèly èvdlvch è juehro`sèf

oit`v`t`cs. Xmcrc wcrc sdac `sdlotch rcpdrts dj porcets ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottce-

hoeic dr togèf oit`de è ioscs wmcrc obscetcc`sa wos ueoiicptobly m`fm. @e

Sfoeho, dec h`strìt djjìcr rcpdrtch prcssurc jrda porcets td ohhrcss tcoimcr

obsceic. @e Aolow`, sdac simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs wcrc vcry oit`vc, èport bciousc dj troèèf tmrdufm edefdvcreacetol drfoe`zot`des (EFDs).

Xcoimcr ue`des wcrc olsd prcscet è oll iduetr`cs, w`tm tmc aokdr`ty dj publì

tcoimcrs rcprcscetch. Oll moh sdac rdlc è ohvdioiy jdr bcttcr poy oeh ideh`t`des

jdr tcoimcrs, but aoey wcrc olsd èvdlvch è prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet oit`v`t`cs,

prdv`hèf troèèf dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs dr mclpèf td hcjèc idhcs dj prdjcs-

s`deol idehuit.

XMC XCOIMCR IORCCR YXRSIXSRC

@e oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, adst tcoimcrs wcrc capldych os pcraoecet pub-

lì scrvoets, w`tm èircacetol solor`cs bosch de o j`xch solory siolc. Xmcrc wos ed



Dvcrv`cw • 6

s`fe`jìoet usc dj idetroit tcoimcrs. Xcoimcrs wcrc capldych de smdrt-tcra idetroits

dely wmce uequol`j`ch, dr è sdac ioscs wmcrc rct`rch tcoimcrs wcrc djjcrch

dppdrtue`t`cs td wdrg ojtcr rct`rcacet ofc.

Xmc iorccr struiturcs tcehch td rcworh àprdvch oiohcaì irchcetòls adrc

tmoe pcrjdraoeic dr cvce ottcehoeic è tmc ilossrdda. @e sdac ioscs tm`s prd-

v`hch pcrvcrsc èicet vcs, ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td ecflcit tmc`r hut`cs e pursu`t dj

ohh`t`deol quol`jìot`des. Dppdrtue`t`cs wcrc là`tch jdr prdadt`de w`tmè tmc

ilossrdda. Ydac iduetr`cs moh o frohc dj sce`dr tcoimcr, but jcw moh rdbust

acr`t-bosch systcas jdr sclcit`de td tm`s frohc. @e sdac ioscs tmc prdv`s`de dj po`h

stuhy lcovc olldwch sdac dj tmc adst oblc tcoimcrs td upfrohc tmc`r quol`jìot`des

oeh lcovc tmc prdjcss`de, sdactàcs spcehèf oladst os auim tàc de po`h lcovc

os tmcy h`h tcoimèf. Xmc siolc dj po`h stuhy lcovc wos è sdac ioscs vcry s`fe`j`-

ioet. @e Xmc Foabò è 2>>6, tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs lcovèf td stort jull-tàcstuhy lcovc wos oladst molj dj tmc euabcr dj ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs rciru`tch.

XCOIMCR J@EOEIC

Vm`lc tcoimcr rcauecrot`de vor`ch, t wos fcecrolly auim m`fmcr tmoe tmc eot`deol

ovcrofc oeh o ault`plc dj pcr iop`to FH^, but ldwcr tmoe tmc oltcreot`vc dppdrtu-

e`t`cs dpce td frohuotcs dr sà`lorly chuiotch pcdplc. Ytortèf poy jdr o quol`j`ch

pràory tcoimcr roefch jrda $80> pcr ycor è [oez`bor td $9,202 è [oabò. Xmcsc

solor`cs olldwch o vcry adhcst stoehorh dj l`vèf. @e [oez`bor oeh L`bcrò, o tcoimcr w`tm dec hcpcehcet wdulh movc o pcr-pcrsde èidac dj lcss tmoe $2 pcr hoy (pur-

imosèf pdwcr por`ty). Cvce è [oabò, tmc stortèf solory dj o pràory tcoimcr wos

dely twd-tm`rhs dj tmc idst dj tmc bosì bosgct dj ecchs jdr o joa`ly dj s`x. De tmc

dtmcr moeh, tmcsc solor`cs rcprcscetch ault`plcs dj FH^ pcr iop`to, roefèf jrda

?.3 tàcs FH^ pcr iop`to è [oez`bor td j`vc tàcs FH^ pcr iop`to è Sfoeho.

@e fcecrol, tcoimèf wos pcric`vch os lcss ottroit`vc tmoe dtmcr fdvcreacet kdbs

w`tm tmc soac cetry quol`jìot`des. Xcoimèf wos scce os movèf o sldwcr poy prd-

frcss`de, jcwcr dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de, oeh sdactàcs jcwcr dppdrtue`t`cs

jdr ohh`t`deol bcecj`ts. Os o rcsult, tcoimèf tcehch td bc tmc “prdjcss`de dj lost rcsdrt,‑ obsdrbèf tmdsc wmd moh ottoèch tmc aèàua quol`jìot`des but jo`lch

td fct oey dj tmc kdbs scce os adrc hcs`roblc. Xm`s pottcre dj rciru`tèf idetr`butch

td tmc h`jjìulty dj ottroitèf tcoimcrs jdr subkcits wmcrc tmcrc wos o lobdr aorgct

smdrtofc, suim os aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic.

@e sdac ioscs tmc pcr-stuhcet idst dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de wos auim m`fmcr ot tmc sci-

dehory lcvcl tmoe ot tmc pràory. Ymdrtcr wdrgèf mdurs, ault`plc dpt`deol subkcits,

oeh ècjjì`cei`cs rcsultèf jrda spciòl`zot`de rcsultch è ldwcr stuhcet-tcoimcr

rot`ds, wm`lc tmc m`fmcr quol`jìot`des jdr scidehory tcoimcrs rcsultch e m`fmcr idsts.

@e cxtrcac ioscs, tmc idst pcr stuhcet wos adrc tmoe tce tàcs tmc idst ot tmc pr`-aory lcvcl. Idst h`jjcrcetòls dj tm`s aofe`tuhc w`ll scvcrcly idestroè tmc cxpoes`de

dj scidehory chuiot`de, uelcss ohhrcssch by àprdvch tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de.



= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

XCOIMCR @YYSCY‘OE @EXCRIDEECIXCH YPYXCA

Xmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs joic ault`plc imollcefcs è tcoimcr pdlìy. Xmcsc ioe bc

frdupch ètd jdur aokdr orcos;

?. Yupply; Adrc tcoimcrs ecch td bc troèch, portìulorly è spci`jì subkcits.

2. H`str`but`de; Adrc oeh bcttcr-quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, oeh pdss`bly adrc jcaolc

tcoimcrs, orc rcqu`rch è rcadtc simddls.

9. _uol`ty; Xd àprdvc tmc quol`ty dj lcoreèf dutidacs, tmc quol`ty dj tcoimèf

aust bc àprdvch. Xm`s aoy èvdlvc rciru`tèf bcttcr-chuiotch tcoimcrs,

prdv`s`de dj bcttcr troèèf oeh idetèudus prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet, oeh

àprdvch suppdrt, aoeofcacet, oeh supcrv`s`de systcas.

8. Idst; Xmcsc imollcefcs aust bc act w`tmè idestroèch buhfcts.

Xmcsc jdur hàces`des dj tcoimcr pdlìy orc ildscly ètcrrclotch. Acosurcs td

àprdvc tcoimcr supply dr àprdvc hcpldyacet aoy rcqu`rc rciru`tacet dj tcoim-

crs w`tm ldwcr cetry stoehorhs, w`tm àplìot`des jdr quol-

`ty. Idevcrscly, acosurcs td àprdvc quol`ty by ro`sèf tmc

icrt`jìot`de rcqu`rcacets, suim os rcqu`rèf o hcfrcc jdr

scidehory tcoimèf, aoy rchuic supply oeh cxoicrbotc

hcpldyacet prdblcas by hrowèf è adrc tcoimcrs jrda

urboe boigfrduehs. Oey acosurc èvdlvèf jèoeiòl

èicet`vcs, oiiclcrotch prdadt`de, dr èircosch troèèf dr

supcrv`s`de mos idst àplìot`des. J`furc ? `llustrotcs tmc

ètcrrclot`desm`ps dj tmcsc jdur hàces`des.

Hcvcldpèf tmc r`fmt tcoimcr pdlì`cs `s l`gcly td rcqu`rc iorcjul cxoaèot`de dj

tmc roefc dj imollcefcs, oeh aogèf h`jjìult trohc-djjs bctwcce tmcsc jdur hàce-

s`des. Vm`lc ed sèflc rcspdesc w`ll bc opprdpròtc è cvcry iosc, tmc iosc stuh`cs

suffcst o scr`cs dj prda`sèf proitìcs.

^RDA@Y@EF ^ROIX@ICY

^loeeèf jdr tcoimcr supply; Y`fe`jìoet àprdvcacets è tcoimcr supply idulh

bc ottoèch by bcttcr ploeeèf oeh rcfulot`de dj tcoimcr troèèf. Xmrcc idapd-

ecets orc rcqu`rch td oim`cvc tm`s. J`rst, chuiot`de scitdr ploes smdulh èiluhc

jdrciosts dj tmc euabcr dj ecwly troèch tcoimcrs rcqu`rch. Ycideh, tcoimcr ottr`-

t`de smdulh bc ade`tdrch de oe oeeuol bos`s, jdr coim lcvcl oeh subkcit spciòl-

`zot`de. Xm`rh, de oe oeeuol bos`s, tmc cetry td tcoimcr troèèf smdulh bc

ohkustch è rcspdesc td oeolys`s dj rcqu`rcacets oeh ottr`t`de.

@e sdac iduetr`cs, ploeeèf oldec w`ll edt ceh tmc smdrtofcs, os tmcrc orc èsuj-

jì`cet quol`j`ch opplìoets jdr tcoimcr troèèf. @e suim ioscs tmcrc `s l`ttlc imdìcbut td ohkust cetry rcqu`rcacets uet`l sujjì`cet stuhcet tcoimcrs ioe bc rciru`tch.

J`furc ? Xcoimcr ^dlìy; Jdur@etcrrclotch Hàces`des

Yupply H`str`but`de

_uol`ty Idst



Dvcrv`cw • 0

Vmcrc tm`s mos td bc hdec, `t smdulh bc hdec è idekueit`de w`tm oe ohkustacet

dj tmc tcoimcr-troèèf iurrìulua, td togc oiiduet dj tmc ldwcr stoehorh dj cetry

dj tmc ètogc.

@e ploeeèf jdr tcoimcr supply, torfcts oeh cxpcitot`des aust bc rcol`stì. @e

o euabcr dj ioscs wmcrc uercol`stì osp`rot`des oppcorch td bc hoaofèf tmc

quol`ty dj chuiot`de. @e aoey iduetr`cs, jdr cxoaplc, t wos cxpcitch tmot oll uppcr

scidehory ilosscs wdulh bc toufmt by ue`vcrs`ty frohuotcs, wm`lc è proitìc tmc

aokdr`ty dj uppcr scidehory ilosscs wcrc toufmt by h`pldao mdlhcrs. @e lèc w`tm

tmc pdlìy, h`pldao idurscs jdr scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc prciluhch jrda prcporèf

tcoimcrs td tcoim ot tmc uppcr scidehory lcvcl.

Xmc scideh potm ètd tcoimèf; Rciru`tèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ldiolly, oeh

prdv`hèf tmca w`tm troèèf wm`lc tmcy rcaoè è-scrvìc `s o prda`sèf ètcrà

sdlut`de jdr ohhrcssèf bdtm supply oeh hcpldyacet prdblcas. Vmcrc tmc iurrcet dutput dj pràory tcoimcrs `s èohcquotc, sdac rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoim-

crs s ècv`toblc. Rciru`tèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ldiolly, oeh tmce prdv`hèf dppdr-

tue`t`cs jdr tmca td upfrohc td quol`j`ch stotus tmrdufm è-scrvìc troèèf, mos

bcidac o scideh potm ètd tmc prdjcss`de. @j fddh-quol`ty è-scrvìc troèèf ioe bc

prdv`hch, tm`s scideh potm ioe mclp ohhrcss tmc prdblca dj tcoimcr h`str`but`de

by rciru`tèf tcoimcrs olrcohy rcs`hcet è tmc orcos wmcrc tmcrc orc tcoimcr smdrt-

ofcs. Bu`lhèf tmc iopoi`ty dj pcdplc wmd orc jrda tmc rcadtc orcos sccas o bcttcr

ldef-tcra sdlut`de tmoe prdv`hèf subs`h`cs td ceidurofc tcoimcrs jrda dtmcr

orcos td advc td ploics tmcy ides`hcr uehcs`roblc. Xm`s ioe olsd idetr`butc tdohhrcssèf tmc tcoimcr fcehcr fop è rurol orcos by prdv`hèf oiicss td tcoimèf

kdbs jdr jcaolc tcoimcrs olrcohy l`vèf è tmc orco, oeh tmus ovd`hèf tmc spci`jì

h`jjìult`cs dj hcpldyèf jcaolc tcoimcrs td rcadtc orcos. Mdwcvcr, tm`s opprdoim

hdcs prcscet sdac quol`ty r`sgs, oeh `s hcpcehcet de tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj pcdplc

w`tm sujjì`cet lcvcls dj chuiot`deol oim`cvcacet td ohcquotcly uehcrstoeh tmc

subkcit aottcr tmcy w`ll movc td tcoim.

Ldiot`de-spci`jì tcoimcr rciru`tacet; Rciru`tèf tcoimcrs jdr spci`jì ldiot`des

sccas td àprdvc tmc prdbob`l`ty dj j`llèf uepdpulor pdsts, oeh aoy olsd àprdvc

rctcet`de oeh fcehcr boloeic. Icetrol rciru`tacet dj tcoimcrs, jdlldwch by ploeechhcpldyacet, mos ides`stcetly iousch h`jjìult`cs, os tcoimcrs rcs`st advèf td tmc

lcost-hcs`rch ldiot`des. Ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet prdv`hcs tcoimcrs sccgèf

capldyacet w`tm o strdef èicet`vc td oiicpt o rcadtc ldiot`de, oeh olldws tmca

sdac imdìc dj ldiot`de. Xm`s ceoblcs sdac tcoimcrs td wdrg è tmc`r mdac orcos dr

orcos wmcrc tmcy movc sdac rclot`vcs, tmus èircosèf tmc prdbob`l`ty dj rctcet`de.

Yà`lorly, tmc clcacet dj imdìc ceoblcs jcaolc tcoimcrs td opply jdr kdbs è orcos

ildsc td tmc`r joa`l`cs, oeh aoy èircosc tmc prdpdrt`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs è rurol

simddls. Vmcrc simddls movc o soy è tmc sclcit`de dj tcoimcrs, tmcy orc l`gcly td

jovdr ldiol ioeh`hotcs, jurtmcr àprdvèf togc-up oeh rctcet`de. Lcsdtmd, [oabò,oeh Sfoeho movc oll moh pds`t`vc cxpcr`ceics w`tm ldiol rciru`tacet.



?> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Ypci`jì ètcrvcet`des jdr aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceics; Brcogèf tmc iyilc dj pddr

pcrjdraoeic è aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceics `s l`gcly td rcqu`rc sdac spci`jì ètcrvce-

t`des. Dec prda`sèf dpt`de `s tmc prdv`s`de dj bddstcr idurscs è tcoimcr idllcfcs,

td àprdvc tmc aotmcaotìol oeh si`cet`jì uehcrstoehèf dj stuhcet tcoimcrs. Yuim

bddstcr idurscs orc ploeech è Lcsdtmd oeh orc bcèf àplcacetch è Xmc Foabò.

Brdohcr ir`tcrò jdr sclcit`de ètd tcoimcr troèèf; Yclcitèf ètd tcoimcr

troèèf de tmc bos`s dj w`llèfecss td wdrg è rurol orcos, os wcll os oiohcaì pcr-

jdraoeic, ioe mclp ollcvòtc hcpldyacet h`jjìult`cs. Yclcit`de ètd tcoimcr troè-

èf mos troh`t`deolly bcce bosch aoèly de oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic. @e sdac ioscs

tm`s bòscs tmc sclcit`de tdworh stuhcets jrda adrc urboe oeh bcttcr-djj boig-

frduehs, wmd orc adrc l`gcly td movc bcttcr oiohcaì rcsults. Xmcsc stuhcets orc

lcss l`gcly td scc pràory tcoimèf os tmc`r ldef-tcra iorccr fdol, dr td bc w`llèf

td oiicpt o pdst è o rcadtc rurol simddl. Pct tmc suiicss dj tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc è Aolow` (oeh sà`lor idllcfcs è Adzoab`quc oeh Oefdlo) dpcrotch by

tmc EFD Hcvcldpacet O`h Jrda ^cdplc td ^cdplc (HO^^) è ottroitèf stuhcets

wmd woet td wdrg è rurol orcos hcadestrotcs tmot tmcrc orc pcdplc wmd bdtm orc

w`llèf td tcoim è rurol simddls oeh movc tmc ob`l`ty td suiicch è prc-scrvìc

tcoimcr troèèf. Brdohcr sclcit`de ir`tcrò, èiluhèf bdtm oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic

oeh ètcrv`cw, djjcr oe dppdrtue`ty td hrow ètd tcoimèf adrc dj tmdsc wmd

woet tcoimèf os tmc`r iorccr, adrc dj tmdsc wmd orc w`llèf td wdrg è rurol orcos,

oeh adrc stuhcets jrda lèfu`stì oeh ctmeì aèdr`t`cs wmd orc uehcrrcprc-

scetch è tcoimèf. Xorfctch èicet`vcs jdr tcoimcrs è rcadtc orcos; Ssc dj èicet`vcs td ceidur-

ofc tcoimcrs td togc up pdsts è rurol simddls ioe bc cjjcit`vc `j iorcjully torfctch.

Xmc iosc dj Xmc Foabò `llustrotcs tmc cjjcit`vcecss dj èicet`vcs. @e Xmc Foabò,

jdlldwèf tmc ètrdhuit`de dj o iorcjully torfctch morhsm`p bdeus dj up td 8> pcr-

icet dj solory, cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs bcfoe rcqucstèf troesjcrs td morhsm`p simddls.

@e 2>>=, adrc tmoe dec-tm`rh dj tmc tcoimcrs è rcf`des 9, 8, oeh 3 wmd wcrc edt

è morhsm`p simddls rcqucstch troesjcrs td morhsm`p pdsts. Mdwcvcr, tm`s `s l`gcly

td bc o vòblc dpt`de dely wmcrc tmc tcoimcr solor`cs orc rclot`vcly ldw, oeh s`fe`j-

ìoet èicet`vcs orc jèoeiòlly sustoèoblc.Ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcr ottcehoeic; Xmcrc wcrc strdef èhìot`des tmot tcoimcr

obscetcc`sa idulh bc rchuich w`tm ohcquotc ade`tdrèf. @e Sfoeho, tmc obsce-

tcc`sa rotc jcll jrda 26 pcricet e 2>>8 td ?0 pcricet e 2>>:, jdlldwèf eircosch

acosurcs td ade`tdr ottcehoeic. @e Xmc Foabò, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot imurim-rue

simddls moh m`fmcr tcoimcr ottcehoeic tmoe fdvcreacet simddls, bciousc aoeofcrs

rdutècly ade`tdrch ottcehoeic oeh hchuitch poy jrda tcoimcrs wmd wcrc obscet

w`tmdut pcra`ss`de. Olsd è Xmc Foabò, tcoimcr obscetcc`sa hcircosch jdlldw-

èf tmc ètrdhuit`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs, wmd v`s`tch simddls de o rcfulor bos`s.

@eircosch ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcr ottcehoeic `s dec dj tmc ldw-idst ètcrvcet`desl`gcly td movc oe àachòtc àpoit. @evdlvcacet dj porcets oeh idaaue`ty



Dvcrv`cw • ??

frdups è ade`tdrèf ottcehoeic aoy olsd djjcr oe cjjì`cet irdss-imcig de

simddl-rcpdrtch hoto.

Hcicetrol`zch ade`tdrèf; Yystcas dj ilustcr-lcvcl supcrv`s`de dj simddls

olldw supcrv`s`de jrcqucei`cs tmot orc sujjì`cet td movc oe àpoit de quol`ty. @e

adst iduetr`cs, simddls wcrc èspcitch by cxtcreol djjìòls lcss tmoe deic pcr

ycor, o jrcquceiy dj èspcit`de ilcorly èsujjì`cet td oit os o quol`ty ossuroeic

acimoe`sa. Xwd iduetr`cs moh auim adrc jrcqucet cxtcreol supcrv`s`de dj

simddls, oeh è bdtm ioscs (Xmc Foabò oeh Cr`trco), tm`s wos oim`cvch by mov-

èf hcicetrol`zch èspcitdrs scrvèf saoll ilustcrs dj simddls, l`vèf è tmc`r ilus-

tcr, oeh usèf ldw-idst troespdrtot`de. @e Xmc Foabò, ilustcr ade`tdrs l`vc ot

dec dj tmc tce simddls è tmc`r ilustcr oeh orc prdv`hch w`tm o adtdrb`gc jdr

troespdrtot`de. @e tmc idetcxt dj tmc m`fm idst dj troespdrtot`de, oeh tmc smdrtofc

dj vcmìlcs, supcrv`s`de ot tmc ilustcr lcvcl sccas td bc o vòblc actmdh td cesurcrcosdeoblc supcrv`s`de jrcqucei`cs.

^roitìol troèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs; Ed aottcr mdw jrcqucet tmc cxtcreol

supcrv`s`de, tmc ho`ly supcrv`s`de dj tcoimcrs jolls td simddl aoeofcacet. Hcsp`tc

tmc oigedwlchfch àpdrtoeic dj simddl lcohcrs, tdd djtce mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc

`ll-prcporch jdr tm`s rdlc. Adst iduetr`cs moh ed outdaotì troèèf jdr mcoh

tcoimcrs. @estcoh, smdrt idurscs wcrc prdv`hch, jrcqucetly w`tm cxtcreol juehs, oeh

saoll euabcrs wcrc hrowe ètd ldef-tcra ue`vcrs`ty-bosch idurscs. ^rdv`s`de dj

rdutèc, proitìol troèèf td oll mcoh tcoimcrs ot tmc tàc wmce tmcy togc up tmc`r

pdsts sccas o prda`sèf acosurc td àprdvc tmc quol`ty dj aoeofcacet oehsupcrv`s`de dj simddls.





?9

@etrdhuit`de

IMO^XCR ?

C

erdllacet è bdtm pràory oeh scidehory simddls è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo mos

r`sce hroaotìolly sèic Chuiot`de jdr Oll wos ohdptch os o fldbol pr`dr`ty ot

tmc ?00> ètcreot`deol idejcrceic ot Kdat`ce, Xmo`loeh. Hcsp`tc tmcsc sui-icsscs, mdwcvcr, auim rcaoès td bc hdec. Y`fe`jìoet euabcrs dj im`lhrce ecvcr

rcic`vc oey simddlèf, oeh auim lorfcr euabcrs stort simddl, but lcovc w`tmdut

oim`cvèf o rcosdeoblc stoehorh dj bosì chuiot`de.

Xcoimcrs orc icetrol td bdtm tmc idvcrofc oeh quol`ty dj chuiot`de. Ymdrtofcs dj

tcoimcrs oeh tmc eob`l`ty td prdv`hc tcoimcrs e portìulor ldiot`des orc aokdr ide-

stroèts td cxpoes`de. Xcoimcrs orc olsd icetrol td hctcraèèf tmc quol`ty dj chu-

iot`deol dutidacs, oeh cjjdrts td àprdvc chuiot`deol quol`ty jdius mcov`ly de

àprdvèf tmc iopoi`ty oeh aoeofcacet dj tcoimcrs.

Xmc siolc dj tmc imollcefcs dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de s houetèf. Jdr aoey iduetr`cs

tmcrc orc sàply edt cedufm tcoimcrs. Xmc euabcr dj pràory tcoimcrs è Yub-

Yomoroe Ojrìo aoy movc td r`sc by := pcricet, jrda 2.8 td jdur a`ll`de è tmc

pcr`dh jrda 2>>: td 2>?3 è drhcr td acct tmc rcqu`rcacets dj prdv`hèf ue`vcr-

sol pràory idaplct`de (S@Y 2>>:). Cvce wmcrc tmcrc orc sujjì`cet tcoimcrs, tmcy

orc edt olwoys capldych wmcrc tmcy orc adst ecchch, dr spciòl`zch e tmc opprd-

pròtc subkcits. Djtce tcoimcrs orc edt wcll prcporch td prdv`hc fddh quol`ty

chuiot`de, loigèf bdtm sujjì`cet uehcrstoehèf dj tmc subkcit aottcr oeh opprd-

pròtc pchofdfìol sg`lls. Vcog aoeofcacet oeh èohcquotc suppdrt jdr tcoimcrs

movc jrcqucetly rcsultch è o hcadrol`zch tcoimèf jdric, pddr prdjcss`deol

stoehorhs, oeh m`fm obscetcc`sa.

@e Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo, oll dj tmcsc imollcefcs aust bc ohhrcssch e o idetcxt dj

scvcrc rcsduric idestroèts. Hcsp`tc rcic`vèf o lorfc prdpdrt`de dj fdvcreacet

cxpceh`turc oeh oss`stoeic jrda cxtcreol hcvcldpacet portecrs, chuiot`de sys-

tcas jrcqucetly movc eohcquotc juehs. Xmc idabèot`de dj hcadfropmì joitdrs,

èiluhèf frdwèf yduef pdpulot`des, oeh tmc prcssurcs dj cxpoes`de dj idvcrofc

oeh rctcet`de, ploic mcovy hcaoehs de tmcsc là`tch rcsdurics. Chuiot`de `s o

lobdr-ètces`vc oit`v`ty, oeh tcoimcr solor`cs typìolly oiiduet jdr tmc frcotcst port

dj tmc chuiot`de buhfct. Xcoimcrs orc djtce tmc sèflc-lorfcst frdup dj publì scr-

voets, oeh tmc`r rcauecrot`de mos o s`fe`jìoet àpoit de eot`deol buhfcts.



?8 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Os iduetr cs sccg td cxpoeh idvcrofc, quol`ty, oeh cqu`ty è tmc`r chuiot`de sys-

tcas, hcvcldpèf opprdpròtc tcoimcr pdlì`cs s oadef tmc adst apdrtoet ssucs.

@hcet`jyèf tmc dptàua pdlì`cs `s o idaplcx `ssuc, èvdlvèf h`jjìult imdìcs

oeh trohc-djjs. Xmcrc s o ecch td oim`cvc oe ohcquotc supply dj su`toblc oeh troèch

tcoimcrs, ot o idst tmot olldws ue`vcrsol oiicss. Mdwcvcr, tmc sàplc cquot`de dj

idst oeh quol`ty `s idaplìotch by `ssucs dj hcpldyacet, ut`l`zot`de, rctcet`de,

oeh tmc pcrsdeol imoroitcr`stìs tmot àpoit de chuiot`de.

Xm`s bddg `s o syetmcs`s dj imollcefcs oeh pdlìy dpt`des cacrfèf jrda o

stuhy dj tcoimcr ssucs e c`fmt iduetr`cs e Oefldpmdec Ojrìo idehuitch bctwcce

Oufust 2>>: oeh Koeuory 2>>=. Xmc èilus`de dj iduetr cs è tmc stuhy wos bosch

lorfcly de fdvcreacet ètcrcst è movèf o stuhy dj tcoimcr `ssucs. Xm`s sclcit`de

dj iduetr`cs, tmcrcjdrc, s edt ètcehch td bc stot`stìolly rcprcscetot`vc dj tmc rcf`de,

but rotmcr td prdv`hc `lluaèotèf cxoaplcs. @eh`v`huol iduetry stuh`cs wcrc ide-huitch aoèly td suppdrt tmc hcvcldpacet dj tcoimcr pdlì`cs w`tmè coim iduetry.

V`tm tmot oà, tmc iduetry stuh`cs wcrc iustda`zch td tmc idetcxt oeh pr`dr`t`cs

è coim iduetry, wm`lc cxpldrèf o brdohly idaporoblc sct dj `ssucs. Coim iduetry

rcpdrt èvdlvch idllcit`de dj hoto jrda o spcitrua dj ovo`loblc sdurics, èiluhèf

djjìòl stot`stìol hoto, cx`stèf oeolyscs oeh rcpdrts, oeh dpè`des oeh ès`fmts

fotmcrch è simddl v`s`ts oeh ètcrv`cws w`tm o roefc dj stogcmdlhcrs, èiluhèf

tcoimcrs, mcoh tcoimcrs, oeh chuiot`de aoeofcrs.

Vm`lc tmc ultàotc oà dj oey chuiot`de systca `s tmc quol`ty dj stuhcet

lcoreèf, tmcsc iosc stuh`cs hd edt ottcapt td stuhy tmc àpoit dj spci`jì tcoimcr imoroitcr`stìs de stuhcet dutidacs. @estcoh, tmc stuhy storts w`tm tmc ossuap-

t`de tmot è drhcr td oim`cvc fddh quol`ty chuiot`de dutidacs, o idapctcet oeh

idaa`ttch tcoimcr s rcqu`rch. Xcoimcr pdlìy s osscssch tmrdufm tmc lces dj tm`s

bosì oà.

Xmc c`fmt iduetr`cs cxoaèch mcrc, Cr trco, Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd, L`bcrò, Aolow ,

Sfoeho, [oabò, oeh [oez`bor ? movc sdac idaade tro`ts. Oll orc lddscly hcsir`bch

os port dj Oefldpmdec Ojrìo, tmot `s td soy tmot Cefl`sm `s tmc ètcreot`deol loe-

fuofc prchdaèoetly toufmt è simddls, oltmdufm edt tmc adtmcr tdefuc dj tmc

aokdr`ty dj tmc pdpulot`de. @e oll ioscs scidehory simddlèf `s toufmt aoèly tmrdufm tmc achùa dj Cefl`sm, ot lcost djjìòlly. Oll c`fmt iduetr`cs movc scce

vcry s`fe`jìoet cxpoes`de dj portì`pot`de e pràory chuiot`de e tmc lost hciohc,

oeh orc edw cxpcr`ceièf rop`h cxpoes`de è scidehory chuiot`de. @e tmc idursc

dj tmc cxpoes`de, oll dj tmc iduetr`cs movc cxpcr`ceich prdblcas dj tcoimcr sup-

ply, wmìm tmcy movc ohhrcssch è o vor`cty dj woys èiluhèf èircosèf iloss s`zc

oeh rciru`tèf uetroèch tcoimcrs.

Xmc `ssucs rcvcolch by tmc stuh`cs orc cxoaèch uehcr j`vc mcohèfs. Xmc j`rst

port s ideicrech w`tm tmc pdlì`cs jdr tcoimcr prdv`s`de, oeh cxpldrcs tcoimcr sup-

ply, hcpldyacet, oeh ut`l`zot`de. ôrt twd cxoaècs mdw tcoimcrs orc prcporch,lddgèf ot bdtm prc-scrvìc oeh e-scrvìc troèèf dj tcoimcrs. Xmc tm`rh port lddgs



@etrdhuit`de • ?3

ot tmc tcoimcrs‐ prdjcss`deol l`jc ojtcr è`tòl troèèf, oeh cxoaècs tmc `ssucs dj

tcoimcr aoeofcacet oeh iorccr struiturc. ôrt jdur `s ideicrech w`tm tmc jèoei-

èf dj tcoimcrs. Jèolly, tmc lost scit`de prdv`hcs oe dvcrv`cw dj tmcsc `ssucs oeh

m`fml`fmts sdac dj tmc prda`sèf pdlìy dpt`des.

Xm`s bddg `s ètcehch td scrvc tmrcc purpdscs. J`rst, os o rcpdrt, `t `s ètcehch

td prdv`hc o systcaotì idaporot`vc oeolys`s dj o scr`cs dj ssucs rclotèf td tcoimcr

pdlìy jdueh è tmc c`fmt iosc iduetr`cs. Ycideh os o suppdrt jdr pdlìy aogcrs,

`t `s ètcehch td `hcet`jy prda`sèf proitìcs oeh pdtcetòl h`jjìult`cs, oeh `llus-

trotc pdlìy oltcreot`vcs w`tmè tmc ioscs. Xm`rhly, os o rcjcrceic, `t `s ètcehch td

prdv`hc cosy oiicss td idaporot`vc èjdraot`de de spci`jì `ssucs.

IDEXC]X; XCOIMCRY OEH XRCEHY Xmc c`fmt chuiot`de systcas cxoaèch è tm`s stuhy wcrc drfoe`zch è h`jjcrcet

woys, os smdwe è j`furc ?.?. Xmc dvcroll pràory oeh scidehory chuiot`de iyilc

èvdlvch o tdtol dj ?2 ycors è adst ioscs, but Sfoeho moh ?9 ycors, oeh [oez`bor

?8. Xmc pràory chuiot`de pmosc, olsd iollch ldwcr bosì, dr clcacetory, roefch

jrda j`vc ycors è Cr`trco td c`fmt ycors è Aolow`, but wos adrc jrcqucetly s`x dr

scvce ycors.

@e adst ioscs, tmc pmosc dj scidehory chuiot`de idulh bc h`v`hch ètd twd

ports, wmìm aoy bc ides`hcrch o kue`dr oeh sce`dr iyilc dj scidehory chuiot`de.

Mdwcvcr, tmc cxtcet td wmìm tmcsc orc scporotch vor`ch o fddh hcol. @e Cr`trco,tmcrc wcrc h`stèit a`hhlc simddl oeh scidehory simddls, w`tm scporotc bu`lhèfs

oeh tcoimcrs. @e Aolow`, bdtm pmoscs dj scidehory chuiot`de wcrc edraolly djjcrch

è tmc soac èst`tut`des oeh tcoimcrs jrcqucetly toufmt o a`x dj ilosscs.

Jdr oll dj tmc iduetr`cs, tmc ycors jrda 2>>> td 2>>: wcrc o pcr`dh dj frdwèf

cerdllacet. Os toblc ?.? `llustrotcs, tmc euabcrs dj stuhcets rdsc ot oll lcvcls, but

tmc jostcst pcricetofc frdwtm wos ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. @e Xmc Foabò, ldwcr

bosì cerdllacet frcw ?= pcricet è tm`s s`x-ycor pcr`dh, wm`lc scidehory cerdll-

acet frcw 02 pcricet.

Cerdllacet rotcs vor`ch, but wcrc s`fe`jìoetly m`fmcr ot tmc pràory tmoe ot tmcscidehory lcvcl. Xmc frdss cerdllacet rotc (FCR) jdr pràory chuiot`de roefch jrda

62 td ?98, w`tm jdur dj tmc iduetr`cs movèf FCR dvcr ?>> (toblc ?.2). Ycidehory

cerdllacet rotcs wcrc auim ldwcr, portìulorly jdr uppcr scidehory.

Xoblc ?.9 smdws tmot tmc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d (^XR) olsd vor`ch w`hcly. L`bcrò

oeh [oez`bor moh pràory ^XRs uehcr 8>, wm`lc Aolow` moh o ^XR dj 6:. Fcecrolly,

tmc ^XR wos m`fmcr è pràory simddls tmoe ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. @e Aolow` tmc

pràory ^XR wos 6:, but tmc scidehory ^XR wos 2?. @e Lcsdtmd tmc j`furcs wcrc 83

oeh 2:, rcspcit`vcly.

Adst iduetr`cs moh s`fe`jìoet euabcrs dj tcoimcrs wmd wcrc edt ides`hcrchquol`j`ch by ldiol stoehorhs (`.c., mdlhèf tmc icrt`jìot`de rcqu`rch è tmc iduetry td



J`furc ?.? Pcors dj Yimddlèf è ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Chuiot`de

? :

? 2 9 8 3 : 6 = 0 ?> ??

Cr`trco Clcacetory A`hhlc

Frohcs

^ràory/Bosì

A`hhlc/uppcr bosì/Kue`dr m`fm

Ycidehory

Edt opplìoblc

Ycidehory

Foabò, Xmc Ldwcr bosì Sppcr bosì Yce`dr scideho

Lcsdtmd ^ràory Ycidehory*

L`bcrò ^ràory Kue`dr m`fm Yce`dr m`fm

Aolow` ^ràory Ycidehory

Sfoeho ^ràory Ycidehory

[oabò Ldwcr bosì Sppcr bosì Ycidehory

[oez`bor ^ràory DYI oeh kue`dr scidehory**

Yduric; Hoto jdr tm`s j`furc‘oeh, td o lorfc cxtcet, jdr tmc rcaoèèf j`furcwcrc idllcitch os port dj tmc rcscorim è tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs è tmc stuhy. Sesduric aotcròl jdr oll dj tmc fropmìs s tmc dr`fèol hoto, idap`lch by tmc oEdtcs; *@e Lcsdtmd, pràory chuiot`de, oeh tmc j`rst tmrcc ycors dj scidehorybc port dj bosì chuiot`de.**@e [oez`bor, tmc j`rst ycor dj kue`dr scidehory, gedwe os tmc Dr`cetot`de Yobdl`smch, rchuièf tmc kue`dr scidehory iyilc td jdur ycors.



@etrdhuit`de • ?6

Xoblc ?.? Frdwtm è Ytuhcet Cerdllacet, 2>>>’>:

2>>> 2>>: @eircosc % @eircosc

Foabò, Xmc, ldwcr bosì ?38,::8 ?=2,>33 26,90? ?=

Foabò, Xmc, uppcr bosì 96,=9? :9,=82 2:,>?? :0

Foabò, Xmc, scidehory ?8,=36 2=,393 ?9,:6= 02

Aolow` pràory 9,>?:,062 9,2=>,6?8 2:9,682 0

Aolow` scidehory ?:8,830 2?=,9?> 39,=3? 99

Sfoeho pràory :,330,>?9 6,228,6:? ::3,68= ?>

Sfoeho scidehory 3?=,09? =?8,>=6 203,?3: 36

[oabò ldwcr bosì ?,:99,202 2,380,8=? 0?:,?=0 3:

[oabò uppcr bosì ?69,8:2 20=,863 ?23,>?9 62

[oabò scidehory ?>2,=90 ?09,62: 0>,==6 ==

Xoblc ?.2 Frdss Cerdllacet Rotcs è tmc C`fmt Iduetr`cs Ytuh`ch

Pcor dj hoto ^ràory Ldwcr scidehory/a`hhlc simddl Sppcr scidehory

Cr`trco 2>>8’>3 62 8= 28

Foabò, Xmc 2>>3’>: =3 30 93

Lcsdtmd 2>>: ?26 8>o

L`bcrò 2>>: =6b 92b ??b

Aolow` 2>>: ?22 2>o

Sfoeho 2>>: ??2 22o

[oabò 2>>6 ?98 3= 23

[oez`bor 2>>: 08 8> :

o. Ycidehory

b. Cstàotch

Xoblc ?.9 ûp`l-Xcoimcr Rot`d è tmc C`fmt Iduetr`cs Ytuh`chHoto ycor oeh edtcs ^ràory Ldwcr scidehory Sppcr scidehory

Cr`trco 2>>8’>3 (publì simddls) 39 :9 3>

Foabò, Xmc 2>>3’>: (oll simddls) 8? 26 92

Lcsdtmd 2>>3 (oll simddls) 83 2:o

L`bcrò 2>>: (oll simddls) 92 6.: 6

Aolow` 2>>: (oll simddls) 6: 2?o

Sfoeho 2>>: (oll simddls) 8= ?0o

[oabò 2>>: (oll simddls) 38b 2>

[oez`bor 2>>: (oll simddls) 93 20o

o. Ycidehory

b. ^ràory/ldwcr scidehory



?= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

bc ides`hcrch o quol`j`ch tcoimcr). @e sdac ioscs, tmc frcotcst usc dj uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs wos ot tmc pràory lcvcl. @e Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd, oeh Sfoeho, ot lcost dec-

tm`rh dj pràory tcoimcrs wcrc uequol`j`ch (toblc ?.8). @e dtmcrs tmc prdblca wos

adst oiutc ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. @e Cr`trco 63 pcricet dj a`hhlc simddl tcoimcrs

wcrc uequol`j ch, oeh è Aolow` :0 pcricet dj scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc uequol`j ch.

Ottcehoeic dj f`rls è Ojrìo `s fcecrolly ldwcr tmoe tmot dj bdys (FAR 2>>=).

Xmcrc orc strdef èhìot`des tmot tmc prcsceic dj jcaolc tcoimcrs `s oe àpdrtoet

joitdr è ceidurofèf cerdllacet by f`rls, bdtm by prdv`hèf o rdlc adhcl, oeh by

aogèf simddls sojcr jdr f`rls (SECYID-CJO 2>>9). @e tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy idue-tr`cs, tmc fcehcr pottcre vor`ch. @e Lcsdtmd oeh [oez`bor, tmc aokdr`ty dj pràory

tcoimcrs wcrc jcaolc (toblc ?.3), wm`lc e tmc dtmcr s`x iduetr`cs tmc aokdr`ty wcrc

aolc. @e oll ioscs, tmcrc wcrc jcwcr jcaolc tcoimcrs è tmc scidehory simddls tmoe

è tmc pràory simddls, oeh dely Lcsdtmd moh o aokdr`ty dj jcaolc tcoimcrs ot tmc

scidehory lcvcl.

@e ohh`t`de, è sdac iduetr`cs M@Z èjcit`de rotcs orc m`fm, oeh prcscet jur-

tmcr imollcefcs. Rotcs dj èjcit`de vory w`hcly, oeh hoto orc clus`vc, os tmc eoturc

dj tmc h`scosc oeh ott`tuhcs tdworh `t prcvcet dpce rcpdrtèf dj èjcit`de.

Xoblc ?.: suaaor`zcs tmc èjdraot`de tmc stuhy wos oblc td idllcit. @e Lcsdtmd,

[oabò, oeh Aolow`, tmc ohult èjcit`de rotcs orc m`fm, cxicchèf ?3 pcricet.

Xoblc ?.8 Euabcr dj Xcoimcrs oeh tmc ^rdpdrt`de Vmd Vcrc _uol`j`ch

^ràory, clcacetory Ldwcr scidehory Sppcr scidehory

Ed. dj % Ed. dj % Ed. dj %

tcoimcrs _uol j`ch tcoimcrs _uol j`ch tcoimcrs _uol j`ch

Cr`trco 6,?38 =3 2,?0= 23 ?,3?> =2

Foabò, Xmc 8,866 :> 2,9=3 6> =83 =0

Lcsdtmd ?>,?62 :? 9,3:0 :> ‘ ‘

L`bcrò 2:,?== 9= ?2,936 8= 8,39: 3:

Aolow` 89,?06 0> ?>,9=: 9? ‘ ‘

Sfoeho ?3>,?93 :6 82,:69 6: ‘ ‘

[oabò 3>,:?3 =8 ‘ ‘ =,8:? ?2

[oez`bor 3,6=? =3 2,8=> 3= ‘ ‘

Ydurics;

Cr`trco, Chuiot`de Aoeofcacet @ejdraot`de Yystca (CA@Y) 2>>8’>3, publì simddls.

Xmc Foabò, CA@Y 2>>3’>:, oll simddls.

Lcsdtmd, CA@Y 2>>3, oll simddls. Lcsdtmd hdcs edt h`stèfu`sm bctwcce ldwcr oeh uppcr scidehory tcoimcrs7

tmc j`furcs smdwe orc jdr oll scidehory, Jdras O’C.

L`bcrò, CA@Y hoto 2>>:, oll simddls.

Aolow`, CA@Y hoto 2>>:, oll simddls. Hoto hd edt scporotc uppcr oeh ldwcr scidehory lcvcls.

Sfoeho, CA@Y hoto 2>>:, Hoto hd edt scporotc uppcr oeh ldwcr scidehory lcvcls.

[oabò, CA@Y 2>>:. Edtc tmot uppcr bosì tcoimcrs orc edt h`stèfu`smch jrda ldwcr bosì (pràory) tcoimcrs.

[oez`bor, CA@Y 2>>:, publì simddls. Edtc tmot wm`lc 3=% dj scidehory tcoimcrs orc quol`j`ch, dely 0% movc o hcfrcc,

wmìm `s rcqu`rch td tcoim jdras 9’:.

‘ Edt opplìoblc.



@etrdhuit`de • ?0

Xmcsc m`fm èjcit`de rotcs orc rcjlcitch è m`fm lcvcls dj tcoimcr hcotms, oeh è

obsceic rcsultèf jrda `llecss.

Xmcsc toblcs oeh hoto prdv`hc oe llustrot`de dj tmc imollcefcs dj cesurèf quol ty

tcoimèf e cvcry ilossrdda. Vm`lc tmcsc iduetr`cs movc vor`ch systcas oeh struiturcs,

oll orc cxpcr`ceièf cxpoes`de dj cerdllacet oeh orc cxpcitèf td cxpoeh jurtmcr,

w`tm tmc adst rop`h frdwtm ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. @e prcporèf jdr tm`s cxpoes`de,

tmcy olsd joic imollcefcs or`sèf jrda tmc cx`stèf s`tuot`de, èiluhèf lorfc iloss s`zcs

è sdac s`tuot`des, lorfc euabcrs dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs è dtmcrs, oeh ohh`t`deol

imollcefcs è ohhrcssèf tmc fcehcr àboloeic oeh tmc M@Z poehcaì.

Xoblc ?.: Yuaaory dj M@Z Hoto Rclotch td Xcoimcrs

Cr`trco Ed hoto de M@Z stotus dj tcoimcrs.

Eot`deol èjcit`de rotc cstàotch ot 2’9 pcricet.

Foab o, Xmc Ed hoto de M@Z stotus dj tcoimcrs.

Eot`deol èjcit`de rotc cstàotch ot ?.2 pcricet.

Lcsdtmd Cstàotcs dj M@Z prcvolceic oadef tcoimcrs roefc jrda 22 pcricet td 26 pcricet.

Oet` Rctrdv`rol Xrcotacet `s prdv`hch jrcc td oll i`t`zces tmrdufm tmc mcoltm scrvìc.

L bcr o M@Z prcvolceic rotc jdr tmc ?3’80 ofc frdup wos cst aotch ot 2’3 pcricet.

Aolow` @ejcit`de rotc oadef tcoimcrs s cstàotch ot ?3’23 pcricet.

Oet` Rctrdv`rol Xrcotacet `s prdv`hch jrcc tmrdufm publì mdsp`tols.

Sfoeho @ejcit de rotc cst aotch ot :.8 pcricet e tmc fcecrol pdpulot de. Xmcrc s ed spci j i èjdr-

aot`de de tcoimcr èjcit`de rotcs.

[oab o Ohult èjcit`de rotc cstàotch ot ?: pcricet. @e vdluetory tcst ef dj tcoimcrs è 2>>3’>:,

?= pcricet dj tmdsc wmd wcrc tcstch wcrc jdueh td bc M@Z pds`t`vc. Xcoimcr adrtol`ty (jrda

oll iouscs) mos bcce r`sèf. @e 2>>:, =62 bosì chuiot`de tcoimcrs h`ch, ?.6 pcricet dj tmc

wdrgjdric. @e tmc soac ycor ?:: m`fm simddl tcoimcrs h`ch, ?.0 pcricet dj tmc tdtol.

[oez`bor Ed hoto ovo`loblc de tcoimcr ejcit`de rotcs.

Xoblc ?.3 ^cricetofc dj Xcoimcrs Vmd Vcrc Jcaolc

^ràory, Ldwcr Sppcr

Hoto ycor oeh edtcs clcacetory scidehory scidehory

Cr`trco 2>>8’>3 (publì simddls) 8> ?> ?9

Foabò, Xmc 2>>3’>: (oll simddls) 98 ?= ?2

Lcsdtmd 2>>3 (oll simddls) 6= 3:o ‘

L`bcrò 2>>: (oll simddls) 20 ?= ?8

Aolow` 2>>: (oll simddls) 9= ?0o ‘

Sfoeho 2>>: (oll simddls) 90 22o ‘

[oabò 2>>: (oll simddls) 8=b ‘ 8>

[oez`bor 2>>: (oll simddls) 6> 9:o ‘

o. Ycidehoryb. ^ràory/ldwcr scidehory



2> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

EDXC

?. [oez`bor `s port dj tmc Se`tch Rcpublì dj Xoezoeò. Mdwcvcr, `t rctoès ides`hcroblc

outdeday dvcr `ts ètcreol ojjo`rs. Oiidrhèf td tmc Idest`tut`de dj tmc Se`tch Rcpublì dj

Xoezoeò, bdtm pràory oeh scidehory chuiot`de orc tmc rcspdes`b`l ty dj tmc [oez`bor

Fdvcreacet wm`lc tcrtòry chuiot`de `s o “ue`de aottcr.‑ Jdr tmc sogc dj sàplì`ty,

[oez`bor `s trcotch os o iduetry iosc stuhy tmrdufmdut tm`s rcpdrt.



Xcoimcr ^rdv`s`de

ÔRX @





29

Xcoimcr Yupply

IMO^XCR 2

ôrtì`pot`de è chuiot`de è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo mos èircosch hroaotìolly è rcicet ycors, oeh tmc rcf`de mos tmc jostcst frdwtm è simddl cerdllacet

dj oey rcf`de (S@Y 2>>:). Xmcrc orc edw adrc im`lhrce è simddl de tmc

idetècet tmoe ot oey dtmcr tàc è m`stdry. Xm`s rop`h cxpoes`de `s ircotèf o

rcqu`rcacet jdr èircosèf euabcrs dj tcoimcrs, oeh è adst iduetr`cs tmc sup-

ply `s edt èircosèf rop`hly cedufm td prcvcet smdrtofcs. @e idetrost td trcehs è

dtmcr wdrlh rcf`des, pup`l-tcoimcr rot`ds movc bcce r`sèf è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo

sèic ?00? (S@Y 2>>:).

@e oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs tmcrc wos o a`saotim bctwcce tmc rcqu`rcacet

jdr ecw tcoimcrs oeh tmc iurrcet dutput dj ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e adst ioscs

tm`s mos rcsultch è tcoimcr smdrtofcs7 è o jcw ioscs, mdwcvcr, tmcrc wos o s`fe`j`-

ioet dvcrsupply dj tcoimcrs, but smdrtofcs è spci`jì spciòl`zot`des. Xm`s rcjlcits

wcog systcas jdr ploeeèf oeh rcfulot ef tcoimcr supply. Edec dj tmc iduetr`cs mos

o rdbust systca jdr ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottr`t`de oeh wostofc, jdrciostèf tcoimcr

rcqu`rcacets, dr usèf tmcsc hoto td ohkust ètogc ètd troèèf prdfroas.

Xmc èohcquotc supply dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs mos rcsultch, è adst ioscs, è

lorfc-siolc usc dj uequol`j`ch pràory tcoimcrs. @e aoey ioscs tmc smdrtofc dj

iopoi`ty è è`tòl tcoimcr troèèf `s suim tmot tmcrc `s l`ttlc oltcreot`vc td idetèuch

rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs è tmc achùa tcra.

@e oll dj tmcsc ioscs, scidehory chuiot`de mos bcce cxpoehèf adrc rop`hly

tmoe pràory chuiot`de, w`tm rcsultèf prcssurc jdr ohh`t`deol scidehory tcoimcrs.

@e o jcw ioscs, hdacstì scidehory tcoimcr supply wos sd là`tch tmot tmc iduetry

wos hcpcehoet de cxpotròtc tcoimcrs jdr sdac subkcits. Ycidehory tcoimcr supply

`s adrc prdblcaotì, os `t èvdlvcs troèèf tmc rcqu`rch euabcr dj tcoimcrs è

coim subkcit dj spciòl`zot`de. @e adst iduetr`cs tcoimcrs troè jdr twd subkcits, but

djtce prcjcr td jurtmcr spciòl`zc è oe ohh`t`deol subkcit. Vm`lc adst iduetr`cs

cxpcit o hcfrcc-lcvcl quol`jìot`de ot lcost jdr uppcr scidehory tcoimcrs, jcw movc

oe ohcquotc supply dj frohuotc tcoimcrs, oeh è proitìc adst scidehory tcoimcrs

movc h`pldao-lcvcl quol`jìot`des.




@e oladst oll ioscs tmcrc wos o adrc oiutc smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs

oeh tmc si`ceics. Xm`s oppcors td bc o iyilìol prdblca, w`tm wcog tcoimèf dj

aotmcaotìs è pràory simddl, oeh subscqucetly è scidehory simddl, rcsultèf

è eot`deol smdrtofcs dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic sg`lls, oeh idescqucet smdrtofcs

dj tcoimcrs dj tmcsc subkcits.

@e sdac dj tmc iduetr`cs, tmc supply dj ecw tcoimcrs wos idestroèch by tmc là-

`tch euabcr dj simddl-lcovcrs w`tm tmc rcqu`rch cetry quol`jìot`des. @e tmcsc ioscs,

tmcrc `s l`ttlc oltcreot`vc td ldwcrèf tmc cetry rcqu`rcacets td tcoimcr troèèf, ot

lcost è tmc smdrt tcra. Xm`s mos àplìot`des jdr bdtm idursc idetcet oeh jdius.

XCOIMCR YMDRXOFCY

Xmc prdblca dj tcoimcr supply mos togce h`jjcrcet jdras è h`jjcrcet iduetr`cs, w`tm àpoits de tmc euabcr dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oeh tmc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`ds

è coim systca.

@e Lcsdtmd, w`tm oe è`tòl surfc è stuhcet euabcrs, tmc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d

èircosch, oiidapoe`ch by oe èircosc è tmc euabcr dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Adrc rcicetly, tmc fdvcreacet mos bcce oblc td rciru`t cxtro tcoimcrs, but tmc prd-

pdrt`de dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs `s st`ll r`sèf. By 2>>6, tmc ^XR moh bcce rchuich

td 82, but dely :> pcricet dj pràory tcoimcrs wcrc quol`j`ch.

@e Aolow`, tmc fdvcreacet pdlìy wos edt td rciru`t uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xmc

supply dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wos edt sujjì`cet cvce td rcploic tmc ldsscs jrda ottr`-t`de, oeh tmc dvcroll euabcr dj pràory tcoimcrs jcll jrda 86,>>> è 2>>> td

89,>>> è 2>>:, wm`lc tmc euabcrs dj pup`ls è simddl idetèuch td èircosc. Os

o rcsult, by 2>>:, adst pràory tcoimcrs wcrc quol`j`ch, but tmc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d

moh r`sce td 6: pup`ls pcr tcoimcr.

@e Sfoeho, tmcrc wos oe è`tòl smdrtofc dj troèch pràory tcoimcrs jdlldwèf

tmc ètrdhuit`de dj ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de (S^C), lcohèf td tmc rciru`tèf

dj uetroèch tcoimcrs. Mdwcvcr, tmc supply dj troèch tcoimcrs mos subscqucetly

èircosch, oeh by 2>>6, tmc aoè idestroèt wos fdvcreacet juehèf td capldy

ohh`t`deol tcoimcrs. @e 2>>:, tmcrc wcrc 8= pup`ls pcr tcoimcr, oeh := pcricet dj tcoimcrs wcrc quol`j`ch.

@e [oabò, jèoeiòl idestroèts prcvcetch tcoimcr rciru`tacet è 2>>2’>9,

ircotèf o lorfc pddl dj uecapldych quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xmc stofeot`de è tmc eua-

bcr dj fdvcreacet tcoimcrs rcsultch è o pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d dj 6: è frohcs ?’8.

A@YAOXIM DJ DSX^SX OEH RC_S@RCACEXY

Xoblc 2.? `llustrotcs tmot, jdr aoey iduetr cs, tmc eot deol dutput dj troèch tcoim-

crs wos pddrly aotimch w`tm tmc rcqu`rcacets dj tmc systca. @e [oez`bor, tmc dut-put dj ecwly troèch pràory tcoimcrs è 2>>6 wos rdufmly 99 pcricet dj tmc tdtol

tcoimèf jdric, rcsultèf e o lorfc dvcrsupply oeh ides`hcroblc jrustrot`de oadef



Xcoimcr Yupply • 23

tmc yduef tcoimcrs wmd wcrc ueoblc td jèh kdbs. @e idetrost, è Lcsdtmd oeh Xmc

Foabò, tmc dutput dj ecwly troèch pràory tcoimcrs wos cquol td dr lcss tmoe

tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs ldst coim ycor td rct`rcacet oeh rcs`feot`de, lcovèf oe

èohcquotc supply td acct iurrcet ecchs dr cxpoes`de è tmc chuiot`de systca.

@e [oabò, tmc pìturc wos adrc idaplcx. Os o rcsult dj tmc m`rèf jrcczc, tmcrc

wos o substoetòl pddl dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wmd moh edt bcce capldych è

tmc tcoimèf scrvìc. Xm`s ircotch o pcricpt`de dj dvcrsupply. Mdwcvcr, oeolys`s dj

tmc prdkcitch euabcrs èhìotch tmot supply wos èohcquotc oeh cvce `j oll dj tmc

boigldf dj troèch tcoimcrs wcrc obsdrbch (ossuaèf tmot tmcy movc edt jduehadrc ottroit`vc wdrg è tmc acoetàc), tmc iduetry wdulh cxpcr`ceic tcoimcr

smdrtofcs w`tmè o jcw ycors.

YMDRXOFCY OX XMC YCIDEHORP LCZCL

V`tm tmc cxpoes`de dj pràory chuiot`de dvcr tmc lost hciohc, tmc euabcr dj stu-

hcets idaplctèf pràory simddl mos eircosch, ircotèf bdtm oe dppdrtue`ty oeh

prcssurc jdr cxpoes`de ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. Jdr aoey dj tmc iduetr`cs è tm`s

stuhy, oeh aoey dtmcrs è tmc rcf`de (Aulgcce ct ol. 2>>6), scidehory chuiot`de`s edw tmc jostcst-frdwèf subscitdr. Xm`s cxpoes`de ot tmc scidehory lcvcl mos

rcsultch è tcoimcr smdrtofcs ot tm`s lcvcl.

Xmcsc tcoimcr smdrtofcs movc rcsultch e èircosèf iloss s zcs è sdac iduetr`cs.

@e Cr`trco, tmc a`hhlc simddl pdpulot`de frcw 8>> pcricet bctwcce ?00> oeh 2>>:

oeh tmc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d èircosch jrda 86 td :9. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc pup`l-

tcoimcr rot`d ot tmc scidehory lcvcl frcw jrda 29 td 9? bctwcce ?000 oeh 2>>:.

Xmc smdrtofc dj scidehory tcoimcrs mos olsd rcsultch è tmc usc dj uequol`j`ch

dr uehcrquol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd dely :> pcricet dj scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc

quol`j`ch, oeh dely molj dj tmc tcoimcrs rciru`tch sèic 2>>> wcrc quol`j`ch. @e[oez`bor dely 30 pcricet dj scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc quol`j`ch. Dj tmcsc, adst moh

o h`pldao quol`jìot`de, wmìm `s ètcehch dely jdr tcoimèf Jdras ? oeh 27 dely

Xoblc 2.? Dutput dj ^ràory Xcoimcrs os o cricetofc dj tmc ^ràory Xcoimcr Euabcrs

Ecwly troèch Xcoimcr dutput os o Edtcs de

Euabcr dj tcoimcrs pcricetofc dj tmc tcoimcr

pràory tcoimcrs coim ycor tcoimèf jdric dutput hotoCr`trco 6,?38 :88 0.> 2>>:’>6

Foabò, Xmc 8,866 23: 3.6 2>>:

Lcsdtmd ?>,?62 22> 2.2 2>>:

L`bcrò 2:,?== :3> 2.3 Ecw idursc

Aolow` 89,?06 2,880 3.6 @etogc 2>>:

Sfoeho ?3>,?93 :,620 8.3 @etogc 2>>:

[oabò 3>,:?3 2,00> 3.0 Dutput 2>>3

[oez`bor 3,6=? ?,0>6 99.> Dutput 2>>6



2: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

0 pcricet dj tmc scidehory tcoimcrs moh o hcfrcc, wmìm `s tmc rcqu`rch quol`jìo-

t`de jdr tcoimèf tmc uppcr scidehory ilosscs.

S^VORH A@FROX@DE

Dec dj tmc idescquceics dj tm`s smdrtofc mos bcce tmc a`frot`de dj tcoimcrs

troèch jdr tmc pràory lcvcl ètd scidehory simddls. @e sdac iduetr`cs tmc siolc

dj tm`s a`frot`de `s vcry s`fe`jìoet. @e Cr`trco, :: pcricet dj tmc a`hhlc simddl

tcoimcrs è fdvcreacet simddls wcrc dely quol`j`ch ot tmc clcacetory lcvcl. @e

Aolow`, :?.3 pcricet dj tmc tcoimcrs è scidehory simddls wcrc oituolly quol`j`ch

os pràory tcoimcrs. Xmcsc pràory tcoimcrs wcrc adst djtce è tmc ecwly cstob-

l`smch Idaaue`ty Hoy Ycidehory Yimddls (IHYY), wmìm è sdac ioscs moh ed

quol`j`ch scidehory tcoimcrs ot oll. Xm`s lorfc-siolc a`frot`de jrda pràory td scidehory tcoimèf w`tmdut ohh`-

t`deol quol`jìot`des mos o euabcr dj aplìot`des. J`rst, t rcsults e o ldss dj quol-

`j`ch tcoimcrs jrda tmc pràory lcvcl, wmcrc tmcy w`ll djtce bc rcploich by

uetroèch tcoimcrs. Ycidehly tmc tcoimcrs wmd a`frotc orc pddrly troèch jdr sci-

dehory tcoimèf, portìulorly è v`cw dj tmc pottcre dj subkcit spciòl`zot`de oeh

è sdac ioscs tmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de. @e Cr`trco, jdr cxoaplc, clcacetory

tcoimcrs orc troèch td tcoim oll dj tmc subkcits è tmc iurrìulua è tmc adtmcr

tdefuc, wm`lc a`hhlc simddl tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim dec dr twd subkcits, è

Cefl`sm. @e Aolow` os wcll, pràory tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim oll subkcits, wm`lc tmc scidehory tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td bc spciòl`sts.

Xmc adrc obuehoet dppdrtue`t`cs ot tmc scidehory lcvcl olsd lcoh pràory

tcoimcrs td sccg td upfrohc tmc`r quol`jìot`des w`tm o v`cw td advèf td tmc sci-

dehory lcvcl. Xm`s ioe movc o s`fe`jìoet àpoit de tmc euabcrs è pràory tcoim-

èf. Xmc oeeuol ètogc td upfrohèf prdfroas `s cqu`volcet td obdut o quortcr dj

tmc euabcr dj pràory tcoimcrs troèch oeeuolly è [oabò, oeh oladst molj dj

tmc dutput dj pràory tcoimcr troèèf è Xmc Foabò.

Spworh a`frot`de tmrdufm ohh`t`deol quol`jìot`des mos bdtm ecfot`vc oeh

pds`t`vc idescquceics. @t hdcs hrow sdac dj tmc quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, prdbobly tmcbcst chuiotch, jrda pràory simddls. Mdwcvcr, tmc dppdrtue`ty jdr prdfrcss`de

aoy oit os oe èicet`vc jdr è`tòl cetry td tmc prdjcss`de, oeh os o adt`vot`de jdr

tcoimcrs td uehcrtogc jurtmcr stuhy. Vmcrc tmc upfrohèf idurscs orc prdv`hch

wm`lc tcoimcrs rcaoè è tmc ilossrdda, tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj è-scrvìc dppdrtue`t`cs

aoy èircosc rctcet`de dj tcoimcrs, ot lcost jdr tmc pcr`dh dj stuhy.

C]ÔXR@OXC XCOIMCRY

@e o jcw dj tmc ioscs e tmc stuhy, eohcquotc tcoimcr supply moh rcsultch e hcpceh-ceic de cxpotròtc tcoimcrs. @e Cr`trco, cxpotròtcs wcrc hcl`bcrotcly rciru`tch td




ohhrcss sg`lls smdrtofcs, oeh wcrc po`h s`fe`jìoetly adrc tmoe eot`deol tcoimcrs.

Xmc cxpotròtcs, aoèly jrda @ehò, wcrc tcoimèf è scidehory simddls, aoèly

è aotmcaotìs, si`ceics, oeh èjdraot`de oeh idaaueìot`des tcimedldfy. Xmc

oeeuol idst dj coim cxpotròtc tcoimcr wos opprdxàotcly S.Y.$?8,>>>, èiluhèf

solory oeh dtmcr bcecj`ts‘adrc tmoe ?> tàcs tmc idst dj oe Cr`trcoe scidehory

tcoimcr.

Jdr dtmcr iduetr`cs, tmc cxpotròtc tcoimcrs wcrc po`h ot tmc soac rotc os eot`de-

ols. @e bdtm Xmc Foabò oeh L`bcrò, cxpotròtcs, aoèly jrda dtmcr Vcst Ojrìoe

iduetr`cs, wcrc capldych os scidehory tcoimcrs, rcjlcitèf bdtm tmc eohcquoiy dj

hdacstì tcoimcr supply oeh tmc èstob`l`ty è sdac dj tmc ec`fmbdrèf iduetr`cs.

A`frot`de dj tcoimcrs aoy mclp ohhrcss tcapdrory tcoimcr smdrtofcs dr surpluscs

è ec`fmbdrèf iduetr`cs. Ydac [oabòe tcoimcrs, ueoblc td jèh kdbs jdlldwèf

o fdvcreacet m`rèf-jrcczc è 2>>2’2>>9, a`frotch td Bdtswoeo, ohhrcssèf Bdtswoeo‐s àachòtc ecch jdr tcoimcrs (Opplctde, Y`vcs, oeh Adrfoe 2>>:).

Mdwcvcr, cidedaì a`frot`de dj tcoimcrs tcehs td iousc smdrtofcs è ldwcr-

èidac iduetr`cs ecorby. Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, `s vulecroblc td ldss dj cxpcrt`sc

td Ydutm Ojrìo, wmcrc tcoimcr poy `s m`fmcr. Mceic, tcoimcr smdrtofcs è Ydutm

Ojrìo tceh td rcsult e a`frot`de dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs jrda Lcsdtmd, w`tm tmc bur-

hce dj troèèf rcploicacet tcoimcrs jollèf de tmc ldwcr-èidac ec`fmbdr.

Hcpcehceic de cxpotròtc tcoimcrs aoy olsd lcovc mdst iduetr`cs vulecroblc td

jluituot`des è supply. @e Xmc Foabò, ot tmc tàc dj tm`s stuhy, tmcrc moh bcce

m`fm ottr`t`de os tcoimcrs jrda Y`crro Lcdec rcturech mdac jdlldwèf tmc àprdvc-acet dj tmc sciur`ty s`tuot`de è tmot iduetry.

YSBKCIX-Y^CI@J@I YMDRXOFCY

Cvce wmce tmcrc wcrc sujjì`cet tcoimcrs è obsdlutc euabcrs, tmcrc wcrc jrc-

qucetly smdrtofcs dj scidehory tcoimcrs jdr spci`jì subkcits, portìulorly aotmc-

aotìs, si`ceic, oeh td sdac cxtcet ètcreot`deol loefuofcs. Yà`lor smdrtofcs movc

bcce dbscrvch è Jroeidpmdec Ojrìoe iduetr`cs, w`tm tmc rcsult tmot subkcits orc

sdactàcs edt toufmt, dr toufmt dely by edesubkcit spciòl`sts (Io`lldhs 2>>?). Xmcsc smdrtofcs aoy wcogce stuhcet pcrjdraoeic, os rcscorim mos smdwe tmot

oss`feèf tcoimcrs td idurscs è wmìm tmcy orc edt troèch td tcoim ecfot`vcly

ojjcits stuhcet oim`cvcacet (S@Y 2>>:).

Xypìolly, tmc frcotcst smdrtofc wos è tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. @e

Xmc Foabò, tmc muaoe rcsdurics hotobosc rcidrhch tmot è 2>>6, 9= pcricet dj

uppcr bosì tcoimcrs wcrc quol`j`ch td tcoim sdiòl oeh cev`rdeacetol stuh`cs

(YCY), but dely ?6 pcricet wcrc quol`j`ch td tcoim aotmcaotìs, hcsp`tc tmc joit

tmot bdtm orc idrc subkcits. @e Lcsdtmd dec scidehory simddl rcpdrtch tmot `t moh

dely dec opplìoet jdr o rcicetly ohvcrt`sch aotmcaotìs pdst, idaporch w`tmopprdxàotcly 9> opplìoets jdr o muaoe`t`cs pdst.



2= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Xmcsc smdrtofcs rcjlcit subkcit àboloeics è tcoimcr troèèf. @e Lcsdtmd, dely

= pcricet dj tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs è 2>>: wcrc stuhyèf aotmcaotìs os dec dj tmc`r

twd tcoimèf subkcits, wm`lc 86 pcricet wcrc stuhyèf Cefl`sm. @e Sfoeho, dely

?3 pcricet dj tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs togce è td tmc eot`deol tcoimcrs idllcfcs (EXIs)

è 2>>3’>: wcrc stuhyèf aotmcaotìs os dec dj tmc`r twd tcoimèf subkcits,

oltmdufm aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceics oiiduetch jdr 8> pcricet dj iurrìulua tàc.

Xmc prdblca dj pddr tcoimcr sg`lls è aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics wos edt

idejèch td tmc scidehory lcvcl. @e [oez`bor, wmcrc pràory tcoimcrs spciòl`zc,

aotmcaotìs tcoimcrs wcrc è smdrt supply. Ecorly molj dj oll pràory tcoimcrs moh

o quol`jìot`de td tcoim G`swom`l`, but dely ?: pcricet moh o quol`jìot`de td tcoim

aotmcaotìs. @e proitìc, aotmcaotìs wos djtce toufmt by tcoimcrs w`tmdut o

aotmcaotìs quol`jìot`de.

Xmc àpoit dj pddr aotmcaotìs sg`ll wos olsd jclt è iduetr`cs wmcrc pràory tcoimcrs hd edt spciòl`zc. @e Lcsdtmd, èspcit`de rcpdrts suffcstch tmot sdac pr`-

aory tcoimcrs wcrc edt tcoimèf tmc rcqu`rch aotmcaotìs bciousc tmcy tmca-

sclvcs h`h edt movc tmc rcqu`rch gedwlchfc.

YIMDDL LCOZCRY OY O IDEYXRO@EX DE XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

@e o jcw dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tcoimcr supply wos idestroèch by tmc smdrt-

ofc dj simddl lcovcrs quol`j`ch td togc up tmc ploics è tcoimcr troèèf idurscs.

Xypìolly tmc bcst-quol`j`ch simddl lcovcrs tddg up ploics è tmc ue`vcrs`t`cs, oehtmc cetroets td tcoimcr troèèf wcrc hrowe jrda tmdsc w`tm sujjì`cet quol`jìo-

t`des jdr tcoimcr troèèf, but w`tmdut frohcs fddh cedufm td core o ue`vcrs`ty

ploic. @e Lcsdtmd oeh Xmc Foabò, tmc rclot`vcly saoll dutput jrda scidehory

simddl, oeh rclot`vcly lorfc ue`vcrs`ty etogc lcjt èsujjì`cet ioeh`hotcs jdr tcoimcr

troèèf, wm`lc tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs wcrc ueoblc td j`ll tmc ovo`loblc ploics

è pràory tcoimcr troèèf.

@e Lcsdtmd, dely 9,3>> stuhcets possch tmc IDYI (simddl lcovèf cxoaèot`de)

è 2>>3, oeh dely ?,83> oim`cvch o h`v`s`de ? dr 2, tmc edraol rcqu`rcacet jdr

cetry td m`fmcr chuiot`de. Xmc Eot`deol Se`vcrs`ty dj Lcsdtmd moh cxpoehch `tsètogc td ?,88>, obsdrbèf oladst oll dj tmdsc w`tm tmc cxpcitch quol`jìot`des. Xmc

tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc, tmc Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuiot`de, oiicptch tmdsc w`tm o

h`v`s`de 9 poss, prdv`hch tmcy moh possch Cefl`sm, but wos ueoblc td j`ll oll dj tmc

ovo`loblc ploics. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc dec eot`deol tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc, Foabò

Idllcfc, wos ueoblc td j`ll tmc ploics è `ts pràory tcoimcr idursc è oey ycor

bctwcce 2>>? oeh 2>>: bciousc dj èsujjì`cet quol`j`ch opplìoets (toblc 2.2).

@e Cr`trco, tmc cxpoes`de dj tmc Cr`trco @est`tutc dj Xcimedldfy moh rcsultch è

o rchuit`de dj tmc cxoaèot`de sidrcs rcqu`rch td cetcr oe èst`tut`de dj m`fmcr

chuiot`de. Xm`s è ture rcsultch è o rchuit`de è tmc cetry rcqu`rcacet td tmctroèèf jdr clcacetory simddls tcoimcrs ot tmc Osaoro Xcoimcr Chuiot`de @est`tutc




(OXC@). Ecw cetroets td OXC@ è 2>>6 typìolly moh FÔ sidrcs dj dely >.: dr >.=

(dut dj o aoxàua dj 3). @e cjjcit, tm`s acoes tmot sdac dj tmc ecwly cerdllch

stuhcet tcoimcrs aoy movc jo`lch twd dj tmc`r bcst j`vc subkcits oeh oim`cvch dely

tmc ldwcst possèf frohc è tmc dtmcr tmrcc.

Xm`s idestroèt td ètogc oeh quol`ty wos edt jdueh è cvcry iosc. Ydac idue-tr`cs moh substoetòlly frcotcr euabcrs lcovèf scidehory simddl tmoe idulh bc

obsdrbch è pdst-scidehory chuiot`de oeh tcoimcr troèèf. @e [oabò è 2>>3,

29,>>> stuhcets possch tmc frohc ?2 cxoaèot`de w`tm 3 irch`ts eiluhèf Cefl`sm,

wm`lc tmc tdtol ètogc ètd tmc ue`vcrs`ty wos opprdxàotcly 2,>>> oeh tmc cetry

ètd prc-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf wos uehcr 6,>>>. Os o rcsult, tmcrc wcrc adrc

opplìoets tmoe ploics, oeh cetry wos idapct`t`vc.

Sfoeho olsd moh ohcquotc euabcrs dj quol`j`ch opplìoets, oeh tmcrc wos

idapct`t`vc cetry td ploics è bdtm ue`vcrs`t`cs oeh è tcoimcr troèèf. @e 2>>:,

83,390 stuhcets oim`cvch twd dr adrc prèi`pol posscs è tmc Sfoeho OhvoeichIcrt`jìotc dj Chuiot`de (SOIC), tmc rcqu`rch stoehorh jdr cetry td tmc eot`deol

tcoimcrs idllcfcs (EXI) td troè os o scidehory tcoimcr. Xm`s wos jor è cxicss dj

tmc etogc etd ue`vcrs`t`cs oeh EXIs. Cetry td tmc pràory tcoimcr idllcfcs (^XIs)

wos bosch aoèly de pcrjdraoeic è tmc D-lcvcl (kue`dr scidehory) cxoaèot`de,

wmcrc tmcrc wcrc cvce lorfcr euabcrs dj quol`j`ch opplìoets.

YMDRXOFC DJ YXSHCEX XCOIMCRY @E AOXMCAOX@IY OEH YI@CEIC;

XMC Z@I@DSY IPILC

Xmc supply dj simddl lcovcrs w`tm tmc opprdpròtc quol`jìot`des `s djtce oe cvce

adrc scr`dus idestroèt de tmc troèèf dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimcrs. @e

[oez`bor tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs orc rcstrìtch è tmc`r ob`l`ty td troè aotmc-

aotìs tcoimcrs bciousc dj tmc smdrtofc dj cetroets w`tm cvce o poss è aotmcaot-

ìs. Eèc muehrch oeh scvcety stuhcets possch tmc O-lcvcl cxoaèot`de è 2>>:,

but dely 39 dj tmcsc possch aotmcaotìs.

Hcsp`tc o ldwcr oha`ss`de rcqu`rcacet, Sfoeho jdueh `t h`jjìult td j`ll tmc

ploics jdr scidehory aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimcr troèèf è tmc eot`deol

tcoimcrs idllcfcs (EXIs). Cetroets td si`ceic idurscs orc cxpcitch td movc decprèi`pol poss è o si`ceic subkcit, wm`lc cetroets td dtmcr idurscs orc rcqu`rch td

Xoblc 2.2 @etogc td tmc Ldwcr Bosì, ^ràory Xcoimcrs Icrt`jìotc Idursc èFoabò Idllcfc, 2>>?’>:

2>>? 2>>2 2>>9 2>>8 2>>3 2>>:

Xorfct 968 8>9 823 93> 93> 93>

Oituol stuhcets rcf`stcrch 99? 9=: ?6> 98> 296 23:

% =0 0: 8> 06 := 69




movc twd prèi`pol posscs. Xm`s rcjlcits tmc àboloeic è cxoaèot`de rcsults. @e

tmc 2>>: SOIC cxoaèot`de, 23,=9: stuhcets possch m`stdry, but dely 3,66:

possch aotmcaotìs oeh dely 9,293 possch imca`stry.

Xm`s wcogecss è aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic ioe bc scce os o vì`dus iyilc. Xmc

smdrtofc dj fddh aotmcaotìs tcoimcrs lcohs td pddr tcoimèf dj aotmcaotìs ot

tmc pràory oeh scidehory lcvcls. Xm`s rcsults è pddr pcrjdraoeic è aotmcaot-

ìs è cxoaèot`des, wmìm è ture rcstrìts tmc supply dj cetroets td tcoimcr troè-

èf, oeh tmc supply dj quol`j`ch aotmcaotìs tcoimcrs.

Xmc smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs è aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics mos dtmcr ecfot`vc

idescquceics os wcll. @j tmcrc s o eot`deol smdrtofc dj aotmcaotìol oeh si`cet`jì

cxpcrt`sc, tmce pcdplc w`tm tmcsc sg`lls tceh td idaaoeh frcotcr solor`cs è tmc

lobdr aorgct. Xm`s ioe lcoh td ldsscs dj tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs td dtmcr kdbs. Jur-

tmcr, `j tmcrc `s o smdrtofc, tmce tmc ovo`loblc aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimcrstceh td bc oblc td ovd`h wdrgèf è tmc lcost hcs`roblc simddls, lcovèf oe cvce

frcotcr smdrtofc è tmc adst rcadtc rurol orcos.

^LOEE@EF JDR XCOIMCR YS^^LP

Cesurèf oe ohcquotc supply dj troèch tcoimcrs rcqu`rcs sdac ploeeèf oeh

aoeofcacet. Ydac, aoèly m`fm-èidac, iduetr`cs orc oblc td ovd`h ploeeèf

tcoimcr supply by olldwèf outdedadus ue`vcrs`t`cs td troè tcoimcrs oeh tmus

olldwèf tmc lobdr aorgct td rcfulotc supply. Xm`s `s edt o vòblc dpt`de jdr ldw-èidac iduetr`cs è Ojrìo, jdr o euabcr dj rcosdes. J`rst, è aoey iduetr`cs tmc

lobdr aorgct dj tcoimcrs hdcs edt jueit`de edraolly, os tmcrc orc simddl lcovcrs

sd cofcr jdr oey jdra dj jrcc jurtmcr chuiot`de tmot cetry td tcoimcr troèèf hdcs

edt ecicssor`ly rcjlcit c`tmcr pcric`vch ovo`lob`l`ty dj o tcoimèf kdb, dr tmc hcs`rc

td wdrg os o tcoimcr. Ycideh, ploeeèf dj tmc rcqu`rcacets jdr ecwly troèch

tcoimcrs `s ecchch td ovd`h wostèf tmc publì juehs tmot orc usch td troè tcoim-

crs. @e tmcsc iosc stuh`cs, pddr ploeeèf jrcqucetly rcsultch è troèèf tdd aoey

dj sdac gèhs dj tcoimcrs, wostèf bdtm publì rcsdurics oeh dppdrtue`t`cs jdr

troèèf ohh`t`deol stuhcets è orcos dj ecch. Xm`rh, tcoimcr troèèf dutput `ssldw td rcspdeh td lobdr aorgct s`feols, os tmcrc `s typìolly o lof dj scvcrol ycors

bctwcce tmc hci`s`de obdut mdw aoey stuhcet tcoimcrs td cerdll è troèèf oeh

tmc cacrfceic dj troèch tcoimcrs. Vmcrc chuiot`de cerdllacet `s cxpoehèf rop-

`hly tmc lobdr aorgct w`ll tceh td lof bcmèh tmc trceh, rcsultèf è smdrtofcs.

Jdurtm, tmc ètogc td tcoimcr troèèf `s djtce usch td ohhrcss cqu`ty `ssucs. Fdv-

creacets aoy w`sm td èircosc tmc prdpdrt`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs, dr tcoimcrs

jrda portìulor fcdfropmì rcf`des, dr ctmeì dr loefuofc frdups. Xmcsc `ssucs dj

tmc idapds`t`de dj tmc tcoimèf jdric aoy edt bc ohhrcssch by o pddrly juei-

t`deèf lobdr aorgct.



Xcoimcr Yupply • 9?

Aoeofèf tcoimcr supply iolls jdr ade`tdrèf dj twd aoè poroactcrs,

tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets oeh tcoimcr ottr`t`de, oeh ohkustèf tmc ètogc ètd

tcoimcr troèèf td opprdpròtc lcvcls. Bdtm tmc rcqu`rcacet oeh ottr`t`de orc

jlu`h, oeh rcspdeh td bdtm cxtcreol joitdrs oeh td pdlìy. Xmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs

ecchch imoefcs dvcr tàc è rcspdesc td imoefcs è pdpulot`de, oha`ss`de pdl-

ìy, prdadt`de oeh rcpct`t`de pdlìy, oeh tcoimcr olldiot`de pdlìy. Xmc ottr`t`de

rotc `s olsd è jlux, oeh rcjlcits ètcr olò tmc tcoimcr ofc prdj`lc, rct`rcacet pdlìy,

hcpldyacet pdlìy, tcoimcr poy oeh bcecj`ts, oeh idapctèf dppdrtue`t`cs è tmc

lobdr aorgct.

@e o scesc, tcoimcr supply s oeoldfdus td aoeofèf o pddl dj wotcr w`tm o lcog.

@j bdtm tmc vdluac dj wotcr è tmc pddl oeh tmc s`zc dj tmc lcog imoefc idestoetly,

tmcrc `s o ecch jdr idestoet ohkustacet dj tmc jldw ètd tmc pddl, td aoètoè tmc

hcs`rch lcvcl.Bdx 2.? djjcrs o actmdh jdr ioliulotèf mdw aoey tcoimcrs orc ecchch e o spc-

i`jì iduetry è o f`vce ycor.

Aè`str`cs dj Chuiot`de typìolly movc chuiot`deol ploeeèf ue`ts, rcspde-

s`blc jdr prcporèf prdkcit`des dj simddl cerdllacet oeh tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets.

Mdwcvcr ploeeèf ue`ts tceh td jdius de tmc jèoeic ecchch jdr tcoimcrs,

rotmcr tmoe tmc supply àplìot`des. ^loeeèf jdr tcoimcr jèoeic rcqu`rcs o

ioliulot`de dj tmc tdtol euabcr dj publìly-juehch tcoimcrs ecchch, oeh tmc

idst pcr tcoimcr.

^loeeèf jdr supply rcqu`rcs o adrc idaplcx ioliulot`de. J`rst ecchch `s o iol-iulot`de dj tmc euabcr dj ecw tcoimcrs wmd ecch td bc troèch, togèf ètd ide-

s`hcrot`de bdtm tmc euabcr dj ohh`t`deol tcoimèf pds`t`des oeh tmc euabcr dj

rcploicacet tcoimcrs. Ycideh, bdtm publì oeh pr`votc simddls ecch td bc togce

ètd oiiduet, bciousc `j tmc eot`deol supply `s èohcquotc, tmc publì oeh pr`votc

simddls w`ll sàply idapctc jdr tmc ovo`loblc tcoimcrs. Xm`rhly, euabcrs ecch td

bc h`soffrcfotch ètd tcoimcrs jdr spci`jì subkcits, oeh è sdac ioscs tcoimcrs

jrda spci`jì rcf`des, dr loefuofc frdups. Oadef tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs stuh`ch, edec

moh prdkcit`des dj tmc euabcr dj ecwly troèch tcoimcrs tmot wdulh bc ecchch jdr

coim subkcit.Cvce `j prdkcit`des dj tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets wcrc ovo`loblc, aoey dj tmc aè-

`str`cs movc wcog acimoe`sas td rcfulotc tcoimcr supply. @e sdac ioscs tcoimcr

troèèf èst`tut`des orc sca`-outdedadus oeh ioe idetrdl tmc`r dwe ètogc. @e

[oez`bor tmc aoè sduric dj scidehory tcoimcrs, tmc Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor

(YS[O), `s o sca` outdedadus bdhy. @e dtmcr ioscs tcoimcr troèèf `s idetrdllch

by tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de (AdC), but edt vcry rcspdes`vc td tmc prdkcitch

ecchs. @e [oabò tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs orc idetrdllch by tmc AdC, but ètogc

td coim idllcfc oeh coim subkcit `s hctcraèch by m`stdrìol pottcres, rotmcr tmoe os

o rcspdesc td prdkcitch rcqu`rcacets.




BD] 2.? MDV AOEP XCOIMCRY ORC ECCHCH4

Xmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs ecchch è oey ycor ioe bc ioliulotch jrda tmcpdpulot`de è tmc simddl-ofc frdup, tmc cxpcitch frdss cerdllacet rotc

(FCR), oeh tmc ovcrofc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d.

Os pràory chuiot`de cxpoehs, tmc FCR tcehs td r`sc obdvc ?>> jdr o

pcr`dh, oeh tmce frohuolly rchuic td ildsc td ?>>. Hurèf tmc pcr`dh dj

cxpoes`de, tmc euabcr dj ecw tcoimcrs ecchch èircoscs smorply. Mdwcvcr,

deic cerdllacet stob`l`zcs, tmc euabcr dj ecw tcoimcrs rcqu`rch coim ycor

smdulh joll td tmc euabcr rcqu`rch td rcploic tcoimcrs ldst td ottr`t`de.

Jdr ldef-tcra ploeeèf dj aokdr èjrostruiturc `tcas suim os tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs, coim iduetry smdulh movc oe cstàotc dj tmc euabcr dj

tcoimcrs tmot w`ll bc rcqu`rch è tmc ldef tcra.

Os o rdufm opprdxàot`de, `t ioe bc ossuach tmot o iduetry w`tm s x ycors

dj pràory chuiot`de w`ll rcqu`rc bctwcce 9,8>> oeh 8,6>> tcoimcrs pcr

a`ll`de dj pdpulot`de. Xm`s cstàotc `s ioliulotch os jdlldws; Oe Ojrìoe

iduetry w`tm sldw pdpulot`de frdwtm, suim os Lcsdtmd, mos opprdxàotcly

29,>>> im`lhrce pcr a`ll`de dj pdpulot`de è coim dec-ycor ofc idmdrt.

O iduetry w`tm jost pdpulot`de frdwtm, l`gc [oez`bor, mos opprdxàotcly

9?,>>> im`lhrce pcr a`ll`de dj pdpulot`de è coim ofc idmdrt. Bosch detmcsc pdpulot`de j`furcs, oeh o ^XR dj 8>;?, tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs

rcqu`rch ioe bc ioliulotch.

Fcecrol Ioliulot`de jdr Xcoimcrs pcr A`ll`de dj ^dpulot`de

Xcoimcrs

jdr coim Xcoimcrs Xcoimcrs Xcoimcrs

ycor dj jdr 3 ycors jdr : ycors jdr 6 ycors

Im lhrce e pràory dj pràory dj pràory dj pràory

^dpulot`de coim ycor simddl simddl simddl simddl

Yldw-frdwèf 29,>>> 363 2,=63 9,83> 8,>23pdpulot`de

Jost-frdwèf 9?,>>> 663 9,=63 8,:3> 3,823

pdpulot`de

Edtc; Ioliulot`des ossuaèf o pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d dj 8>;?. Oll euabcrs orc pcr a`ll`de dj

pdpulot`de.




OXXR@X@DE

Dec dj tmc gcys td aoeofèf tcoimcr supply `s oe uehcrstoehèf dj tcoimcr ottr`-

t`de. Xcoimcr ottr`t`de `s tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs lcovèf tmc`r tcoimèf kdbs jdr oey rcosde, èiluhèf rct`rcacet, `llecss, hcotm, advcacet td edetcoimèf pdsts, oeh

rcs`feot`de. Xm`s èjdraot`de `s edt olwoys rcidrhch è hcto`l. Vmcrc `t `s ovo`loblc,

ottr`t`de hoto orc usuolly hrowe jrda dec dj twd sdurics, bdtm dj wmìm movc

pdtcetòl jdr crrdr. Dec sduric dj hoto `s tmc hcportacet rcspdes`blc jdr aoeofèf

muaoe rcsdurics. Xm`s smdulh iopturc oll capldyccs wmd lcovc tmc publì scrvìc,

but hdcs edt olwoys h`stèfu`sm bctwcce tcoimèf oeh edetcoimèf stojj, dr iopturc

hoto de advcs jrda tcoimèf td edetcoimèf pdsts. Xmc scideh aoè sduric dj hoto

`s tmc oeeuol survcy idehuitch jdr tmc CA@Y. Xm`s survcy djtce èiluhcs o qucst`de

osgèf coim simddl td rcidrh tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs wmd movc lcjt tmc scrvìc è tmcprcv`dus ycor, oeh tmc rcosde jdr hcporturc. Sejdrtueotcly, tm`s hdcs edt olldw

oeolys`s dj tmc subkcit spciòl`zot`de dj tmc tcoimcrs wmd movc lcjt. @e sdac ioscs

tmc wdrhèf `s edt sujjì`cetly ilcor td cesurc tmot tcoimcrs lcovèf tmc simddl, but

advèf td oedtmcr tcoimèf pdst, orc edt ides`hcrch os ottr`t`de. @e [oabò, jdr

cxoaplc, tmc 2>>3 oeh 2>>: CA@Y survcys osgch simddls obdut “tcoimcrs lcovèf è

tmc prcv`dus ycor,‑ oeh `t wos ueilcor wmctmcr tm`s wos ètcrprctch ides`stcetly by

simddls os rcjcrrèf dely td tmdsc lcovèf tmc prdjcss`de.

Rcpdrtch tcoimcr ottr`t`de rotcs è tmc iduetr`cs stuh`ch roefch jrda 2 pcricet

td ?> pcricet pcr oeeua, os smdwe e toblc 2.9. @e tmdsc iduetr`cs wmcrc tmc ottr`t`de

rotcs jdr pràory oeh scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc rcidrhch scporotcly, tmc ottr`t`de

rotcs jdr scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc è oll ioscs m`fmcr. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, tmc

ottr`t`de rotc jdr pràory tcoimcrs wos 9 pcricet, wm`lc tmc ottr`t`de rotc jdr sci-

dehory tcoimcrs wos up td ?> pcricet.

Ydac dj tmcsc tcoimcr ottr`t`de rotcs orc ueusuolly ldw, oeh l`gcly td èircosc.

@e o stoblc systca tmcrc `s oe èvcrsc rclot`desm`p bctwcce tcoimcr ottr`t`de rotcs

oeh tmc ovcrofc tàc è scrvìc dj coim tcoimcr. @j coim tcoimcr rciru`tch wdrgs jdr

3> ycors, tmce dec è 3> wdulh rct`rc coim ycor, rcsultèf è oe oeeuol ottr`t`de dj

2 pcricet. Oe ovcrofc lceftm dj scrvìc dj 99 ycors wdulh rcsult è oe oeeuol ottr`t`de

dj 9 pcricet. @e rcol`ty `t sccas l`gcly tmot aoey

tcoimcrs w`ll tcoim jdr auim smdrtcr pcr`dhs tmoe

99 ycors, cspciòlly è iduetr`cs w`tm ldw l`jc

cxpcitoeiy. Oe ottr`t`de rotc dj : pcricet, rcjlcit-

èf oe ovcrofc lceftm dj scrvìc dj ?: ycors, `s

prdbobly tmc ldwcst ottr`t`de rotc tmot idulh bc

oim`cvch è tmc ldef tcra, oeh aoey w`ll prdbo-

bly bc m`fmcr.

Rop`h imoefcs è tmc siolc dj chuiot`de sys-

tcas tceh td iousc ueusuol pottcres è tcoimcr

Xoblc 2.9 Oeeuol Xcoimcr Ottr`t`de Rotcs

Cr`trco 2%

Foabò, Xmc 9%

Lcsdtmd 9% pràory, up td ?>% jdr scidehory

L`bcrò Cstàotch ot ?.:%

Aolow` 3% pràory, ?>% jdr scidehory

Sfoeho 3% pràory, :% scidehory

[oabò 0%, tmdufm aoy bc dvcrcstàotch

by ètcr-simddl advcacet

[oez`bor 3% pràory, :’6% scidehory




ottr`t`de. @e tàcs dj cxpoes`de lorfc euabcrs dj

ecw tcoimcrs orc rciru`tch ot tmc soac tàc,

wmìm ioe rcsult è oe ueusuolly yduef ofc prd-

j`lc, oeh ldwcr ottr`t`de tmoe idulh bc sustoèch

è o stoblc systca. @e [oez`bor, jdr cxoaplc, dely

?2 pcricet dj tcoimcrs orc dvcr tmc ofc dj 3>

(2>>: hoto). Vmce tmc tcoimcr rcqu`rcacet

stob`l`zcs ojtcr oe cxpoes`de, tm`s ioe rcsult è o

“bulfc‑ è tmc ofc prdj`lc, os tmc ueusuolly lorfc

euabcr dj tcoimcrs rciru`tch è tmc cxpoes`de

frohuolly fcts dlhcr. tm`s ioe rcsult è ueusuolly m`fm ottr`t`de sdac ycors lotcr, dj

idursc, os tm`s idmdrt dj tcoimcrs rcoimcs rct`rcacet ofc.

@e tmc ioscs wmcrc tmc iousc dj hcporturc `s gedwe, adst tcoimcr ottr`t`de `s edt o rcsult dj rct`rcacet dr hcotm, but dj rcs`feot`de (toblc 2.8). @e Lcsdtmd, 33 pcr-

icet dj tmc tcoimcrs wmd lcjt tmc publì scrvìc è 2>>8 lcjt tmrdufm rcs`feot`de.

@evdluetory iouscs dj ottr`t`de, èiluhèf hcotm, `llecss oeh rct`rcacet, oiiduetch

jdr lcss tmoe molj dj tmc tcoimcr hcporturcs. Adst tcoimcr rcs`feot`de `s l`gcly td bc

jdr tmc purpdscs dj togèf up oedtmcr kdb, sd rcs`feot`de rotcs orc l`gcly td bc m`fmly

rclotch td tmc oltcreot`vc dppdrtue`t`cs ovo`loblc td tcoimcrs è tmc lobdr aorgct.

Os ottr`t`de s portly o rcjlcit`de dj oltcreot`vc dppdrtue`t`cs e tmc lobdr aorgct,

`t smdulh bc cxpcitch tmot tmc ottr`t`de rotcs w`ll vory jdr h`jjcrcet typcs dj tcoimcr.

Os stotch, è oll tmc ioscs wmcrc èjdraot`de wos ovo`loblc tmcrc wos o m`fmcr rotcdj ottr`t`de jdr scidehory tcoimcrs tmoe jdr pràory tcoimcrs. @e ohh`t`de, tmcrc wcrc

oecihdtol rcpdrts è Lcsdtmd oeh Aolow` dj m`fmcr ottr`t`de rotcs jdr tcoimcrs w`tm

hcfrccs tmoe jdr tmdsc w`tm h`pldao quol`jìot`des, oeh m`fmcr rotcs jdr aotmc-

aotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimcrs tmoe jdr tcoimcrs dj dtmcr subkcits. Sejdrtueotcly, tmc

rcidrhch hoto wcrc edt sujjì`cetly hcto`lch td pcra`t jurtmcr cxoaèot`de.

Xmcsc pottcres dj ottr`t`de movc àpdrtoet àplìot des jdr tmc ploeeèf dj

tcoimcr supply. J`rst, `j tmc iurrcet ottr`t`de rotcs orc rclot`vcly ldw, oeh rcjlcit oe

ueusuol ofc h`str`but`de rcsultèf jrda rcicet cxpoes`de, tcoimcr ottr`t`de rotcs ioe

bc cxpcitch td r`sc dvcr tmc achùa tcra. Ycideh, `j o s`fe`jìoet pdrt`de dj tcoimcr ottr`t`de `s o rcsult dj vdluetory advcacet td oltcreot`vc capldyacet, `t smdulh bc

cxpcitch tmot ottr`t`de rotcs w`ll vory w`tm tmc lobdr aorgct hcaoeh, oeh w`ll bc

m`fmcst jdr tmc bcst chuiotch tcoimcrs oeh tmdsc wmdsc sg`lls orc è frcotcst

hcaoeh. @e rcspdehèf td lobdr aorgct hcaoeh, ottr`t`de rotcs orc l`gcly td jluitu-

otc w`tm aorgct ideh`t`des oeh bc m`fmcst è tàcs dj rop`h cidedaì frdwtm.

“VOYXOFC‑

Sejdrtueotcly, è sdac iduetr`cs, aoey dj tmc tcoimcrs wmd orc troèch ecvcr oituolly cetcr tmc tcoimèf prdjcss`de, o pmcedacede djtce gedwe os “wostofc.‑

Xoblc 2.8 Xcoimcr Ottr`t`de è Lcsdtmd, 2>>8;Rcosdes jdr Lcovèf

Rcosde jdr lcovèf Euabcr ^cricet

Rcs`fech 9:2 33

Rct`rch ?8> 2?

Hcotms ?9? 2>

Hcscrt`de ?6 9

Achìol rct`rcacet 8 ?

Xdtol :38 ?>>

Yduric; Xcoimèf Ycrvìc Idaa`ss`de rcidrhs.




Oiiurotc èjdraot`de de wostofc `s rorcly ovo`loblc, but tmcrc orc èhìot`des tmot

`t `s o s`fe`jìoet prdblca è sdac ioscs. @e [oabò è 2>>3 tmcrc wcrc ?,>?6

tcoimcrs w`tm hcfrccs wdrgèf è simddls, but tmc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oabò moh oe

dutput dj dvcr 8>> frohuotc tcoimcrs coim ycor (89? è 2>>:). Ilcorly adst dj tmc

frohuotcs wcrc c`tmcr edt cetcrèf tmc tcoimèf prdjcss`de, dr edt stoyèf è `t

vcry ldef.

@e L`bcrò tmc Se`vcrs`ty dj L`bcrò frohuotch ?9 tcoimcrs w`tm hcfrccs è pr`-

aory chuiot`de oeh 29 w`tm hcfrccs e scidehory chuiot`de, e 2>>6. Adst dj tmcsc

wcrc cx`stèf tcoimcrs wmd moh uehcrtogce tmc hcfrcc idursc de stuhy lcovc jrda

tmc`r pdsts. Mdwcvcr, hcsp`tc o systca dj bdehèf, wmcrc stuhcets wcrc rcqu`rch td

s`fe o bdeh idaa`ttèf tmca td wdrg è simddls ojtcr idaplctèf tmc`r troèèf,

vcry jcw rcturech td tmc publì scrv ic deic tmc`r hcfrccs wcrc idaplctch.

FS@HCL@ECY JDR LOEE@EF XCOIMCR YS^^LP

Xmc euabcr dj coim typc dj tcoimcr rcqu`rch ioe bc prdkcitch rclot`vcly cos`ly, f`vce

o saoll euabcr dj gcy p`cics dj èjdraot`de;

• Xmc prdkcitch stuhcet cerdllacet

• Xmc pdlìy de pup l-tcoimcr rot`d

• Xmc cx`stèf euabcr dj tcoimcrs, brdgce ètd tmc`r subkcit spci olt`cs, wmcrc

opplìoblc• Xmc oeeuol tcoimcr ottr t`de rotc

• Xmc oeeuol dutput dj ecwly troèch tcoimcrs

• Xmc wostofc rotc (tmc pcricetofc dj ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wmd hd edt togc

o tcoimèf kdb).

@hcolly, tmcsc ioliulot`des smdulh èiluhc bdtm publì oeh pr`votc simddls, oeh

publì oeh pr`votc tcoimcr troèèf, uelcss tmcrc orc portìulor rcstrìt`des è tmc

tcoimcr lobdr aorgct.

O adhcl usch td prdkcit tmc euabcr dj pràory simddl tcoimcrs ecchch è XmcFoabò è 2>>3 `s prcscetch è bdx 2.2.

Ioliulot`de dj tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs rcqu`rch jdr portìulor subkcits (os s tmc

usuol iosc è scidehory simddls) `s o l`ttlc adrc idaplcx, bciousc (`) sdac sub-

kcits orc dpt`deol, (``) edt oll subkcits movc tmc soac cxpcitch tcoimèf tàc, oeh

(```) sdac tcoimcrs tcoim adrc tmoe dec subkcit.

Jdr dpt`deol subkcits, tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs smdulh bc rchuich e prdpdrt`de

td tmc euabcr dj stuhcets wmd stuhy tmot subkcit. Xm`s ossuacs cjjì`cet tcoimcr

hcpldyacet oeh ut`l`zot`de.

Jdr o idapulsdry subkcit, tmc ioliulot`de ioe bc bosch de iurrìulua ldoh.Ides`hcr tmc cxoaplc dj o iduetry wmcrc coim scidehory simddl mdsts 8> pcr`dhs




BD] 2.2 RO^@H XCOIMCR RC_S@RCACEX ^RDKCIX@DE ADHCL

Xmc toblc bcldw smdws o prdkcit`de jdr tmc euabcr dj pràory tcoimcrstmot wos ecchch è Xmc Foabò è 2>>3. @e tm`s prdkcit`de, tmc pràory

simddl cerdllacet wos cxpoehèf stcoh`ly, ro`sèf tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets.

Mdwcvcr, tmc euabcr dj ecw tcoimcrs troèch wos dely aorfèolly frcotcr

tmoe tmc euabcrs ldst tmrdufm ottr`t`de oeh advcacet td uppcr bosì

(ldwcr scidehory) simddls. Os o rcsult, tmc smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs wos prd-

kcitch td èircosc td 9> pcricet dj tmc tcoimcr rcqu`rcacet by ycor 6. O

adhcl suim os tm`s m`fml`fmts td pdlìyaogcrs tmc ecch td ohkust tmc

euabcrs dj tcoimcrs bcèf troèch td acct eot`deol ecchs.

Pcor ? Pcor 2 Pcor 9 Pcor 8 Pcor 3 Pcor : Pcor 6

O ^rdkcitch cerdllacet ?09,=>? 2>3,>>? 2?3,269 228,>=3 293,:30 28=,3:2 2:8,=0?

B ûp`l-tcoimcr rot`d 8? 8? 8? 8? 8? 8? 8?

I Xcoimcrs rcqu`rch (O/B) 8,626 3,>>> 3,23? 3,8:3 3,68= :,>:2 :,8:?

H Euabcr dj tcoimcrs 8,82= 8,3?> 8,8>6 8,8?9 8,8?= 8,829 8,82=

C Ottr`t`de rotc (pcricet) 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

J Ottr`t`de (H*C/?>>) ?99 ?93 ?92 ?92 ?99 ?99 ?99

F Advcacet td uppcr ?>> ?>> ?>> ?>> ?>> ?>> ?>>

bosì tcoimèf

M Xcoimcrs, ojtcr 8,?03 8,268 8,?63 8,?=> 8,?=3 8,?0> 8,?03

ottr`t`de (H J F)

@ Ecwly troèch tcoimcrs 99? ?8> 23> 23> 23> 23> 23>

K Vostofc rotc 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

G Vostofc (@*K/?>>) ?6 6 ?9 ?9 ?9 ?9 ?9

L Ecw tcoimcrs togèf 9?8 ?99 29= 29= 29= 29= 29=

up kdbs (L G)

A Xcoimcrs, aèus ottr`t`de, 8,3?> 8,8>6 8,8?9 8,8?= 8,829 8,82= 8,892

plus ecw cetroets (M L)

E Boloeic dj rcqu rcacets 2?6 309 =9= ?,>8= ?,923 ?,:93 2,>20

oeh oituol, aèus

volucs èhìotc o tcoimcrsmdrtofc (A I)

Yduric; Ioliulot`des bosch de Hcportacet dj Ytotc jdr Chuiot`de hoto, idllcitch è 2>>6.

Edtcs; @e rdw H, tmc j`rst ycor smdws tmc oituol euabcr dj tcoimcrs. Yubscqucet ycors orc ioliulotch euabcrs,

bosch de tmc stortèf ycor, aèus ottr`t`de, plus ecw cetroets.

pcr wccg. @j aotmcaotìs `s o idapulsdry subkcit, oeh coim stuhcet `s suppdsch

td rcic`vc c`fmt pcr`dhs dj aotmcaotìs pcr wccg, tmce c`fmt dj cvcry 8> pcr`dhs

toufmt w`ll bc aotmcaotìs (2> pcricet). @j 2> pcricet dj tcoimèf tàc `s spcet

de tcoimèf aotmcaotìs, tmce 2> pcricet dj tmc tcoimcrs smdulh bc aotmcaot-ìs tcoimcrs, `j coim tcoimcr tcoimcs dely dec subkcit.




@j coim tcoimcr tcoimcs twd subkcits, tmc ioliulot`de `s lcss prci`sc, os tmc boloeic

dj tmc wdrgldoh bctwcce tmc twd subkcits ioe vory. @j t s ossuach tmot coim tcoimcr

spcehs molj dj m`s dr mcr tàc de coim subkcit, oeh `j 2> pcricet dj tcoimèf tàc `s

td bc spcet de aotmcaotìs tcoimèf, tmce 8> pcricet dj tcoimcrs wdulh ecch td

movc aotmcaotìs os dec dj tmc`r tcoimèf subkcits. @e iduetr`cs wmcrc tcoimcrs

movc o aokdr oeh aèdr tcoimèf subkcit, o lcss cvce boloeic aoy bc ossuach.

Bdx 2.9 prcscets o actmdh jdr ioliulotèf tmc euabcr dj tcoimcr ecchch è o

scidehory simddl wmcrc coim tcoimcr spciòl`zcs è twd subkcits.

BD] 2.9 IOLISLOX@EF XCOIMCR RC_S@RCACEXY VMCRC

XCOIMCRY Y^CI@OL@[C

Xmc toblc bcldw `llustrotcs mdw td ioliulotc tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs ecchchè o scidehory simddl systca wmcrc coim tcoimcr spciòl`zcs è twd

subkcits. Jdr tmc purpdscs dj ploeeèf oeh tcoimcr olldiot`de, tmcrc orc

?>>,>>> scidehory stuhcets oeh tmcrc `s o stuhcet-tcoimcr rot`d dj 93;?.

Aotmcaotìs `s idapulsdry jdr oll stuhcets, oeh mos c`fmt pcr`dhs

pcr wccg, dut dj o tdtol dj 8>. Os o rcsult, 2> pcricet dj tmc tcoimèf tàc

`s spcet tcoimèf dj aotmcaotìs, oeh tmc rcqu`rcacet jdr aotmcaotìs

tcoimcrs `s 2> pcricet dj tmc jull-tàc tcoimcrs (36? tcoimcrs è tm`s iosc).

Mdwcvcr os coim tcoimcr spciòl`zcs è twd subkcits, tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs

wmd smdulh bc quol`j`ch td tcoim aotmcaotìs `s hdublch, ossuaèf tmot

coim tcoimcr aoy dely tcoim tmc subkcit jdr molj dj tmc tàc.

Jdr m`stdry, tmc pìturc `s h`jjcrcet, os dely 8> pcricet dj tmc stuhcets

togc m`stdry, oeh `t rcqu`rcs dely jdur pcr`dhs pcr wccg. Os o rcsult, tmc

tdtol euabcr dj m`stdry tcoimcrs rcqu`rch `s lcss tmoe dec-quortcr dj tmc

rcqu`rch euabcr dj aotmcaotìs tcoimcrs.

O Euabcr dj stuhcets ?>>,>>>

B Ytuhcet-tcoimcr rot`d 93

I Xcoimcrs rcqu`rch 2,=36

Yubkcit Aotmcaot is Imca`stry M`stdry

H ^cricet dj stuhcets wmd togc tm`s subkcit ?>> 9> 8>

C Euabcr dj stuhcets wmd togc tm`s subkcit (O*H/?>>) ?>>,>>> 9>,>>> 8>,>>>

J Euabcr dj pcr dhs pcr wccg (oll subkcits) 8>

F Euabcr dj pcr`dhs pcr wccg (tm`s subkcit) = 3 8

M ^cricet dj iurrìulua tàc jdr tm`s subkcit (F*?>>/J) 2> ?9 ?>

@ Jull-tàc cqu`volcet tcoimcrs rcqu`rch (I*(M/?>>)*(H/?>>)) 36? ?>6 ??8

K Euabcr dj subkcits coim tcoimcr tcoimcs 2

G Euabcr dj tcoimcrs wmd smdulh movc tm`s os dec dj tmc`r

tcoimèf subkcits (@*K) ?,?89 2?8 220




H@RCIX@DEY JDR ^DL@IP AOGCRY

Xmcsc iosc stuh`cs m`fml`fmt tmc ecch jdr bcttcr ploeeèf dj tcoimcr supply. Cjjci-

t`vc ploeeèf bdtm oetì`potcs rcqu`rcacets oeh ohkusts systcas dj tcoimcr troè-èf td prdv`hc tmc rcqu`rch euabcrs. Iduetr`cs w`tm rop`hly cxpoehèf chuiot`de

systcas djtce cxpcr`ceic tcoimcr smdrtofcs, os tcoimcr supply lofs bcmèh tmc

èircosch hcaoeh. Selcss rcqu`rcacets orc prdkcitch oeh supply ohkustch oiidrh-

èfly, iduetr`cs w`ll l`gcly cxpcr`ceic pcr`dhs dj tcoimcr smdrtofc hurèf cxpoe-

s`de, oeh dvcrsupply wmce hcaoeh stob`l`zcs.

Ilcor lècs dj rcspdes`b`l`ty w`tmè fdvcreacet hcportacets orc ecicssory td

cjjcit`vcly ploe oeh rcfulotc tcoimcr supply. @e tmc iduetr`cs stuh`ch, ploeeèf

ue`ts edraolly prdhuich prdkcit`des dj tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets. Mdwcvcr, tmcsc wcrc

pddrly lègch w`tm tmc pdlì`cs oeh oit`des dj tmc èst`tut`des w`tm rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr troèèf tcoimcrs. Xmc èircosèf outdeday dj ue`vcrs`t`cs olsd oppcorch td

aogc `t adrc h`jjìult jdr aè`str`cs td rcfulotc supply, cvce wmce tmcsc ue`vcrs`-

t`cs wcrc stotc juehch.

Idestoet ade`tdrèf dj hoto jrda o vor`cty dj sdurics, h`soffrcfotch by h`jjcr-

cet typcs dj tcoimcr, `s gcy td ploeeèf jdr tcoimcr supply. V`tmdut ade`tdrèf, `t

`s h`jjìult td c`tmcr hcet`jy prdblca orcos dr osscss wmcrc tmc là`tch juehs wdulh

bc bcst usch td ohhrcss smdrtofcs. Im`cj hoto sdurics orc l`gcly td bc stuhcet

cerdllacet oeh prdkcit`des, tcoimcr euabcrs oeh quol`jìot`des, oeh tmc rotcs dj

ottr`t`de oeh wostofc. Xcoimcr ottr`t`de oeh wostofc rotcs, e portìulor, rcqu`rc oeeuol

ade`tdrèf, os tmcy orc l`gcly td rcspdeh td prcvo`lèf lobdr aorgct ideh`t`des,

oeh aoy jluituotc rop`hly.

RCY^DEYCY XD O XCOIMCR YMDRXOFC

Aoey dj tmc iduetr`cs è tm`s stuhy joic smdrtofcs dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Vm`lc tmc

dbv`dus ldef-tcra sdlut`de `s td èircosc tmc supply dj troèch tcoimcrs, tmcrc `s o

ides`hcroblc hcloy bcjdrc suim oe eircosc mos oe apoit. @e rcspdesc td tmc smdrt-

ofc dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, adst dj tmc iduetr`cs stuh`ch moh l`ttlc dpt`de but tdolldw rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, oeh subscqucet prdv`s`de dj è-scrvìc

troèèf td brèf tmca td o quol`j`ch stotus, prcscets sdac bcecj`ts jdr pdlìy

aogcrs joièf o tcoimcr smdrtofc. J`rst, `t prdv`hcs oe àachòtc sdlut`de td tmc

smdrtofc. Ycideh, `t ioe rchuic wostofc, os tm`s opprdoim `s lcss l`gcly td èvdlvc

tmdsc wmd w`ll edt oituolly togc up tcoimèf pdsts. Cvce `j tcoimcrs lcovc tmc

prdjcss`de ojtcr o jcw ycors, tmcy movc ot lcost bcce tcoimèf jdr tmot pcr`dh dj

tàc. Xm`rh, rciru`tacet dj uetroèch tcoimcrs aoy mclp è rciru`tèf tcoimcrs

jrda rurol idaaue`t`cs, oeh aoy idetr`butc td rchuièf tmc ècqu`t`cs èhcpldyacet.




Mdwcvcr, tmcrc `s lcf tàotc ideicre tmot tmc usc dj uetroèch tcoimcrs aoy

rchuic tmc quol ty dj tcoimèf, ot lcost jdr tmc pcr`dh bcjdrc tmcy idaplctc tmc`r

è-scrvìc troèèf. Xmc cap`rìol cv`hceic dj tmc quol ty dj uetroèch tcoimcrs

`s là`tch, oeh prcscets a`xch jèhèfs (S@Y 2>>:). ôrt dj tmc rcosde jdr tmc

a`xch rcscorim jèhèfs aoy l`c è tmc h`vcrsc eoturc dj uequol j`ch tcoimcrs.

Xmc iotcfdry dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ioe roefc jrda pcdplc wmd orc pddrly

chuiotch oeh movc o vcry wcog idaprcmces`de dj tmc aotcròl tmcy orc cxpcitch

td tcoim td m`fmly chuiotch pcdplc w`tm o m`fm lcvcl dj uehcrstoehèf dj tmc

idetcet, wmd loig tmc jdraol icrt`jìot`de rcqu`rch td bc quol j`ch tcoimcrs.

Xmc Foabò prdv`hcs o fddh cxoaplc dj tm`s h`vcrs`ty. @e tmc pcrùrboe

rcf`de 2, chuiot`de aoeofcrs rcpdrtch sot`sjoit`de w`tm tmc pcrjdraoeic dj

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, wm`lc è tmc adrc rcadtc rcf`de 3, aoeofcacet‐s pcricp-

t`de wos tmot tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc edtìcobly èjcr`dr td tmc quol`j`chtcoimcrs. Xmcsc rcpdrts aoy rcjlcit tmc h`jjcrceics è boigfrdueh oeh adt`vot`de

dj tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e rcf`de 2, tmc typìol uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc wcll-

chuiotch simddl lcovcrs, djtce tcoimèf wm`lc rcpcotèf tmc`r scidehory simddl-

lcovèf cxoas è drhcr td àprdvc tmc`r imoeics dj ue`vcrs`ty cetry. Os o rcsult,

aoey dj tmca moh bcttcr frohcs è tmc`r simddl-lcovèf cxoaèot`des tmoe tmdsc

wmd wcrc oha`ttch td tcoimcr troèèf. @e rcf`de 3, tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs typ`-

iolly moh o auim ldwcr lcvcl dj chuiot`de, oeh adst wdulh edt movc bcce cl`f`blc

jdr tcoimcr troèèf. Mdwcvcr, tmcrc `s l`ttlc dbkcit`vc cv`hceic, os yct, dj tmc àpoit

dj tm`s h`jjcrceic de stuhcet lcoreèf.

RCY^DEYCY XD O YMDRXOFC DJ _SOL@J@CH YIMDDL LCOZCRY

@e sdac dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, o smdrtofc dj su`tobly quol`j`ch simddl lcovcrs

là`tch tcoimcr supply. Xm`s prcscets o h`jjìult imollcefc jdr pdlìy aogcrs, oeh

dec tmot ioeedt bc sdlvch sàply by èircosèf tmc iopoi`ty dj tcoimcr troèèf. @e

tmc ldef tcra, tmc smdrtofc dj quol`j`ch opplìoets `s l`gcly td bc rcsdlvch tmrdufm

àprdvch scidehory idaplct`de, but è tmc ètcrà, tmc iduetr`cs cxpcr`ceièf tm`s prdblca ioeedt ojjdrh td wo`t oe cet`rc fcecrot`de jdr o sujjì`cet supply dj

simddl lcovcrs.

@e adst dj tmc iosc stuh`cs wmcrc tm`s prdblca wos opporcet, tmc rcspdesc wos

td ldwcr tmc rcqu`rcacets jdr cetry td tcoimcr troèèf. @e Lcsdtmd, Xmc Foabò, oeh

Cr`trco, tmc cetry rcqu`rcacets wcrc ldwcrch è rcspdesc td tmc èob`l`ty td j`ll

tcoimcr troèèf ploics. @e Sfoeho, tmc cetry rcqu`rcacet jdr simddl lcovcrs cetcrèf

tmc eot`deol tcoimcr idllcfcs w`tm aotmcaotìs dr si`ceics wos ldwcrch td eircosc

tmc ètogc è tmcsc subkcit orcos.

@hcolly, idapcesotdry acosurcs smdulh bc put e ploic td mclp lcss-wcll-quol`j`ch

simddl lcovcrs td suiicch e tcoimcr troèèf. @e Xmc Foabò, ohh`t`deol idurscs e




Cefl`sm oeh aotmcaotìs movc bcce etrdhuich etd Xmc Foabò Idllcfc ^ràory

Xcoimcrs Icrt`jìotc td idapcesotc jdr jollèf cetry rcqu`rcacets. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc

Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Xroèèf (AdCX) wos ploeeèf td ètrdhuic o bddstcr

idursc e aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tmot simddl lcovcrs w`tm pddr aotmcaotìs oeh

si`ceic sidrcs wdulh togc bcjdrc cetry td tcoimcr troèèf.

Xmcrc aoy olsd bc o ecch jdr idapcesotdry acosurcs ot tmc scidehory simddl

lcvcl. @e [oez`bor, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc wcrc ploes td ètrdhuic si`ceic ioaps jdr

scidehory stuhcets, td mclp ro`sc tmc quol`ty dj aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics ot

tmc scidehory lcvcl.

RCY^DEYCY XD M@FM VOYXOFC DR OXXR@X@DE

Bdtm ottr`t`de oeh wostofc orc, ot lcost è port, tmc rcsult dj oltcreot`vc dppdrtue`t`csovo`loblc è tmc lobdr aorgct. Ilcorly, tmot port dj ottr`t`de rcsultèf jrda hcotm,

`llecss, dr rct`rcacet jdr rcosdes dj ofc `s edt oaceoblc td imoefc. Mdwcvcr, tmc

hoto suffcst tmot tmc bulg dj ottr`t`de oeh wostofc orc o rcspdesc td adrc ottroit`vc

dpt`des è tmc lobdr aorgct.

Zdluetory ottr t`de è rcspdesc td adrc ottroit vc capldyacet idulh bc ohhrcssch

tmrdufm tmrcc h`jjcrcet strotcf`cs. J`rst, tmc tcoimcr rcauecrot`de oeh ideh`t`des dj

capldyacet idulh bc àprdvch td èircosc tmc ottroit`vcecss dj tcoimèf. Vm`lc

tm`s `s tmc adst dbv`dus sdlut`de, `t `s uel`gcly td bc ojjdrhoblc è aoey dj tmc

iduetr`cs stuh`ch, portìulorly è orcos dj sg`ll smdrtofc, wmcrc pr`votc scitdr solor`csorc m`fmcst. Ycideh, tcoimcrs idulh bc rcqu`rch td stoy è tmc prdjcss`de jdr o

pcr`dh dj tàc tmrdufm o bdehèf simcac. Edec dj tmc iduetr`cs èiluhch è tmc

stuhy moh cjjcit`vc bdehèf simcacs, oeh wmcrc bdehèf moh bcce tr`ch, pddr

cejdricacet moh uehcraèch `ts àpoit. Xm`rh, tmc torfctèf dj tmdsc rciru`tch

ètd tcoimcr troèèf, oeh subscqucetly ètd tcoimèf, idulh bc rcjdiusch td

èiluhc tmc tcoimcrs adst l`gcly td rcaoè è tmc prdjcss`de. Ot tmc scidehory

lcvcl, wmcrc hoto wcrc ovo`loblc, tmc ottr`t`de rotc jdr tcoimcrs w`tm hcfrccs wos

m`fmcr tmoe jdr tcoimcrs w`tm h`pldao-lcvcl quol`jìot`des. Xm`s suffcsts tmot, è

tmc achùa tcra, èircosèf tmc euabcr dj frohuotcs troèch jdr tcoimèf aoy movc l`ttlc àpoit, wm`lc prcporèf adrc oeh bcttcr-quol`ty h`pldao stuhcets

a`fmt bc adrc prdhuit`vc.



8?

IMO^XCR 9

Xmc imollcefcs dj tcoimcr supply orc idapduehch by h`jjìult`cs w`tmtcoimcr h`str`but`de. Oladst oll iduetr`cs è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo jèh `t

h`jjìult td oim`cvc oe cqu`toblc hcpldyacet dj tcoimcrs, w`tm tmc pddrcst

oeh lcost hcvcldpch orcos cxpcr`ceièf tmc frcotcst h`jjìulty è tcoimcr supply

(S@Y 2>>:). Secvce hcpldyacet olsd rcsults è ècjjì`cet ut`l`zot`de dj sdac

tcoimcrs, èircosèf tmc idst dj prdv`s`de (Zcrspddr oeh YC@O tcoa 2>>=). @e

fcecrol, tmc bcst quol j`ch tcoimcrs tceh td bc cvce adrc ècqu tobly h`str`b-

utch (S@Y 2>>:). Jurtmcr, tmcrc tcehs td bc o fcehcr pottcre è tcoimcr h`str`-

but`de, w`tm jcwcr jcaolc tcoimcrs è tmc adrc rcadtc orcos (Bceecll oeh

Ogycoapdef 2>>6). Os tmcsc fcdfropmìol pottcres dj tcoimcr h`str`but`de tceh

td oapl`jy cx`stèf ècqu t`cs è chuiot`de ottoèacet, ohhrcssèf tmc ècqu ty

dj hcpldyacet `s csscetòl td cesurèf frcotcr chuiot`deol dppdrtue`t`cs è tmc

h`jjìult orcos.

Xmcsc fcecrol pottcres wcrc rcjlcitch è tmc iosc stuhy iduetr`cs. @e oladst oll

dj tmc ioscs, tmcrc wcrc uecapldych tcoimcrs sccgèf wdrg, oeh voioei`cs tmot

idulh edt bc j`llch, bciousc dj uew`llèfecss td advc td uehcs`rch ldiot`des.

Hcpldyacet systcas wcrc edt fcecrolly suiicssjully è oim`cvèf cqu`toblc h`s-

tr`but`de dj tcoimcrs. Jrcqucetly tmc frcotcst h`jjcrceics wcrc bctwcce simddls

w`tmè tmc soac h`strìt, rcjlcitèf tmc àpdrtoeic dj aìrd-fcdfropmìol joitdrs

suim os oiicss td rdohs dr dtmcr joi`l`t`cs. Ydac simddls moh tce tàcs tmc pup`l-

tcoimcr rot`d dj dtmcr simddls è tmc soac h`strìt. Xmc quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc

edraolly h`str`butch cvce adrc uecquolly, os wcrc tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs oeh

si`ceic, oeh jcaolc tcoimcrs.

@e rcspdesc, tmc iosc stuhy iduetr`cs moh h`jjcrcet strotcf`cs td èircosc tmc sup-

ply dj tcoimcrs td rurol simddls. Adst iduetr`cs moh sdac jèoeiòl èicet`vcs td

ceidurofc tcoimcrs td rurol orcos, but tmcsc wcrc moapcrch by pddr torfctèf, oeh

oppcorch td movc o là`tch àpoit. Dec cxicpt`de wos è Xmc Foabò, wmcrc o ecw

èicet`vc tmot wos bdtm vcry substoetòl (up td 8> pcricet dj bosì solory) oeh iorc-

jully torfctch wos rcsultèf è cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs rcqucstèf troesjcrs td rcadtc

Xcoimcr Hcpldyacet; Fcttèf

Xcoimcrs td tmc R`fmt ^loics




simddls. Dtmcr prda`sèf opprdoimcs èiluhch ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet, wmìm

olldwch tcoimcrs sdac imdìc dj ldiot`de, oeh tcehch td rcsult è tcoimcrs jrda

rurol orcos togèf pdsts è ldiol simddls. Lcsdtmd wos usèf o ldiol rciru`tacet sys-

tca, [oabò olldwch sdac imdìc dj ldiot`de, oeh Sfoeho wos ètrdhuièf ldiol

rciru`tacet jdr scidehory tcoimcrs è h`jjìult simddls. Xmcrc wcrc sdac èhìot`des

tmot tmcrc wcrc pcdplc wmd wcrc w`llèf td tcoim è rurol orcos, oeh tmot `t idulh bc

bcecjìòl td torfct tmcsc pcdplc adrc spci`jìolly jdr cetry ètd tcoimcr troèèf.

SECZCE XCOIMCR H@YXR@BSX@DE

Xmc rcluitoeic td wdrg e morhsm`p orcos wos djtce rcjlcitch è m`fmcr pup`l-tcoimcr

rot`ds è rurol h`strìts. @e Aolow` è 2>>:, tmc ovcrofc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d è urboe

pràory simddls wos 8:;?, wm`lc è rurol simddls tmc ovcrofc wos =?;?. @e Sfoehoè 2>>:, tmc ovcrofc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d è pràory simddls è tmc iop`tol i`ty,

Goapolo, wos 8>;?, wm`lc è rurol G`tfua h`strìt tmc rot`d wos 09;? (j`furc 9.?).

H`strìt pup`l-tcoimcr rot`ds tcll dely port dj tmc stdry, mdwcvcr. V`tmè h`strìts,

tmcrc wcrc olsd vcry s`fe`jìoet voròt`des è tcoimcr h`str`but`de, djtce auim

frcotcr tmoe tmc voròt`des bctwcce h`strìts. Xm`s ètro-h`strìt voròt`de è tcoimcr

hcpldyacet `s djtce èv`s`blc è stot`stìol bullctès, wmìm usuolly rcpdrt h`strìt

ovcrofcs. Xmcsc aìrd-lcvcl voròt`des è tcoimcr h`str`but`de aoy rcjlcit voròt`des

è tmc ottroit`vcecss dj spci`jì simddls, suim os tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj mdusèf, dr tmc

prdxà`ty td rdohs oeh oiicss td icetcrs dj pdpulot`de.

J`furc 9.? Zoròt`de è H`strìt Ovcrofc ûp`l-Xcoimcr Rot`d (^XR) è ^ràory Yimddls

>

2>

8>

:>

=>

?8>

p u p ` l - t c o i m c r

r o t ` d

Ldwcst XR M`fmcst XR

?>>

?2>

Cr`trco(2>>8’>3)

Xmc Foabò(2>>3’>:)

[oez`bor(2>>:)

[oabò(2>>:)

Sfoeho(2>>:)

Aolow`(2>>:)

Lcsdtmd(2>>3)



Xcoimcr Hcpldyacet; Fcttèf Xcoimcrs td tmc R`fmt ^loics • 89

Xoblc 9.? `llustrotcs tmc cxtcet dj tm`s

voròt`de è Aolow`, smdwèf tmc m`fmcst

oeh ldwcst pup`l-tcoimcr rot`ds è simddls

w`tmè tmc soac h`strìt. Yà`lorly, è

[oabò, tmcrc wos w`hc ètroh`strìt

voròt`de. ûp`l-tcoimcr rot`ds è tmc ??3

fdvcreacet simddls dj tmc Im`bdabd

h`strìt roefch jrda 22;? td 2?>;?.

H@YXR@BSX@DE DJ _SOL@J@CH XCOIMCRY

@e adst ioscs, tmc bcst-quol`j`ch tcoimcrs

wcrc cvce adrc uecvcely h`str`butch oeh

dvcrideicetrotch è urboe orcos. @e

Lcsdtmd, => pcricet dj tmc pràory tcoim-

crs è ldwloeh simddls wcrc quol`j`ch,

wm`lc è tmc aduetoè simddls dely 32

pcricet wcrc quol`j`ch. @e [oez`bor, è

tmc rclot`vcly rurol Aìmcwce` h`strìt,

tmcrc wcrc dely twd quol`j`ch aotmcaot-

ìs tcoimcrs è 2>>:, scrvèf o h`strìt

w`tm 9,=>> scidehory simddl stuhcets.

Xcoimcrs w`tm hcfrcc-lcvcl quol`jìot`des scca portìulorly rcluitoet td wdrg

è morhsm`p simddls. @e Sfoeho è 2>>:, :> pcricet dj tmc scidehory tcoimcrs

è Goapolo h`strìt wcrc frohuotcs, wm`lc è tmc rurol Puabc h`strìt dely

?? pcricet wcrc frohuotcs. @e Aolow`, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot 2> frohuotc tcoimcrs

wcrc hcpldych td rurol simddls è Gusuefu h`strìt, but dely twd dr tmrcc dj

tmcsc stoych è tmc kdbs jdr cvce dec ycor. @e 2>>:, [oabò‐s Ymoefdabd h`s-

trìt, è o rurol ldiot`de è Ydutmcre prdvèic, h`h edt movc o sèflc opplìoet

w`tm o hcfrcc.

FCEHCR

Xmcrc wos olsd, è adst iduetr`cs, o fcehcr pottcre è tcoimcr h`str`but`de, w`tm

o saollcr prdpdrt`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs è rurol orcos. @e Sfoeho, 36 pcricet dj

pràory tcoimcrs è Goapolo h`strìt wcrc jcaolc, but dely ?3 pcricet dj tcoimcrs

è tmc rurol Goobdef h`strìt wcrc jcaolc. @e [oabò, :> pcricet dj tcoimcrs è

fdvcreacet simddls ideecitch td tmc aoè pdwcr fr`h wcrc jcaolc. @e simddls

w`tmdut o pdwcr ideecit`de, o prdxy jdr o rurol ldiot`de, dely 93 pcricet dj

tcoimcrs wcrc jcaolc. Xoblc 9.2 prcscets hoto de tmc pcricetofc dj scidehory

tcoimcrs wmd orc jcaolc è sclcitch rurol oeh urboe orcos dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs.

Xoblc 9.? Aolow`; Yimddls oeh ûp`l-Xcoimcr Rot`dè Hz`wc [dec, Bloetyrc Rurol H`strìt

Yimddl eoacs rcploich

w`tm lcttcrs ûp ls Xcoimcrs ^XRO ?0? ? ?0?

B 6:2 8 ?0?

I 3:6 9 ?=0

H 0>: 3 ?=?

C ::3 3 ?99

J 682 : ?28

F 92> 9 ?>6

M ?08 2 06

@ ::= 6 03

K 893 : 69

G :6: ?> :=

L 9>0 6 88

A 8: 9 ?3

Xdtol :,8=? :2

Ovcrofc 800 8.= ?>3




Bdtm idaaue`ty oeh pcrsdeol joitdrs ioe hctcr jcaolc tcoimcrs jrda oiicpt-

èf kdbs è rurol orcos. @e sdac iduetr`cs, rurol idaaue`t`cs aoy edt oiicpt tmc

orr`vol dj oe ueaorr`ch jcaolc tcoimcr. @e Xmc Foabò, `t `s rcpdrtch tmot rurol

idaaue`t`cs w`ll djtce rcjusc td prdv`hc o mdusc jdr oe ueaorr`ch jcaolc

tcoimcr. @e [oabò oeh Aolow`, è sdac ioscs rurol idaaue`t`cs movc ottcaptch

td hr`vc dut ueaorr`ch jcaolc tcoimcrs pdstch jrda duts`hc tmc orco. Xmc

rcluitoeic td oiicpt ueaorr`ch yduef jcaolcs ètd o idaaue`ty `s ottr`butch td

o vor`cty dj hyeoaìs, èiluhèf rcl`f`dus oeh iulturol joitdrs. @e sdac ioscs tmc

wdace dj o v`llofc orc portìulorly rcluitoet td oiicpt tmc orr`vol dj o jcaolctcoimcr è tmc bcl`cj tmot o rclot`vcly wcll-po`h oeh chuiotch yduef wdaoe idulh

c`tmcr ottroit tmc ottcet`de dj tmc adst cl`f`blc sèflc ace è tmc v`llofc, dr cvce

bcfè o rclot`desm`p w`tm o aorr`ch aoe.

Yèflc wdace aoy bc uew`llèf td oiicpt pdstèfs td rurol orcos, os `s djtce

tmc iosc è Aolow` (Gohzoa`ro 2>>:). O rclot`vcly wcll-chuiotch sèflc wdaoe

jrda oe urboe boigfrdueh aoy jccl tmot advèf td o rurol orco w`ll rcstrìt mcr

dppdrtue`ty td jèh o musboeh w`tm o sà`lor dr m`fmcr lcvcl dj chuiot`de oeh

èidac. @e suim idetcxts, tmc hci`s`de td oiicpt o pdst è o rurol simddl ioe movc

aokdr àpoits de l`jc imoeics jdr o yduef tcoimcr.Advèf td o rurol orco `s olsd rcpdrtch td bc h`jjìult jdr aorr`ch jcaolc tcoim-

crs. @e iduetr`cs wmcrc musboehs hd edt troh`t`deolly advc td jdlldw tmc`r w`vcs‐

capldyacet, tm`s ioe acoe scporotèf o iduplc, w`tm tmc rcsultoet sdiòl oeh

mcoltm r`sgs. Ydac iduetr`cs, suim os Aolow`, [oabò, oeh Cr`trco, movc pdlì`cs

oeh èjdraol proitìcs tmot olldw o jcaolc tcoimcr td rcqucst o troesjcr td ldiotc

ecor td mcr musboeh‐s capldyacet. Mdwcvcr, tmcsc pdlì`cs tceh td rcsult è a`fro-

t`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs td urboe orcos, os tmcy orc djtce aorr`ch td dtmcr chuiotch

prdjcss`deols wmd orc aoèly capldych è urboe ldiot`des. Xmcsc pdlì`cs orc olsd

dpce td obusc. @e bdtm Aolow` oeh [oabò tmcrc wcrc rcpdrts dj jcaolc tcoimcrsprdhuièf jogch aorròfc hdiuacets td suppdrt o iloà jdr o troesjcr.

Xoblc 9.2 ^cricetofc dj Ycidehory Xcoimcrs Vmd Orc Jcaolc è Yclcitch Ruroloeh Srboe Orcos

Srboe/wcll Rurol/ lcss

hcvcldpch hcvcldpchrcf`de % Jcaolc rcf`de % Jcaolc

Foabò, Xmc Rcf`de ? ?2 Rcf`de : =

Lcsdtmd Aoscru :2 Xmobo-Xscgo 3>

Aolow` Srboe 9: Rurol ?9

Sfoeho Icetrol 2= Edrtmcre ?:




LOEFSOFC DJ @EYXRSIX@DE

Jdr iduetr`cs wmcrc ault`plc loefuofcs orc usch, hcpldyacet dj tcoimcrs td orcos

dj lèfu`stì aèdr`t`cs sccas portìulorly h`jjìult. @eircosèfly, adtmcr-tdefucèstruit`de s usch, portìulorly e tmc corly ycors dj pràory simddlèf. Cvce wmcrc

tmc adtmcr tdefuc `s edt usch os tmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de, tcoimcrs aoy bc

rcluitoet td ldiotc è orcos wmcrc tmcy hd edt spcog tmc ldiol loefuofc idajdrt-

obly. Ob`l`ty td spcog tmc aoè loefuofc dj tmc idaaue`ty `s l`gcly td oss`st o

tcoimcr e etcfrotèf etd o idaaue`ty, oeh è dvcridaèf stuhcet h`jjìult`cs e

uehcrstoehèf tmc jdraol loefuofc dj èstruit`de. Ytuh`cs è Xoezoeò oeh Ydutm

Ojrìo suffcst tmot ot bdtm pràory oeh scidehory lcvcls, tcoimcrs jrcqucetly usc

tmc adtmcr tdefuc td mclp stuhcets uehcrstoeh tmc lcssdes idehuitch è Cefl`sm

(Brdig-Stec 2>>6).Hcsp`tc tmc àpdrtoeic dj joa`lòr`ty w`tm tmc ldiol loefuofc, tmc adtmcr

tdefuc dj o tcoimcr `s edt olwoys o joitdr è hcpldyacet. @e Xmc Foabò, tcoimcrs

orc oss`fech td h`strìts de o sdacwmot roehda bos`s, oeh ed olldwoeic `s aohc

jdr loefuofcs spdgce. De tmc dtmcr moeh, è [oabò tcoimcrs orc oblc td opply td

tmc h`strìt è wmìm tmcy w`sm td wdrg, oeh orc adrc l`gcly td opply td h`strìts

wmcrc tmc`r dwe loefuofc `s spdgce. O suaaory dj tmc proitìcs dj tmc iosc-stuhy

iduetr`cs rcforhèf loefuofc dj èstruit`de `s prcscetch os toblc 9.9.

M@Z OEH HC^LDPACEX

@e sdac ioscs achìol ideh`t`des orc olsd o joitdr è tcoimcr ldiot`de. Rcidfe`z-

èf tmc frcotcr oiicss td achìol scrvìcs è urboe orcos, Cr`trco, Aolow`, Sfoeho,

oeh [oabò olldw tcoimcrs wmd orc `ll td bc troesjcrrch td o simddl ecor td ach-

ìol joi`l`t`cs. Xcoimcrs olrcohy ldiotch ecor achìol joi`l`t`cs orc olldwch td ovd`h

rchcpldyacet td adrc rcadtc ldiot`des. @ll tcoimcrs orc djtce f`vce sdac jlcx`b`l-

`ty è tcoimèf mdurs wmce trcotacets orc ecicssory. Xoblc 9.8 suaaor`zcs tmc

proitìcs dj tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs v`s-î-v`s M@Z oeh hcpldyacet.

HC^LDPACEX YPYXCAY

@e prèi`plc, tmcrc orc twd aoè opprdoimcs td tcoimcr hcpldyacet. Xmc j`rst `s

ploeech hcpldyacet, wmcrc tmc chuiot`de outmdr`t`cs oss`fe tcoimcrs è rcspdesc

td oe osscssacet dj ecchs. Xmc scideh evdlvcs olldwèf tcoimcrs td opply jdr kdbs

è spci`jì ldiot`des, tmus hcpldyèf tmcasclvcs è o lobdr aorgct. @e tmc iosc-

stuhy iduetr`cs, o vor`cty dj h`jjcrcet tcoimcr h`str`but`de systcas wcrc usch7 tmc

aokdr`ty èvdlvch sdac jdra dj ploeech hcpldyacet, adst idaadely orroefch

è o twd-lcvcl aoeecr, wmcrc icetrol outmdr`t`cs hcpldych tcoimcrs td o rcf`de dr h`strìt, oeh tmc h`strìt outmdr`t`cs hcpldych tcoimcrs td spci`jì simddls.




Xoblc 9.9 Loefuofc dj @estruit`de, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr`trco; Clcacetory simddls usc tmc adtmcr tdefuc, idapr`sèf o vor`cty dj h`jjcrcet loefuofcs dj èstruit`de,

prèi`polly X`frèò (39 pcricet dj simddls), X`frc (?0 pcricet), oeh Orobì (?> pcricet). Xmcrc `s o rclot`vc smdrt-

ofc dj tcoimcrs jrda tmc aèdr`ty loefuofc frdups. A`hhlc oeh scidehory simddls tcoim è Cefl`sm.

Foabò, Xmc; Xmcrc `s sdac usc dj ldiol loefuofcs è frohc ?, but dlhcr ilosscs orc djjìòlly toufmt è Cefl`sm.

Adtmcr tdefuc `s edt ides`hcrch è hci`hèf de tcoimcr pdstèf.

Lcsdtmd; ^ràory tcoimèf `s è Ycsdtmd up td frohc 8, oeh è Cefl`sm è lotcr ycors oeh è scidehory simddls.

Dlhcr ilosscs orc sdactàcs toufmt è Ycsdtmd, os tmc stoehorh dj Cefl`sm dj bdtm pup`ls oeh tcoimcrs `s sdac-

tàcs pddr.

L`bcrò; Oll tcoimèf `s hdec è Cefl`sm.

Aolow`; Kue`dr pràory frohcs (?’8) orc cxpcitch td usc ldiol loefuofcs. Dlhcr pràory ilosscs, oeh scidehory

ilosscs, orc toufmt è Cefl`sm. Oltmdufm tmcrc orc o euabcr dj ldiol loefuofcs, dely Imìmcwo wos usch è tmc

dlhcr ilosscs, os aotcròls è dtmcr loefuofcs movc edt bcce prdhuich. Xcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs togc è o

qudto dj stuhcets jrda coim h`strìt, tmus cesurèf o supply dj tcoimcrs jrda coim loefuofc boigfrdueh.

Sfoeho; Ldiol loefuofcs orc usch è kue`dr ilosscs è pràory simddls. Dlhcr ilosscs oeh scidehory simddls

usc Cefl`sm. Xmc pdlìy dj ldiol loefuofcs è ldwcr pràory `s rclot`vcly ecw oeh `s iousèf sdac h`jjìult`cs, os

adrc tmoe 8> h`jjcrcet ldiol loefuofcs orc usch è tmc iduetry. @e sdac ioscs, tcoimcrs ioe spcog tmc ldiol

loefuofc but orc edt oblc td wr`tc è `t.

[oabò; Ldiol loefuofcs orc usch è frohc ?,oeh Cefl sm `s usch è tmc lotcr ycors.Xmcrc orc 62 ldiol loefuofcs,

but dely scvce dj tmcsc orc usch os loefuofcs dj èstruit`de.Xmc iurrcet hcpldyacet systca joi l totcs tmc usc dj

ldiol loefuofcs è tmc corly frohcs, os adst tcoimcrs opply dely td h strìts wmcrc tmc ldiol loefuofc `s joa`lòr.

[oez`bor; Xmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de è pràory simddls `s G`swom`l`, wm`lc scidehory simddls tcoim è Cefl`sm.

Cefl`sm `s edt o rcqu`rcacet jdr cetry td tcoimcr troèèf, oltmdufm tmc tcoimcr troèèf `s hdec è Cefl`sm. @t `s

rcpdrtch tmot stuhcet tcoimcrs jrcqucetly jèh `t h`jjìult td wdrg è Cefl`sm. @e proitìc, tmc tcoimcrs‐ pddr joi`l-`ty w`tm Cefl`sm `s o borr`cr td quol`ty, oeh o a`xturc dj Ywom`l` oeh Cefl`sm `s djtce usch è scidehory simddls

oeh è tcoimcr troèèf. Xmcrc orc sdac rcpdrts dj h`jjìult`cs or`sèf jrda tmc loefuofc pdlìy, os tcoimcrs wmd

wcrc troèch è Cefl`sm strufflc td troeslotc sdac ideicpts, portìulorly è aotmcaotìs, ètd G`swom`l`.

Xoblc 9.8 M@Z oeh Hcpldyacet, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr`trco; Xcoimcrs w`tm mcoltm prdblcas orc edt pdstch td tmc simddls w`tm tmc adst h`jjìult ideh`t`des.

Aolow`; Xcoimcrs w`tm M@Z orc jrcqucetly troesjcrrch td urboe simddls td bc ecorcr td achìol joi`l`t`cs. Os o

rcsult, tmc pcricetofc dj sìg tcoimcrs è urboe orcos `s m`fmcr, idetr`butèf td m`fmcr obscetcc`sa è tmcsc orcos

os tmc tcoimcrs rcic`vc trcotacet.

Sfoeho; Cjjdrts orc aohc td joi`l`totc tcoimcrs èjcitch w`tm M@Z wmd w`sm td c`tmcr (`) advc td o simddl w`tmbcttcr mcoltm joi`l`t`cs è tmc vìè`ty dr (``) ovd`h rchcpldyacet oeh tmcrcby aoètoè tmc`r lègofc w`tm achìol

joi`l`t`cs joa`lòr w`tm tmc`r achìol m`stdry.

[oabò; Xcoimcrs wmd orc `ll orc olldwch td troesjcr td simddls ecor o mcoltm il eì `j tmcrc `se‐t dec ecor tmc`r

pdst. Aoey dj tmc sìg tcoimcrs orc rcjcrrch td tmc Se`vcrs`tyXcoimèf Mdsp`tol è Lusogo, oeh os o rcsult, tmcrc

movc bcce sdac troesjcrs dj `ll tcoimcrs td tmc orco. Mdwcvcr, sdac dj tmc adst scr`dusly `ll tcoimcrs orc eursch

ot mdac.

J`vc dj tmc ioscs, suaaor`zch bcldw, `llustrotc o roefc dj hcpldyacet dpt`des.

Xmc j`rst tmrcc (Cr`trco, Aolow`, oeh Xmc Foabò) oll usch ploeech hcpldyacet

systcas, but w`tm voryèf rcsults. Cr`trco moh o vcry cvce h`str`but`de dj tcoimcrs, wm`lc è Aolow` tmc icetrol systca jo`lch td cesurc cqu`toblc hcpldyacet,




portìulorly td tmc adst rcadtc simddls. Xmc ètrdhuit`de dj o vcry substoetòl

jèoeiòl èicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs è morhsm`p simddls è Xmc Foabò sccach td bc

cjjcit`vc è ottroitèf tcoimcrs td h`jjìult ldiot`des.

Lcsdtmd oeh [oabò olldwch oe clcacet dj tcoimcr prcjcrceic è hcpldy-

acet. Lcsdtmd olldwch coim simddl td ohvcrt`sc pdsts oeh sclcit `ts dwe tcoimcrs.

Xm`s rcsultch è vcry jcw uej`llch pdsts oeh o m`fm lcvcl dj ldiol rciru`tacet dj

tcoimcrs, but oe uecvce h`str`but`de dj tmc bcst-quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e [oabò tmc

systca prdv`hch sdac imdìc dj pdstèf. Xcoimcrs wcrc olldwch td opply td tmc

h`strìt wmcrc tmcy w`smch td wdrg, but edt td spci`jì simddls. Vm`lc tm`s

oim`cvch sdac cqu`ty è ètcrh`strìt hcpldyacet, tmcrc rcaoèch h`jjìult`cs è

ètroh`strìt tcoimcr olldiot`de.

Cr`trco uscs o ploeech hcpldyacet systca ot twd lcvcls. Ot tmc eot deol lcvcl,

tcoimcrs orc oss`fech td dec dj tmc s`x zdbos (rcf`des). Xmc aoeofcacet ot tmczdbo lcvcl tmce olldiotcs tmc tcoimcr td o spci j i simddl. Xcoimcrs orc edt f`vce o

imdìc dj ldiot de, oeh hcpldyacet `s str itly cejdrich. Os o rcsult, Cr trco mos o

vcry cvce tcoimcr hcpldyacet, os smdwe è j`furc 9.2. V`tmè zdbos, tcoimcr eua-

bcrs orc vcry m`fmly idrrclotch w`tm stuhcet euabcrs. Xmcrc `s sdac voròt`de

bctwcce zdbos, roefèf jrda 9> td 39 ^XR, but tm`s `s bòsch è jovdr dj tmc adst

rurol orcos, w`tm tmc ldwcst pup l-tcoimcr rot ds è tmc Edrtm oeh Ydutm Rch Yco

zdbos (8? oeh 9> ^XR, rcspcit`vcly) rcjlcitèf tmc saollcr simddls è tmdsc zdbos.

>

?,>>>

2,>>>

9,>>>

p u p ` l s

>

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2,>>>

9,>>>

> 2> 8> :>> 2> 8> :>> 2> 8> :>

> 2> 8> :>> 2> 8> :>> 2> 8> :>

tcoimcrs

Oescbo Hcb-Gc`m-B Hcbub

Fosm-Borgo Aocgcl Yca-Gc`m-B

J`furc 9.2 Cr`trco, ^ldt dj Xcoimcr oeh ûp`l Euabcr è Coim Yimddl, by [dbo, Ymdwèf tmcZcry Cvce H`str`but`de ôttcre (CA@Y hoto 2>>8’>3)




Xm`s vcry systcaotì hcpldyacet è Cr`trco `s joi`l`totch by tmc prcsceic dj

lorfc euabcrs dj tcoimcrs wmd cetcr tcoimèf os port dj tmc`r pcr`dh dj eot`deol

scrvìc oeh movc l`ttlc cxpcitot`de dj o imdìc dj pdst. Xmcsc eot`deol scrvìc

tcoimcrs orc djtce pdstch td tmc adst h`jjìult simddls, olldwèf tmc zdbo

aoeofcacet sdac jlcx`b`l`ty è troesjcrrèf tmc adrc cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs.

Xcoimcr hcpldyacet è Aolow` `s hdec tmrdufm o ploeech hcpldyacet sys-

tca ot twd lcvcls. Xmc AdCZX oss`fes tcoimcrs td h`strìts, oeh tmc h`strìt chu-

iot`de aoeofcacet hcpldys tmca td simddls. Mdwcvcr, tmc rot`deol hcpldyacet

dj tcoimcrs `s wcogcech bciousc aoey tcoimcrs rcjusc td oiicpt tmc pdsts tmcy

orc djjcrch, djtce i`tèf eohcquotc mdusèf os tmc rcosde. @e rurol Aolow`, tmcrc

orc jcw mduscs ovo`loblc jdr rcet. Xcoimcrs oiiustdach td brìg mduscs jrc-

qucetly rcjusc td l`vc è ldiol mdusèf w`tm auh wolls oeh fross-tmotim rddjs.

Xcoimcrs olsd tceh td movc cxpcitot`des dj clcitrì`ty oeh rueeèf wotcr, wmìmorc jrcqucetly edt ovo`loblc è rurol mduscs. Mdwcvcr, mdusèf oldec aoy edt bc

sujjì`cet td ottroit tcoimcrs7 urboe orcos orc olsd scce os djjcrèf o bcttcr

l`jcstylc, frcotcr sdiòl dppdrtue`t`cs, bcttcr chuiot`de oeh mcoltm scrvìcs, oeh

sdac ohh`t`deol cidedaì dppdrtue`t`cs. Xmcrc orc cvce frcotcr h`jjìult`cs ot

tmc scidehory lcvcl, wmcrc frohuotcs movc m`fmcr cxpcitot`des jdr mdusèf oeh

l`jcstylc. Os o rcsult, è 2>>: dely 26 pcricet dj tmc scidehory tcoimcrs è rurol

orcos è Aolow` wcrc quol`j`ch.

“`j ydu sceh dec wmcrc tmcrc `s ed mdusc, tmcy idac boig oeh ydu orc jdrich td put tmca sdacwmcrc‑ (H`strìt djjìcr, Aolow`, 2>>6)

Xcoimcr hcpldyacet `s olsd wcogcech bciousc `t `s edt olwoys bosch de

voioei`cs dr ecchs dj simddls. Vmce ueoblc td hcpldy tcoimcrs td tmc simddls

wmcrc tmcy orc adst ecchch, h`strìt djjìòls edraolly oss`fe tmca td dtmcr

simddls è tmc h`strìt, cvce `j tmcrc `s ed àachòtc voioeiy, è drhcr td rctoè

tmca è tmc h`strìt. Xcoimcrs orc olsd olldwch td troesjcr, rcforhlcss dj voioei`cs,

è tmc iosc dj aorròfc dr `llecss. Xm`s ob`l`ty td troesjcr tcoimcrs, cvce wmcrc

tmcrc `s ed voioeiy, `s olsd ruadrch td olldw troesjcrs bosch de jr`cehsm`ps,èjluceic, oeh pdl`tìol ideecit`des. Xmcrc `s l`ttlc cv`hceic dj cjjcit`vc rchc-

pldyacet dj tmcsc tcoimcrs td simddls wmcrc tmcy orc ecchch ot o lotcr tàc.

M`fm tcoimcr adb`l`ty olsd idetr`butcs td wcogceèf dj tmc hcpldyacet systca

è Aolow`. Oladst ?> pcricet dj tcoimcrs advc simddls coim ycor. Aoey dj tmc

tcoimcrs wmd togc up pds`t`des è rurol simddls quìgly bcfè td sccg o troesjcr

boig td oe urboe orco.

Xmc rcsult dj tmcsc proitìcs `s vcry uecvce hcpldyacet. @e 2>>:, urboe pr`-

aory simddls moh oe ovcrofc ^XR dj 8:;?, wm`lc rurol simddls moh oe ovcrofc dj

=?;? (toblc 9.3). @e 2>>:, tmcrc wcrc tce h`strìts wmcrc tmc ovcrofc ^XR jdr tmc h`strìt cxicchch 0>, oeh jdur h`strìts wmcrc tmc ovcrofc wos lcss tmoe 33.




Xoblc 9.: prdv`hcs hoto de tmc euabcrs dj tcoimcrs oeh stuhcets è twd simddls

è Aolow`‘dec pcr`-urboe oeh dec rurol‘td `llustrotc tmc w`hc voròt`des è

^XRs tmot diiur è iosc-stuhy simddls.

Xmc Foabò mos o twd-lcvcl hcpldyacet systca. Ot tmc icetrol lcvcl, tcoimcrs

orc hcpldych td tmc s`x rcf`des oeh tmc rcf`deol aoeofcacet togcs rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr hcpldyacet td èh`v`huol simddls. Xmc euabcr dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs td bc

hcpldych td coim rcf`de s hctcraèch icetrolly, bosch de pup`l oeh tcoimcr eua-

bcrs, oeh tmc olldiot`de dj tcoimcrs `s hdec de o roehda bos`s, w`tm sdac ohkust-

acets aohc td h`str`butc jcaolc tcoimcrs cvcely, oeh td oiidaadhotc aorr`ch

iduplcs oeh `ll tcoimcrs. Rcf`deol outmdr`t`cs orc olldwch td pdst tmc tcoimcrs td

spci`jì simddls, oeh td rciru`t uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs td j`ll tmc rcaoèèf pdsts.

Xm`s systca mos rcsultch è rclot`vcly cvce hcpldyacet dj tcoimcrs, but

uecvce hcpldyacet dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e rcf`de 2, =2 pcricet dj tmc tcoim-

crs wcrc quol`j`ch, idaporch w`tm dely 82 pcricet dj tmdsc è tmc adrcrcadtc rcf`de 3 (2>>3’>:). _uol`j`ch tcoimcrs movc djtce rcjusch td oiicpt o

pdstèf td o rurol simddl, oeh portìulorly td tmc adst `sdlotch simddls. Xmcsc

quol`j`ch tcoimcrs movc bcce oblc td fct pdsts è tmc adrc ottroit`vc ldiot`des,

oeh tmc ploics è tmc adst rcadtc simddls wcrc djtce j`llch by uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs.

Xmc ètrdhuit`de dj o spciòl olldwoeic jdr tcoimcrs è morhsm`p simddls mos

hdec auim td ceidurofc tcoimcrs td togc up pdsts è rcadtc orcos (bdx 9.?). Xm`s

iorcjully torfctch eicet`vc mos rcsultch e lorfc euabcrs dj rurol tcoimcrs rcqucst-

èf troesjcr td o morhsm`p simddl, oeh o rchuit`de è tcoimcrs rcqucstèf troesjcrsowoy jrda morhsm`p simddls.

Xoblc 9.3 Aolow`; Xcoimcr Euabcrs oeh ^XR è ^r aory oeh Ycidehory Yimddls (CA@Y 2>>:)

Ycidehory Ycidehory

Eot`deol ^ràory ^ràory Ycidehory Ycidehory quol`j`ch quol j`ch

hoto tcoimcrs ^XR tcoimcrs ^XR tcoimcrs ^XR

Rurol 9:,068 =?;? =,>>= 2?.9 2,223 6:.=

Srboe :,229 8:;? 2,9:> 2>.? 089 3>.8

Xdtol 89,?06 6:;? ?>,9:= 2?.? 9,?:= :=.0

Xoblc 9.: Idapor`sde dj Xwd Yimddls è Aolow`

Luabohz` simddl (pcrùrboe) Abcefwc Yimddl (rurol)

?,6>: pup`ls e ?6 ilosscs ?02 pup`ls e 3 ilosscs

20 tcoimcrs ? tcoimcr

Os tmcrc orc adrc ilosscs tmoe tcoimcrs, Xmc tcoimcr advcs oadef tmc 3 ilosscs, oeh

coim tcoimcr wdrgs dely port dj tmc uscs 2 ldiol uequol`j`ch vdluetccrs os port-tàc

simddl hoy. oss`stoets.




BD] 9.? XMC FOAB@O‐Y Y^CI@OL OLLDVOEIC JDR MORHYM@^ YIMDDLY

Xd ohhrcss tmc rcluitoeic dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs td oiicpt morhsm`p pdsts, Xmc Foabò ètrdhuich o spciòl olldwoeic è 2>>: td ottroit oeh rctoè

tcoimcrs ldiotch è simddls iloss`j`ch os morhsm`p simddls. Dely simddls

adrc tmoe 9 ga jrda o aoè rdoh orc cl`f`blc td bc ides`hcrch os morhsm`p

simddls. Xm`s morhsm`p olldwoeic `s cqu`volcet td 9> pcricet dj solory jdr

tcoimcrs è morhsm`p simddls è rcf`des 9 oeh 8, oeh 93 pcricet oeh

8> pcricet è rcf`des 3 oeh :, rcspcit`vcly.

Xmc morhsm`p olldwoeic `s rcpdrtch td bc movèf tmc hcs`rch cjjcit dj

ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td togc up pdsts è simddls è h`jjìult orcos. Xmcrc

wcrc rcpdrts dj tcoimcrs rcqucstèf troesjcrs td rcf`des 3 oeh : (tmc adst

rcadtc jrda tmc iop`tol) oeh tcoimcrs w`tmè tmcsc rcf`des rcqucstèf

troesjcrs td morhsm`p simddls. @e o survcy dj stuhcet tcoimcrs è Xmc

Foabò Idllcfc è 2>>6, 28 pcricet rcpdrtch tmot tmcy wdulh imddsc td

wdrg è o morhsm`p pds`t`de wmcrc tmc ohh`t`deol poyacet wos ovo`loblc,

oeh :3 pcricet so`h tmot `j pdstch td o morhsm`p simddl, tmcy wdulh togc up

tmc pdst. By 2>>6, 28 pcricet dj tmc cx`stèf tcoimcrs è rcf`des 9, 8, 3, oeh

: moh rcqucstch troesjcrs td morhsm`p pdsts, w`tm ecfl`f`blc euabcrs

rcqucstèf troesjcrs è tmc dppds`tc h`rcit`de.

Lcsdtmd uscs o ldiol m`rèf systca jdr tcoimcr hcpldyacet. Xmc aè`stry

“froets‑ tcoimèf pdsts td simddls è rcspdesc td simddl pdpulot`de oeh buhfct

ides`hcrot`des.

Deic tmc simddl `s froetch o tcoimèf pdst, tmc simddl aoeofcacet idaa`t-

tcc ioe ohvcrt`sc tmc pdst oeh sclcit o tcoimcr td j`ll tmc pds`t`de. Deic tmc tcoimcr

`s `hcet`j`ch, tmc popcrs orc scet td tmc Xcoimèf Ycrvìc Idaa`ss`de (XYI) oeh

tmc tcoimcr rcic`vcs o solory jrda tmc Aè`stry. Xm`s ldiol m`rc systca olldws adst simddls td j`ll tmc ovo`loblc pdsts oeh tmcrc

`s rclot`vcly l`ttlc voròt`de è pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d bctwcce rurol oeh urboe orcos.

Os tcoimcrs dely opply td tmdsc simddls wmcrc tmcy orc w`llèf td tcoim, tmc prdb-

lca dj tcoimcrs jo`lèf td oiicpt o pdst `s aèà`zch. Mdwcvcr, quol`j`ch tcoim-

crs ioe adrc cos`ly idapctc jdr tmc kdbs è urboe orcos, sd aoey dj tmc rurol

simddls rciru`t uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e 2>>3, => pcricet dj tcoimcrs è ldwloeh

simddls wcrc quol`j`ch, idaporch td dely 32 pcricet dj tmdsc e aduetoè simddls

(toblc 9.6).

Dec dj tmc rcsults dj tm`s ldiol m`rc systca `s tmot simddls orc adrc l`gcly tdsclcit oe opplìoet jrda tmc orco, c`tmcr è tmc bcl`cj tmot tm`s w`ll rcsult è bcttcr



Xcoimcr Hcpldyacet; Fcttèf Xcoimcrs td tmc R`fmt ^loics • 3?

ottcehoeic oeh rctcet`de, dr bciousc dj prcssurc jrda èjlucetòl pcdplc è tmc

orco. @e Lcsdtmd `t `s qu`tc idaade jdr rurol tcoimcrs td wdrg è simddls w`tmè

wolgèf h`stoeic dj tmc`r joa`ly mdacs. Xm`s ldiol bòs è sclcit`de aoy bc o ide-

tr`butèf joitdr td tmc m`fm prdpdrt`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs è Lcsdtmd. Vm`lc rchuièf tmc euabcr dj voioet pds`t`des oeh ceidurofèf ldiol rciru`t-

acet, tm`s systca mos sdac hrowboigs. Xmc aè`stry mos l`ttlc ob`l`ty td advc

tcoimcrs jrda simddls tmot orc dvcrstojjch, o s`tuot`de tmot diiurs jrcqucetly wmce

ecw simddls orc idestruitch, rchuièf dvcrirdwhèf è cx`stèf simddls. Xroesjcrs

bctwcce simddls orc sdactàcs idaplìotch by tmc pottcre dj imurim ojj`lòt`de dj

simddls, os imurim outmdr`t`cs sccg td mdlh os aoey tcoimèf pdsts os pdss`blc è

tmc`r simddls.

[oabò uscs o ploeech hcpldyacet systca tmot eidrpdrotcs sdac clcacets dj

èh`v`huol imdìc. Coim ycor tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj pdsts `s ohvcrt`sch eot`deolly èecwspopcrs, roh`d, oeh tclcv`s`de, w`tm oe èhìot`de dj tmc euabcr dj pdsts ovo`l-

oblc ot coim h`strìt. Ioeh`hotcs orc osgch td opply h`rcitly td tmc h`strìt (dr h`s-

trìts) è wmìm tmcy orc w`llèf td wdrg. Xmc ohvcrt`sèf ceidurofcs ioeh`hotcs td

opply td rurol h`strìts, pdètèf dut tmc m`fmcr prdbob`l`ty dj foèèf capldyacet

è tmcsc h`strìts.

Oll dj tmc opplìot`des orc brdufmt tdfctmcr jdr o acctèf dj h`strìt djjìcrs

(wmìm ioe togc up td twd wccgs) ot wmìm ioeh`hotcs orc sclcitch oeh hcpldych.

Xm`s acctèf `s ade`tdrch by o poecl dj dbscrvcrs, èiluhèf rcprcscetot`vcs dj o

tcoimcrs ue`de oeh tmc [oabòe prcs`hcet‐s djjìc, td cesurc tmot tmc prdicss `sjo`r. Coim h`strìt j`rst hrows jrda tmc tcoimcrs wmd oppl`ch td tmc`r h`strìt. @j tmcrc

orc esujjì`cet opplìoets jdr dec h`strìt, sdac opplìoets jrda dtmcr h`strìts ioe

bc djjcrch ploics. Ecvcrtmclcss, sdac rcadtc rurol h`strìts orc ueoblc td ottroit

sujjì`cet opplìoets oeh orc lcjt w`tm voioet pds`t`des, os aoey dj tmc tcoimcrs

troesjcrrch td j`ll tmc smdrtofcs hd edt togc up tmc`r oppdètacets.

Xmcrc orc èhìot`des tmot tcoimcrs orc adrc l`gcly td oiicpt pdsts è tmc h`strìts

td wmìm tmcy oppl ch. @e Costcre prdvèic è 2>>:, ?,??: tcoimcrs wcrc rciru tch

è tmc j`rst rdueh, oeh dely =9 dj tmcsc jo`lch td rcpdrt. @e o scideh rdueh dj

rciru tacet, aoey dj tmdsc wmd wcrc oppdètch moh edt oppl ch td tmc h strìt è wmìm tmcy wcrc oppdètch, oeh wm`lc =:0 wcrc oppdètch, 292 jo`lch td rcpdrt.

Xoblc 9.6 Lcsdtmd; H`str`but`de dj _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcrs (CA@Y hoto 2>>3)

_uol j`ch Sequol j`ch Xdtol % _uol j`ch

Jddtm`lls ?,9=9 :02 2,>63 ::.6

Ldwloehs 8>:3 ?>?: 3,>=? =>.>

Aduetoè ?82> ?920 2,680 3?.6

Ycequ R`vcr Zollcy ?:> ?>6 2:6 30.0

Xdtol 6,>2= 9,?88 ?>,?62 :0.?




Xm`s hcpldyacet systca s wcogcech by o pottcre dj troesjcrs tmot olldws tcoim-

crs td lcovc rurol simddls ojtcr twd ycors. H`strìt Chuiot`de Bdorh Ycirctor`cs

(HCBY) orc djtce euehotch w`tm rcqucsts jdr troesjcrs, oeh dec hcsir`bch tmca os

aogèf up tmc frcotcst prdpdrt`de dj mcr ao`l. Xmc HCBY usuolly pr`dr`t`zc tmdsc

wmd ecch o troesjcr jdr muaoe`toròe rcosdes, èiluhèf `llecss dr aorròfc.

Xroesjcrs ioe dely bc aohc deic o voioeiy cx`sts, but huc td h`strìt smdrtofcs dj

tcoimcrs, `t `s djtce pdss`blc jdr tcoimcrs td troesjcr cvce bcjdrc tmcy movc ida-

plctch twd ycors è tmc`r è`tòl pdst. Xm`s pottcre dj hcpldyacet oeh troesjcr aoy aogc `t adrc polotoblc jdr yduef tcoimcrs td oiicpt o rurol pdstèf (os tmcy ioe

scc tmot `t `s tcapdrory), but `t olsd rcsults è o m`fmcr prdpdrt`de dj bdtm ècxpc-

r`ceich tcoimcrs oeh voioei`cs è tmc adst rcadtc simddls.

Xmc hcpldyacet dj tcoimcrs rcaoès uecvce. F`vce tmc hcaoeh jdr tmc adrc

urboe pds`t`des, tm`s systca tcehs td j`ll oll tmc hcs`roblc pdsts os sdde os tmcy

bcidac voioet, lcovèf oll dj tmc voioei`cs è rcadtc simddls. Xmcrc wcrc sub-

stoetòl h`jjcrceics bdtm w`tmè prdvèics oeh w`tmè h`strìts. Icetrol prdvèic

moh o ^XR dj 62 pup`ls pcr tcoimcr è fdvcreacet simddls, idaporch w`tm Lusogo

prdvèic, wmìm moh o ^XR dj 32 (toblc 9.=). V`tmè Icetrol prdvèic, Gobwc h`s-trìt (rclot`vcly urboe`zch) moh oe ovcrofc ^XR dj 96 è fdvcreacet simddls, wm`lc

tmc rurol Im`bdabd h`strìt moh oe ovcrofc ^XR dj 69. Xogèf fdvcreacet bosì

simddls è tmc iduetry os o wmdlc, è 2>>:, dec-quortcr dj h`strìts moh oe ovcrofc

^XR dj 8: dr lcss, wm`lc oedtmcr quortcr moh o ^XR dj =9 dr adrc.


@e sccgèf td ohhrcss tmc prdblcas dj tcoimcr hcpldyacet, tmrcc aoè typcsdj strotc-

f`cs wcrc usch è tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs. J rst, sdac iduetr`cs prdv`hch èicet`vcstd ottroit tcoimcrs td h jj iult ldiot`des, us ef c tmcr h rcit jèoei ol èicet`vcs dr

Xoblc 9.= [oabò; ^rdvèiòl H`jjcrceics è Ovcrofc ^XR jdr Bosì Yimddls (CA@Y 2>>:)

^rdvèic Idaaue`ty Froet-o`hch ûbl i ^r`votc/imurim Dvcroll

Icetrol 3: :> 62 20 :8

Idppcrbclt :6 :: 3= 2? 33

Costcre 38 :2 6> 99 :9

Luopulo :3 66 6? 9: :0

Lusogo 3? 89 32 ?= 8:

Edrtm Vcstcre 68 6= :> 23 :3

Edrtmcre :0 =? =: ?0 60

Ydutmcre :9 30 := 2> :8

Vcstcre 3= =: 3= 98 3=

Xdtol :2 := :0 29 :8




èh`rcit èicet vcs suim os mdusèf dr o prda`sc dj adrc rop`h prdadt de. Ycideh,

è sdac ioscs ldiot`de-spci jì rciru tacet systcas wcrc usch, prdv`hèf tcoimcrs

w`tm sdac imdìc dj ldiot`de. Xm`rh, tmcrc wcrc sdac ottcapts td torfct stuhcet

tcoimcrs, wmd wcrc adrc l`gcly td oiicpt pdsts è tmc orcos dj frcotcst ecch.

MDSY@EF

“Xcoimcrs wde‐t fd td o fross tmotim mdusc‑ (H`strìt djjìcr, Aolow`,2>>6)

^rdv`s`de dj tcoimcr mdusèf wos dec dj tmc strotcf`cs usch td ohhrcss tmc

ècqu`ty dj tcoimcr hcpldyacet. @e tmc obsceic dj ovo`loblc mdusèf, tcoimcrs

pdstch td o simddl djtce rcjusch td oiicpt tmc pdst. @e orcos dj subs`stceic jora-

èf, tmc tcoimcrs a`fmt bc tmc dely solor`ch capldyccs è tmc orco, oeh è suim oidetcxt tmcrc wos l`ttlc td suppdrt o pr`votc aorgct jdr mdusèf. Xmc obsceic dj

mdusèf wos o portìulor dbstoilc jdr jcaolc tcoimcrs, wmd a`fmt bc lcss sojc w`tm-

dut ohcquotc oiidaadhot`de. @t wos olsd rcpdrtch tmot quol`j`ch tcoimcrs moh

cxpcitot`des dj o icrtoè stoehorh dj oiidaadhot`de oeh, os o rcsult, aoy movc

bcce lcss w`llèf td oiicpt tmc bosì joi`l`t`cs ovo`loblc è rurol orcos.

Vm`lc loig dj mdusèf `s icrtoèly o borr`cr, publì prdv`s`de dj mdusèf `s

cxpces`vc, bdtm e e`tòl oeh aoètceoeic idsts, oeh edec dj tmc iduetr`cs e tm`s

stuhy wcrc oblc td prdv`hc mdusèf jdr oll tcoimcrs. @e Xmc Foabò, Aolow`, oeh

[oabò, tcoimcr mdusèf prdv`s`de wos sujjì`cet jdr dely dec-quortcr dr lcss dj tcoimcrs (toblc 9.0), oeh cvce tm`s wos djtce “tcapdrory‑ mdusèf, sdactàcs è

pddr ideh`t`de.

Vmcrc mdusèf `s edt ovo`loblc, rurol idaaue`t`cs sdactàcs prdv`hc sdac

oiidaadhot`de td ottroit o tcoimcr td tmc orco. Vmcrc tm`s `s hdec w`tm ida-

aue`ty rcsdurics, tmc mdusèf `s typìolly bu`lt td ldiol stoehorhs, oeh scce os

pddr quol`ty by tcoimcrs jrda urboe orcos. @e Xmc Foabò, tcoimcr mdusèf prd-

v`hch by tmc idaaue`ty wos djtce idestruitch jrda auh brìgs w`tm tmotimch

rddjs (scc j`furc 9.9). @e dtmcr iduetr`cs, idaaue`t`cs wcrc oblc td oiicss juehs

td prdv`hc tcoimcr mdusèf, c`tmcr tmrdufm sdiòl oit`de juehs dr juehs jrda

EFDs. Idaaue`ty prdv`s`de dj mdusèf aoy movc dtmcr cjjcits. @e Xmc Foabò,

`t wos rcpdrtch tmot rurol idaaue`t`cs wdulh edt edraolly prdv`hc oiidaad-

hot`de jdr oe ueaorr`ch jcaolc tcoimcr, bcl`cvèf tmot smc wdulh bc o hcstob`-

l`zèf èjluceic è tmc idaaue`ty.

Xoblc 9.0 [oabò; Ovo`lob`l`ty dj Ytojj Mduscs (CA@Y 2>>:)

^craoecet Xcapdrory ^craoecet mduscs os

mduscs mduscs Xcoimcrs o pcricet dj tcoimcrs

Bosì simddls ?2,=93 3,082 32,9?6 23

M`fm simddls 3,>0? 9>> ?9,396 9=




@e ohh`t`de td mdusèf, tcoimcrs a`fmt cxpcit oiicss td joi`l`t`cs suim os clci-

trì`ty, o ilcoe wotcr supply, oeh adb`lc tclcpmdec idvcrofc. @e [oabò, èh`v`h-

uol h`strìts orc àplcacetèf èedvot`vc simcacs td ottroit oeh rctoè tcoimcrs.

Jdr cxoaplc, è Fwcabc h`strìt o ldoe `s f`vce td jcaolc tcoimcrs è tmc adst

rurol simddls td purimosc sdlor poecls. O suaaory dj tmc proitìcs surrduehèf

mdusèf è tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs `s prdv`hch è toblc 9.?>.

J@EOEI@OL @EICEX@ZCY

Jèoeiòl èicet`vcs orc w`hcly usch td ottroit oeh rctoè tcoimcrs è rurol simddls,

but è adst ioscs movc là`tch àpoit. O rcicet cxoaplc jrda Xmc Foabò

suffcsts tmot èicet`vcs, `j lorfc, wcll torfctch, oeh wcll aoeofch, ioe movc o vcry

s`fe`jìoet apoit.

Jdur dj tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs èiluhch è tm`s stuhy prdv`hch sdac jèoeiòl

èicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs wdrgèf è rurol simddls. [oabò po`h oe èicet`vc dj 2> pcr-

icet dj solory jdr tcoimcrs è rurol simddls. Sfoeho moh o bdeus dj 9> pcricet dj

solory, rcicetly èircosch jrda ?3 pcricet. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc èicet`vc wos o j`xch

oaduet dj 263 aoldt` (LYL) pcr adetm, tmc cqu`volcet dj 2> pcricet dj tmc stort-

èf solory jdr o quol`j`ch tcoimcr.

J`furc 9.9 Xmc Foabò; O Mcoh Xcoimcr‐s Mdusc

Ar. ^ctcr Fdacz, mcohaostcr dj Bossoros ldwcr bosì simddl, duts`hc tmc mdusc bu`lt by tmc idaaue`ty jdr m`s usc.

Xmc simddl moh 23> stuhcets oeh j`vc tcoimcrs, dj wmda tmrcc wcrc quol`j`ch.




Hcsp`tc tmcsc èicet`vcs, Lcsdtmd, Xmc Foabò, oeh Sfoeho oll moh h`jjìulty

è fcttèf tcoimcrs td rurol simddls. Xmc là`tch àpoit dj tmc èicet`vcs aoy bc

rclotch td tmc`r s`zc. @e Lcsdtmd, `t wos orfuch tmot tmc èicet`vc h`h edt dutwc`fmtmc ohh`t`deol idsts dj l`vèf è o rurol orco, oeh tmot tmc cet`rc èicet`vc a`fmt bc

usch è poyèf jdr dec tr`p td tdwe td buy suppl`cs, plus tmc ohh`t`deol idst dj

usèf porojjè rotmcr tmoe clcitrì`ty jdr mcotèf oeh iddgèf.

Srboe simddls aoy olsd djjcr oltcreot`vc sdurics dj ohh`t`deol èidac. @e

[oabò, tcoimcrs è adrc irdwhch simddls idulh tcoim twd sm`jts, oeh rcic`vc o

hdublc sm`jt olldwoeic dj 2> pcricet dj solory, cqu`volcet td tmc èicet`vc poyacet

jdr ldiot`de è o rurol simddl. @e Sfoeho, scidehory simddls ro`sc juehs jrda jccs

oeh dtmcr sdurics oeh orc oblc td usc port dj tm`s adecy td supplcacet tcoimcrs‐

solor`cs. Dec stuhy jdueh tmot tmcsc idulh bc up td dec-quortcr dj tmc rcfulor

solory (Ymèycgwo 2>>:). Yimddls è adrc rclot`vcly ojjlucet orcos orc oblc td

Xoblc 9.?> Yuaaory dj Mdusèf ^roitìcs è tmc Iosc Ytuhy Iduetr`cs

Cr`trco; Xcoimcr mdusèf `s edt edraolly prdv`hch, oltmdufm sdac rcicetly bu`lt simddls è rurol orcos movc

èiluhch sdac tcoimcr quortcrs.

Foabò, Xmc; Mdusèf `s prdv`hch è sdac simddls, but edt oll. @t `s cstàotch tmot obdut 23 pcricet dj tcoim-

crs movc sdac jdra dj simddl mdusèf. Vmcrc mdusèf `s edt prdv`hch, idaaue t`cs aoy prdv`hc sdac jdra dj

oiidaadhot`de, but tm`s `s djtce dj pddr quol`ty, oeh o hctcrrcet td tcoimcrs oiicptèf rurol pdstèfs. Xmc fdv-

creacet `s iurrcetly usèf hdedr juehs td prdv`hc pcraoecet tcoimcr mdusèf è rurol simddls. Vmcrc tm`s `s

prdv`hch, tmcrc `s ed imorfc td tmc tcoimcrs, oeh tmcy idetèuc td rcic`vc tmc`r mdusèf olldwoeic. @e tmc

obsceic dj mdusèf, aoey tcoimcrs jèh `t h`jjìult td jèh o ploic td rcet oeh l`vc è tmc simddl, è stdrcrddas,

dr è dtmcr pddr ideh`t`des.

Lcsdtmd; Xcoimcr mdusèf `s prdv`hch jdr sdac tcoimcrs è scidehory simddls, but rorcly è pràory simddls.

Xcoimcr mdusèf, wmce `t `s prdv`hch, `s usuolly jrcc td tmc tcoimcrs.

L`bcrò; Xcoimcr mdusèf `s edt edraolly prdv`hch ot simddls, oltmdufm o jcw EFDs movc idestruitch tcoimcr

mdusèf. @t `s rcpdrtch tmot rurol idaaue`t`cs djtce prdv`hc sdac bosì oiidaadhot`de jdr tcoimcrs.Aolow`; Ydac simddls prdv`hc mduscs jdr tcoimcrs. @e 2>>:, tmcrc wcrc ??,=?2 pcraoecet tcoimcrs‐ mduscs

oeh 3,308 tcapdrory decs (CA@Y 2>>:), prdv`hèf dec mdusc jdr cvcry 8.2 tcoimcrs è tmc publì simddls. @e

dtmcr orcos, tmc idaaue`t`cs orc osgch td prdv`hc o mdusc è drhcr td ottroit o tcoimcr. Vmcrc o tcoimcr mdusc

`s prdv`hch, tmc tcoimcr `s cxpcitch td poy o rcet, typìolly obdut 8,3>> Aolow` gwoimo (AVG) pcr adetm jdr

scidehory tcoimcrs oeh o l`ttlc lcss jdr pràory tcoimcrs. Xm`s adecy `s rctoèch by tmc simddl, oeh ioe bc usch

jdr aoètceoeic oeh dtmcr simddl oit`v`t`cs ot tmc h`sirct`de dj simddl aoeofcacet. Ecvcrtmclcss, h`strìt

djjìòls rcpdrt tmot loig dj mdusèf `s dec dj tmc aoè rcosdes wmy tcoimcrs rcjusc td togc djjcrch pdsts.

Sfoeho; Yimddl mdusèf `s edt edraolly prdv`hch, oltmdufm tcoimcr oiidaadhot`de `s prdv`hch è o jcw

ploics. Oiidaadhot`de jdr tcoimcrs `s rcpdrtch td bc o aokdr `ssuc, os `t ioe bc h`jjìult td jèh o ploic td

rcet è sdac orcos.

[oabò; Xmc obsceic dj su`toblc mdusèf `s o aokdr borr`cr td ldiot`de è rurol orcos. Mdusèf `s prdv`hch jdr

sdac, but edt oll, tcoimcrs. @e bosì simddls, tmcrc orc ?=,666 tcoimcr mduscs, dj wmìm 9? pcricet orc

tcapdrory struiturcs (typìolly muts)7 pcraoecet (`.c., brìg) mdusèf `s ovo`loblc jdr opprdxàotcly 23 pcricet

dj tcoimcrs. @e m`fm simddls, tmcrc orc pcraoecet mduscs jdr opprdxàotcly 9= pcricet dj tcoimcrs.

[oez`bor; Xcoimcr mdusèf `s edt edraolly prdv`hch.




aogc frcotcr poyacets, jurtmcr cemoeièf tmc`r ob`l`ty td ottroit oeh rctoè tmc

adst cxpcr`ceich oeh quol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

@e sdac ioscs tmc àpoit dj tmc èicet`vcs wos wcogcech by pddr torfctèf. @e

Lcsdtmd, tmc èicet`vc wos po`h td oll tcoimcrs (oeh dtmcr fdvcreacet capldyccs)

è aduetoè orcos. Os o rcsult, tcoimcrs e simddls è saoll tdwes e tmc aduetoè

h`strìts rcic`vch tmc olldwoeic, wm`lc tcoimcrs e rcadtc oeh h`jjìult ldiot`des e

ldwloeh h`strìts h`h edt. Os edtch corl`cr, auim dj tmc imollcefc dj hcpldyacet

`s w`tmè h`strìts, os tcoimcrs orc djtce uew`llèf td wdrg è o spci`jì simddl but

w`llèf td wdrg è oedtmcr simddl w`tmè tmc soac h`strìt, typìolly i`tèf ovo`l-

ob`l`ty dj mdusèf dr oiicss`b`l`ty by publì troespdrtot`de os tmc rcosde. @e tm`s

idetcxt, djjcrèf tmc soac èicet`vc jdr tcoimèf ot rclot`vcly idajdrtoblc simddls

oeh ot tmc adst h`jjìult simddl w`tmè tmc soac h`strìt `s l`gcly td scr`dusly

wcogce tmc àpoit dj tmc èicet`vcs.Jurtmcr, tmc èicet`vcs wcrc edt olwoys torfctch ot tmc typcs dj tcoimcrs adst

ecchch è rurol simddls. @e Sfoeho, èicet`vcs wcrc po`h td pràory tcoimcrs, but

edt td scidehory tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, o j`xch olldwoeic dj 263 LYL pcr adetm wos

po`h td tcoimcrs è aduetoè orcos, wmctmcr quol`j`ch dr uequol`j`ch, oeh wos o

frcotcr prdpdrt`de dj solory jdr tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e bdtm ioscs tmc èice-

t`vc td oiicpt o rurol pds`t`de wos ldwcr jdr tmc m`fmcr-sg`llch tcoimcrs, oltmdufm t

`s tmc m`fmcst-sg`llch tcoimcrs tmot orc è smdrt supply è rurol orcos.

Rcidfe`zèf tmc h`jjìult`cs dj siolc oeh torfctèf, bdtm [oabò oeh Lcsdtmd

wcrc ides`hcr ef ohhèf o jurtmcr oeh adrc t`fmtly torfctch èicet`vc. @e Lcsdtmd,tmc cx`stèf èicet`vc oppl`ch td oll publì capldyccs, oeh tmc Aè`stry dj Chuio-

t`de oeh Xroèèf wos ides`hcrèf oe ohh`t`deol èicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs, torfctch

dely ot tmc adst h`jjìult ldiot`des. @e [oabò, tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de wos ide-

s`hcrèf ètrdhuièf o twd-t`cr systca. Xmc cx`stèf rurol olldwoeic wos po`h td

tcoimcrs è simddls adrc tmoe ?3 a`lcs jrda tmc ohaè`strot`vc icetcr. Oe ohh`-

t`deol olldwoeic jdr rcadtc rurol simddls wos prdpdsch, torfctch ot tmc adst èoi-

icss`blc dj tmcsc rurol simddls. Xmc ir`tcrò jdr cstobl`smèf wmìm simddls wdulh

bc ides`hcrch rcadtc wcrc yct td bc hctcraèch, but a`fmt èiluhc o bosgct dj

èhìotdrs suim os h`stoeic jrda o aoè rdoh, pdst djjìc, boeg, dr ilèì. Xmc cxpcr`ceic è Xmc Foabò prdv`hcs o vcry h`jjcrcet pìturc, oeh suffcsts

tmot èicet`vcs, `j sujjì`cetly lorfc oeh wcll torfctch, ioe movc o s`fe`jìoet

àpoit. @e Xmc Foabò tmcrc wos o systca dj olldwoeics roefèf up td ?6.3 pcr-

icet dj solory, bosch de tmc rcf`de td wmìm o tcoimcr wos pdstch (toblc 9.??). @e

ohh`t`de, o spciòl morhsm`p olldwoeic wos ètrdhuich è 2>>:, bosch è`tòlly de

tmc h`stoeic dj o simddl jrda o aoè rdoh. Xm`s morhsm`p olldwoeic roefch jrda

9> pcricet td 8> pcricet dj solory, hcpcehèf de tmc rcf`de. Os bdtm dj tmcsc

olldwoeics wcrc po`h sàultoecdusly, tmc solory jdr o tcoimcr e o morhsm`p simddl

è rcf`de : idulh bc adrc tmoe 36 pcricet frcotcr tmoe tmc solory dj tmc soactcoimcr è rcf`de ?.




Xm`s èicet`vc sccas td bc suiicssjul è ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td ldiotc è morh-

sm`p simddls. @e 2>>=, 82 pcricet dj tmc tcoimcrs è rcf`des 9, 8, 3, oeh : wcrc

olrcohy è morhsm`p simddls, oeh 28 pcricet dj tmc tcoimcrs è tmcsc jdur rcf`des

moh rcqucstch o troesjcr jrda o edemorhsm`p simddl td o morhsm`p simddl. Xmus,

adrc tmoe dec-tm`rh dj tmc tcoimcrs wmd wcrc edt è morhsm`p simddls wcrc

oit`vcly rcqucstèf troesjcrs td morhsm`p simddls è drhcr td rcic`vc tmc olldwoeic.

@t `s edtcwdrtmy tmot tmcsc j`furcs orc jdr ètrorcf`deol troesjcr rcqucsts. Xmus,

tm`s èicet`vc sccas td movc bcce cjjcit`vc è ceidurofèf tcoimcrs olrcohy è rurol

rcf`des td troesjcr td morhsm`p simddls w`tmè tmc soac rcf`de. Xmcrc `s ed èhìo-

t`de tmot tcoimcrs è urboe simddls wcrc rcqucstèf troesjcrs td morhsm`p simddls.

Xoblc 9.?2 hcsir`bcs tmc èicet`vcs jdr tcoimcrs è rurol orcos djjcrch by coim dj

tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs.

LDIOX@DE-Y^CI@J@I RCIRS@XACEX

Acimoe`sas tmot olldw sdac imdìc dj ldiot`de scca td djjcr o prda`sèf woy dj

àprdvèf hcpldyacet dutidacs. Vmce kdbs è spci`jì ldiot`des orc ohvcrt`sch,`t olldws tcoimcrs sdac èjluceic è tmc`r pdstèf, oeh tmdsc wmd orc ueoblc td

Xoblc 9.?? Xmc Foabò; Yiolc dj Ohh`t`deol Olldwoeics Bosch de Fcdfropmìol Ldiot`de

Rcf`deol olldwoeic, Morhsm`p olldwoeic etrdhuich 2>>:,

Rcf`de % dj solory % dj solory

Rcf`de ? > Edt opplìoblc

Rcf`de 2 Srboe orcos ’ > Edt opplìoblc

Rurol orcos 6.3%

Rcf`de 9 0% 9>% dely è hcs`feotch morhsm`p simddls

Rcf`de 8 ?2% 9>% dely è hcs`feotch morhsm`p simddls

Rcf`de 3 ?3% 93% dely è hcs`feotch morhsm`p simddls

Rcf`de : ?6.3% 8>% dely è hcs`feotch morhsm`p simddls

Xoblc 9.?2 Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs; @eicet`vcs jdr Xcoimcrs è Rurol Orcos

Cr`trco; Ed spciòl èicet`vcs.

Foabò, Xmc; Rcf`deol bdeus dj up td ?6.3 pcricet jdr oll tcoimcrs è o rcf`de. Oe ohh`t`deol morhsm`p

olldwoeic jdr tcoimcrs è h`jjìult pdsts, roefèf jrda 9>’8> pcricet dj solory.

Lcsdtmd; J`xch bdeus dj 263 Aolut` pcr adetm (2> pcricet dj stortèf solory jdr o quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcr).

L`bcrò; Ed spci`jì èicet`vcs.

Aolow`; Ed spci`jì èicet`vcs.

Sfoeho; 9> pcricet bdeus (rcicetly èircosch jrda ?3 pcricet) è morh td rcoim orcos. Jdr pr aory tcoimcrs dely.

[oabò; 2> pcricet bdeus jdr rurol orcos.

[oez`bor; Ed spciòl èicet`vcs.




jèh oe urboe pdst aoy bc oblc td imddsc tmc rurol orco è wmìm tmcy w`ll tcoim,

tmus èircosèf tmc l`gcl`mddh dj rctcet`de è tmc pdst. Xmcrc wcrc èhìot`des è

tmc iosc stuh`cs tmot tcoimcr imdìc dj ldiot`de èircosch tmc l`gcl`mddh dj tcoim-

crs togèf up o pdst.

Ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet systcas wcrc è usc è h`jjcrcet jdras è o eua-

bcr dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs. @e Lcsdtmd, simddls wcrc èvdlvch è tmc sclcit`de

dj tcoimcrs, oeh pdsts è spci`jì simddls wcrc ohvcrt`sch. Xcoimcrs oppl`ch dely

jdr pdsts tmcy wcrc prcporch td oiicpt, oeh simddl aoeofcrs tcehch td prcjcr ioe-

h`hotcs wmd tmcy bcl`cvch wdulh stoy è tmc orco. Os o rcsult, aoey dj tmc

rciru`tch tcoimcrs wcrc jrda tmc ldiol orco, oeh adst pdsts wcrc j`llch.

@e [oabò, tcoimcrs wcrc oblc td imddsc tmc h`strìt td wmìm tmcy oppl`ch, oeh

tcoimcrs oss`fech td tmc`r h`strìt dj imdìc wcrc auim adrc l`gcly td togc up tmc

djjcrch pdst tmoe tmdsc scet td oedtmcr h`strìt. @e Sfoeho, o systca dj ldiot`de-spc-i`jì rciru`tacet jdr h`jjìult scidehory simddls wos ètrdhuich è rcspdesc td m`fm

wostofc. @e 2>>:, oe ohh`t`deol 2,>>> scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc rciru`tch, but oladst

molj jo`lch td togc up tmc`r pdsts, portìulorly è tmc rurol orcos. @e l`fmt dj tm`s cxpc-

r`ceic, tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Ypdrts (AdCY) bcfoe ohvcrt`sèf jdr voioe-

i`cs è spci`jì h`strìts, td ottroit dely opplìoets w`llèf td wdrg è tmdsc h`strìts.

Vmcrc tcoimcrs orc djjcrch o imdìc dj ldiot`de, aoey dj idursc w`ll imddsc td

wdrg è urboe simddls. Mdwcvcr, deic tmdsc pdsts orc j`llch, tmc rcaoèèf tcoim-

crs orc l`gcly td imddsc tmc`r mdac orcos dr orcos wmcrc tmcy movc rclot`vcs dr

jr`cehs, rotmcr tmoe idaplctcly uejoa`lòr orcos. @e Xmc Foabò Idllcfc, tmc stu-hcet tcoimcrs sccach td jccl tmot ldiot`de ecor mdac wos adrc àpdrtoet tmoe

ldiot`de è oe urboe orco. Dj 2>> stuhcet tcoimcrs wmd rcspdehch td o survcy,

23 pcricet so`h tmcy woetch td wdrg ecor mdac, oeh o jurtmcr 96 pcricet so`h tmcy

woetch td wdrg è tmc`r mdac h`strìt. Dely 0 pcricet so`h tmcy spci`jìolly woetch

td wdrg è Boekul (tmc iop`tol i`ty) dr rcf`de ?.

LDIOL RCIRS@XACEX DJ SE_SOL@J@CH XCOIMCRY

Vmcrc ed quol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc ovo`loblc, rciru`tacet dj ldiol pcdplc os uequol`-j`ch tcoimcrs, idabèch w`tm opprdpròtc e-scrvìc troèèf dppdrtue`t`cs, aoy bc

o prda`sèf woy td hcvcldp iopoi`ty è rurol orcos. Cvce è rcadtc simddls wmcrc

fdvcreacets orc ueoblc td hcpldy tcoimcrs, tmcrc orc djtce pcdplc olrcohy è tmc

orco w`tm sujjì`cet chuiot`de td idetr`butc td tmc tcoimèf w`tmè tmc simddl. Yys-

tcas tmot bu`lh de tmot iopoi`ty, oeh prdv`hc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs w`tm o potmwoy

ètd o prdjcss`deol iorccr, scca l`gcly td mclp è ohhrcssèf tmc smdrt-tcra prdb-

lca dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de, oeh tmc ldef-tcra imollcefc dj rctoèèf chuiotch pcd-

plc è `sdlotch idaaue`t`cs.

@e Xmc Foabò, rcf`deol chuiot`de aoeofcacet `s oblc td rciru`t uequol`j`chtcoimcrs, wmd core lcss tmoe molj dj tmc stortèf solory dj o quol`j`ch tcoimcr, td j`ll

voioei cs. @e Lcsdtmd, simddls tmot orc ueoblc td jèh quol j`ch tcoimcrs rciru`t




uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xmcsc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs core obdut tmrcc-quortcrs dj tmc

solory dj o quol`j`ch tcoimcr, oeh oiiduetch jdr 90 pcricet dj pràory tcoimcrs è

2>>3. @e bdtm Lcsdtmd oeh Xmc Foabò, tmcrc orc prdfroas tmot w`ll olldw sdac

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs td foè tmc jull tcoimèf quol`jìot`de wm`lc tmcy rcaoè è

simddl. @e bdtm ioscs, tmc idurscs orc drfoe`zch by tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc oeh

orc cqu`volcet td tmc troh`t`deol prc-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf. Bdtm orc hcl`vcrch usèf

o a`x dj sclj-stuhy aotcròls oeh idaprcssch idurscs djjcrch duts`hc simddl mdurs.

Xmc dppdrtue`ty td wdrg è ldiol simddls `s ottroit`vc td yduef pcdplc è rurol

orcos, f`vèf tmca sdac stotus w`tmè tmc idaaue`ty, oeh è sdac ioscs tmc pds-

s`b`l`ty dj o ldef-tcra iorccr7 è dtmcr ioscs `t mos rcsultch è tmc cacrfceic dj

uepo`h vdluetccr tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd aoey rurol simddls movc vdluetccr tcoimcrs,

typìolly ldiol simddl lcovcrs, adstly jcaolc, wmd movc possch tmc simddl lcovèf

cxoaèot`de (Ioabr`hfc Dvcrscos Yimddl Icrt`jìotc), but movc edt oim`cvch sujjì`cet frohcs td cetcr tcoimcr troèèf. Xmcy aoy tcoim w`tmdut poy jdr o eua-

bcr dj ycors è ldiol simddls, è tmc mdpcs dj fcttèf o pds`t`de os oe uequol`j`ch

tcoimcr deic o voioeiy oppcors. Vm`lc tm`s jrcc lobdr mos bcce vcry mclpjul td

simddls, tmc cxpcitot`de dj o pdst aoy iousc tces`des `j o kdb hdcs edt aotcròl`zc

dr `s oworhch td oe cxtcreol ioeh`hotc. @e rurol orcos è Aolow`, vdluetccr tcoimcrs

orc olsd idaade (scc j`furc 9.8). @e Etim`s` h`strìt, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc wcrc

Abcefwc ^ràory Yimddl mos ?02 pup`ls è j`vc frohcs, but dely dec fdvcreacet tcoimcr. Mc `s suppdrtch by twdvdluetccrs, bdtm yduef ace jrda tmc ldiol v`llofc wmd movc idaplctch o kue`dr scidehory chuiot`de, oeh orc stuhy-

èf ot mdac td idaplctc sce`dr scidehory cxoaèot`des.

J`furc 9.8 Aolow`; Abcefwc ^ràory Yimddl, Bloetyrc Rurol H`strìt



:> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

0> vdluetccr tcoimcrs è 2>>6, ohhèf ?2 pcricet td tmc tdtol euabcr dj tcoimcrs è

tmc h`strìt. Xmcsc orc typìolly ldiol pcdplc chuiotch td tmc m`fm-simddl dr td ot tmc

lcost a`hhlc-simddl lcvcl wmd orc ceidurofch by tmc idaaue`ty td wdrg os tcoim-

crs td aogc up jdr tmc smdrtofcs. Xmcy aoy rcic`vc sdac poyacet è gèh jrda tmc

idaaue`ty.

Xmc idabèot`de dj ldiol rciru`tacet oeh è-scrvìc troèèf prdv`hcs o potm-

woy jdr pcdplc è rurol orcos td foè oiicss td o tcoimèf iorccr. Xm`s opprdoim

aoy oss`st è ceoblèf prdv`s`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs td rurol simddls. @e Lcsdtmd,

adst dj tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wmd orc rciru`tch orc yduef wdace, sdac dj

wmda wdulh edt bc oblc td lcovc tmc orco jdr joa`ly rcosdes. Ytuh`cs è dtmcr

rcf`des movc olsd edtch tmc àpdrtoeic dj hcvcldpèf ldiol iopoi`ty. @e ôg`stoe,

jdr cxoaplc, rurol orcos tmot movc scidehory simddls orc adrc cos`ly oblc td jèh

pràory tcoimcrs, os tmcrc orc pcdplc jrda tmc idaaue`ty w`tm o scidehory chuiot`de (Oehrob`, Hoes, oeh Gmwoko 2>>:).

OXXROIX@EF XMC R@FMX YXSHCEX XCOIMCRY

Ydac EFDs movc bcce suiicssjul è torfctèf oeh troèèf pcdplc spci`jìolly td

tcoim è rurol idaaue`t`cs. @e Aolow` oe EFD-suppdrtch tcoimcr-troèèf

idllcfc dpcrotcs jdr tmc sdlc purpdsc dj troèèf tcoimcrs jdr rurol simddls. Xm`s

idllcfc, tmc Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda ^cdplc td ^cdplc Idllcfc ot Im`loefdao,

dely cerdlls yduef pcdplc w`tm o idaa`tacet td rcture td rurol orcos, oeh prd- v`hcs tmc rcfulor stotc-rcidfe`zch tcoimcr troèèf, oldef w`tm troèèf è ida-

aue`ty wdrg oeh lcohcrsm`p. Ytuhcets cefofc è idaaue`ty hcvcldpacet

e`tòt`vcs os oe ètcfrol port dj tmc simddl proitìc pcr`dh oeh orc cxpcitch td

rcture td o rurol orco de idaplct`de dj tmc idursc oeh togc up o tcoimèf pdst.

Xmc idllcfc rcpdrts tmot adst dj tmc`r frohuotcs rcture td rurol orcos de idaplc-

t`de dj tmc`r troèèf. Vm`lc tm`s aoy edt bc proitìol è oll tcoimcr troèèf, `t

hdcs `llustrotc tmot tmcrc `s o bdhy dj pcdplc wmd ioe bc adt`votch oeh prcporch

spci`jìolly td wdrg è rurol simddls. Yà`lor idllcfcs orc è dpcrot`de è

Adzoab`quc oeh Oefdlo. Xmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj pcdplc w`llèf td cetcr o tcoimcr idllcfc spci jìolly dr`cetch td

wdrg è o rurol orco oeh tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj vdluetccr tcoimcrs è rurol orcos bdtm

hcadestrotc tmot tmcrc orc pcdplc jdr wmda tcoimèf è o rurol orco `s oe ottroit vc

iorccr. Mdwcvcr, sclcit de ètd tcoimcr troèèfde tmcbos s dj oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic

oldec `s uel`gcly td aogc tmc bcst sclcit des è ioscs l`gc tmcsc, oeh aoy jovdr tmdsc

jrda urboe oeh pcrùrboe orcos w tm oiicss td tmc bcttcr scidehory simddls.



:?

Xcoimcr St`l`zot`de

IMO^XCR 8

C

esurèf oe opprdpròtc oeh cqu`toblc ut`l`zot`de dj tcoimcrs `s àpdrtoet è

tmc cxpoes`de dj chuiot`de systcas. Vmcrc iduetr`cs strufflc w`tm o smdrt-

ofc dj sg`llch tcoimcrs, cesurèf tmot tmc ovo`loblc tcoimcrs orc prdhuit`vcly capldych `s oe dbv`dus pr`dr`ty. @e ioscs wmcrc rcsdurics orc idestroèch,

àprdvcacets è tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de prdv`hc oe dppdrtue`ty td àprdvc cjj i`ceiy

oeh rchuic idst pcr stuhcet. Fcttèf tmc r`fmt tcoimcr ut`l zot de `s port iulorly

àpdrtoet è chuiot de systcas tmot orc cxpoehèf, os pddr ut`l zot de aoy irc-

otc idst struiturcs tmot àpchc cxpoes`de (Lcwè 2>>=).

Xwd joitdrs orc icetrol td tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, tmc tcoimèf ldoh cxpcitch dj

coim tcoimcr, oeh tmc woy è wmìm simddls orc drfoe`zch ètd ilosscs. Xmc cxpcitch

tcoimèf ldoh mos o h`rcit àpoit de tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets. @e pràory simddls,

tcoimcrs orc djtce cxpcitch td tcoim oll subkcits td dec iloss, oeh sd tmc tcoimèf

mdurs orc tmc soac os tmc stuhcet mdurs, oeh tmc tcoimcr rcqu`rcacet `s dec

tcoimcr pcr iloss. Deic tcoimcrs bcfè td spciòl`zc e portìulor subkcits, edraolly

ot scidehory lcvcl but è sdac ploics ot uppcr pràory lcvcl, tcoimcr wdrgèf

mdurs bcidac èhcpcehcet dj stuhcet idetoit tàc, oeh o stojjèf dj adrc tmoe

dec tcoimcr pcr iloss aoy bc rcqu`rch. @e [oez`bor, jdr cxoaplc, pràory tcoimcrs

orc cxpcitch td spciòl`zc, oeh td tcoim obdut twd-tm`rhs dj tmc stuhcet idetoit

mdurs. Os o rcsult, oe olldiot`de dj tmrcc tcoimcrs jdr cvcry twd ilosscs `s rcqu`rch.

Xcoimcr rcqu`rcacets orc olsd èjluceich by tmc drfoe`zot`de dj simddls oeh

ilosscs. Vmcrcvcr tmcrc orc ilosscs w`tm vcry saoll stuhcet euabcrs, tmc dvcroll

tcoimcr rcqu`rcacet oeh tmc idst pcr stuhcet orc èircosch. Xm`s typìolly diiurs

è saoll pràory simddls, wmcrc tmcrc orc èsujjì`cet pup`ls td aogc jull ilosscs,

oeh è saoll scidehory simddls wmcrc ault`plc subkcit dpt`des rcsult è saoll

ilosscs. Dpt`des td èircosc tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de èiluhc usc dj ault`frohc tcoim-

èf, oeh rcfulot`de dj tmc roefc dj dpt`deol subkcits tmot ioe bc djjcrch. @e sdac

dvcrirdwhch simddls, hdublc-sm`jt tcoimèf systcas orc usch, wmìm olsd àpoit

de tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de.

Xm`s imoptcr cxoaècs tcoimcr ut`l`zot de pottcres oeh pdl i`cs è tmc iosc-stuhy

iduetr`cs. Djjìòl tcoimcr wdrgldohs vor`ch w`hcly, jrda ?2 td 92 mdurs pcr wccg,

w`tm scidehory tcoimcrs fcecrolly movèf ldwcr wdrgldohs tmoe pràory tcoimcrs.



:2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Oituol ut`l`zot`de wos djtce ldwcr, port iulorly e simddls w`tm cxicss stojj, c`tmcr os

o rcsult dj jo`lurcs dj hcpldyacet systcas dr bciousc dj rciru`tacet dj ohh`t`deol

stojj po`h by tmc idaaue`ty. Xcoimcr ut`l`zot`de wos fcecrolly pddrly rcfulotch,

oeh è sdac iduetr`cs tmc cxpcitch wdrgèf mdurs wcrc edt wcll gedwe.

Xmcrc wcrc lorfc euabcrs dj vcry saoll pràory simddls, w`tm vcry saoll

ilosscs, portìulorly è tmc dlhcr frohcs. Ault`frohc tcoimèf wos w`hcly usch è

sdac iduetr`cs os o proitìol acosurc td idapcesotc jdr a`ssèf tcoimcrs, but wos

pddrly ètcfrotch ètd tcoimcr hcpldyacet pdlìy oeh tcoimcr troèèf. Hdublc-

sm`jt tcoimèf wos usch è sdac dj tmc iduetr`cs td ohhrcss dvcrirdwhèf è

simddls. O a`x dj hdublc-sm`jt pdlì`cs wos è usc, è sdac ioscs rcsultèf è

rchuich tcoimèf mdurs jdr tcoimcrs. Ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, sdac iduetr`cs olldwch

saoll simddls td djjcr o ault`plì ty dj subkcit dpt`des, rcsultèf è saoll iloss s`zcs

jdr sdac dj tmc lcost pdpulor subkcits.

XCOIMCR VDRGLDOHY

Xmc cxpcitch tcoimèf mdurs? vor`ch bdtm by iduetry oeh by lcvcl dj chuiot`de. @e

adst ioscs tmc tcoimèf mdurs jdr scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc ldwcr tmoe tmdsc jdr

pràory tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, pràory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td tcoim

23 mdurs pcr wccg, wm`lc scidehory tcoimcrs toufmt 2> mdurs (toblc 8.?). Xmc

cxicpt`des wcrc è Cr`trco, wmcrc tmc tcoimèf ldoh wos frcotcr ot tmc scidehory

lcvcl, oeh Aolow`, wmcrc ldwcr scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td tcoim adrcmdurs tmoe c`tmcr pràory dr uppcr scidehory tcoimcrs.

@e pràory simddls, tcoimèf mdurs roefch jrda ?2.3 mdurs pcr wccg e tmc corly

frohcs è Aolow` td 92.3 mdurs pcr wccg è tmc uppcr pràory frohcs è Sfoeho.

Xoblc 8.? Djjìòl Vccgly Xcoimèf Mdurs jdr Xcoimcrs è ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Yimddls

^ràory Ldwcr scidehory/uppcr bosì/a`hhlc Sppcr scidehory

Cr`trco ?:’2> 22.3 22.3

Foabò, Xmc 23 ?:’?0 ?:’?0L`bcrò 2>’23 ?6.8 Zor`ch

Lcsdtmd 23 2> 2>

Aolow` ?2.3 (Yth ?’2) 9> ?3’22.3

22.3 (Yth 9’3)

Sfoeho 2> (^?’^2) ?: (Yci D) ?2

92.3 (^9’^6) ?9.9 (Yci D’O)

[oabò ?6.3 (Fr ?’8) ?:.3 ?:.3

26.3 (Fr 3’6)

[oez`bor ?: mdurs, ?: ?:

2/9 dj simddl idetoit mdurs



Xcoimcr St`l`zot`de • :9

Xcoimcr wdrgèf mdurs wcrc edraolly hctcraèch by tmc oaduet dj stuhcet idetoit

tàc, os tcoimcrs wcrc edraolly cxpcitch td tcoim oll subkcits td dec iloss. Os o rcsult,

è Aolow`, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò, tcoimcrs è tmc ldwcr frohcs moh smdrtcr wdrgèf

mdurs tmoe tcoimcrs wdrgèf w`tm tmc dlhcr pràory ilosscs. Xmc cxicpt`de td tmc

edraol pottcre wos è [oez`bor, wmcrc pràory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td spciòl`zc

è dec dj tmrcc subkcit frdups. @e tm`s iosc tcoimèf mdurs wcrc dely twd-tm`rhs dj

tmc simddl idetoit mdurs, os tmrcc tcoimcrs wcrc olldiotch jdr cvcry twd ilosscs.

@e scidehory simddls, tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td spciòl`zc. @e oll dj tmc iosc-

stuhy iduetr`cs, scidehory tcoimcrs edraolly spciòl`zch è twd tcoimèf subkcits,

but tmcrc wcrc sdac sèflc-subkcit tcoimcrs. Xmc djjìòl tcoimèf mdurs è tmc

ldwcr scidehory simddls roefch jrda 9> mdurs pcr wccg è Aolow` td ?: mdurs pcr

wccg è Sfoeho. @e Aolow` oeh Sfoeho, tmcrc wcrc voròt`des w`tmè scidehory

simddls, w`tm ldwcr tcoimèf mdurs jdr tmc tcoimcrs tcoimèf tmc uppcr scidehory ilosscs. @e Sfoeho tcoimcrs tcoimèf dely ldwcr scidehory ilosscs (D-lcvcl)

wcrc cxpcitch td tcoim ?: mdurs pcr wccg. Xcoimcrs tcoimèf bdtm ldwcr oeh uppcr

scidehory ilosscs wcrc cxpcitch td tcoimcr ?9.9 mdurs pcr wccg, oeh tcoimcrs w`tm

dely tmc uppcr ilosscs (O-lcvcl) wcrc cxpcitch td tcoim ?2 mdurs pcr wccg. Xcoim-

èf ldohs ot tmc scidehory lcvcl wcrc lcss tmoe molj dj tmc stuhcet idetoit tàc è

sdac iduetr`cs. Sfoehoe scidehory tcoimcrs wdrgch ?2 td ?: mdurs pcr wccg,

wm`lc tmc stuhcet idetoit tàc wos obdut 99 mdurs (Lòef 2>>2)7 è [oabò,

tcoimcrs toufmt ?3 td 2> pcr`dhs pcr wccg dut dj 9: tàctoblch pcr`dhs jdr stu-

hcets (Lcwè 2>>=). Xmcsc tcoimèf rcqu`rcacets rcsultch è oeeuol tcoimèf wdrgldohs roefèf

jrda 8== mdurs pcr ycor td ?,300 mdurs pcr ycor (toblc 8.2). Idaporch td

tmc ?6 aoèly a`hhlc-èidac iduetr`cs è tmc Vdrlh Chuiot de @ehìotdrs Yurvcy

Xoblc 8.2 Djjìòl Oeeuol Xcoimèf Mdurs jdr Xcoimcrs è ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Yimddls

^ràory Ldwcr scidehory/uppcr bosì/a`hhlc Sppcr scidehory

Cr`trco ::6’=?> =?> =?>

Foabò, Xmc 063 :28’68? :28’68?

L`bcrò 6>>’=63 323 Zor`ch

Lcsdtmd 0>> 62> 62>

Aolow` 8==’=6= ?,?6> 3=3’=66

Sfoeho 0=8’?,300 6=6’:38 30>

[oabò ::=’?>3> :9> :9>

VC@ ovcrofc* =:= =8= =:>

*Ovcrofc dj tmc ?6 iduetr`cs è tmc Vdrlh Chuiot`de @ehìotdrs Yurvcy7 Orfcetèo, Broz`l, Im`lc, Cfypt, @ehò,

@ehdecsò, Koaoìo, Kdrhoe, Aoloysò, ôrofuoy, ^cru, ^m`l`ppècs, Russ oe Jchcrot de, Yr` Loego, Xmo loeh,

Xue`sò, oeh Srufuoy.Yduric; Chuiot`de Iduets; Vdrlh Chuiot`de @ehìotdrs 2>>6, S@Y 2>>6, p. ?8?.



:8 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

(S@Y 2>>6), tmc tcoimèf ldoh cxpcitch dj pràory tcoimcrs wos sà`lor td tmc

ovcrofc dj iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs. Mdwcvcr, ot bdtm tmc ldwcr oeh uppcr scidehory

lcvcls, adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh cxpcitch tcoimèf ldohs bcldw tmc

VC@ ovcrofc.

@e rcol`ty, tcoimèf mdurs wcrc sdactàcs smdrtcr tmoe tmc djjìòl j`furcs.

Xcoimèf mdurs wcrc crdhch by uercidrhch cvcets, èiluhèf lotc storts td tcra

oeh uesimchulch simddl ildsurcs. Xwd dtmcr joitdrs, dvcrstojjèf oeh tcoimcr

spciòl`zot`de, wcrc olsd ossdiòtch w`tm ldwcr tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de.

DZCRYXOJJ@EF

Vmcrc simddls moh adrc stojj tmoe ilosscs, dr adrc stojj tmoe ilossrddas, tmc

rcsult tcehch td bc ldwcr tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de. @e Aolow`, pddr hcpldyacet proi-tìcs moh rcsultch è dvcrstojjèf è sdac urboe oeh pcrùrboe simddls, lcohèf td

o proitìc dj “smorch tcoimèf,‑ dr olldiotèf adrc tmoe dec tcoimcr td o iloss (scc

bdx 8.? jdr oe cxoaplc). @e sdac ioscs tm`s wos hr`vce by o smdrtofc dj ilossrddas,

but è dtmcr ioscs tcoimcrs moh cvce oaolfoaotch ilosscs td olldw rchuich wdrg-

ldohs. Vmcrc smorch tcoimèf diiurrch, `t h`h edt edraolly acoe twd tcoimcrs

prcscet è tmc iloss ot o tàc, but rotmcr twd dr adrc tcoimcrs togèf tures tcoimèf

tmc iloss. @e Lcsdtmd, tcoimcrs wcrc olldiotch by jdraulo, but tmcrc wcrc simddls

wmcrc o smdrtofc dj ilossrddas rcsultch è vcry lorfc ilosscs, w`tm twd tcoimcrs

oss`fech td sdac ilosscs. Os e Aolow`, tm`s rcsultch e smdrtcr tcoimèf mdurs, os tmc wdrgldoh wos smorch bctwcce tmc twd tcoimcrs.

Xcoimcr wdrgldohs wcrc olsd rchuich by tmc prcsceic dj ohh`t`deol tcoimcrs

po`h jrda simddl juehs. @e Sfoeho, scidehory simddls imorfch jccs oeh usch port

dj tmcsc juehs td m`rc ohh`t`deol “djj-poyrdll‑ tcoimcrs. Vm`lc tmcsc wcrc etcehch

td supplcacet tmc tcoimèf stojj, tmcy olsd olldwch sdac tcoimcrs td movc rchuich

wdrgldohs.

XCOIMCR Y^CI@OL@[OX@DE

Xcoimcr spciòl`zot`de wos ossdiòtch w`tm rchuich wdrgèf mdurs. @e [oez`bor,

pràory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td spciòl`zc, oeh tcoimcr olldiot`de wos de tmc

bos`s dj tmrcc tcoimcrs jdr cvcry twd ilosscs, rchuièf tcoimcr wdrgldoh td twd-

tm`rhs dj tmc simddl mdurs. Xmcrc wos o aèdr spciòl`zot`de e Xmc Foabò, wmcrc

rcl`f`dus estruit`de wos prdv`hch by spciòl`st Gdroeì tcoimcrs. Xmcsc ohh`t`deol

Gdroeì tcoimcrs rchuich tmc wdrgldoh dj tmc iloss tcoimcrs, wmd edraolly moh

jrcc tàc wm`lc tmc`r iloss wos togèf rcl`f`dus èstruit`de. Ypciòl`zot`de djtce

iorr`ch w`tm `t tmc cxpcitot`de dj smdrtcr wdrgèf mdurs. @e L`bcrò, jdr cxoaplc,

wmce tcoimcrs spciòl`zch tmcy edraolly cxpcitch td movc sdac “jrcc pcr`dhs‑hurèf tmc hoy.




Sedjjìòl tcoimcr spciòl`zot`de wos w`hcly rcpdrtch, portìulorly è tmc uppcr

frohcs dj pràory simddl. @e Xmc Foabò, L`bcrò, Lcsdtmd, Aolow`, oeh Sfoeho,

simddls jrcqucetly moh èjdraol orroefcacets td smorc ilosscs. Xm`s wos portìu-

lorly idaade jdr aotmcaotìs oeh Cefl`sm tcoimcrs, oeh sccach td or`sc aoèly

jrda ideicre tmot edt oll tcoimcrs wcrc oblc td tcoim tmcsc subkcits td o m`fmcedufm stoehorh ot tm`s lcvcl. Xcoimcr spciòl`zot`de olsd sccach td bc ceidurofch

è sdac ioscs by tmc struiturc dj tcoimcr troèèf idurscs. @e Sfoeho, jdr cxoaplc,

tcoimcrs hdèf o h`pldao idursc è pràory chuiot`de movc tmc dpt`de dj spciòl-

`zot`de è (`) Cefl`sm oeh dec dj tmc muaoe`t`cs/orts subkcits, dr (``) aotmcaotìs

oeh dec dj tmc si`ceic subkcits.

Ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de wos rchuich by tcoimcr spciòl-

`zot`de oeh tmc prdv`s`de dj o ault`plì`ty dj dpt`deol subkcits. Xmc euabcr dj

pcr`dhs pcr wccg td bc toufmt è coim subkcit wos hctcraèch by tmc iurrìu-

lua oeh tmc euabcr dj ilosscs togèf tmc subkcit. Vmcrc tcoimcrs spciòl`zchè dely dec subkcit, olldiotèf o jull wdrgldoh td coim tcoimcr bcioac èircosèfly

BD] 8.? AOLOV@; XCOIMCR SX@L@[OX@DE @E LSABOH[@ ^R@AORP YIMDDL

(^CR@SRBOE)

Luabohz` ^ràory Yimddl moh ?,6>: pup`ls è ?6 ilosscs oeh 20 tcoimcrs

(o ^XR dj 30;?). Xmc simddl usch o hdublc-sm`jt systca, wmcrc tmc yduefcr

ilosscs stortch corly è tmc adreèf, oeh tmc dlhcr ilosscs usch tmc soac

ilossrddas deic tmc yduefcr decs wcrc jè`smch. @e stoehorh ?, tmc pup`ls

wcrc brdgce ètd j`vc ilosscs, w`tm dec tcoimcr jdr coim. @e stoehorhs 2’=,

twd tcoimcrs wcrc oss`fech td coim iloss. Os o rcsult dj tm`s pottcre dj ut`l`zo-

t`de, iloss s`zcs ovcrofch ?>>, hcsp`tc oe dvcroll pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d dj 30;?.

Ytoehorh ûp ls Ilosscs Ovcrofc iloss s`zc Xcoimcrs

? 929 3 :3 3

2 29= 2 ??0 8

9 23? 2 ?2: 8

8 222 2 ??? 8

3 223 2 ??9 8

: 29> 2 ??3 8

6 ?96 ? ?96 2

= => ? => 2

Xdtol ?,6>: ?6 ?>> 20



:: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

h`jjìult, portìulorly è saollcr simddls. Xcoimcrs dj tmc lcss-pdpulor dpt`deolsubkcits wcrc l`gcly td movc bdtm tmc saollcst ilosscs oeh tmc l`fmtcst wdrg-

ldohs. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, v`s`ts td tmrcc scidehory simddls rcvcolch iloss

s`zcs os saoll os tce stuhcets è sdac dpt`deol subkcits, oeh è dec simddl,

tcoimcrs wcrc tcoimèf dely twd-tm`rhs dj tmc cxpcitch euabcr dj pcr`dhs coim

wccg (toblc 8.9).

Ycidehory tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de wos olsd uecvce, typìolly w`tm m`fmcr wdrgldohs

jdr tmc tcoimcrs wmcrc tmcrc wos o smdrtofc, oeh jdr tmdsc è tmc idrc subkcits. @e

Sfoeho, Lcsdtmd, [oabò, oeh [oez`bor, t wos rcpdrtch tmot aotmcaotìs oeh si`-

ceic tcoimcrs usuolly moh mcov`cr wdrgldohs, sdactàcs tcoimèf cvce adrc tmoetmc djjìòl rcqu`rcacet. Yà`lorly, è Fmoeo, 2> pcricet dj tcoimcrs wcrc dvcrcx-

tcehch, tcoimèf 23’93 pcr`dhs wm`lc 8> pcricet toufmt lcss tmoe ?= pcr`dhs

(Aulgcce ct ol. 2>>6).

HDSBLC-YM@JX XCOIM@EF

Hdublc-sm`jt tcoimèf, wmcrc twd scporotc frdups dj stuhcets orc toufmt è tmc

simddl ot h`jjcrcet tàcs dj tmc hoy, `s djtce prdpdsch os o sdlut`de td o smdrtofc

dj ilossrddas è irdwhch simddls. Opprdoimcs td tmc hdublc sm`jt vory, w`tm sdacadhcls usèf twd scporotc tcoas dj tcoimcrs, wm`lc dtmcr opprdoimcs èvdlvc dec

tcoimcr tcoimèf bdtm sm`jts. Ydac opprdoimcs td hdublc sm`jtèf rcsult è o ida-

prcss`de dj tcoimèf mdurs jdr coim sm`jt, w`tm pdtcetòl hctràcetol cjjcits de

quol`ty. @t `s pcrmops edt surpr`sèf tmot tmc rcscorim jèhèfs orc a`xch, w`tm

sdac stuh`cs smdwèf o strdef ecfot`vc àpoit de stuhcet pcrjdraoeic

(Aìmocldwo 2>>?) oeh dtmcrs smdwèf tmot pup`ls hd ed wdrsc è hdublc-sm`jt

simddls (Broy 2>>=).

Hdublc-sm`jt tcoimèf wos usch è sdac ioscs è adst dj tmc iduetr`cs. @e

L`bcrò oeh Aolow`, hdublc sm`jtèf wos hdec td dptà`zc usc dj ilossrddas,

Xoblc 8.9 Xcoimcr St`l`zot`de è Xmrcc Lcsdtmd Ycidehory Yimddls

Yimddl O Yimddl B Yimddl I

ûp`ls 828 2>> ?=>

Xcoimcrs 2? ?6 ?>

Ytuhcets pcr tcoimcr 2> ?2 ?=

Ilosscs toufmt os o pcricetofc dj tmc cxpcitch 0> :6 =6

wdrgldoh dj 9> pcr`dhs (2> mdurs) pcr wccg

Ovcrofc iloss s`zc 9: 2= 9:




oeh scporotc tcoas dj tcoimcrs wcrc prdv`hch jdr coim dj tmc sm`jts. @e Cr`trco,

tcoimcrs wcrc sdactàcs oss`fech td tcoim ilosscs è bdtm sm`jts, but rctoèch

tmc soac dvcroll tcoimèf mdurs. Xwd iduetr`cs moh systcas wmcrc èh`v`huol

tcoimcrs idulh bc osgch td wdrg è bdtm sm`jts, oeh rcic`vc ohh`t`deol poy. @e

Xmc Foabò, tcoimcrs tcoimèf twd sm`jts rcic`vch o hdublc-sm`jt olldwoeic dj

3> pcricet dj tmc`r solory. @e [oabò, tmc hdublc sm`jt olldwoeic wos 2> pcricet

dj solory.

Vmcrc hdublc-sm`jt tcoimèf diiurrch, `t djtce rcsultch è oe uedjjìòl rchui-

t`de è tmc tàc olldiotch td coim sm`jt. @e [oabò, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot tmc

stuhcet idetoit tàc wos djtce rchuich td os l`ttlc os twd-oeh-o-molj mdurs pcr

hoy è hdublc-sm`jt systcas. Xmc scideh sm`jt wos djtce scce os lcss hcs`roblc,

bdtm by porcets oeh tcoimcrs. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc pcricpt`de wos tmot è tmc ojtcr-

edde bdtm stuhcets oeh tcoimcrs wcrc t`rch oeh pcrjdraoeic wos pddrcr. @ercspdesc, sdac simddls tr`ch td dpcrotc rdtot`de systcas, wmcrc tmc j`rst oeh

scideh sm`jts cximoefch rcfulorly.

O suaaory dj tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs‐ proitìcs e hdublc-sm`jt tcoimèf s prcscetch

è toblc 8.8.

Xoblc 8.8 Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs; Hdublc-sm`jt Xcoimèf

Xcoimcr ut l zot`de è tmc hdublc sm`jt

Cr trco Xcoimcrs ioe bc oss`fech td wdrg e bdtm sm`jts, but w tm tmc soac dvcroll wdrgèf mdurs.

Foabò, Xmc Xcoimcrs tcoim ef twd sm`jts rcic`vc o 3> pcricet hdublc-sm`jt olldwoeic.

ôrcets djtce scc tmc scideh sm`jt os èjcr`dr, oeh è sdac dj tmc rcf`des, aoeofcacet

ceidurofcs simddls td usc o rdtot`deol systca, wmcrc tmc j`rst oeh scideh sm`jts cximoefc

rcfulorly (pcrmops adetmly).

@e proitìc, tmc scideh sm`jt `s djtce sl`fmtly smdrtcr tmoe tmc j`rst. @e dec simddl v`s`tch, tmc

j`rst sm`jt roe jrda =;9> o.a. td ?;83 p.a. (j`vc oeh dec-quortcr mdurs), wm`lc tmc scideh

sm`jt roe jrda 2;>> p.a. td :.9> p.a. (jdur oeh o molj mdurs).

L`bcr o Xwd sm`jts w tm scporotc tcoimcrs. Hdublc sm jt s adst idaade è Aderdv o.

Lcsdtmd Ed hdublc sm`jt.

Aolow` Hdublc sm`jt w`tm scporotc tcoimcrs.

@e pràory simddls, tmcrc `s djtce “dvcrloppèf.‑ Xm`s acoes tmot dec dj tmc dlhcr ilosscs

aoy bcfè ot ?>.>> o.a. oeh usc tmc ilossrdda voiotch by o yduefcr iloss.

Aoey scidehory simddls usc ault`sm`jt tcoimèf, cspciòlly è urboe orcos. Vmcrc ault`sm`jt

tcoimèf `s proitìch, tmc hurot`de dj tcoimèf pcr`dhs `s usuolly rchuich (typìolly td 9> aèutcs).

Sfoeho Hdublc sm`jt è pràory simddls s rorc. O p`ldt dj hdublc sm`jt è scidehory simddl s uehcr-

woy, usèf scporotc tcoas dj tcoimcrs.

[oab o Xcoimcrs tcoimèf twd sm`jts rcic vc o 2>-pcricet hdublc-sm`jt olldwoeic.

Vmcrc hdublc-sm`jt systcas orc usch, tmc stuhcet idetoit tàc `s jrcqucetly idaprcssch td

os l`ttlc os 2.3 mdurs pcr hoy.



:= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

ASLX@FROHC XCOIM@EF

Ault`frohc tcoimèf, tmc proitìc dj o tcoimcr tcoimèf adrc tmoe dec frohc ot

tmc soac tàc, wos usch e adst iduetr`cs, aoèly e tmc saoll rurol simddls oeh wmcrc tmcrc wos o smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs. Oltmdufm ault`frohc tcoimèf `s w`hcly

usch è orcos dj ldw pdpulot`de hces`ty è m`fm-èidac iduetr`cs oeh sccas td

prdhuic rcsults idaporoblc td tmdsc è adrc idevcet`deol simddls (L`ttlc

2>>:), `t wos djtce pcric`vch os oe uejdrtueotc ecicss`ty è tmc iosc-stuhy

iduetr`cs.

Hcsp`tc tmc w`hcsprcoh usofc dj ault`frohc tcoimèf, `t wos rorcly wcll ètc-

frotch etd pdlì`cs dr tcoimcr chuiot`de systcas. @e Aolow`, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò,

wmcrc ault`frohc tcoimèf wos w`hcly usch, tmcrc wos ed jdraol troèèf jdr

ault`frohc è è`tòl tcoimcr troèèf. Ydac wdrg wos uehcrwoy è Sfoeho,Lcsdtmd, oeh [oabò td prdv`hc troèèf e ault`frohc tcime`qucs, but tm`s wos ot

oe corly stofc.

Xmc iduetr`cs‐ ault`frohc tcoimèf proit ics orc hcsir`bch è toblc 8.3.


@aprdvèf tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de prdv`hcs oe dppdrtue`ty td aogc tmc bcst usc dj

ovo`loblc cxpcrt`sc, eircosc cjjì`ceiy, oeh rchuic idsts, oeh os suim s oe apdrtoet

jdius jdr pdlìy aogcrs. @aprdvcacet dj ut`l`zot`de aoy bc portìulorly àpdrtoet

ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, wmcrc ut`l`zot`de tcehch td bc ldwcr os o rcsult dj smdrtcr tcoimèf mdurs oeh o frcotcr usc dj dpt`deol subkcits, wmìm wos ossdiòtch w`tm

saollcr iloss s`zcs jdr sdac dpt`des. Os o rcsult, è adst iduetr`cs tmc idst dj tcoimcrs

de o pcr-stuhcet bos`s wos o ault`plc dj tmc idst ot tmc pràory lcvcl, idestroèèf

tmc cxpoes`de dj cerdllacet.

Xmc cxpcr`ceics dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs suffcst o scr cs dj oit`des tmot idulh

mclp td àprdvc tmc cjjì`ceiy oeh cqu`ty dj tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de;

• Xmc cxpcitch tcoimèf wdrgldoh idulh bc ilcorly ort iulotch, tmus ceoblèf simddl

aoeofcrs td rch`str`butc wdrg td tmc tcoimcrs wmd movc lcss tmoe tmc aèàuacxpcitch ldoh.

• O ilcor pdlìy de tmc euabcr dj dpt`deol subkcits idulh ceoblc simddls td

cesurc aèàua iloss s`zcs è dpt`deol subkcits.

• Xcoimcr olldiot`des td simddls idulh bc bosch de tmcsc pdl i`cs, sd tmot simddls

wdulh bc ueoblc td oiqu`rc cxicss tcoimcrs po`h jrda fdvcreacet sdurics.

• Ytuhcet tcoimcrs idulh bc ceidurofch dr rcqu`rch td stuhy ot lcost twd tcoim-

èf subkcits, oeh td imddsc ot lcost dec dj tmc idrc subkcits, td èircosc tmc`r

capldyob`l`ty.

• O ilcor pdlìy de ault`frohc tcoimèf idulh bc hcvcldpch oeh èiluhch è tmcjdraulo jdr tcoimcr olldiot`de.




Ault`frohc tcoimèf s l`gcly td bcidac eircosèfly apdrtoet os pràory chu-iot`de cxpoehs td èiluhc tmc adst aorfèol`zch idaaue`t`cs. Mdwcvcr, hcsp`tc

tmc w`hcsprcoh usc dj ault`frohc è proitìc, ault`frohc tcime`qucs wcrc rorcly

wcll ètcfrotch ètd è`tòl tcoimcr troèèf. Xm`s `s portìulorly uejdrtueotc, os oll

ilossrddas orc td sdac cxtcet “ault`-ob`l`ty,‑ oeh oll tcoimcrs ioe bcecj`t jrda tmc

sg`lls dj wdrgèf w`tm h`jjcrcet ob`l`t`cs è tmc soac ilossrdda (L`ttlc 2>>:).

@e ides`hcrèf tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, sdac tmdufmt idulh bc f`vce td tmc usc dj

port-tàc tcoimcrs. Vm`lc tmc hdaèoet adhcl ot prcscet s jull-tàc capldyacet

bosch ot dec simddl, tmc ob`l`ty td capldy tcoimcrs de o port-tàc bos`s idulh f`vc

simddls frcotcr jlcx`b`l`ty è stojjèf oeh olldw sdac tcoimcrs spciòl`zèf è decsubkcit td smorc tmc`r tàc bctwcce twd simddls.

Xoblc 8.3 Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs; Ault`frohc Xcoimèf

Ssc dj ault`frohc Ault`frohc e tcoimcr troèèf

Cr trco Ssch e rcadtc simddls w tm ldw Ed spci`j i troèèf jdr ault frohc tcoimcrs,

cerdllacet. Edraolly dec tcoimcr but supcrv`sdrs orc cxpcitch td f`vc tmca

jdr twd ilosscs, w`tm iloss s`zcs bcldw ?3. sdac dr`cetot`de.

Foabò, Xmc Ssch e simddls wmcrc tmcrc `s o tcoimcr Edt eiluhch e tcoimcr troè ef, but o

smdrtofc, edraolly wmce tmc idabèch adhulc de ault`frohc `s ploeech.

iloss s`zc `s lcss tmoe 8>. Ssch

rclot`vcly rorcly.

L`bcr o Ssch wmcrc tmcrc s o smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs. Xcoimcr tro eèf èiluhcs sdac prcporot de

jdr ault`frohc tcoimèf.

Lcsdtmd Ssch e saoll simddls. Xcoimcr olldiot`de Edt èiluhch e e`t ol tcoimcr troèèf.

`s bosch de o jdraulo ossuaèf adrc tmoe

8> pup`ls pcr tcoimcr, aogèf ault`frohco ecicss`ty wmcrc euabcrs orc ldw.

Aolow` V`hcly usch. Dvcr ?,3>> pr aory simddls Edt èiluhch e e`t ol tcoimcr troèèf.

(9> pcricet dj oll simddls) moh jcwcr

tcoimcrs tmoe ilosscs. Xmcsc orc aoèly

ldiotch è rurol orcos, oeh orc djtce

tmc saollcst simddls.

Vmcrc euabcrs orc lorfc, tcoimcrs

sdactàcs advc bctwcce ilossrddas

oss`feèf wdrg td tmc h`jjcrcet frohcs.

Sfoeho V`hcly usch. Opprdx aotcly 22 pcricet Edt èiluhch e e`t ol tcoimcr troèèf,dj pràory simddls (dvcr 9,>>> simddls) oltmdufm tmcrc `s o ploe td movc dec tcoimcr

movc lcss tmoe 9>> pup`ls. idllcfc spciòl`zc è ault`frohc tcoimcrs.

Xmc AdCY suppdrtch o p`ldt dj

ault`frohc tcoimèf e Goloefolo h`strìt,

oeh `s iurrcetly prdhuièf ault`frohc

rcsduric aotcròls jdr pràory tcoimcrs.

[oabò V`hcly usch, port iulorly e idaaue`ty Edt èiluhch e e`t ol tcoimcr troèèf,

simddls. but o hrojt aoeuol mos bcce prcporch.




EDXC

?. Xcoimcr wdrgldoh `s aohc up dj bdtm tmc h`rcit tcoimèf tàc oeh tmc wdrg dj prcpo-

rot`de, aorgèf, oeh ossdiòtch ohaè`strot`de. Os tmc prcporot`de tàc `s h`jjìult td acos-

urc, oeh l`gcly td vory bctwcce èh`v`huol tcoimcrs, tmc tcoimcr wdrgldoh `s edraolly

hcsir`bch è tcras dj tmc tcoimèf mdurs.



Xcoimcr Xroèèf

ÔRX @@





69

IMO^XCR 3

X

mrdufmdut Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo, tmcrc orc ideicres tmot tmc quol`ty dj èstrui-

t`de `s sujjcrèf os o rcsult dj tcoimcrs wmd movc èohcquotc prcporot`de jdr

tmc`r tosg. Xcoimèf ioe bc àpchch by pddr uehcrstoehèf dj tmc subkcit aottcr dr èohcquotc pchofdfìol sg`lls. Dec dj tmc dbv`dus rcspdescs td tm`s

prdblca `s td àprdvc tmc quol`ty dj tcoimcr prcporot`de, c`tmcr tmrdufm

èircosch troèèf dr tmrdufm sclcit`de dj bcttcr-chuiotch ioeh`hotcs ètd tcoimcr

troèèf. Jèhèf tmc adst cjjcit`vc tcoimcr prcporot`de èvdlvcs boloeièf tmc

hurot`de dj tmc troèèf w`tm tmc ovo`loblc iopoi`ty oeh rcqu`rcacets, boloeièf

tmc tcoimèf dj subkcit aottcr w`tm tmc hcvcldpacet dj proitìol sg`lls, oeh bol-

oeièf tmc hcs`rc td tcoim td tmc m`fmcst ètcreot`deol stoehorhs w`tm tmc rcol

lcvcl dj chuiot`de dj tmc cetroets td tcoimcr troèèf.

@aprdvèf tmc quol`ty dj tcoimcr troèèf `s o idaplcx tosg, os `s smdwe è oll

iosc iduetr`cs. @e strufflèf td jèh tmc dptàol idaprda`scs, tcoimcr troèèf

mos bcce subkcit td jrcqucet ohkustacet. Ydac prdfroas movc bcce idaprcssch,

wm`lc è dtmcr ioscs tmc hurot`de mos bcce cxtcehch. Blcehs dj ioapus-bosch oeh

simddl-bosch pcr`dhs movc bcce hcvcldpch, oeh tmc subkcit idetcet mos bcce

ohkustch. Xmc c`fmt iosc stuh`cs smdwch o vor`cty dj struiturcs oeh idaprda`scs

è tmc`r tcoimcr troèèf.

YXRSIXSRC OEH HSROX@DE DJ @E@X@OL XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

^R@AORP ^RC-YCRZ@IC XRO@E@EF

^rc-scrvìc pràory tcoimcr troèèf systcas vor ch è tcras dj cetry rcqu`rcacets,

hurot`de, oeh tmc boloeic dj ioapus-bosch oeh simddl-bosch idapdecets. Ecv-

crtmclcss, sdac idaade trcehs cacrfch. @e adst ioscs, stuhcets idaplctch ?9 ycors

dj jull-tàc stuhy (èiluhèf bdtm simddlèf oeh jull-tàc tcoimcr troèèf) bcjdrc

bcfèeèf td tcoim pràory ilosscs de o jull-tàc bos`s (toblc 3.?).

@e s`x dj tmc c`fmt ioscs, stuhcets cetcrèf pràory tcoimcr troèèf wcrc cxpcitch

td movc idaplctch uppcr scidehory chuiot`de. Xmc dtmcr twd, Sfoeho oeh

[oez`bor, moh cetry jdlldwèf ldwcr scidehory chuiot`de, wmìm è bdtm ioscsedraolly àpl`ch ?? ycors dj simddlèf. Xm`s rcprcscetch o imoefc jrda corl`cr

^rc-scrvìc Xcoimcr Xroèèf




proitìcs, wmcrc cetry td pràory tcoimcr troèèf idaadely jdlldwch idaplct`de

dj ldwcr scidehory chuiot`de.

Xmc hurot`de dj idurscs roefch jrda dec ycor td tmrcc ycors, but tmc tmrcc-ycor

idurscs edraolly èiluhch dec dr twd ycors bosch ot o simddl. Xwd dj tmc iduetr`cs

moh dec-ycor tcoimcr troèèf idurscs, jdur moh twd-ycor idurscs, oeh o jurtmcr twd moh tmrcc-ycor idurscs. L`bcrò olsd moh o vcry smdrt ?2-wccg idursc, but tm`s

wos o smdrt-tcra acosurc è rcspdesc td oe cacrfceiy s`tuot`de.

@e jdur dj tmc iduetr`cs, tmc idursc wos h`v`hch, w`tm sdac ycors dj idllcfc-

bosch èstruit`de oeh dtmcr ycors dj jull-tàc simddl-bosch wdrg. @e Xmc Foabò,

tmc tcoimcr troèèf idursc togcs tmrcc ycors, w`tm dec ycor dj jull-tàc troèèf

de ioapus, jdlldwch by twd ycors dj jull-tàc wdrg è o simddl, wm`lc idaplct-

èf idurscwdrg. Lcsdtmd moh tmc ldefcst pcr`dh dj jull-tàc ioapus-bosch stuhy,

w`tm o tmrcc-ycor ioapus-bosch h`pldao idursc. Mdwcvcr, sèic tmc iosc stuhy,

tm`s mos bcce imoefch td o soehwìm prdfroa, w`tm dec ycor dj ioapus-boschtroèèf jdlldwch by dec ycor dj jull-tàc tcoimèf è o simddl, oeh tmce o jurtmcr

ycor dj jull-tàc ioapus-bosch troèèf.

Hcsp`tc tm`s opporcet h`vcrs`ty, tmcrc wos o rcaorgoblc ides`stceiy è tmc dvcr-

oll hurot`de dj stuhy. Xmc tdtol ycors dj stuhy td bcidac o tcoimcr (èiluhèf pr`-

aory oeh scidehory simddl oeh tcoimcr troèèf) roefch jrda ?9 td ?3 ycors

(toblc 3.2). @j dely idllcfc-bosch troèèf `s èiluhch (ossuaèf tmot wm`lc ploich

jull tàc è o simddl, tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs orc togèf rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr ilosscs oeh

cjjcit`vcly wdrgèf os tcoimcrs wm`lc stuhyèf), tmc ides`stceiy `s cvce frcotcr. @e

oll ioscs, ?9 ycors dj stuhy wcrc rcqu`rch bcjdrc togèf rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr tcoimèf jdr o jull ycor.

Xoblc 3.? ^rc-scrvìc Xroèèf jdr ^ràory Xcoimcrs, Cetry Lcvcl oeh Hurot`de

Iduetry Cetry (ycors dj simddl) Xroèèf

Cr`trco Sppcr scidehory, ?2 ycors Dec-ycor icrt`jìotc

Foabò, Xmc Sppcr scidehory, ?2 ycors Xmrcc-ycor icrt`jìotc

Dec è idllcfc, twd è simddl

Lcsdtmd Sppcr scidehory, ?2 ycors Xmrcc-ycor h`pldao

Xmrcc ycors e idllcfc, sèic rcdrfoe`zch os o soehwìm

adhcl‘tmrcc ycors, but a`hhlc ycor è simddl

L`bcrò Sppcr scidehory, ?2 ycors ?2-wccg cacrfceiy idursc, but

dec-ycor icrt`jìotc bcèf etrdhuich

Aolow` Sppcr scidehory, ?2 ycors Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc

Dec è idllcfc, dec è simddl

Jdracrly A@@XC^, os è simddl

Sfoeho Ldwcr scidehory (D lcvcl), ?? ycors Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc

[oabò Sppcr scidehory, ?2 ycors Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc, dec e idllcfc, dec e simddl

[oez`bor Ojtcr ldwcr scidehory, ?? ycors Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc



^rc-scrvìc Xcoimcr Xroèèf • 63

Xmc hurot`de oeh struiturc dj tcoimcr troèèf prdfroas wcrc qu`tc jlu`h, oeh

adst iduetr`cs aohc rcicet imoefcs. @e sdac ioscs, idurscs wcrc upfrohch jrda

icrt`jìotc td h`pldao idurscs. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, tmc icrt`jìotc-lcvcl tcoimcr

troèèf idursc moh bcce rcploich by o tmrcc-ycor h`pldao-lcvcl idursc, subsc-

qucetly rcdrfoe`zch os o soehwìm idursc w`tm dec ycor dj simddl-bosch troèèf

bctwcce twd ycors bosch ot tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc. @e [oez`bor, tmc aokdr

tcoimcr troèèf èst`tut`de, Egruaom Xcoimcr Xroèèf Idllcfc, moh bcce

obsdrbch by tmc Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor (YS[O), wmìm moh cehch icrt`j`-

iotc idurscs oeh wos jdiusèf de h`pldao oeh hcfrcc idurscs. @e bdtm Lcsdtmdoeh [oez`bor, tmc advc td h`pldao idurscs wos ossdiòtch w`tm m`fmcr cetry

rcqu`rcacets oeh èircosch oiohcaì rcqu`rcacets jdr lciturcrs.

@e dtmcr ioscs tcoimcr troèèf moh bcce smdrtcech è rcspdesc td cacrfceiy

tcoimcr smdrtofcs, rcsultèf c`tmcr jrda idejlìt (Cr`trco oeh L`bcrò) dr tmc rop`h

cxpoes`de dj cerdllacet (Aolow`). @e Aolow`, o twd-ycor prc-scrvìc idursc wos

obdl`smch w`tm tmc ètrdhuit`de dj A@@XC^ (Aolow` @etcfrotch @e-Ycrvìc Xcoimcr

Chuiot`de ^rdfroaac, o systca dj capldyacet oeh è-scrvìc troèèf jdr

uetroèch tcoimcrs). @e 2>>8, A@@XC^ wos ildsch oeh rcploich w`tm o ecw twd-ycor

prc-scrvìc icrt`jìotc, bosch de dec ycor de ioapus oeh dec ycor dj simddl-boschstuhy. @e Cr`trco, wmce tmcrc wos oe oiutc smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs è tmc corly ?00>s, o

smdrt idursc dj o jcw adetms‐ hurot`de wos prdv`hch. Xm`s wos lotcr rcploich w`tm o

dec-ycor icrt`jìotc idursc. @e L`bcrò, tmc soac trceh wos opporcet, os tmc ?2-wccg

cacrfceiy idursc wos bcèf rcploich by o dec-ycor idursc.

Cetry td tcoimcr troèèf wos pràor`ly bosch de oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic c`tmcr

è stotc cxoaèot`des dr è hchìotch cetry tcsts. @e s`x dj tmc ioscs, stotc cxoa`-

eot`des wcrc usch os tmc pràc acimoe`sa jdr sclcit`de dj stuhcets. @e Xmc Foabò,

tmc stotc cxoaèot`des wcrc supplcacetch by o spciòl cetroeic cxoaèot`de oeh

oe etcrv`cw, bdtm usch aoèly td cesurc tmc vol`h`ty dj tmc stotc cxoaèot`de rcsults, wmìm wcrc rcpdrtch td sujjcr jrda m`fm lcvcls dj àpcrsdeot`de. @e L`bcrò, tmc

Xoblc 3.2 Xdtol Pcors dj Ytuhy (Yimddl oeh Xroèèf Idllcfc) jdr ^ràory Xcoimcrs

Xdtol ycors (simddl oeh Xdtol ycors (simddl oeh tcoimcr troeèf)

Iduetry tcoimcr troèèf) cxiluhèf jull ycors dj simddl ploicacet

Cr`trco ?2 ? ?9 ?2 ? ?9

Foabò, Xmc ?2 9 ?3 ?2 ? ?9

Lcsdtmd ?2 9 ?3 ?2 2 ?8 ycors è tdtol, but tcoimèf

jull tàc ojtcr ?9

L`bcrò ?2 ? ?9 ?2 ? ?9

Aolow` ?2 2 ?8 ?2 ? ?9

Sfoeho ?? 2 ?9 ?? 2 ?9

[oabò ?2 2 ?8 ?2 ? ?9

[oez`bor ?? 2 ?9 ?? 2 ?9




sclcit`de acimoe`sa wos uehcr hcvcldpacet, but tmc etcet`de wos td movc sdac

gèh dj hchìotch cetroeic tcst, ofoè e rcspdesc td ideicres obdut tmc vol`h`ty dj

dtmcr irchcetòls.

Xmc oiohca i pcrjdraoeic rcqu`rch td cetcr tcoimcr troèèf wos qu`tc ldw, oeh

è sdac ioscs hcil eèf (toblc 3.9). @e Xmc Foabò, tmc rcqu`rcacet wos o irch`t è

dec subkcit oeh o poss frohc è tmrcc. Xm`s rcqu`rcacet, èircosch jrda o prcv`duslcvcl, rcsultch è oe cerdllacet rotc tmot wos 92 pcricet ldwcr tmoe cxpcitch

bctwcce ?000 oeh 2>>:. @e rcspdesc, Xmc Foabò Idllcfc wos jdrich td oiicpt stu-

hcets w tm aorgs dj dely 23 pcricet è tmc cetroeic cxoaèot`de. @e Cr`trco, tmc

rcqu`rcacet jdr cetry td pràory tcoimèf moh jollce è rcspdesc td frcotcr ètogc td

m`fmcr chuiot deidurscs, oeh è 2>>6, stuhcets w`tm frohc pdètovcrofcs? (F O) dj

>.: oeh >.= wcrc oha`ttch. @e cjjcit, tm`s acoes tmot o stuhcet wmd moh o frohc H

(tmc ldwcst possèf frohc) è tmrcc subkcitsoeh jo`lch oedtmcr twd idulhfoè oha`t-

toeic td pràory tcoimcr troèèf. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc idllcfc dj chuiot`de wos jdrich td

ldwcr `ts cetry rcqu`rcacets è 2>>= bciousc dj o loig dj quol j`ch oppl ioets.@e adst iduetr`cs, cetroets td tcoimcr troèèf wcrc rcqu`rch td movc oim`cvch

sdac idapctceic è Cefl`sm, wmìm wos tmc djjìòl achùa dj èstruit`de è

tcoimcr troèèf è oll ioscs. O poss è aotmcaotìs wos o rcqu`rcacet è dely molj

dj tmc iduetr`cs, hcsp`tc tmc apdrtoeic dj aotmcaotìs e tmc pràory simddl iur-

rìulua. Xmc ob`l`ty td rcqu`rc aèàua idapctceic lcvcls è gcy subkcits wos

idestroèch by tmc là`tch euabcr dj quol`j`ch opplìoets.

@e Lcsdtmd, jdlldwèf tmc etrdhuit`de dj o rcqu`rcacet tmot ecw cetroets movc

ot lcost o poss frohc è Cefl`sm, tmc Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuiot`de moh jdueh `t h`j-

jìult td j`ll oll dj tmc ovo`loblc ploics. Xmc idllcfc rcpdrtch tmot t ides`hcrch o possè aotmcaotìs td bc hcs`roblc, but wos ueoblc td aogc tm`s o rcqu`rcacet bciousc

Xoblc 3.9 Cetry Rcqu`rcacets jdr ^ràory Xcoimcr Xroèèf

Cr trco Cr trcoe Yimddl Lcov ef Icrt j iotc (Frohc ?2) w`tm o Frohc dèt Ovcrofc dj >.: dr m`fmcr,

de o jdur-pdèt siolc

Foabò, Xmc Vcst Ojr ioe Yce`dr Yimddl Icrt j iotc Cxoaèot de (Frohc ?2) w tm dec irch`t oeh tmrccposs frohcs, èiluhèf o poss è Cefl`sm

Lcsdtmd Ioabr`hfc Dvcrscos Yimddl Icrt j iotc (Frohc ?2) w`tm jdur irch ts oeh dec poss frohc,

èiluhèf ot lcost o poss frohc è Cefl`sm

L`bcr o Xmc sclcit de systca wos uehcr hcvcldpacet, oeh sccach l`gcly td èvdlvc oe cetroeic

cxoaèot`de, tcstèf idapctceic è Cefl`sm oeh aotmcaotìs

Aolow` Aolow` Yimddl Icrt j iotc dj Chuiot`de (Frohc ?2) w`tm o irch`t e Cefl sm oeh o poss

frohc è aotmcaotìs oeh twd si`ceics

Sfoeho D-lcvcl (kue dr scidehory, frohc ??) cxoa eot`de w tm s x posscs èiluhèf Cefl sm,

aotmcaotìs, oeh dec si`ceic subkcit

[oab o Frohc ?2 icrt j iotc w tm ot lcost tmrcc irch`ts oeh twd posscs, eiluhèf ot lcost o possaorg è Cefl`sm oeh aotmcaotìs

[oez`bor Zor`cs by est`tut`de




`t wdulh bc ueoblc td jèh sujjì`cet stuhcets td j`ll tmc ovo`loblc ploics. Xm`s

èob`l`ty td jèh sujjì`cet opplìoets w`tm ot lcost o possèf frohc è aotmcaotìs

aogcs tmc tosg dj tcoimcr troèèf auim adrc h`jjìult oeh idetr`butcs td tmc pddr

stoehorh dj aotmcaotìs tcoimèf è pràory simddls.

Xmcrc wcrc sdac edeoiohcaì sclcit`de ir`tcrò, aoèly ojj`raot`vc oit`des td

èircosc portì`pot`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs dr lèfu`stì dr ctmeì aèdr`t`cs. Yclci-

t`de de tmc bos`s dj oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic oldec `s l`gcly td jovdr tmdsc jrda tmc

frdups w`tm frcotcr portì`pot`de è chuiot`de, wmìm aoy èiluhc stuhcets jrda

urboe orcos, aolc stuhcets, oeh tmdsc jrda tmc lèfu`stì oeh ctmeì aokdr`t`cs.

Xd àprdvc tmc cqu`ty dj oiicss, sdac dj tmc iduetr`cs moh systcas dj ojj`rao-

t`vc oit`de td eircosc tmc prdpdrt`de dj portìulor frdups e tcoimcr troèèf. Bdtm

Aolow` oeh [oabò rcscrvch ploics jdr jcaolc stuhcet tcoimcrs, 8> pcricet dj

ploics è Aolow` oeh 3> pcricet è [oabò. Mdwcvcr, è Aolow`, tmc idllcfcs wcrcdjtce ueoblc td rcoim tm`s torfct, bciousc tmcrc wos ed rchuit`de è tmc cetry

rcqu`rcacets, oeh tmcrc wcrc èsujjì`cet opplìoets w`tm tmc rcqu`rch irch`ts è

aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics. Xmc Foabò moh oe cxtcreolly juehch Rcachòl

@e`tòt`vc jdr Jcaolc Xcoimcrs (R@JX) rueeèf jrda ?000’2>>2. Sehcr tm`s

simcac, o qudto dj jcaolc stuhcets wos cerdllch, cvce w`tm ldwcr oiohcaì quol-

`jìot`des, oeh prdv`hch w`tm ohh`t`deol ilosscs td mclp bddst quol`ty. Xm`s simcac

sccach td bc suiicssjul oeh tmc prdpdrt`de dj jcaolc stuhcet tcoimcrs rdsc td

8? pcricet, but lotcr jcll td dely 22 pcricet jdlldwèf tmc ceh dj tmc prdfroa. Lcsdtmd

usch o qudto systca td cesurc fcdfropmìol boloeic, w`tm o j`xch prdpdrt`de dj stuhcets hrowe jrda coim h`strìt. @e proitìc tm`s moh l`ttlc àpoit, os tmc idllcfc

ot tmc tàc dj tmc stuhy jdueh `t h`jjìult td j`ll tmc ovo`loblc spoics, oeh oiicptch

oll quol`j`ch opplìoets. Cr`trco moh olsd usch qudto systcas è sdac ycors, td

oha`t adrc stuhcets jrda tmc aèdr`ty loefuofc frdups.

YCIDEHORP ^RC-YCRZ@IC XRO@E@EF

Yystcas jdr scidehory tcoimcr troèèf wcrc adrc idaplcx, os adst iduetr`cs moh

huol systcas w`tm bdtm h`pldao/icrt`jìotc oeh hcfrcc-lcvcl quol`jìot`des. H`pldaoidurscs wcrc edraolly dj twd ycors‐ hurot`de, djjcrch è tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs,

oeh è sdac ioscs quol`j`ch tcoimcrs td tcoim dely kue`dr scidehory ilosscs.

Hcfrcc-lcvcl idurscs usuolly rcqu`rch m`fmcr oiohcaì quol`jìot`des ot cetry, oeh

typìolly tddg tmrcc dr jdur ycors è o ue`vcrs`ty (toblc 3.8).

@e adst ioscs tmc ue`vcrs`ty idurscs èvdlvch hcfrccs è chuiot`de, wmcrc

stuhcets stuh`ch tmc`r imdsce subkcits oeh tmc prdjcss`deol chuiot`de idetcet ide-

iurrcetly. Mdwcvcr, tmcrc wcrc sdac èhìot`des dj cacrfèf dpt`des jdr frohuotcs

jrda edechuiot`de hcfrccs td foè o quol`jìot`de è tcoimèf. @e Sfoeho, sdac

pr`votc ue`vcrs`t`cs moh systcas td ceoblc frohuotcs jrda fcecrol hcfrccs td idevcrt td tcoimèf tmrdufm o dec-ycor pdstfrohuotc idursc. O sà`lor idursc wos uehcr




h`siuss`de è Lcsdtmd, wm`lc è Cr`trco o twd-td-tmrcc adetm idevcrs`de idursc

wos bcèf ploeech.

@e ohh`t`de, sdac dj tmc iduetr`cs moh o scporotc prdv`s`de jdr pràory tcoimcrs

td upfrohc tmc`r quol`jìot`des td tcoim ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. @e Xmc Foabò,

quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcrs idulh rcture td Xmc Foabò Idllcfc jdr tmc tmrcc-ycor M`fmcr Xcoimcrs Icrt`jìotc oeh upfrohc td tcoimèf è uppcr-bosì simddls. @e

Aolow`, quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcrs idulh upfrohc td scidehory simddl tcoimcrs

tmrdufm o tmrcc-ycor jull-tàc h`pldao idursc.

@e sdac dj tmc ioscs, tmc publì tcoimcr troèèf wos supplcacetch by o s`f-

e`jìoet pr`votc prdv`s`de dj troèèf jdr scidehory tcoimcrs. @e L`bcrò, Aolow`,

Sfoeho, [oabò, oeh [oez`bor, tmcrc wcrc pr`votc dr jo`tm-bosch tcoimcr troèèf

idllcfcs. Xmcsc h`jjcrch è tmc`r adt`vot`de oeh struiturc. @e [oez`bor, oe ètcreo-

t`deol ue`vcrs`ty moh cstobl`smch o pr`votc ue`vcrs`ty idllcfc, jèoeich by o imor`toblc

jduehot`de, w`tm o lorfc oeh wcll-cqu`ppch ioapus. @e [oabò, tmc idaacriòl[oabò Dpce Se`vcrs`ty ([ODS) moh cstobl`smch o h`stoeic-tcoimèf systca w`tm

twd-wccg idurscs coim scacstcr, oldef w`tm sclj-stuhy aotcròls.

@e adst ioscs, stuhcet tcoimcrs ot bdtm tmc h`pldao oeh tmc hcfrcc lcvcl wcrc

prcporch td tcoim twd subkcits (toblc 3.3).

Jdr stuhcets w`tm sujjì`cet oiohcaì quol`jìot`des td cetcr o ue`vcrs`ty idursc,

tcoimèf wos djtce edt ides`hcrch oe ottroit`vc dpt`de. @e Cr`trco, `t wos rcpdrtch

tmot tmc bcst stuhcets oha`ttch td tmc Cr`trco @est`tutc dj Xcimedldfy tcehch edt

td sclcit chuiot`de idurscs, sd tmc chuiot`de idurscs tcehch td bc j`llch w`tm

stuhcets w`tm rclot`vcly ldw sidrcs, jdr wmda chuiot`de wos edt tmc`r j`rst prcjcr-ceic. @e L`bcrò, jcwcr tmoe 3 pcricet dj tmc stuhcets wmd foèch oiicss td tmc

Xoblc 3.8 Xroèèf dj Ycidehory Xcoimcrs, Hurot`de

H`pldao lcvcl Hcfrcc lcvcl

Cr trco Xwd-ycor h pldao jdr a`hhlc simddl Jdur-ycor hcfrcc jdr scidehory simddl tcoimcrs

tcoimcrs

Foabò, Xmc M`fmcr Xcoimcrs Icrt`j iotc (MXI), Jdur-ycor hcfrcc, edraolly oe upfrohc

tmrcc-ycor idursc, dj twd ycors è jdr oe cx`stèf tcoimcr, twd ycors jdr oe MXI

idllcfc jdlldwch by dec ycor dj mdlhcr, tmrcc ycors jdr o pràory tcoimcr

tcoimèf è o simddl

Lcsdtmd H`pldao è Chuiot de (Ycidehory), Eot`deol ue`vcrs ty, jdur-ycor hcfrcc

o tmrcc-ycor h`pldao

L`bcrò Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc, ed ldefcr e Jdur-ycor hcfrcc

dpcrot`de

Aolow` Xmrcc-ycor h`pldao Jdur-ycor hcfrcc

Sfoeho Xwd-ycor h`pldao Xmrcc-ycor hcfrcc

[oabò Xwd-ycor h`pldao, eircosch td Jdur-ycor hcfrcc

tmrcc ycors è 2>>3

[oez`bor Xwd-ycor h`pldao Xmrcc-ycor hcfrcc




ue`vcrs`ty imdsc td cetcr tmc chuiot`de idursc, oeh e tmc pr`votc jo`tm-bosch YtclloAor`s Idllcfc, dely : dj tmc =,>>> opplìoets è 2>>6 imdsc chuiot`de.

Xmc chuiot`de idurscs moh portìulor h`jjìulty è ottroitèf sujjì`cet stuhcets

w`tm quol jìot`des è aotmcaot is oeh si`ceic. @eob l`ty td j eh sujj i`cet stuhcets

w`tm aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic wos o prdblca è Cr`trco, Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd,

Aolow`, Sfoeho, oeh [oez`bor. @e Aolow`, dely 2? pcricet dj tmc ecw stuhcet

tcoimcrs cerdllch è 2>>6 tddg aotmcaotìs dr si`ceic idurscs. @e Sfoeho, dely

?8 pcricet dj tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs è tmc eot`deol tcoimcrs idllcfcs wcrc stuhyèf

aotmcaotìs dr si`ceic è 2>>6, hcsp`tc o ldwcr cetry rcqu`rcacet jdr oey stuhcet

w`tm o “prèi`pol poss‑ è aotmcaotìs dr si`ceic. Xmcrc wcrc èhìot`des tmot aoey dj tmc frohuotcs jrda ue`vcrs`ty hcfrcc-lcvcl

idurscs è chuiot`de wcrc edt rctoèch è tmc tcoimèf prdjcss`de. @e [oabò oeh

Aolow`, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot adst dj tmc frohuotcs jrda hcfrcc-lcvcl idurscs è

chuiot`de h`h edt fd de td tcoim. @e [oabò, tmc tdtol euabcr dj tcoimcrs w`tm

ue`vcrs`ty hcfrccs wos lcss tmoe 2.3 tàcs tmc oeeuol dutput dj frohuotcs w`tm

chuiot`de hcfrccs jrda tmc ue`vcrs`ty. @e L`bcrò, dj tmc 29 chuiot`de stuhcets

wmd frohuotch e 2>>6, `t wos bcl`cvch tmot edec wcrc tcoimèf è publì simddls,

oltmdufm sdac aoy movc bcce tcoimèf è pr`votc simddls.

BOLOEI@EF HSROX@DE, YCLCIX@DE, OEH EOX@DEOL ECCHY

Jèhèf tmc dptàol boloeic dj idursc hurot`de, cetry rcqu`rcacets, oeh struiturc

`s prdblcaotì oeh èvdlvcs h`jjìult trohc-djjs. Os Yimw`llc oeh Hcabclc (2>>6)

pdèt dut, tmc h`lcaao jdr pdlìy aogcrs `s tmot “tmc ldefcr, tmc adrc cxpces`vc7

oeh tmc smdrtcr, tmc adrc h`jjìult td hd oeytmèf wdrtmwm`lc.‑

@e oladst oll ioscs, iduetr`cs joich h`jjìult trohc-djjs bctwcce hurot`de oeh

iopoi`ty. @e tmc idetcxt dj cxpoehèf systcas, tmcrc wcrc prcssèf eot`deol ecchs

jdr èircosch dutput dj tcoimcrs. Pct oladst ue`vcrsolly, tcoimcr troèèf èst`tu-t`des prcjcrrch td èircosc tmc hurot`de dj prc-scrvìc troèèf. Ldefcr pcr`dhs dj

Xoblc 3.3 Euabcr dj Xcoimèf Yubkcits

H`pldao idurscs Hcfrcc idurscs

Cr`trco Xwd subkcits Dec dr twd subkcits

Foabò, Xmc Xwd subkcits Xwd subkcits

Lcsdtmd Xwd subkcits Xwd subkcits

L`bcrò Xwd subkcits

Aolow` Xwd subkcits Xwd subkcits

Sfoeho Xwd subkcits Xwd subkcits

[oabò Adstly twd subkcits, but sdac togc dec Adstly twd subkcits, but sdac togc dec

[oez`bor Xwd subkcits Xwd subkcits



=> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

troèèf djjcr tmc pdss`b`l`ty dj àprdvch quol`ty dj bdtm idetcet gedwlchfc oeh

pchofdfy. Mdwcvcr, è adst dj tmcsc ioscs, tm`s wos edt proitìol è tmc smdrt tcra,

os tmc iopoi`ty dj tmc idllcfcs wos là`tch by bch iopoi`ty, tcoimèf spoic, oeh

pcrsdeecl. Ot tmc pràory lcvcl, adst iduetr`cs prdv`hch dec dr twd ycors dj ioapus-

bosch troèèf. Xmc dely iduetry tmot prdv`hch o tmrcc-ycor ioapus-bosch

prc-scrvìc troèèf (Lcsdtmd) subscqucetly adh`j`ch tm`s td twd ycors de ioapus

oeh dec ycor è simddl, portly è rcspdesc td tmc ecch td èircosc dutput. De tmc

dtmcr moeh, idurscs dj lcss tmoe dec ycor‐s hurot`de wcrc edraolly scce os cacr-

fceiy acosurcs oeh wcrc bcèf rcploich by ldefcr idurscs.

Xmcrc wcrc olsd trohc-djjs bctwcce ioapus-bosch oeh simddl-bosch idapd-

ecets dj tcoimcr troèèf idurscs. ^loièf stuhcet tcoimcrs è o simddl jdr jull

oiohcaì ycors olldws tmca td togc rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr tcoimèf ilosscs dvcr oe

cxtcehch pcr`dh, fcttèf td gedw tmc stuhcets oeh tmc dpcrot`de dj tmc simddl,mclpèf td hcvcldp pchofdfì sg`lls, oeh aogèf tmc tmcdrctìol ports dj tmc

idursc adrc acoeèfjul. Mdwcvcr, simddl-bosch wdrg suppdrtch by c`tmcr diio-

s`deol idurscs dr sclj-stuhy aotcròls `s lcss l`gcly td àprdvc tmc quol`ty dj ide-

tcet gedwlchfc è gcy orcos, portìulorly aotmcaotìs, si`ceic, oeh ètcreot`deol

loefuofcs, wmìm aoy bc bcttcr toufmt è o idllcfc idetcxt. Jèhèf tmc r`fmt

boloeic `s h`jjìult oeh idetrdvcrsòl. @e Aolow` tmc A@@XC^ systca, wmìm wos

cet`rcly simddl-bosch, wos obdl`smch jdlldwèf strdef dppds`t`de jrda tmc

tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs, wmd ides`hcrch `t èohcquotc td aoètoè stoehorhs. @e

dtmcr ioscs, tmc simddl-bosch idapdecet wos èircosch td àprdvc bdtm iopoi-`ty oeh tmc hcvcldpacet dj pchofdfìol sg`lls. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc jull-tàc tmrcc-ycor

ioapus-bosch h`pldao wos imoefch ètd o soehwìm adhcl w`tm dec ycor dj

jull-tàc tcoimèf è o simddl soehwìmch bctwcce twd ycors de ioapus. @e Xmc

Foabò, o twd-ycor ioapus-bosch troèèf idursc wos imoefch td o tmrcc-ycor

prdfroa w`tm twd ycors bosch è o simddl.

Xmcrc wcrc ideicres tmot tmc quol`ty dj stuhcet tcoimcrs cetcrèf tmc tcoimcr

troèèf idurscs jcll bcldw tmc stoehorhs cxpcitch. @e Cr`trco, Lcsdtmd, oeh Xmc

Foabò, tmcrc wcrc h`jjìult`cs è jèhèf sujjì`cet quol`j`ch opplìoets td j`ll tmc

ploics è tcoimcr troèèf idurscs. @e dtmcr iduetr`cs, opplìoets wmd sccach tdacct tmc rcqu`rch stoehorhs wcrc strufflèf td hcol w`tm tmc idursc aotcròl. @e

[oabò, jdr cxoaplc, dely 3? pcricet dj tmc stuhcets è pràory tcoimcr troèèf

wcrc possèf tmc cxoaèot`de ot tmc ceh dj tmc j`rst ycor. Xmcrc wcrc o jcw ioscs

wmcrc idursc idetcet moh bcce ohkustch td aotim tmc rcol lcvcl dj idapctceic dj

tmc cetroets. Dec cxicpt`de wos e Xmc Foabò, wmcrc ohh`t`deol idurscs e bosì

Cefl`sm oeh aotmcaotìs moh bcce prdv`hch td mclp stuhcets bu`lh tmc`r sg`lls è

tmcsc iruiòl orcos è tmc corly port dj tmc idursc.

Yclcit`de ètd tcoimcr troèèf bosch pràor`ly de oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic moh

ueètcehch cjjcits hctràcetol td adt`vot`de, fcdfropmìol h`str`but`de, oeh èsdac ioscs fcehcr boloeic. Ssèf cxoaèot`de rcsults os tmc pràory actmdh dj



^rc-scrvìc Xcoimcr Xroèèf • =?

sclcit`de prdv`hch l`ttlc dppdrtue`ty td sclcit tmc stuhcets w`tm tmc frcotcst ètcrcst

è tcoimèf dr tmc pcrsdeol`ty oeh bcmov`drol imoroitcr stìs hcs`roblc e tcoimcrs. Os

tcoimèf wos djtce pcric`vch os lcss ottroit`vc tmoe dtmcr prdjcss`des w`tm sà`lor

cetry rcqu`rcacets, tmc tcoimèf idurscs tcehch td obsdrb tmdsc w`tm tmc ldwcst cl`-

f`blc quol j iot des, jdr aoey dj wmda `t wos o lost rcsdrt, rotmcr tmoe o j rst imdìc.

@e tm`s idetcxt, cjjdrts td èircosc quol`ty by ro`sèf cetry stoehorhs idulh

hcircosc tmc pddl dj cl`f`blc pdtcetòl opplìoets oeh èircosc tmc fcdfropmìol

sclcit`v`ty dj etogc. V`tm o rclot`vcly saoll euabcr dj pcdplc idaplctèf scidehory

simddl oeh o h`sprdpdrt`deotc euabcr dj scidehory simddl idaplctcrs idaèf

jrda urboe orcos oeh wcoltm`cr joa`l`cs, sclcit`de bosch de oiohcaì pcrjdra-

oeic tcehch td rcsult è jcwcr cetroets jrda rcadtc rurol orcos, jrda h`sohvoe-

tofch aèdr`t`cs, oeh è sdac ioscs jcwcr jcaolc stuhcets. @t `s edtcwdrtmy tmot,

wm`lc aoey dj tmc iduetr`cs wmcrc cetry td pràory tcoimcr troèèf rcqu`rch oeuppcr scidehory chuiot`de moh h`jjìulty è j`llèf tmc ovo`loblc ploics, tmc twd

ioscs w`tm cetry ojtcr ldwcr scidehory chuiot`de (Sfoeho oeh [oez`bor) moh ed

smdrtofc dj opplìoets, oeh moh opplìoets jrda o brdoh sprcoh dj fcdfropmìol

oeh sdiòl boigfrduehs.

IDEXCEX DJ @E@X@OL XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

Xmc tcoimcr-troèèf iurrìulua wos edt olwoys wcll ol`fech w`tm tmc ecchs dj tmc

ilossrdda. Xmrcc aokdr dbscrvot`des cacrfc. J`rst, troèèf è pchofdfìol actm-dhs wos djtce tmcdrctìol, aogèf `t lcss l`gcly td movc oe àpoit de ilossrdda

proitìcs. Ycideh, tmc tcoimèf dj tmc idetcet gedwlchfc (tmot `s, tmc subkcits tmot

o tcoimcr wdulh bc cxpcitch td tcoim) wos djtce edt ildscly ol`fech td tmc simddl

iurrìulua. Xm`rh, tmcsc h`jjìult`cs wcrc djtce idapduehch by stuhcets‐ pddr

prdjì`ceiy è tmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de.

^CHOFDF@IOL XRO@E@EF DJ XCOIMCRY

Xroh`t`deolly, tmc pchofdfìol troèèf dj tcoimcrs mos icetcrch de tmc tcoimèf dj tmcdrctìol jduehot`de h`si`plècs, usuolly psyimdldfy, pm`ldsdpmy, m`stdry, oeh

sdi`dldfy. Ydac dj tmc tcoimcr chuiot`de prdfroas, portìulorly ot tmc pràory lcvcl,

wcrc advèf owoy jrda tm`s adhcl oeh tdworh frcotcr ol`feacet w`tm tmc sg`lls

rcqu`rch è tmc ilossrdda. Xypìolly tm`s èvdlvch adrc ideicetrot`de de spci`jì

pchofdfì sg`lls oeh tmc pchofdfy dj èh`v`huol iurrìulua subkcits. Dtmcr tcoimcr

chuiot`de prdfroas, adst edtobly ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, wcrc advèf tdworh adrc

tmcdrctìol idetcet, hr`vce by tmc rcqu`rcacets dj tmc oiohcaì oworhs.

@e Xmc Foabò, tmc pràory tcoimcr-troèèf prdfroa moh bcce advèf tdworh

o adrc proitìc-dr`cetch jdraot. r`dr td 2>>3 tmc tmcdrctìol jduehot`de h`si`plècsdj psyimdldfy, pm`ldsdpmy, oeh sdi`dldfy dj chuiot`de moh coim bcce toufmt os



=2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

scporotc subkcits, oeh tcoimèf actmdhdldfy moh rcic`vch obdut ?3’2> pcricet dj

tdtol idetoit tàc. Jdlldwèf o rcstruiturèf è 2>>3, tmc jduehot`de h`si`plècs

icosch td bc h`sirctc subkcits oeh èstcoh tmc idrc ideicpts jrda tmca wcrc ètc-

frotch ètd tmc stuhy dj actmdhdldfy è drhcr td èircosc tmc rclcvoeic dj tmc

aotcròl. Xdtol tàc hcvdtch td actmdhdldfy rdsc td up td 8> pcricet dj idetoit

tàc. @e ohh`t`de, spci`jì troèèf jdr ault`frohc tcoimèf wos ètrdhuich os port

dj tmc prc-scrvìc iurrìulua. @e tmc scidehory prdfroa, tmc tmcdrctìol idapdecet

mos olsd bcce s`fe`jìoetly rchuich, w`tm scporotc tmcdry adhulcs (pm`ldsdpmy,

psyimdldfy, sdi`dldfy oeh m`stdry dj chuiot`de, oeh idaporot`vc chuiot`de)

rcploich by dec adhulc de lcoreèf tmcdr`cs oeh oedtmcr cet`tlch “@etrdhuit`de

td tmc Ydi`dldfy dj Chuiot`de.‑ Xmc tàc prcv`dusly usch jdr tmcdry wos èstcoh

usch td tcoim actmdhdldf`cs rclotch td tmc tcoimèf dj oiohcaì subkcit-orcos è

uppcr bosì simddls.Yà`lorly è Cr`trco, o rcv`sch tcoimcr-troèèf iurrìulua mos bcce hcvcldpch,

hcs`fech td ceidurofc adrc lcorecr-icetcrch tcoimèf oeh ploièf frcotcr capmo-

s`s de sg`lls hcvcldpacet. Xmc stuhcet tcoimcrs stuhy tmc subkcits dj tmc clcacetory

simddl iurrìulua oeh tmc actmdhdldfy jdr usc dj coim `s ètcfrotch w`tm tmc stuhy

dj tmc subkcit idetcet. Xd oiidapoey tmc ecw tcoimcr-troèèf iurrìulua, o

tcoimcr-troèèf aoeuol mos bcce hcs`fech. Xcoimcr troècrs movc olsd bcce osgch

td gccp rcjlcit`vc hòr`cs, wmìm ioe bc usch è cvoluot`de dj tmc tcoimcr-troèèf

iurrìulua. Hcsp`tc tmcsc proitìc-dr`cetch iurrìulo, tmc hcl`vcrch tcoimcr troèèf

djtce rcaoès hdaèotch by acadr`zot`de dj aotcròl. Dec actmdhdldfy ilossdbscrvch e Cr`trco wos usch td troesir`bc oeh acadr`zc o ldef l`st dj woys td etrd-

huic o ecw tdpì, èiluhèf dpt`des l`gcly td bc dj l`ttlc rclcvoeic jdr adst Cr`trcoe

tcoimcrs, suim os “ètrdhuic o fucst spcogcr‑ dr “oeedueic o j`clh tr`p.‑

@e dtmcr ioscs, tmc tcoimcr-troèèf iurrìulua sccach td bc bcidaèf adrc

tmcdrctìol. @e [oez`bor jdr cxoaplc, tmc obsdrpt`de dj Egruaom Xcoimcr Xroèèf

Idllcfc ètd tmc Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor rcsultch è o frcotcr capmos`s de tmc

oiohcaì idetcet dj tmc prc-scrvìc h`pldao idursc, ot tmc cxpcesc dj sdac dj tmc

adrc proitìol sg`lls.

YSBKCIX IDEXCEX @E XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

Cesurèf tmc aostcry dj tcoimcrs‐ gedwlchfc dj subkcit idetcet mos èircosèfly

bcce o gcy jdius dj fldbol tcoimcr troèèf è tmc lost jcw ycors. Rcscorim mos smdwe

o pds`t`vc idrrclot`de bctwcce tcoimcrs‐ idetcet gedwlchfc oeh tmc`r stuhcets‐

lcoreèf (Z`llcfos-Rcàcrs 2>>9, S@Y 2>>:). Hcsp`tc tmc àpdrtoeic dj ohcquotc

idetcet gedwlchfc, tmcrc orc ideicres tmot sdac tcoimcrs è sub-Yomoroe Ojrìo hd

edt rcoim tmc lcvcl dj gedwlchfc rcqu`rch. YO_AC_ hoto smdws tmot è scvcrol

iduetr`cs tmc ovcrofc tcoimcr h`h edt pcrjdra s`fe`jìoetly bcttcr de rcohèf oehaotmcaotìs tcsts tmoe tmc m`fmcst pcrjdraèf s`xtm-frohc stuhcets (S@Y 2>>:).



^rc-scrvìc Xcoimcr Xroèèf • =9

@e tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmc oiohcaì idetcet dj tcoimcr troèèf idurscs

wos djtce edt ildscly ol`fech w`tm tmc iurrìulua è tmc ilossrdda. Xcoimcr troè-

èf iurrìulo oll eiluhch sdac idapdecet dj hcvcldpacet dj tmc subkcit-idetcet

gedwlchfc dj tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs. @e prdv`s`de dj tmcsc idurscs, tmcrc `s o eoturol

tces`de bctwcce tcoimèf adrc ohvoeich aotcròl oeh cesurèf aostcry dj tmc

simddl-lcvcl aotcròl. Xroh`t`deolly, tcoimcr-troèèf idurscs movc tcehch td bu`lh

de tmc cxpcitch cetry lcvcl dj tmc stuhcets, tcoimèf adrc ohvoeich aotcròl tmoe

wos hcl`vcrch ot scidehory simddl. Vmcrc stuhcet tcoimcrs movc wcog uehcrstoeh-

èf dj tmc scidehory simddl idetcet, tm`s ioe lcoh td tcoimèf dj èopprdpròtcly

ohvoeich aotcròl è tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs. Xm`s `s portìulorly prdblcaotì è

aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics, wmcrc pddr uehcrstoehèf dj bosì aotcròl aogcs

idaprcmces`de dj adrc ohvoeich aotcròl cxtrcacly h`jjìult. @e [oabò, jdr

cxoaplc, 3? pcricet dj tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs jo`lch tmc cxoaèot`des ot tmc ceh dj tmc j`rst ycor dj tcoimcr troèèf, o prdblca ottr`butch by tmc lciturcrs td pddr pr`dr

lcoreèf, cspciòlly è aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic.

Xmc h`jjìulty dj ol`feacet dj idetcet wos cxoicrbotch by tmc pddr oiohca i

stoehorhs dj tmc stuhcets cetcrèf tcoimcr troèèf. Xmc smdrtofc dj quol`j`ch oppl`-

ioets, lcohèf td jollèf cetry tmrcsmdlhs è Xmc Foabò, Cr`trco, Lcsdtmd, oeh

Aolow`, mos rcsultch è tcoimcrs w`tm pddrcr oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic cetcrèf

tcoimcr troèèf. Acosurcs td ottroit spci`jì frdups ètd tcoimèf, suim os wdace

oeh pcdplc jrda lèfu`stì oeh ctmeì aèdr`t`cs, djtce olsd èvdlvc ldwcrèf cetry

stoehorhs. Jurtmcr, è sdac ioscs tmc cxpoes`de dj oiicss td chuiot`de wos rcpdrtchtd movc bcce oiidapoe`ch by “frohc èjlot`de,‑ wmcrc tmc pcrjdraoeic rcqu`rch td

fct o portìulor cxoaèot`de frohc moh jollce. Xmc lcvcl dj pr`dr lcoreèf dj stuhcets

cetcrèf tcoimcr chuiot`de wos o portìulor ideicre è aotmcaotìs. @e Lcsdtmd,

Cr`trco, oeh Xmc Foabò, possèf aotmcaotìs wos edt o rcqu`rcacet jdr cetry td

tcoimcr troèèf, oltmdufm oll pràory tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim aotmcaotìs.

Ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, tmcrc wos olsd djtce o a`saotim bctwcce tmc simddl iur-

rìulua oeh tmc idetcet toufmt e tcoimcr troèèf, portìulorly e ue`vcrs`ty idurscs.

Ytuhcet tcoimcrs è ue`vcrs`t`cs djtce jdlldwch stoehorh ue`vcrs`ty idurscs è tmc`r

imdsce subkcits. Xmc Eot`deol Se`vcrs`ty dj Lcsdtmd pcrsdeecl edtch tmot tmcscidurscs wcrc hcs`fech td prcporc stuhcets jdr ue`vcrs`ty cxoaèot`des, oeh wcrc qu`tc

h`jjcrcet jrda tmc scidehory simddl iurrìulua. @e Aolow` obdut 6> pcricet dj tmc

idetcet dj tmc B.Ch. prdfroa jdr tcoimcrs wos aohc up dj stoehorh ue`vcrs`ty

idurscs edt ohoptch td tmc simddl iurrìulua. Xmc pdtcetòl jdr a`saotim bctwcce

tmc toufmt idetcet oeh tmc simddl iurrìulua olsd or`scs wmcrc stuhcets orc cxpcitch

td uehcrfd o fcecrol hcfrcc oeh lotcr uehcrfd pchofdfìol troèèf. Xm`s adhcl dj

idesciut`vc troèèf s ottroit`vc bciousc dj tmc frcotcr jlcx`b`l`ty `t prdv`hcs, oeh wos

bcèf ohdptch è Cr`trco oeh Xmc Foabò ot tmc tàc dj tmc stuh`cs.

@e sdac iduetr`cs tmcrc wcrc pds`t`vc rcjdras td cesurc frcotcr ol`feacet bctwcce tmc toufmt idetcet oeh tmc simddl idetcet. @e Cr`trco ot tmc clcacetory



=8 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

lcvcl, oeh è Xmc Foabò ot tmc ldwcr oeh uppcr bosì lcvcl, tmc tcoimcr troèèf

iurrìulo moh bcce ohoptch td cesurc o strdefcr aotim bctwcce tmc idetcet oeh

simddl iurrìulua. @e Xmc Foabò `t wos cstàotch tmot obdut 0> pcricet dj tmc

idetcet idvcrch è tmc pràory oeh m`fmcr tcoimèf icrt`jìotc prdfroas rcjlcitch

tmc simddl iurrìulua.

LOEFSOFC DJ @EYXRSIX@DE @E XCOIMCR XRO@E@EF

O jurtmcr imollcefc td tmc quol`ty dj tcoimcr troèèf ioac jrda tmc loefuofc dj

èstruit`de. @e oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de è tmc

tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs wos, ot lcost djjìòlly, Cefl`sm. Pct è oladst cvcry iosc,

tmc èob`l`ty dj sdac stuhcet tcoimcrs td idaaueìotc è Cefl`sm wos rcpdrtch td

bc o aokdr borr`cr. @e proitìc, tmcrc wos sdac èjdraol usc dj dtmcr loefuofcs tdoss`st stuhcets w`tm wcog Cefl`sm-spcogèf sg`lls, but cxoaèot`des oeh rcsduric

aotcròls wcrc prdv`hch è Cefl`sm. Xmc ldw lcvcl dj Cefl`sm jluceiy aogcs `t

morhcr td advc jrda o systca dj troesir`pt`de oeh acadr`zot`de td dec dj adrc

acoeèfjul cefofcacet w`tm tmc aotcròl.

Cefl`sm wos usch os o achùa dj estruit`de e tcoimcr troèèf, cvce e ploics

wmcrc pràory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td tcoim è ldiol loefuofcs. @e [oez`bor, jdr

cxoaplc, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot pràory tcoimcrs joich ohh`t`deol h`jjìult`cs è cxploè-

èf pràory aotmcaotìs è Ywom`l` bciousc tmcy tmcasclvcs moh bcce toufmt è

Cefl`sm oeh wcrc edt joa`lòr w`tm tmc Ywom`l` wdrhs jdr aotmcaotìol tcras. Xmc usc dj Cefl`sm os o achùa aoy olsd aogc `t adrc h`jjìult jdr stuhcets

jrda tmc adst rcadtc orcos td suiicssjully portì`potc è tcoimcr troèèf. Xwd dj

tmc iduetr`cs moh spci`jì oit`des td ohhrcss tm`s imollcefc. @e Cr`trco, tmc fdvcre-

acet moh prdv`hch o scporotc idllcfc wmcrc tcoimcr troèèf wos hdec è aèdr`ty

loefuofcs. Xm`s wos lotcr ildsch, but rcploich w`tm o systca wmcrc idurscs ot tmc

Osaoro Xcoimcr Chuiot`de @est`tutc (OXC@) wcrc prdv`hch è ldiol loefuofcs è

porollcl w`tm tmc Cefl`sm loefuofc syllobus, sd tmot stuhcets idulh movc sdac

èstruit`de e tmc`r adtmcr tdefuc. @e Xmc Foabò, os port dj o spciòl e`tòt`vc td

ceidurofc adrc jcaolc tcoimcrs (Rcachòl @e`tòt`vc jdr Jcaolc Xcoimcrs (R@JX)),tcoimcrs cerdllèf w`tm pddr oiohcaì quol`jìot`des wcrc prdv`hch w`tm ohh`-

t`deol idurscs è Cefl`sm oeh dtmcr subkcits.

XCOIM@EF ROIX@IC

Lcoreèf mdw td tcoim cacrfcs edt dely jrda tcxtbddgs but olsd jrda cxpcr`ceic,

oeh tcoimcr troèèf prdfroas edraolly èiluhc sdac idapdecet dj moehs-de

tcoimèf proitìc. Xmcsc proitìol cxpcr`ceics djjcr stuhcet tcoimcrs oe dppdrtue`ty

td hcvcldp tmc`r sg`lls oeh orc olsd l`gcly td aogc tmc tmcdrctìol aotcròl adrcrclcvoet oeh acoeèfjul jdr tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs. @e oladst oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy




iduetr`cs, prc-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf èiluhch o pcr`dh dj tcoimèf proitìc. Xmc

hurot`de dj tmc pcr`dh dj proitìc tcoimèf vor`ch w`hcly, jrda s`x wccgs èSfoeho td twd ycors è Xmc Foabò (toblc 3.:). Ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, tcoimèf

proitìc wos fcecrolly adrc là`tch oeh è Aolow`, Cr`trco, oeh Sfoeho, tmcrc wos

ed jdraol tcoimèf ploicacet jdr stuhcets è hcfrcc-lcvcl idurscs.

Vmcrc stuhcet tcoimcrs wcrc scet td simddls jdr pcr`dhs dj proitìc tcoimèf,

tmcy wcrc edraolly cxpcitch td wdrg w`tm o acetdr tcoimcr è tmc simddl, but è

tmc idetcxt dj tcoimcr smdrtofcs, è proitìc tmcy usuolly cehch up tcoimèf o jull

wdrgldoh. @e Xmc Foabò oeh [oabò, stuhcet tcoimcrs wcrc rdutècly tcoimèf

jull ilosscs jdr o jull ycor ot o tàc. Aolow` moh tr`ch td ovd`h tm`s tmrdufm o sys-

tca dj pdstèf twd stuhcet tcoimcrs tdfctmcr, w`tm tmc cxpcitot`de tmot tmcy wdulhcoim tcoim molj-tàc, oeh rctoè sdac tàc jdr stuhy oeh rcjlcit`de.

De tmc dtmcr moeh, wmce stuhcet tcoimcrs wcrc scet td simddls jdr smdrt

pcr`dhs, tmcy djtce rcic`vch lcss tcoimèf cxpcr`ceic tmoe a`fmt bc àofèch. @e

Sfoeho oeh Cr`trco, `t wos tmc usuol proitìc td sceh frdups dj stuhcets td coim

tcoimèf proitìc simddl, wmcrc tmcy wdulh smorc tmc wdrg w`tm tmc cx`stèf tcoim-

crs. @e tmcsc ioscs sdac stuhcets toufmt dely o saoll euabcr dj ilosscs, hcsp`tc

spcehèf wccgs è tmc simddl.

Xmc fcdfropmìol h`str`but`de dj stuhcets è tcoimèf proitìc olsd prcscetch

h`jjìult`cs. Vmcrc troespdrtot`de wos là`tch, stuhcets wcrc djtce ploich e simddlsildsc td tmc`r idllcfcs. Xm`s tcehch td èircosc tmc hces`ty dj stuhcet tcoimcrs è

coim simddl, oeh rchuic tmc tcoimèf tàc jdr coim. Jurtmcr, `t djtce acoet o ide-

icetrot`de dj stuhcet tcoimcrs è lcss rcadtc simddls, oeh è simddls dj portìulor

loefuofc frdups. @e Cr`trco, jdr cxoaplc, tmc proitìc dj ploièf stuhcet tcoimcrs

è ecorby simddls acoet tmot oll stuhcet tcoimcrs wcrc ploich è X`frèò-spcogèf

simddls. By idetrost, è [oabò stuhcet tcoimcrs orc hcl`bcrotcly scet td rcadtc

rurol simddls, bdtm td j`ll voioet pds`t`des è tmcsc simddls, oeh td aogc tmca

oiiustdach td wdrgèf è o rurol orco. Vm`lc tm`s aoy oss`st è tcoimcr h`str`bu-

t`de, `t èircosch tmc ldf`stìol h`jjìult`cs dj supcrv`s`de, oeh è cjjcit rchuich tmcjrcquceiy dj cxtcreol supcrv`s`de.

Xoblc 3.: Lceftm dj @e-simddl Xcoimèf ^roitìc

^ràory icrt`jìotc

dr h`pldao Ycidehory h`pldao Hcfrcc (usuolly scidehory)

Foabò, Xmc 2 ycors ? ycor ?2 wccgs

Aolow` ? ycor ?2 wccgs e/o

[oabò ? ycor ? tcra 3 wccgs

Lcsdtmd 2 : adetms 2 : adetms = wccgs

Cr`trco 2 wccgs : wccgs 8 mrs/wccg jdr ? tcra e/o

Sfoeho : wccgs e/o e/o



=: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Xmc ètcfrot`de dj tmc pcr`dh dj tcoimèf proitìc w tm tmc ioapus-bosch port dj

tmc tcoimcr troèèf wos djtce pddr, oeh wcogcech by `ssucs dj tàèf, supcrv`s`de,

oeh osscssacet. @e aoey ioscs, jdr ldf`stìol idevce`ceic, stuhcets j`rst idaplctch

tmc ioapus-bosch port dj tmc ycor‐s wdrg, oeh tmce spcet o pcr`dh è o simddl. Xm`s

orroefcacet rchuich tmc dppdrtue`t`cs td brèf tmc ilossrdda cxpcr`ceic ètd tmc

toufmt idursc. Rcidfe`zèf tm`s là`tot`de, è bdtm [oabò oeh Xmc Foabò, ohh`-

t`deol “wrop-up‑ idurscs movc bcce ohhch, wmcrc stuhcets rcture td tmc troèèf

idllcfc jdr o pcr`dh ojtcr tmc`r tcoimèf proitìc. @e [oabò, stuhcets rcturech td

idllcfc jdr o smdrt dec- dr twd-wccg idursc jdlldwèf tmc`r simddl-bosch ycor. @e Xmc

Foabò, o adrc cxtces`vc jdur dr j`vc wccg joic-td-joic idursc jdiusch de idetcet-

rclotch tcoimèf actmdhdldf`cs, olldwèf stuhcets td ètcfrotc tmc`r cxpcr`ceics

hurèf tmc`r tcoimèf proitìc w`tm wmot tmcy moh lcorech hurèf tcoimcr troèèf.

Xmc supcrv`s de dj stuhcet tcoimcrs by tutdrs jrda tmc troèèf èst`tut`des woslà`tch. @e Aolow`, jdr cxoaplc, tutdrs wcrc cxpcitch td v`s`t coim stuhcet s`x

tàcs hurèf tmc ycor dj tcoimèf proitìc, but tm`s wos prcvcetch by h`jjìult`cs dj

troespdrtot de oeh tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj vcmìlcs. Xmc àpoit dj tmc tcoimèf proitìc

wos olsd hàè`smch by tmc là`tch rdlc `t ploych e tmc jèol osscssacet dj stuhcet

tcoimcrs. @e sdac ioscs, pcrjdraoeic e tcoimèf proitìc moh ed àpoit ot oll de tmc

jèol frohc dj tmc stuhcet. @e [oabò, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc wos ed osscssacet dj

tcoimèf proitìc è tmc stuhcet‐s dvcroll frohc.

@e ohh`t`de, `t smdulh bc oigedwlchfch tmot tmcrc orc r`sgs èvdlvch è tcoimèf

proitìc. ^loicacet owoy jrda tmc troèèf idllcfcs, djtce td uejoa`lòr orcos oehsdactàcs cvce td orcos dj h`jjcrcet loefuofc oeh iulturc, aoy èvdlvc portìulor

r`sgs jdr jcaolc stuhcets. Jdr jcaolc stuhcets, tcoimèf proitìc aoy cvce iorry o

frcotcr r`sg dj bcidaèf prcfeoet, os mos bcce rcpdrtch è [oabò wmcrc tmc

rcsultèf im`lhrce moh bcce eìgeoach “[OXCI bob`cs‑ è rcjcrceic td tmc prc-

scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf idursc ([oabò Xcoimcr Chuiot`de Idursc).

ACEXDRY

Ldfìolly, tmc cos`cst sduric dj suppdrt oeh supcrv`s`de jdr stuhcet tcoimcrs `s tmcprcsceic dj cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs è tmc simddl wmd ioe oit os acetdrs. @e Cr`trco,

Xmc Foabò, Aolow`, oeh [oabò, tmcrc wcrc hcs`feotch acetdrs e tmc tcoimèf-

proitìc simddls wmd wcrc cxpcitch td prdv`hc suppdrt jdr tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs.

Mdwcvcr, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot tmc quol`ty oeh quoet`ty dj suppdrt jrda tmc acetdrs

vor`ch w`hcly. @e bdtm [oabò oeh Xmc Foabò, stuhcet tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td

bc oss`fech td oe cxpcr`ceich quol`j`ch tcoimcr, but è rcol`ty aoey wcrc oss`fech

td wdrg w`tm uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs dr f`vce idaplctc rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr ilosscs w`tm

ed iddpcrotèf tcoimcr.

Acetdrs wcrc edraolly edt po`h dr prdv`hch w`tm oey èicet`vc td prdv`hcsuppdrt jdr stuhcet tcoimcrs, oltmdufm è sdac ioscs tmc prcsceic dj stuhcet tcoimcrs




aoy movc rchuich tmc tcoimèf ldoh dj tmc cxpcr`ceich tcoimcr. @e Aolow`, o ploe

td poy acetdr tcoimcrs o bdeus dj opprdxàotcly $?> pcr adetm, dr tmc cqu`vo-

lcet dj oe èircosc dj obdut 2> pcricet dj solory, wos uehcr h`siuss`de but edt

ofrcch upde. @e Cr`trco, tmc rdlc oeh adt`vot`de dj tmc acetdrs wos strceftmcech

by f`vèf tmca o rdlc è frohèf tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs. Xutdrs jrda tmc troèèf

idllcfc oss`fech => pcricet dj tmc aorgs, oeh tmc rcaoèèf 2> pcricet wcrc

oworhch by tmc acetdr.

Xmcrc wos olsd là`tch troèèf prdv`hch td prcporc acetdrs jdr tm`s rdlc. @e

sdac iduetr`cs tmcrc wos ed troèèf dr suppdrt jdr tmc acetdrs ot oll, wm`lc

dtmcrs wcrc bcfèeèf td prdv`hc suppdrt jdr acetdr tcoimcrs. @e Xmc Foabò oe

oeeuol acetdr troèèf idursc wos djjcrch td suppdrt ecw acetdrs. @e Cr`trco tmc

Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de moh hcvcldpch o fu`hc jdr acetdrs, td bc prètch oeh

h`str`butch td oll acetdr tcoimcrs.

XCOIMCR XRO@ECRY

Xmc gcy td tmc quol`ty dj tmc tcoimcr troèèf `s tmc quol`ty dj tmc tutdrs (tcoimcr

troècrs) è tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs. Xmc àpoit dj tcoimcr troècrs fdcs bcydeh

tmc gedwlchfc tmcy àport, os `t mos bcce w`hcly dbscrvch tmot tcoimcrs djtce tcoim

è tmc aoeecr è wmìm tmcy wcrc toufmt (Yimw`llc Hcabàlà, oeh Yimubcrt 2>>6),

ploièf tcoimcr-troècrs è oe `hcol pds`t`de td prdv`hc adhcls dj opprdpròtc

tcoimèf actmdhs by hcadestrotèf fddh proitìc è tmc`r dwe tcoimèf.@e adst ioscs, idllcfcs wcrc rcosdeobly wcll stojjch, w`tm stuhcet-tutdr rot`ds

os ldw os ?9;? è sdac ioscs (toblc 3.6). Mdwcvcr, tutdrs h`h edt olwoys movc tmc

sg`lls oeh cxpcr`ceic td prdv`hc tmc bcst fu`hoeic td juturc tcoimcrs.

Xmc sclcit`de dj tutdrs jdr pràory tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs wos usuolly bosch

de oiohcaì quol`jìot`des. Os o rcsult, adst dj tmc tutdrs wcrc jdracrly scidehory

tcoimcrs, oeh sdac moh ecvcr bcce pràory tcoimcrs. Idescqucetly, tmc`r troèèf

jdr, oeh cxpcr`ceic dj, tcoimèf yduef im`lhrce aoy bc vcry là`tch. @e Xmc Foabò,

jdr cxoaplc, 66 pcricet dj tmc tutdrs tcoimèf de tmc pràory tcoimcr icrt`jìotc

idursc moh ecvcr bcce pràory tcoimcrs tmcasclvcs. @e Cr`trco oeh [oabò, adst dj tmc tutdrs è pràory tcoimcr troèèf èst`tut`des wcrc hrowe jrda scidehory

simddls, oltmdufm sdac moh pràory tcoimèf cxpcr`ceic corl`cr è tmc`r iorccrs.

@e [oez`bor, tmc oiohcaì rcqu`rcacets wcrc rcsultèf è o ldss dj tcoimèf

Xoblc 3.6 Ytuhcets pcr Xcoimcr è ^ràory Xcoimcr Xroèèf Idllcfcs

Iduetry @est`tut`de Ytuhcets Xutdrs Ytuhcet-tcoimcr rot`d

Cr`trco OXC@ :88 23 2:

Aolow` L`ldefwc XXI 38> 20 ?0

[oabò ?> idllcfcs 3,>?= 9=0 ?9



== • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

cxpcrt`sc jrda tmc systca. V`tm tmc obsdrpt`de dj tmc Egruaom Xcoimcr Xroèèf

Idllcfc ètd tmc Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor, tmc ue`vcrs`ty rcqu`rcacets jdr

aostcrs-lcvcl quol`jìot`des acoet tmot adst dj tmc tutdrs, èiluhèf sdac w`tm

tmc frcotcst ilossrdda cxpcr`ceic, idulh edt bc capldych è tmc ecw struiturc.

Adst tutdrs rcic`vch l`ttlc spciòl`st troèèf è tcoimcr hcvcldpacet. @e Sfoeho,

Gyoabdfd Se`vcrs`ty moh o spciòl prdfroa td prcporc cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs td

bcidac tutdrs. @e dtmcr iduetr`cs, troèèf dj tutdrs wos spdrohì, oeh djtce

prdv`hch by cxtcreol prdkcits oeh jdr smdrt pcr`dhs. Xmc loig dj troèèf jdr tcoimcr

troècrs ojjcits tmc ides`stceiy è wmot `s toufmt oeh mdw `t `s toufmt. @ehcch, oey

ides`stceiy `s l`gcly td idac jrda tmc idaade cxpcr`ceics os lcorecrs. ^ddrly

prcporch tcoimcr troècrs orc l`gcly td tcoim tmc woy tmot tmcy tmcasclvcs wcrc

toufmt, oeh orc sldw td eidrpdrotc ecw actmdhs etd tmc`r tcoimèf (Ovolds 2>>>,

Lcwè oeh Ytuort 2>>9).Ydac dj tmc iduetr`cs wcrc olsd cxpcr`ceièf o smdrtofc dj sujjì`cetly quol`j`ch

tutdrs, oeh wcrc rclòet de cxtcreol cxpcrt`sc. @e Cr`trco, dec-j`jtm dj tmc tutdrs è

OXC@ wcrc cxpotr otcs, adstly jrda @eh o. @e Xmc Foab o, vdluetccrs jrda Zdluetory

Ycrvìcs Dvcrscos (ZYD) wcrc hcl`vcrèf sdac dj tmc pràory tcoimcr troèèf ot

Xmc Foabò Idllcfc. @e [oez`bor, lciturcrs jrda Hor Cs Yolooa rcfulorly trovclch

td [oez`bor td tcoim è tmc tcoimcr troèèf idursc, o prdicss tmot wos idstly è

bdtm tàc oeh adecy.


Xmc prc-scrvìc troèèf dj tcoimcrs prcscets o scr`cs dj h`jjìult imollcefcs è tmc

iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs. Xmc rcqu`rcacet jdr adrc tcoimcrs ircotcs o hcaoeh jdr

smdrtcr idurscs oeh ldwcr cetry rcqu`rcacets. Xmc ideicre jdr quol`ty dj tcoimèf

ircotcs dppds`tc hcaoehs jdr m`fmcr cetry stoehorhs oeh ldefcr pcr`dhs dj troè-

èf. Jurtmcr, tmc fcdfropmìol oeh sdiòl pottcres acoe tmot ro`sèf cetry stoehorhs

`s l`gcly td aogc `t adrc h`jjìult td rciru`t tcoimcrs jrda rcadtc oeh h`sohvoe-

tofch idaaue`t`cs oeh tmus èircosc tmc ècqu`ty dj chuiot`deol prdv`s`de. @e

sdac ioscs tmc cetry quol`jìot`des wcrc jollèf è rcspdesc td o smdrtofc dj quol-`j`ch opplìoets, oeh è aoey ioscs tmc stuhcets cetcrch tcoimcr troèèf bciousc

tmcy h`h edt fct ploics è tmc idurscs tmcy woetch, rotmcr tmoe jrda o rcol hcs`rc

td bcidac tcoimcrs.

@e tm`s idetcxt dj ldw quol`ty oeh adt`vot`de ot cetry, tcoimcr troèèf s cxpcitch

td bu`lh bdtm o sdl`h jduehot`de dj subkcit-idetcet gedwlchfc oeh o rcpcrtd`rc dj

proitìol oeh opprdpròtc ilossrdda tcoimèf sg`lls. @t ioeedt bc ossuach tmot ecw

cetroets td tcoimèf olrcohy movc sujjì`cet idetcet gedwlchfc td cesurc aostcry

dj tmc pràory simddl iurrìulua, oeh os o rcsult, sdac dj tmc e`tòl tcoimcr troè-

èf aust jdius de bu`lhèf jduehot`des dj idetcet gedwlchfc. Ot tmc soac tàc,pchofdfìol proitìcs è simddls orc djtce pddr oeh dvcrly rclòet de troesir`pt`de




oeh rdtc lcoreèf. Ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs ioeedt bc ossurch dj jèhèf cxoaplcs

dj fddh pchofdfìol proitìc c`tmcr e tmc`r dwe cxpcr`ceics dj simddlèf dr e tmc

pcrjdraoeic dj tmc`r idllcofucs wmce tmcy bcfè td tcoim.

Vm`lc tcoimcr troèèf aust prdv`hc èstruit`de è bdtm idetcet gedwlchfc

oeh pchofdfy, tmcrc orc ideicres obdut tmc quol`ty oeh rclcvoeic è tmc prdv`s`de

dj bdtm. Jdr idetcet gedwlchfc, tmc r`sg `s tmot tmc idetcet aoy bc tdd ohvoeich

oeh hcs`fech w`tm tmc ossuapt`de dj frcotcr pr`dr gedwlchfc tmoe `s rcolly tmc

iosc. Xcoimèf idetcet tmot s tdd ohvoeich s l`gcly td ceidurofc rdtc acadr`zot`de

rotmcr tmoe rcol uehcrstoehèf dj tmc aotcròl. De tmc pchofdfy s`hc, tdd, tmcrc `s

iousc jdr ideicre obdut tmc rclcvoeic dj tmc aotcròl toufmt. Vmcrc `t `s tdd

tmcdrctìol oeh tdd h`stoet jrda tmc rcol`ty dj tmc ilossrdda, `t `s uel`gcly td movc

oe àpoit de tcoimcr pcrjdraoeic è proitìc. @e bdtm ioscs, tmcrc aoy bc o ecch

td rcv`cw tmc idetcet oeh opprdoim, td cesurc tmot tmc tcoimcr troèèf `s idapot-`blc w`tm bdtm tmc lcvcl dj cetry dj stuhcet-tcoimcrs oeh tmc proitìol ecchs dj tmc

ilossrdda. Xmcrc orc woys e wmìm tcoimcr troèèf idulh bc adrc ildscly ol`fech

w`tm ilossrdda ecchs.

J`rst, tmc subkcit idetcet idulh bc aotimch w`tm tmc idetcet dj tmc simddl iur-

rìulua, cesurèf tmot tcoimcrs movc o hccp uehcrstoehèf dj tmc idetcet tmcy orc

suppdsch td tcoim. Xd suppdrt tm`s, simddl tcxtbddgs idulh bc prdv`hch td tcoimcr

idllcfcs, td cesurc tmot tcoimcrs orc joa`lòr w`tm tmc bddgs oeh tmc`r idetcets.

Osscssacet dj stuhcet tcoimcrs idulh bc ohkustch td èiluhc o strdefcr jdius de

tcstèf jdr aostcry dj tmc idetcet tmot tcoimcrs w`ll bc cxpcitch td tcoim.Ycideh, tmc apoit dj tcoimcr troèèf de pchofdfy idulh bc strceftmcech. Xmc

a`saotim bctwcce tmc actmdhs toufmt è tcoimcr troèèf oeh tmdsc usch è proitìc

`s wcll gedwe (Hcabàlà oeh Aòrd 2>>9), oeh tmc imollcefc `s td jèh suiicssjul

woys td imoefc tcoimèf proitìcs. Xmcsc ioscs suffcst tmot pchofdfy s djtce toufmt

è o tmcdrctìol aoeecr, oeh tmot tmc tcoimèf actmdhs oeh osscssacets usch è

troèèf idllcfcs hd l`ttlc td prdv`hc adhcls dj fddh pchofdfìol proitìc. O rchui-

t`de dj tmcdrctìol idetcet oeh o strdefcr jdius de proitìol oeh idetcxt-rclcvoet

ilossrdda sg`lls idulh aogc bcttcr usc dj tmc ovo`loblc tàc. Xcoimcr troèèf

idulh adhcl tmc hcs`rch tcoimèf actmdhs ides`stcetly hurèf tmc pcr`dh dj troè-èf, è drhcr td prdv`hc proitìol cxoaplcs jdr stuhcet tcoimcrs. Oim`cvèf tm`s,

mdwcvcr, wdulh èvdlvc cesurèf o m`fm lcvcl dj pchofdfìol sg`lls è tmc tcoimcr

troècrs. Xmc àpoit dj tcoimèf proitìc idulh bc àprdvch by cesurèf tmot proitìc

`s ade`tdrch oeh suppdrtch ot tmc simddl lcvcl, oeh tmot tmc acssofcs idevcych

hurèf tcoimèf proitìc orc ides`stcet w`tm tmdsc idevcych hurèf tmc pcr`dh dj

troèèf. Xm`s idulh bc oim`cvch tmrdufm o systca dj acetdrs ot tmc simddl lcvcl,

oeh troèèf oeh dr`cetot`de dj tmdsc acetdrs.

Xm`rh, tcoimcr troèèf idulh bc bcttcr ol`fech td tmc ecchs dj tcoimcrs by

aotimèf tmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de. Vmcrc tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim è tmcadtmcr tdefuc, `t aoy bc opprdpròtc td movc oll dr port dj tmc`r tcoimcr troèèf




hcl`vcrch è tmc adtmcr tdefuc. Xm`s èvdlvcs ldf`stìol oeh iurrìulor h`jjìult`cs,

but `s l`gcly td èircosc tmc rclcvoeic oeh àpoit dj tcoimcr troèèf.

Jèolly, `t smdulh bc rcidfe`zch tmot tcoimcr troècrs orc icetrol td oll hcvcldp-

acets è tcoimcr troèèf. Yclcit`de dj tcoimcr troècrs de tmc bos`s dj purcly oio-

hcaì ir`tcrò hdcs edt olwoys fuoroetcc tmc adst opprdpròtc sclcit`des, oeh è

sdac ioscs tcoimcr troècrs è pràory tcoimcr idllcfcs moh l`ttlc dr ed pràory

tcoimèf cxpcr`ceic. Hcvcldpèf tmc iopoi`ty dj tcoimcr troècrs s oe dbv`dus stcp

è àprdvèf tmc quol`ty oeh rclcvoeic dj è`tòl tcoimcr chuiot`de.

EDXC

?. Ytuhcets ot tmc ceh dj frohc ?2 s`t tmc Cr`trcoe Yimddl Lcovèf Icrt`jìotc, o eot`deol

cxoaèot`de usch jdr aotrìulot`de purpdscs. Cxoaèot`de rcsults orc troeslotch ètdfrohc pdèts, wmcrc oe O `s wdrtm 8 pdèts, o B fcts 9 pdèts, o I fcts 2 pdèts, oeh o H

cores ? pdèt. Jdr coim stuhcet, tmc tdp j`vc rcsults orc ovcrofch td f`vc oe dvcroll frohc

pdèt ovcrofc.



0?

IMO^XCR :

@e ohh`t`de td tmc prc-scrvìc troèèf dj tcoimcrs, oll dj tmc iduetr`cs moh sdac

prdv`s`de dj è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf. Xmc tcra “è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf‑

wos usch td idvcr o vor`cty dj h`jjcrcet typcs dj troèèf, wmìm ioe bc iloss`-

j`ch ètd tmrcc aoè frdups;

?. @e-scrvìc e`tòl troèèf jdr uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, hcs`fech td olldw uequol-

`j`ch tcoimcrs td dbtoè o rcidfe`zch tcoimèf quol`jìot`de wm`lc tmcy ide-

tèuc td tcoim.

2. @e-scrvìc upfrohèf jdr quol`j ch tcoimcrs, ceoblèf tcoimcrs td upfrohc td o

m`fmcr lcvcl quol`jìot`de, usuolly ossdiòtch w`tm m`fmcr poy.

9. Idet eudus prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet, usuolly è tmc jdra dj smdrt idurscs

edt lègch td o spci`jì quol`jìot`de.

Xm`s imoptcr cxoaècs tmc prdv`s`de dj oll tmrcc typcs dj è-scrvìc è tmc

iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs.

@E-YCRZ@IC XRO@E@EF JDR SE_SOL@J@CH XCOIMCRY

V`tm tmc rop`h cxpoes`de dj cerdllacet è simddls, aoey iduetr`cs è tmc rcf`de

cxpcr`ceich tcoimcr smdrtofcs, oeh rciru`tch uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e rcspdesc,

aoey iduetr`cs movc prdv`hch è-scrvìc idurscs, olldwèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs

td foè tmc`r è`tòl tcoimèf quol`jìot`de wm`lc tmcy wdrgch. Jdr uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs, tmcsc idurscs djjcr o potmwoy td o prdjcss`deol iorccr. Jdr iduetr`cs w`tm

cxpoehèf systcas oeh èohcquotc tcoimcr supply, tmcy djjcr tmc pdtcetòl td

upfrohc tmc quol`ty dj uetroèch tcoimcrs, wm`lc rctoèèf tmca è tmc wdrgjdric.

Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs djtce j`ll tmc ploics è tmc simddls wmcrc tmc fdvcreacet mos h`jjìulty è hcpldyèf troèch tcoimcrs, tmus idetr`butèf td rchrcssèf tmc

@e-scrvìc Xroèèf

jdr Sequol`j`ch oeh

Spfrohèf Xcoimcrs




hcpldyacet prdblcas. Mdwcvcr, tmc prdv`s`de dj è-scrvìc idurscs `s imollcefèf.

Xmc lcvcl dj oiohcaì oim`cvcacet dj tmc uetroèch tcoimcrs `s sdactàcs ldwcr tmoe wdulh bc cxpcitch dj ecw cetroets td tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs, yct tmc`r tàc

jdr stuhy oeh tmc`r idetoit w`tm tutdrs `s djtce adrc là`tch tmoe `t `s jdr tmc`r

idllcofucs è tcoimcr idllcfcs.

Adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh sdac systca jdr troèèf oeh oiirch`to-

t`de dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs olrcohy capldych è tmc systca (toblc :.?). Xmcsc

è-scrvìc troèèf idurscs vor`ch è hurot`de oeh struiturc, but typìolly èvdlvch

bctwcce twd oeh jdur ycors dj port-tàc stuhy, suppdrtch by sdac idabèot`de

dj rcs`hcetòl troèèf ot o tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc, smdrt idurscs prdv`hch ot ldiol

icetcrs, oeh prètch sclj-stuhy aotcròls.Lcsdtmd, Xmc Foabò, oeh Sfoeho moh sà`lor adhcls, w`tm hcl`vcry aoe-

ofch by tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs, oeh àplcacetch tmrdufm rcs`hcetòl idurscs,

smdrt wdrgsmdps, oeh prètch sclj-stuhy aotcròls. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc H`stoeic

Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroa (HXC^), dpcrotch by tmc Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuio-

t`de, prdv`hch o jdur-ycor potm td o h`pldao-lcvcl quol`jìot`de c`tmcr jdr uequol-

`j`ch tcoimcrs dr jdr tcoimcrs w`tm tmc edw-hcjueit icrt`jìotc quol`jìot`de. Xcoim-

crs w`tm ed tcoimèf quol`jìot`de stortch ot tmc j`rst ycor, wm`lc tcoimcrs w`tm o

icrt`jìotc quol`jìot`de bcfoe tmc idursc è tmc scideh ycor. Xmc idursc wos hcl`v-

crch tmrdufm o idabèot`de dj twd-wccg joic-td-joic idurscs cvcry scacstcr,tmrcc smdrt (usuolly wccgceh) wdrgsmdps cvcry scacstcr hcl`vcrch è o ectwdrg

Xoblc :.? @e-scrvìc ^rdfroas jdr Sequol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcrs

Iduetry Hcsir`pt`de

Cr`trco Xwd-ycor idursc, w`tm 9: wccgs joic-td-joic idetoit

Foabò, Xmc Xmrcc-ycor idursc w`tm 26 wccgs joic-td-joic idetoit

Lcsdtmd Jdur ycors tdtol. Xwd-wccg rcs`hcetòl idursc cvcry scacstcr,

tmrcc smdrt wdrgsmdps (dec wccgceh) cvcry scacstcr (è 82 ldiot`des)

(opprdxàotcly 28 wccgs idetoit tàc è tdtol), plus prètch sclj-stuhy

aotcròls.

L`bcrò ?2 wccgs tdtol. Xcoimcrs w`tmhrowe jrda simddl.

Aolow` Ed e-scrvìc jdr pràory tcoimcrs ot prcscet. rcv`dusly, tmc e-scrvìc

A@@XC^ systca (?008’2>>2) wos djjcrch. @t wos rcspdes`blc jdr troèèf

aoey dj tmc tcoimcrs è simddls, but wos tcraèotch è 2>>2, portly

bciousc dj ideicres obdut tmc quol`ty dj tmc tcoimcrs cacrfèf.

Sfoeho Xmrcc ycors tdtol. Ymdrt rcs`hcetòl scss`des hurèf simddl mdl`hoys.

B`-adetmly wdrgsmdps ot iddrhèotèf icetcrs. ^ccr frdup acctèfs ot

ètcrvols. H`rcit supcrv`s`de è simddls by iddrhèotèf icetcr tutdrs.

[oabò Xwd ycors tdtol. Sscs sclj-stuhy adhulcs oeh o joic-td-joic idapdecet

hurèf coim simddl mdl`hoy.

[oez`bor Jdur-ycor idursc prdv`hch e ldiol tcoimcr rcsduric icetcrs twd hoys pcr

wccg, dec hoy ot tmc wccgceh oeh dec hoy dj simddl tàc.



@e-scrvìc Xroèèf jdr Sequol`j`ch oeh Spfrohèf Xcoimcrs • 09

dj dutrcoim icetcrs, oeh prètch sclj-stuhy aotcròls. Xmcrc wos m`fm hcaoeh jdr

ploics è tmc idursc, but tmc ottr`t`de rotc wos m`fm. @e 2>>3, 82 pcricet dj tmc

ycor-dec stuhcets hrdppch dut bcjdrc rcoimèf tmc scideh ycor.

@e Xmc Foabò, tmc è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf moh bcce rcicetly ètrdhuich

oeh wos è`tòlly djjcrch dely è rcf`de 3. Xmc idursc wos aoeofch by Xmc Foabò

Idllcfc, oeh usch tmc soac iurrìulua idetcet os tmc ioapus-bosch prc-scrvìc

idursc. Xmc idursc cerdllch oll dj tmc uetroèch tcoimcrs è rcf`de 3 wmd moh ot

lcost twd ycors dj tcoimèf cxpcr`ceic. Xm`s tmrcc-ycor prdfroa èvdlvch eèc

wccgs dj rcs`hcetòl troèèf coim ycor hurèf simddl voiot`des. Hurèf tmc simddl

tcra, tmc tcoimcrs wcrc prdv`hch w`tm sclj-stuhy adhulcs, oeh suppdrtch by o ect-

wdrg dj ilustcr ade`tdrs wmd v`s`tch tmc simddls rcfulorly td dbscrvc tcoimèf.

@e Sfoeho tmc è-scrvìc troèèf wos hdec by hcs`feotch pràory tcoimcr idl-

lcfcs (iollch idrc-^XIs), coim dj wmìm aoeofch o ectwdrg dj iddrhèotèf ice-tcrs. Sfoeho moh 390 iddrhèotèf icetcrs, typìolly o dec-ilossrdda bu`lhèf

w`tm oe djjìc oeh o ecorby mdusc jdr tmc iddrhèotèf icetcr tutdr. Xmc troèèf

wos prdv`hch tmrdufm smdrt rcs`hcetòl idurscs hurèf tmc simddl voiot`des, b`-

adetmly wdrgsmdps ot tmc iddrhèotèf icetcrs, oeh h`rcit supcrv`s`de by iddrh`-

eotèf icetcr tutdrs wmd v`s`tch tcoimcrs ot tmc`r simddls. Os è dtmcr iduetr`cs,

ottr`t`de wos rcpdrtch td bc m`fm, but moh hcilèch dvcr tàc w`tm tmc euabcr dj

jo`lurcs hrdppèf jrda 8:.0 pcricet è 2>>?/2>>2, td ?0 pcricet è 2>>8/2>>3.

Cr`trco jdlldwch o h`jjcrcet pottcre. Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc prdv`hch w`tm

tmrcc adetms dj joic-td-joic troèèf bcjdrc tmcy bcfoe td tcoim, jdlldwch by twdbldigs dj tmrcc-adetm troèèf hurèf tmc simddl voiot`de dvcr tmc jdlldwèf twd

ycors. Xmc idursc wos adhclch de tmc prc-scrvìc troèèf idursc, idaprcssch jdr

hcl`vcry è o smdrtcr tàc. Ytoehorhs wcrc pcric`vch td bc idaporoblc, bciousc tmc

ilossrdda cxpcr`ceic wos scce td mclp stuhcets td obsdrb tmc idetcet, oeh dvcr

0> pcricet possch tmc jèol cxoaèot`de.

@e L`bcrò, oe cacrfceiy troèèf idursc dj ?2 wccgs‐ hurot`de wos ètrdhuich

td ohhrcss tmc lorfc euabcr dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xroèèf idllcfcs wcrc osgch

td rue tmrcc idurscs pcr ycor, oeh tcoimcrs wcrc w`tmhrowe jrda tmc`r simddls td

ottceh tmc idursc. Xmc è-scrvìc troèèf idurscs wcrc usuolly aoeofch by tcoimcr troèèf èst`-

tut`des olrcohy èvdlvch è prc-scrvìc prdv`s`de, but tmc hcl`vcry dj tmc troèèf,

portìulorly tmc troèèf hcl`vcrch ot ldiol lcvcl, wos hdec by o vor`cty dj h`jjcrcet

frdups. @e Sfoeho, tmc ldiol troèèf wos hdec by iddrhèotèf icetcr tutdrs, jull-

tàc suppdrt wdrgcrs bosch ot ldiol iddrhèotèf icetcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc ldiol

troèèf wos hcl`vcrch by o a`x dj lciturcrs jrda tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc oeh

ldiol scidehory simddl tcoimcrs. @e Xmc Foabò, bdtm idllcfc lciturcrs oeh tmc

ldiolly bosch ilustcr ade`tdrs hcl`vcrch tmc troèèf. @e [oez`bor, tmc troèèf wos

sdactàcs hcl`vcrch by stojj jrda tmc tcoimcr rcsduric icetcrs, but djtce prdv`hchby ldiol scidehory simddl tcoimcrs.




Xmc è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf idurscs usuolly rcqu`rch ldwcr cetry quol`jìo-

t`des tmoe tmc ioapus-bosch idurscs (toblc :.2). @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc o stuhcet

wdulh rcqu`rc jdur irch`ts oeh dec poss td bcfè tmc prc-scrvìc idursc, but dely

j`vc posscs td cetcr tmc e-scrvìc idursc. Xm`s aohc tmc è-scrvìc idursc oe ottroi-

t`vc potmwoy ètd tmc tcoimèf iorccr jdr aoey wmd wdulh edt movc rcoimch tmc

m`fmcr stoehorhs rcqu`rch jdr cetry td tmc prc-scrvìc idursc. Xm`s pdss`b`l`ty ceidurofch tmc frdwtm dj vdluetccr tcoimcrs, wmd wdrgch ot simddls w`tmdut poy

è tmc mdpc dj lotcr fcttèf o po`h pdst oeh foèèf oiicss td tmc h`stoeic tcoimcr-

chuiot`de prdfroa.

Hcsp`tc tmc ldwcr cetry rcqu`rcacets, sdac tcoimcrs wcrc ueoblc td foè cetry

ètd tmc è-scrvìc idurscs. @e Lcsdtmd, opprdxàotcly 0 pcricet dj pràory tcoimcrs

moh quol`jìot`des tdd pddr td bc oiicptch è tmc è-scrvìc troèèf. Pct bciousc

dj tmc smdrtofc, tmcsc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs idetèuch td tcoim è simddls. Yà`lor

trcehs wcrc rcpdrtch e L`bcrò oeh [oez`bor. @e Lcsdtmd, o br`hfèf idursc hcs`fech

td mclp pddrly chuiotch tcoimcrs upfrohc td tmc pdèt wmcrc tmcy idulh cetcr tmcè-scrvìc idursc wos prdpdsch but moh edt bcce àplcacetch. @e Xmc Foabò,

tmc tcoimcrs ue`de prdv`hch suaacr idurscs jdr tcoimcrs oàch ot oss`stèf

tcoimcrs td àprdvc tmc`r chuiot`deol quol`jìot`des, usuolly by mclpèf uequol`-

j`ch tcoimcrs foè oiicss td tmc ^ràory Xcoimèf Icrt`jìotc.

Ed jdraol hoto de tmc rclot`vc quol`ty dj h`jjcrcet prdfroas orc ovo`loblc, but

fcecrolly oecihdtol cv`hceic suffcstch tmot tmc quol`ty dj tmc tcoimcrs w`tm

è-scrvìc oeh prc-scrvìc troèèf wos idaporoblc, w`tm sdac rcpdrts tmot tmc

tcoimcrs jrda tmc è-scrvìc idurscs wcrc adrc sg`llch è tmc ilossrdda, wm`lc

tmdsc jrda tmc prc-scrvìc idurscs moh bcttcr uehcrstoehèf dj tmc oiohcaì ide-tcet, portìulorly è aotmcaotìs oeh Cefl`sm. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc stuhcets è bdtm

Xoblc :.2 Cetry Rcqu`rcacets jdr ^rc-scrvìc oeh @e-scrvìc Idurscs è Yclcitch Iduetr`cs

Iduetry ^rc-scrvìc @e-scrvìc

Cr`trco Cr`trcoe Yimddl Lcovèf Icrt`jìotc Adstly frohcs ?? dr ?27

(frohc ?2) w`tm o frohc pdèt ovcrofc Frohc ?> jdr aèdr`ty loefuofcs

dj >.: dr m`fmcr (de o 3-pdèt siolc)

Foabò, Xmc Vcst Ojrìoe Yce`dr Yimddl Icrt j iotc Ed oiohcaì rcqu`rcacets, twd ycors

Cxoaèot`de (frohc ?2) w`tm dec irch`t dj tcoimèf

oeh tmrcc poss frohcs, èiluhèf o poss

è Cefl`sm

Lcsdtmd Ioabr`hfc Dvcrscos Yimddl Icrt`jìotc Xwd ycors dj tcoimèf j`vc posscs

(frohc ?2) w`tm jdur irch`ts oeh dec (ed irch`ts rcqu`rch)

poss frohc, èiluhèf ot lcost o poss

frohc è Cefl`sm

[oabò D-lcvcl (kue`dr scidehory, frohc ??) Yoac quol`jìot`de os jdr prc-scrvìccxoaèot`de w`tm s`x posscs, eiluhèf prdfroa

Cefl`sm, aotmcaotìs, oeh dec si`ceic

subkcit




prc-scrvìc oeh è-scrvìc idurscs sot idaporoblc jèol cxoaèot`des oeh tmc poss

rotcs wcrc sà`lor.

Xmc siolc dj tmc è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf idurscs aogcs `t uel`gcly tmot oll dj

tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ioe bc troèch quìgly. @e Xmc Foabò, è-scrvìc troè-

èf mos bcfue w`tm o twd-ycor idursc, dpcrotèf è dely dec rcf`de. @e Lcsdtmd,

tmc oeeuol dutput jrda tmc è-scrvìc troèèf idursc dj obdut 83> stuhcets `s

opprdxàotcly ?> pcricet dj tmc euabcr dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Cvce `j ed ecw

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc rciru`tch, `t wdulh togc ot lcost tce ycors td troè oll tmc

cx`stèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e Sfoeho, tmc oeeuol dutput dj opprdxàotcly

?,>>> tcoimcrs jrda tmc è-scrvìc prdfroa wos opprdxàotcly 2 pcricet dj tmc

8=,>>> uetroèch pràory tcoimcrs. Xmcsc j`furcs `llustrotc tmc ecch td siolc up

oeh sustoè tmcsc è-scrvìc tcoimcr-troèèf idurscs uet`l oll dj tmc uetroèch

tcoimcrs ioe bc rcoimch.

S^FROH@EF _SOL@J@IOX@DEY

@e-scrvìc idurscs wcrc olsd prdv`hch td olldw tcoimcrs td upfrohc tmc`r quol`jìo-

t`des, c`tmcr jrda icrt`jìotc td h`pldao, dr h`pldao td hcfrcc. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc edr-

aol prc-scrvìc tcoimcr quol`jìot`de moh bcce imoefch jrda o icrt`jìotc td o

h`pldao, oeh tmc poy jdr o h`pldao mdlhcr wos ides`hcrobly adrc ottroit`vc

(=9 pcricet m`fmcr stortèf solory) tmoe jdr o icrt`jìotc mdlhcr (toblc :.9). Xm`s

ircotch oe cedradus hcaoeh jdr upfrohèf idurscs, oeh tmc è-scrvìc h`stoeic

tcoimcr chuiot`de prdfroa (HXC^) wos jdrich td là`t tmc euabcr dj icrt`jìotc

mdlhcrs cerdllch è drhcr td prcscrvc ploics jdr tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Xoblc :.9 Hurot`de oeh Hcl`vcry dj @e-scrvìc Spfrohèf Idurscs jdr _uol`j`ch^ràory Xcoimcrs

Cr`trco Dpce oeh H`stoeic Lcoreèf rdfroa, oàch ot clcacetory tcoimcrs wdrgèf

è a`hhlc simddls. O tmrcc-ycor idursc bosch de sclj-stuhy tcxt aotcròls

oeh jdur dr j`vc tutdròls pcr ycor.

Lcsdtmd Xmc H stoeic Xcoimcr Chuiot de rdfroa (HXC ) cerdlls tcoimcrs w`tm oe cx stèf

icrt`jìotc quol`jìot`de ètd tmc scideh ycor dj tmc prdfroa, olldwèf tmca td upfrohc

td o h`pldao è tmrcc ycors. Hcl`vcry `s tmrdufm o twd-wccg rcs`hcetòl idursc cvcry

scacstcr, plus tmrcc smdrt wdrgsmdps (dec wccgceh) cvcry scacstcr, oeh prètch

sclj-stuhy aotcròls.

Aolow` O tmrcc-ycor port-tàc idursc s prdv`hch jdr pràory tcoimcrs wmd orc tcoimèf

è scidehory simddls. Hcl`vcry `s tmrdufm oe c`fmt-wccg è`tòl rcs`hcetòl idursc,

tmce twd jurtmcr tmrcc-wccg bldigs dj troèèf coim ycor, supplcacetch by

prètch adhulcs tmot stuhcets orc cxpcitch td stuhy.

[oabò O tmrcc-ycor upfrohèf idursc, hcl`vcrch tmrdufm o twd-wccg rcs`hcetòl troèèf coim

tcra jdr tmrcc ycors (o tdtol dj ?? rcs`hcetòl bldigs), supplcacetch by prètch

tcxt adhulcs.




@e Cr`trco, Aolow`, oeh [oabò, tmc upfrohèf wos pràor`ly td ohhrcss tmc

ecchs dj pràory tcoimcrs tcoimèf scidehory-lcvcl ilosscs. Xypìolly tmcsc wcrc

tmrcc-ycor idurscs, usèf o a`x dj rcs`hcetòl troèèf oeh sclj-stuhy adhulcs. @e

Aolow` oeh [oabò, tmc idetcet wos aotimch td tmc idetcet dj tmc prc-scrvìc

h`pldao, oeh tmc sclj-stuhy aotcròls wcrc bosch lorfcly de tmc lciturc edtcs jrda

tmc prc-scrvìc idursc. Xmcsc upfrohèf idurscs idulh movc o s`fe`jìoet apoit de

tcoimcr supply. @e [oabò, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc wos oe oeeuol dutput dj 8,9>>

ecwly troèch pràory tcoimcrs jrda tmc prc-scrvìc troèèf, but oeeuol ldsscs dj

?,?>> pràory tcoimcrs upfrohèf td scidehory lcvcl.

@e porollcl, adst iduetr`cs olsd prdv`hch dppdrtue`t`cs jdr upfrohèf tmrdufm

po`h stuhy lcovc, olldwèf tcoimcrs td stuhy jull tàc. @e adst ioscs tmc euabcr dj

tcoimcrs evdlvch e jull-tàc upfrohèf idursc wos saoll, but è Xmc Foabò, tmc

euabcr dj ldwcr-bosì tcoimcrs lcovèf tmc ilossrdda td cetcr tmc M`fmcr Xcoim-crs Icrt`jìotc (MXI) idursc oeh upfrohc td tcoim è uppcr-bosì simddls wos

opprdxàotcly 8> pcricet dj tmc oeeuol dutput dj ecw tcoimcrs jdr ldwcr bosì

chuiot`de.

@E-YCRZ@IC IDEX@ES@EF ^RDJCYY@DEOL HCZCLDÂCEXOEH YS^^DRX YPYXCAY

@etcreot`deolly, prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet `s èircosèfly scce os o idetèuua

tmrdufmdut tmc iorccr dj o tcoimcr (DCIH 2>>3, S@Y, 2>>:). @e tm`s v`cw, tcoimcrshd edt cacrfc jrda tmc`r è`tòl troèèf w`tm o jull roefc dj sg`lls, but hcvcldp

oeh rcjrcsm tmc`r sg`lls tmrdufmdut tmc`r iorccrs. ^rdv`s`de dj idetèudus prdjcs-

s`deol hcvcldpacet (I^H) dppdrtue`t`cs jdr è-scrvìc tcoimcrs ploys oe àpdr-

toet rdlc è àprdvèf tcoimcr quol`ty by prdv`hèf dppdrtue`t`cs td rcjrcsm

gedwlchfc, td uphotc de ecw iurrìulo, oeh td rcjlcit de prdjcss`deol cxpcr`ceics.

@e ldw-èidac iduetr`cs wmcrc tmc quol`ty dj cetry aoy bc ldwcr tmoe hcs`roblc,

tmc voluc dj suim I^H suppdrts jdr tcoimcrs aoy bc cvce frcotcr.

Oltmdufm adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh sdac jdra dj I^H prdv`s`de,

tmc siolc oeh idvcrofc dj I^H prdv`s`de wos qu`tc là`tch, os auim dj tmc jdiusdj è-scrvìc troèèf wos de prdv`s`de dj è`tòl quol`jìot`des td uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs. @e adst dj tmc iduetr`cs, fdvcreacet prdv`s`de dj I^H wos supplc-

acetch by o s`fe`jìoet vdluac dj smdrt idurscs prdv`hch tmrdufm hdedr prdkcits

oeh EFDs, djtce w`tm là`tch fcdfropmìol idvcrofc. @e L`bcrò, oladst oll dj tmc

I^H wos prdv`hch by EFDs, rcsultèf è vcry uecvce idvcrofc. @e adst iduetr`cs

tmc ueiddrhèotch prdv`s`de dj smdrt idurscs by ault`plc prdv`hcrs acoet tmot

sdac tcoimcrs wcrc cxpdsch td ault`plc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr troèèf, wm`lc dtmcrs

rcic`vch edec. Vmcrc tcoimcrs wcrc po`h o pcr h`ca wmce ottcehèf idurscs,

dppdrtue`t`cs td ottceh idurscs idulh bc voluoblc sdurics dj ohh`t`deol èidac,oeh mceic bcidac o jdra dj potrdeofc h`str`butch by djjìòls td jovdrch tcoimcrs.




Vmcrc smdrt idurscs wcrc mclh hurèf simddl tàc, tmc uecvce h`str`but`de dj

oiicss td idurscs rcsultch è ault`plc obsceics by sdac tcoimcrs.

Fdvcreacet prdv`s`de dj I^H djtce èvdlvch o idabèot`de dj smdrt troèèf

èputs ot ldiol icetcrs, oeh suppdrt v`s`ts td èh`v`huol simddls. @e [oabò,

Aolow`, oeh Sfoeho, tmc suppdrt scrvìc usch o ectwdrg dj ldiol icetcrs oeh

auim dj tmc I^H wos prdv`hch ot tmcsc icetcrs. @e Aolow`, tmc pràory chuio-

t`de ohv`scrs (^CO) sccach td spceh auim dj tmc`r tàc ot tmc tcoimcr hcvcl-

dpacet icetcrs, oeh oltmdufm tmcy moh dely ?2’?3 simddls coim, aoey wcrc

v`s`tch dely deic o ycor. @e Xmc Foabò oeh Lcsdtmd, tmc prdv`s`de dj suppdrt

icetcrch de adrc adb`lc suppdrt stojj (iollch ilustcr ade`tdrs è Xmc Foabò

oeh h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs (HRXs) è Lcsdtmd) oeh adst dj tmc suppdrt,

èiluhèf dbscrvot`de dj lcssdes oeh prdv`s`de dj jcchboig oeh suppdrt td

èh`v`huol tcoimcrs, wos prdv`hch ot tmc simddl lcvcl. Bdtm opprdoimcs movcsdac acr`ts. ^rdv`s`de dj I^H ot ldiol icetcrs olldws frcotcr idvcrofc, oeh

olldws tcoimcrs jrda ldiol simddls td acct oeh smorc cxpcr`ceics. Yuppdrt ot

tmc lcvcl dj èh`v`huol simddls prdv`hcs frcotcr dppdrtue`t`cs td dbscrvc èh`-

v`huol tcoimcrs oeh prdv`hc dec-de-dec suppdrt.

@e adst ioscs tmc prdv`s`de dj suppdrt jdr tcoimcrs wos scporotc jrda tmc

èspcit`de dr ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc wos o ectwdrg

dj h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs w`tm o aoehotc td prdv`hc suppdrt, oeh o scporotc ect-

wdrg dj h`strìt èspcitdrs, wmd wcrc cxpcitch td ade`tdr quol`ty. Sfoeho oeh

[oez`bor moh sà`lor scporotc espcit`de oeh suppdrt systcas. @e twd dj tmc ioscs,tmc èspcit`de oeh suppdrt jueit`des wcrc ètcfrotch. @e Aolow`, tmc èspcitdrotc

moh bcce rceoach tmc Chuiot`de Actmdhs Ohv`sdry Ycrvìc (CAOY) oeh èspci-

tdrs moh bcce rceoach pràory chuiot`de ohv`scrs td rcjlcit tmc`r rdlc è prdv`h-

èf suppdrt. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc èspcitdrotc moh bcce rcploich è 2>>3 w`tm o

systca dj ilustcr ade`tdrs, wmd wcrc cxpcitch td v`s`t simddls jrcqucetly oeh td

`hcet`jy h`jjìult`cs oeh prdv`hc suppdrt ot o ldiol lcvcl. Bdtm orroefcacets scca

td djjcr sdac ohvoetofcs. Idabèèf tmc supcrv`s`de oeh suppdrt jueit`des

smdulh rchuic tmc r`sg dj tcoimcrs rcic`vèf èides`stcet acssofcs oeh rchuic tmc

idst dj trovcl, olldwèf èircosch idvcrofc. De tmc dtmcr moeh, movèf twd scpo-rotc systcas aoy ceoblc tmc suppdrt pcrsdeecl td movc o adrc dpce hòldfuc w`tm

tmc tcoimcrs oeh td ideicetrotc de tmc`r suppdrt`vc jueit`de.

Auim dj tmc I^H prdv`s`de wos icetrolly hcs`fech oeh ploeech e o tdp-hdwe

aoeecr, but tmcrc wcrc sdac cxoaplcs dj hcaoeh-hr`vce prdv`s`de w`tm ecchs

`hcet`j`ch by simddl lcohcrs dr by tcoimcrs. @e tmc typìol “iosiohc‑ adhcl tmc

troèèf ecchs wcrc hctcraèch icetrolly, stoehorh idurscs (oeh sdactàcs troè-

èf aotcròls) wcrc hcs`fech, troècrs wcrc prdv`hch w`tm troèèf, oeh tmce

cxpcitch td hcl`vcr tm`s troèèf è tmc`r h`strìts.

Xmcrc wcrc o jcw ioscs dj hcaoeh-hr`vce prdv`s`de, wmcrc simddl lcohcrs wcrcoblc td hctcraèc tmc troèèf ecchs. @e Cr`trco simddl h`rcitdrs wcrc cxpcitch td




Xoblc :.8 Idetèuèf ^rdjcss`deol Hcvcldpacet (I^H) ^rdv`s`de, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr`trco; Yimddl h`rcitdrs wcrc cxpcitch td orroefc è-simddl suppdrt jdr tcoimcrs. Xm`s wos hcl`vcrch, hcpcehèfde cxpcrt`sc, by simddl h`rcitdrs, cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs è tmc simddl, dr acabcrs dj tmc idaaue`ty dr tmc ôrcet

Xcoimcr Ossdiòt`de (^XO). Xmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de olsd prdv`hch bddstcr idurscs è Cefl`sm hurèf tmc suaacr

voiot`des, hcl`vcrch os jdur adetms dj rcs`hcetòl troèèf sprcoh dvcr twd ycors.

Xmc Foabò; Idabèch supcrv`s`de oeh pchofdfìol suppdrt prdv`hch tmrdufm adb`lc ilustcr ade`tdrs. Ilustcr

ade`tdrs typìolly v`s`tch simddls twìc o adetm, oeh wcrc cxpcitch td dbscrvc ilosscs oeh prdv`hc èh`v`huol

jcchboig td tcoimcrs.

Lcsdtmd; @espcit`de oeh suppdrt jueit`des wcrc scporotc. Yuppdrt wos prdv`hch by h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs

oss`fech td o ilustcr dj simddls. Xmcsc HRXs wcrc o lcfoiy jrda oe cxtcreolly juehch prdkcit suppdrtèf pddrly

quol`j`ch ault`frohc tcoimcrs è rurol simddls. Oltmdufm tmcy wcrc aè`stry stojj, tmc prdkcit moh cehch, oeh idv-

crofc wos èidaplctc. Zcry jcw simddls rcic`vch adrc tmoe twd v`s`ts pcr ycor.

L`bcrò; O ectwdrg dj iurrìulua aotcròl icetcrs moh bcce hcstrdych è tmc wor. Adst I^H wos prdv`hch byEFDs. Idvcrofc wos uecvce, w`tm sdac orcos rcic`vèf tdd auim troèèf, rcsultèf è ldss dj tcoimèf tàc,

wm`lc dtmcrs rcic`vch oladst edec.

Aolow`; Idabèch èspcit`de oeh suppdrt jueit`des prdv`hch by o ectwdrg dj pràory chuiot`de ohv`scrs. Xmcsc

^COs wcrc f`vce o saoll tcoimcr hcvcldpacet icetcr (XHI) oeh o adtdrb`gc, oeh rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr

?2’?3 simddls. Aoey simddls rcic`vch v`s`ts dely deic o ycor.

Sfoeho; @espcit`de oeh suppdrt jueit`des wcrc scporotc. O ectwdrg dj iddrhèotèf icetcr tutdrs (IIXs)

prdv`hch suppdrt tmrdufm iddrhèotèf icetcrs scrvèf o ilustcr dj simddls. Mdwcvcr, tmc IIXs aoèly

ideicetrotch de troèèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

[oabò; O ault`lcvcl systca. Ot tmc ldwcst lcvcl, vdluetccr zdeol @EYCX iddrhèotdrs ([@Is) scrvch saoll ilustcrs

dj simddls (scc bdx :.?).

[oez`bor; @espcit`de oeh suppdrt jueit`des wcrc scporotc. O ectwdrg dj tce tcoimcr rcsduric icetcrs coim moh o

jull-tàc iddrhèotdr wmd wos fu`hch by o aoeofcacet idaa`ttcc aohc up dj tmc mcoh tcoimcrs è tmc zdec.

hctcraèc tmc troèèf ecchs dj tmc`r tcoimcrs, oeh td c`tmcr prdv`hc tmc rcqu`rch

troèèf dr scc td `t tmot `t wos prdv`hch. @e [oez`bor tmc aoeofcacet dj coim

troèèf icetcr wos capdwcrch td `hcet`jy troèèf ecchs ldiolly, oeh drfoe`zc

cvcets td acct tmdsc ecchs, djtce hrowèf de cxpcrt`sc w`tmè tmc orco jrda sci-

dehory tcoimcrs.

@e o jcw ioscs, tcoimcrs wcrc oblc td movc o strdef vdìc è tmc `hcet`jìot`de dj

tmc`r I^H ecchs. @e Aolow`, uehcr oe cxtcreolly juehch prdkcit, frdups dj sci-

dehory simddls wcrc idabèch ètd ilustcrs oeh f`vce o buhfct (dj obdut

S.Y.$?>>) pcr tcra td joi`l`totc acctèfs bctwcce simddls td ides`hcr aottcrs suim

os M@Z, fcehcr, aoeofcacet, oeh iurrìulua `ssucs. Xmc lcvcl dj oit`v`ty dj ilus-

tcrs vor`ch, but sdac wdrgch vcry wcll, oeh cvce hcvcldpch oeh aorgch è-mdusc

cxoaèot`des tdfctmcr.

[oabò moh o portìulorly sdpm`stìotch tmrcc-t`cr m`crorimy dj suppdrt strui-turcs, w`tm simddl lcvcl è-scrvìc chuiot`de oeh troèèf (@EYCX) idaa`ttccs,

zdeol icetcrs w`tm vdluetccr stojj, oeh h`strìt icetcrs w`tm jull-tàc stojj oeh adrc

joi`l`t`cs. @t olsd moh o ue`quc irch`t systca td adt`votc tcoimcrs td portì`potc è

è-scrvìc oit`v`t`cs, oltmdufm irch`ts wcrc dj là`tch voluc.

O suaaory dj proitìcs dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs è prdv`s`de dj I^H `s

prcscetch è toblc :.8.




BD] :.? [OAB@O‐Y M@CRORIMP DJ I^H YS^^DRX YXRSIXSRCY

Yuppdrt wos prdv`hch ot tmrcc lcvcls, tmc simddl, zdeol icetcrs, oehh`strìt icetcrs. Coim simddl moh o simddl @EYCX iddrhèotdr (Y@I) wmd

wdrgch w`tm tmc mcoh tcoimcr td `hcet`jy troèèf ecchs w`tmè tmc

simddl. Xcoimcrs wcrc jdrach ètd tcoimcrs‐ frdups dj up td tce aca-

bcrs. Xmcsc frdups act b`-wccgly jdr dec mdur td h`siuss `ssucs dj

rclcvoeic td tmc`r prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet. Bosch de tmcsc acctèfs,

simddls idulh orroefc è-mdusc troèèf dr rcqucst oss`stoeic jrda tmc

zdeol dr h`strìt lcvcl.

V`tmè coim zdec (ilustcr dj simddls) tmcrc wos o zdeol rcsduric

icetcr, usuolly o ilossrdda è o simddl, oeh o zdec @EYCX iddrhèotdr

([@I), usuolly o tcoimcr wmd tddg tmc pdst os o vdluetory port-tàc

oit`v`ty. Xmcsc ldiol icetcrs mdusch sdac rcsduric aotcròls, oeh scrvch

os o icetcr jdr troèèf oit`v`t`cs oeh acctèfs. Jdr cxoaplc, Egwosm`

[dec è Gobwc h`strìt moh j`vc fdvcreacet simddls oeh j`vc idaaue`ty

simddls, tmc jurtmcst bcèf ?= g`ldactcrs owoy. @e dec tcra è 2>>6, tmc

zdec ade`tdrch aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimèf, oeh iddrhèotch oe

M@Z/O@HY qu`z jdr stuhcets, o si`ceic jo`r, oeh o wdrgsmdp jdr sce`dr

tcoimcrs de aoeofcacet sg`lls.

Ot tmc h`strìt lcvcl, tmcrc wcrc h`strìt rcsduric icetcrs (HRI), djtce

cqu`ppch w`tm l`bror`cs, pmdtdidpyèf joi`l`t`cs, idaputcrs, prètcrs.

oeh sdactàcs @etcrect oiicss. Coim HRI moh o jull-tàc h`strìt @EYCX

iddrhèotdr (H@I). Xcoimcrs act èjdraolly è stuhy frdups jdr h`stoeic

lcoreèf idurscs oeh moh adrc jdraol troèèf scss`des lch by idllcfc

lciturcrs. Xmc HRI wos olsd o ldiol mub jdr èjdraot`de jrda tmc Aè`stry

dj Chuiot`de obdut tmc lotcst è`tòt`vcs oeh h`rcit`vcs, oeh mdusch idp`cs

dj aotcròls tmot smdulh bc ovo`loblc td simddls.

Adt`vot`de td portì`potc è è-scrvìc oit`v`t`cs wos prdv`hch by o irch`t systca. Xcoimcrs wcrc oworhch dec irch`t jdr cvcry è-scrvìc oit`v`ty tmcy

ottcehch, wmctmcr `t wos o tcoimcrs‐ frdup acctèf w`tmè tmc simddl dr o

troèèf idursc ot dec dj tmc rcsduric icetcrs. @e ohh`t`de td tmc`r sya-

bdlì voluc, tmc irch`ts oiiuaulotch idulh bc ides`hcrch wmce sclcitèf

tcoimcrs jdr prdadt`de dr stuhy lcovc. Xcoimcrs wcrc rcqu`rch td movc

3> irch`ts bcjdrc tmcy idulh cerdll è Xmc ^ràory Xcoimcr H`pldao by

H`stoeic Lcoreèf (^XHHL). Mdwcvcr, irch`ts wcrc edt ides`hcrch jdr oll

idurscs oeh moh là`tch voluc.



XMC @AÔIX DJ I^H

Xmc fdvcreacets e tmc c`fmt iduetr cs è tmc stuhy moh vcry l`ttlc rcscorim td cvol-

uotc tmc àpoit dj tm`s I^H wdrg de tcoimcr bcmov`dr. Xm`s `s pcrmops edt sur-pr`sèf, f`vce tmc actmdhdldfìol h`jjìulty dj suim rcscorim oeh tmc roefc dj ida-

pctèf pr`dr`t`cs è Ojrìoe iduetr`cs. Dec dj tmc jcw ioscs wmcrc oe ottcapt wos

aohc td osscss tmc àpoit dj I^H wos Lcsdtmd, wmcrc oe cvoluot`de smdwch oe

èircosc è lcoreèf pcrjdraoeic è tmc simddls v`s`tch by HRXs (bdx :.2).

?>> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

BD] :.2 LCYDXMD; H@YXR@IX RCYDSRIC XCOIMCRY

@e Lcsdtmd, h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs (HRXs) wcrc cstobl`smch è tmc ?0=>s

w`tm suppdrt jrda SYO@H. Xcoas dj h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs wcrc td

rcfulorly v`s`t tcoimcrs è rcadtc simddls td brèf èstruit`deol aotcròls

oeh hcvcldp jurtmcr rcsdurics, mclp tcoimcrs àprdvc tmc`r ilossrdda oeh

èstruit`deol sg`lls, oeh prdv`hc suppdrt`vc idetoit oeh troèèf.

Xmc j`rst cjjdrts td prcporc o frdup dj HRXs wmd wdulh v`s`t tcoimcrs è

tmc rcadtc simddls wcrc qu`tc roehda. Cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs prdpdsch by

tmc h`strìt chuiot`de djjìcrs wcrc oppdètch. Xmc scideh frdup dj HRXs

wcrc rciru`tch è o adrc systcaot i woy. Xmcy ecchch td bc quol`j`ch, cxpcr`-

ceich tcoimcrs, td movc moh mcoh tcoimcr dr hcputy mcoh tcoimcr cxpcr`ceic,

bc w`llèf td trovcl jrcqucetly, oeh td r`hc mdrscboig wmcrc ecicssory. Cjjdrts

wcrc aohc td try td movc o fcehcr boloeic os wcll os h`str`but de by h`strìt

oeh rcl`f`de. ^dtcetòl portì`poets ecchch td wr`tc obdut wmy tmcy woetch

td bc o HRX7 ètcrv`cws wcrc idehuitch oeh wcrc jdlldwch by troèèf.

Oit`v`t`cs uehcrtogce by tmc HRXs w`tm ilossrdda tcoimcrs èiluhch

èh`v`huol idesultot`des, frdup wdrgsmdps jdr ilustcrs, oeh h`sscaèot`de

dj ecw iurrìulo prdhuich by tmc Eot`deol Iurrìulua Hcvcldpacet

Icetcr. HRXs sot hdwe w`tm tcoimcrs, h`siussch tmc`r pcric`vch h`jjìult`cs,djjcrch suffcst`des td mclp tmca, fovc hcadestrot`de lcssdes, tcoa toufmt,

oeh hcvcldpch lcoreèf oeh dtmcr aotcròls. Xypìol h`jjìult`cs ceidue-

tcrch by tmc tcoimcrs èiluhch ilossrdda drfoe`zot`de oeh aoeofcacet

jdr ault`frohc simddls, frdup wdrg, lcoreèf icetcrs, pccr lcoreèf, oeh

adb`l`zèf idaaue`ty acabcrs td mclp w`tm im`lhrce‐s lcoreèf oit`v`t`cs.

HRXs usuolly v`s`tch jdur tàcs o ycor jdr twd td tmrcc hoys ot o tàc. Ohh`-

t`deol wdrgsmdps wcrc drfoe`zch o jcw tàcs o ycor jdr oll tmc tcoimcrs è

tmc simddls uehcr tmc HRX‐s iorc (typìolly bctwcce ?> oeh ?3 simddls).

Xmcsc wdrgsmdps wcrc usuolly mclh de wccgcehs.



@e-scrvìc Xroèèf jdr Sequol`j`ch oeh Spfrohèf Xcoimcrs • ?>?

@t sccas l`gcly tmot tmc quol`ty dj I^H hcpcehs mcov`ly de tmc sg`lls dj tmc I^H

stojj, portìulorly è ioscs wmcrc suppdrt wdrgcrs v`s`t simddls td oss`st tcoimcrs. @e

tmcsc ioscs, tmc I^H pcrsdeecl orc edt è o pds`t`de td hcl`vcr o prcpoigofch idursc,

but aust rcly de tmc`r dwe cxpcrt`sc td prdv`hc rclcvoet suppdrt. @e adst ioscs tmc

pcdplc osgch td f`vc suppdrt wcrc cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs (è Lcsdtmd oeh Aolow`) dr

cvce mcoh tcoimcrs (è Xmc Foabò). Mdwcvcr, tmcy wcrc djtce f`vce rclot`vcly l`ttlc

troèèf e tmc`r rdlc, typìolly smdrt idurscs dj dec dr twd wccgs‐ hurot`de. Xm`s ida-

bèot`de dj cxpcr`ceic oeh br`cj troèèf aoy prdv`hc ohcquotc prcporot`de td

upfrohc tmc sg`lls dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, but t aoy edt bc ohcquotc prcporot`de td

prdv`hc suppdrt jdr cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs wmd orc movèf h`jjìult`cs.Dec dj tmc r`sgs w`tm suppdrt scrvìcs `s tmot tmcy ioe bcidac tmc acimoe`sa

jdr hcl`vcrèf dtmcr gèhs dj troèèf, tmus h`stroitèf jrda tmc rdlc dj pchofdf`-

iol suppdrt. @e Xmc Foabò tmc ilustcr ade`tdrs wcrc cxpcitch td prdv`hc bdtm

ade`tdrèf oeh suppdrt jueit`des, but wcrc olsd hrowe ètd ohaè`strot`vc tosgs,

èiluhèf imcigèf de tcxtbddg hcl`vcry, vcr`jyèf stot`stìol rctures, oeh rcidrh-

èf tmc quol`ty dj bu`lhèfs oeh lotrècs. @e Aolow`, tmc pràory chuiot`de ohv`s-

crs (^COs) oeh tmc`r tcoimcr hcvcldpacet icetcrs wcrc olsd usch jdr troèèf by

EFDs oeh by edechuiot`de aè`str`cs. Xmcsc troèèf oit`v`t`cs, djtce ossdiòtch

w`tm dppdrtue`t`cs td core ohh`t`deol èidac jdr tmc icetcr, tcehch td h`stroit tmc^COs jrda v`s`tèf simddls, oeh oltmdufm coim ^CO moh dely ?2’?3 simddls td

suppdrt, aoey simddls rcic`vch dely dec v`s`t o ycor.


@E-YCRZ@IC XRO@E@EF DJ SE_SOL@J@CH XCOIMCRY

@e tmc idetcxt dj tcoimcr smdrtofcs, systcas td prdv`hc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs

w`tm oe dppdrtue`ty td troè wm`lc è-scrvìc orc ottroit`vc pdlìy dpt`des. Jdr tmc tcoimcrs, tmcy djjcr o potm td o prdjcss`deol iorccr. Jdr tmc systca, tmcy djjcr o

BD] :.2 (idetèuch)

Obdut 6>> dj tmc ?,2>> simddls wcrc idvcrch by HRX v`s`ts by tmc ycor

?00:, oiiduetèf jdr 2,>>> dj tmc iduetry‐s :,>>> tcoimcrs. Cxoaèot`de

rcsults dj stuhcets è tmc iosc simddls jrda simddl ycor ?0==’?0=0

àprdvch by ?6 pcricet, idaporch w`tm : pcricet è dtmcr simddls

tmrdufmdut tmc iduetry.

Yduric; “Lcsdtmd; Xcoimcr Yuppdrt Ectwdrgs‘H`strìt Rcsduric Xcoimcrs‐

^rdfroa,‑ è Vdrlh Boeg 2>>>.



?>2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

acimoe`sa td rctoè oeh up-sg`ll tmc cx`stèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @j sustoèch

dvcr o sujjì`cet pcr`dh, tmcsc movc tmc pdtcetòl td brèf adst dj tmc uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs td o prdjcss`deol quol`jìot`de.

Yystcas dj è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf aoy mclp td ohhrcss hcpldyacet h`jj`-

iult`cs. Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc adst djtce jdueh è tmc ploics wmcrc tmcrc `s

adst h`jjìulty è hcpldyèf tcoimcrs, oeh è-scrvìc troèèf `s l`gcly td rctoè

tmca è tmc`r iurrcet pds`t`des ot lcost jdr tmc hurot`de dj tmc troèèf. Xmcrc orc

olsd pdtcetòl ldefcr-tcra bcecjìòl àpoits. Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc djtce

rciru`tch jrda tmc ldiol orco, oeh orc djtce (tmdufm edt olwoys) pcdplc w`tm

èsujjì`cet quol`jìot`des td cetcr tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs. By prdv`hèf o potm-

woy td o quol`jìot`de, è-scrvìc troèèf ioe mclp td bu`lh iopoi`ty è tmc chu-

iot`deolly h`sohvoetofch idaaue`t`cs, prdv`hèf o ldefcr-tcra rcspdesc td tmc

hcpldyacet prdblca. Xmcrc orc ideicres tmot ldwcr cetry stoehorhs oeh o smdrtcr pcr`dh dj ioapus-

bosch troèèf w`ll movc o hctràcetol àpoit de stoehorhs, but è tmc iosc stuh-

`cs tmcrc wos l`ttlc rclòblc cv`hceic td c`tmcr suppdrt dr rcjutc tm`s osscrt`de. Vm`lc

tmcrc `s os yct l`ttlc dbkcit`vc cv`hceic, tmc jcw cxoaplcs wmcrc sà`lor tcsts wcrc

usch suffcst tmot è proitìc tmcrc `s l`ttlc h`jjcrceic è pcrjdraoeic. @e-scrvìc

tcoimcr troèèf aoy è sdac ioscs bc o adrc cjjcit`vc actmdh, os `t `s cos`cr td

lèg tmc troèèf w`tm tmc rcol`t`cs dj tmc ilossrdda. Vmcrc tmc è-scrvìc troèèf

`s hcl`vcrch by tmc soac tcoimcr-troècrs os tmc prc-scrvìc troèèf, tmcrc aoy cvce

bc bcecjìòl cjjcits jdr tmc troècrs tmrdufm èircosch idetoit w`tm proit`t`decrs.Mdwcvcr, tmcrc `s st`ll sdac r`sg dj ldwcr quol`ty, oeh tm`s aoy bc cspciòlly truc

è tmc iosc dj portìulor subkcits, suim os aotmcaotìs dr ètcreot`deol loefuofcs.

Cesurèf tmot è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf èiluhcs substoetòl bldigs dj rcs`hcetòl

tàc w`tm oiicss td cxpcrt tutdrs aoy bc apdrtoet e cesurèf tmot tmcrc s ed ldss

dj quol`ty è gcy subkcits.

Xmcrc aoy bc o ecch jdr ohh`t`deol acosurcs jdr tcoimcrs wmdsc quol`jìo-

t`des orc tdd ldw td oiicss è-scrvìc troèèf idurscs. Hcsp`tc tmc ldwcr cetry

rcqu`rcacets jdr è-scrvìc idurscs, sdac iduetr`cs moh uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs

wmdsc quol`jìot`des wcrc sd ldw tmot tmcy wcrc ècl`f`blc jdr è-scrvìc troèèf.@e tmc obsceic dj o strotcfy td c`tmcr suppdrt dr rcploic tmcsc tcoimcrs, tmcy djtce

rcaoèch è tmc systca oeh idetèuch td tcoim ilosscs.

XCOIMCR S^FROH@EF ^RDFROAY

Dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs td upfrohc tmc`r quol`jìot`des wm`lc portì`potèf è

è-scrvìc prdfroas wcrc prdv`hch è adst iduetr`cs, oeh movc pdtcetòl bcecj`ts

jdr tcoimcrs oeh jdr tmc systca. Spfrohèf idurscs prdv`hc tcoimcrs w`tm dppdr-

tue`t`cs jdr iorccr ohvoeicacet oeh prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet, oeh djjcr o acoestd bu`lh tmc iopoi`ty dj tmc tcoimèf jdric. Mdwcvcr, upfrohèf idurscs ioe olsd



@e-scrvìc Xroèèf jdr Sequol`j`ch oeh Spfrohèf Xcoimcrs • ?>9

prdv`hc ohvcrsc èicet`vcs, ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td ecflcit tmc`r hut`cs td pursuc

tmc`r stuh`cs.

Xmc àplìot`des dj tcoimcr upfrohèf ecch td bc ides`hcrch è ploeeèf jdr

tcoimcr supply oeh jèoeic. Spfrohch quol`jìot`des edraolly rcsultch e oe outd-

aotì èircosc è solory oeh è sdac ioscs èvdlvch a`frot`de td o h`jjcrcet typc

dj simddl (jrda pràory td scidehory, jdr cxoaplc). @e Lcsdtmd, tmc lorfc-siolc

upfrohèf dj tcoimcrs jrda icrt`jìotc td h`pldao quol`jìot`des moh s`fe`jìoet

j`siol àplìot`des, os tmc stortèf solory jdr o tcoimcr w tm o h`pldao wos =9 pcricet

m`fmcr tmoe tmot dj o tcoimcr w`tm o icrt`jìotc. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc cxpoes`de dj

tmc MXI, wmìm olldwch tcoimcrs td advc jrda ldwcr bosì td uppcr bosì simddls,

rcsultch è o ldss dj tcoimcrs jrda ldwcr bosì simddls cqu`volcet td 8> pcricet dj

tmc oeeuol dutput dj ecwly troèch ldwcr bosì tcoimcrs.

Spfrohèf idurscs wcrc edt olwoys uehcr tmc idetrdl dj tmc fdvcreacet. @e[oabò, tmc pr`votc prdv`s`de dj upfrohèf idurscs jdr tcoimcrs de o lorfc siolc ro`sch

tmc pdss`b`l`ty dj lorfc ueoetì`potch eircoscs e tmc tcoimcr wofc b`ll. Fdvcreacets

w`ll ecch td ade`tdr tmc prdv`s`de dj tmcsc idurscs td ovd`h tcoimcr smdrtofcs dr

uecxpcitch jèoeiòl àplìot`des.

@E-YCRZ@IC IDEX@ES@EF ^RDJCYY@DEOL HCZCLDÂCEX

^rdv`s`de dj defdèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs s l`gcly

td àprdvc quol`ty oeh adt`vot`de, but wos pddrly hcvcldpch è tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs. Vm`lc adst iduetr`cs moh sdac prdv`s`de, t wos djtce wcog e tcras dj

fcdfropmìol idvcrofc, ides`stceiy, oeh ètcfrot`de w`tm oiirch`tot`de systcas. O

frcot hcol dj tmc prdv`s`de wos by ede-stotc prdv`hcrs, dr lègch w`tm hdedr-

jèoeich prdkcits dj là`tch hurot`de. Hcsp`tc tmc ètcreot`deol rcidfe`t`de dj tmc

àpdrtoeic dj defdèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet dppdrtue`t`cs (Z`llcfos-Rcàcrs

2>>97 F`drhoed 2>>=), adst tcoimcrs, deic quol`j`ch, moh l`ttlc oiicss td jurtmcr

oss`stoeic w`tm actmdhdldfìol dr idetcet h`jjìult`cs.

Xmc prdv`s`de dj idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet dppdrtue`t`cs ioe bc

h`v`hch etd tmrcc aoè iotcfdr`cs; (`) smdrt troèèf idurscs, (``) suppdrt systcas, oeh(```) pccr ectwdrgs. Xmc prdv`s`de dj smdrt troèèf idurscs wos aoèly tmrdufm

iosiohc troèèf, w`tm idurscs hcvcldpch icetrolly oeh hcl`vcrch ldiolly tmrdufm o

ectwdrg dj troècrs. Xmc suppdrt scrvìcs aoèly ides`stch dj èh`v`huol suppdrt

wdrgcrs bosch ot ldiol icetcrs oeh v`s`tèf simddls td dbscrvc oeh suppdrt èh`-

v`huol tcoimcrs oeh prdv`hc simddl-lcvcl troèèf. ^ccr ectwdrgs wcrc è cv`hceic

è dely o aèdr`ty dj ioscs, but prdv`hch dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs td acct oeh

hctcraèc tmc`r dwe troèèf ecchs.





Ojtcr Xmcy Orc _uol`j`ch;Xcoimcrs Os ^rdjcss`deols

ÔRX @@@





Yupcrv`s`de dj Xcoimcrs

L

`gc oey dtmcr prdjcss`deols, tcoimcrs edraolly wdrg w`tmè systcas wmcrc

tmcy orc supcrv`sch, ade`tdrch, oeh fu`hch è tmc`r wdrg. Vcll-jueit`deèf

supcrv`s`de oeh suppdrt systcas ploy o p`vdtol rdlc è àprdvèf tmc quol`ty oeh cjjì`ceiy dj chuiot`de systcas. @e adst ioscs tmc supcrv`s`de struiturcs

èiluhc o simddl mcoh tcoimcr dr cqu`volcet bosch ot tmc simddl, sdac jdra dj

cxtcreol espcit`de dr ade`tdrèf dj simddls, oeh ohh`t`deol dvcrs fmt jrda tcoim-

crs ue`des oeh ldiol idaaue`t`cs.

Xm`s imoptcr cxoaècs tmc rdlcs ploych by coim dj tmcsc e dvcrsccèf oeh fu`h-

èf tmc wdrg dj tcoimcrs. Mcoh tcoimcrs,? oltmdufm wcll ploich td movc o strdef

èjluceic de tcoimcrs, djtce h`h edt f`vc tm`s rdlc auim pr`dr`ty, oeh djtce moh

là`tch aoeofcacet troèèf. Cxtcreol èspcit`de wos è adst ioscs tdd èjrc-

qucet td èjluceic bcmov`dr ot tmc simddl lcvcl, oeh tdd pddrly hdiuacetch oeh

oeolyzch td scrvc os oe cjjcit`vc jcchboig acimoe`sa jdr pdlìy aogcrs. Xcoimcrs

ue`des, oltmdufm ossdiòtch aoèly w`tm tmc`r rdlcs è idllcit`vc borfoèèf, wcrc

è aoey ioscs olsd prdv`hèf fu`hoeic oeh suppdrt scrvìcs jdr tcoimcrs. Ldiol

idaaue`t`cs wcrc è aoey ioscs edaèolly èvdlvch è simddls, but hcsp`tc tmc`r

dbv`dus ètcrcst, tmcrc wcrc dely diios`deol èhìot`des dj cv`hceic dj tmc`r

àpoit de tcoimcrs. Xogce tdfctmcr, tmc iosc stuh`cs suffcst tmot è adst iduetr`cs

tmc ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcrs wos edt sujjì`cetly rdbust td cesurc quol`ty dj scrvìc

hcl`vcry.

Ecvcrtmclcss, tmcrc wcrc sdac prda`sèf pdss`b`l`t`cs. Mcoh tcoimcrs‐ idetr`-

but`des idulh bc cemoeich tmrdufm è-scrvìc troèèf, oeh aoeofcacet dj tmc`r

pcrjdraoeic. Cxtcreol supcrv`s`de wos joi`l`totch è o jcw iduetr`cs, edtobly Xmc

Foabò, tmrdufm prdv`s`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs ot o ldiol lcvcl. Xcoimcrs ue`des,

wmce cefofch acoeèfjully è scitdr hòldfuc, sccach w`llèf td ploy o ide-

struit`vc oeh suppdrt`vc rdlc è àprdvèf tcoimcr pcrjdraoeic. Ldiol idaaue`-

t`cs sccach td djjcr o strdef sduric dj bdtm suppdrt jdr simddls, oeh ade`tdrèf

dj pcrjdraoeic dj simddls, oltmdufm lorfcly uehcrusch ot prcscet.

?>6

IMO^XCR 6



YIMDDL MCOH XCOIMCRY

Os tmc adst sce`dr aoeofcrs wmd orc prcscet e o simddl de o ho`ly bos`s, mcoh tcoim-

crs ploy o v`tol rdlc è tmc jueit`deèf dj simddls. Vmcrc tmcy orc cjjcit`vc, tmcy ioeèjluceic tcoimcr ottcehoeic oeh pcrjdraoeic, stuhcet bcmov`dr, oeh rclot`desm`ps

w`tm porcets. O fddh mcoh tcoimcr ioe aogc o s`fe`jìoet pds t`vc cjjcit tmrdufmdut

tmc simddl. F`vce tmc`r àpdrtoeic, `t `s ir`tìol tmot cjjcit`vc systcas jdr tmc sclci-

t`de, prcporot`de, oeh supcrv`s`de dj mcoh tcoimcrs bc è ploic (Imopaoe 2>>3).

Xdd djtce, mdwcvcr, mcoh tcoimcrs “lddg up rotmcr tmoe hdwe.‑ Xmot `s, tmcy

tceh td jdius tmc`r cjjdrts de hcolèf w`tm tmc h`strìt oeh icetrol ohaè`strot`de,

rotmcr tmoe de aoeofèf tmc simddl jdr wmìm tmcy orc rcspdes`blc. Xmcsc ètcr-

oit`des w`tm h`strìt oeh icetrol ohaè`strot`des djtce èvdlvc obsceic jrda tmc

simddl, sdactàcs jdr hoys ot o tàc. @e Sfoeho, prdv`s`deol jèhèfs jrda orcicet stuhy de tcoimcr obscetcc`sa èhìotc tmot obsceic rotcs jdr mcoh tcoimcrs

orc 3> pcricet m`fmcr tmoe tmdsc dj dtmcr tcoimcrs, oeh ecorly molj dj tmc obsceics

èvcst`fotch wcrc jdr djjìòlly soeit`dech rcosdes (Mobyoràoeo 2>>6).

Cvce wmce è tmc simddl, mdwcvcr, prèi`pols tceh edt td scc pchofdfìol lcoh-

crsm`p os port dj tmc`r rdlc. @e Lcsdtmd, dec scidehory prèi`pol cxploèch tmot aoe-

ofèf tmc tcoimcrs wos tmc rcspdes`b`l`ty dj tmc hcputy, oltmdufm tmc hcputy wos

cxpcitch td tcoim 2> pcr`dhs o wccg (twd-tm`rhs dj o edraol wdrgldoh). @e Aolow`,

tm`s w`tmhrowol dj mcoh tcoimcrs jrda tmc ho`ly aoeofcacet dj tcoimcrs s adrc jdr-

aol. Mcoh tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td togc rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr tmc dvcroll aoeofcacet

dj tmc simddl, èiluhèf idaaueìot`de w`tm tmc idaaue`ty, aè`stry, oeh dtmcr

stogcmdlhcrs. Hcputy mcohs orc scce os iurrìulua aoeofcrs, oeh orc cxpcitch td

togc rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr aoeofèf tmc tàctoblc oeh ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottcehoeic.

Xmc tcehceiy jdr mcoh tcoimcrs td pr`dr`t`zc tmc`r wdrg w`tm h`strìt oeh ice-

trol ohaè`strot`des dvcr tmc wdrg dj aoeofèf tmc`r simddls `s ceidurofch by

wcog ohaè`strot`vc systcas. Mcoh tcoimcrs djtce ecch td spceh o frcot hcol dj

tàc ot ohaè`strot`vc icetcrs td orroefc jdr rdutèc troesoit`des suim os tmc

troesjcr dj ecw tcoimcrs dr cesurèf tmot cx`stèf tcoimcrs orc de tmc poyrdll.

Vmcrc troespdrtot`de `s h`jjìult, os è rurol [oabò, mcoh tcoimcrs orc djtce

cxpcitch td trovcl td h`strìt djjìcs td idllcit tcoimcrs‐ poy. Xrovcl td h`strìt djjìcs

aoy olsd bc adrc ottroit`vc tmoe rcaoèèf è tmc simddl, djjcrèf mcoh tcoimcrs

è rcadtc simddls tmc dppdrtue`ty td buy idaadh`t`cs, cefofc è dtmcr troesoi-

t`des, oeh aoètoè o v`s`b`l`ty ot tmc h`strìt djjìc tmot aoy oss`st è tmc ecxt prd-

adt`de. Boloeich ofoèst tmcsc cetìcacets, tmcrc orc jcw èicet`vcs td rcaoè è

tmc simddl oeh togc iorc dj ho`ly aoeofcacet rcspdes`b`l`t`cs.

Xmc tcoimèf ldoh cxpcitch dj o mcoh tcoimcr vor`cs frcotly (toblc 6.?). @e

[oabò, tmc pdst dj mcoh tcoimcr `s o edetcoimèf pdst è oll but tmc saollcst

simddls. @e Lcsdtmd, mcoh tcoimcrs orc usuolly cxpcitch td tcoim o iloss. @e dtmcr

ioscs, tmc tcoimèf ldoh `s iol`brotch w`tm tmc s`zc dj tmc simddl. @e Cr`trco, tmc

?>= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



Xoblc 6.? Xcoimèf Ldoh dj Mcoh Xcoimcrs

Cr`trco @e clcacetory simddls, tmc h rcitdr tcoimcs rchuich mdurs (?3 pcr`dhs) j tmc

simddl mos adrc tmoe ?3 scit`des (ilosscs), oeh `s cxiusch jrda tcoimèf `j tmc

simddl mos adrc tmoe 2> scit`des. @e scidehory simddls, h`rcitdrs orc edt rcqu`rchtd tcoim.

Xmc Foab o @e tmc saoll simddls (iloss O), mcoh aostcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim dec iloss. @e tmc

iloss B simddls, tmc mcoh aostcr `s edt rcqu`rch td tcoim, oeh è tmc lorfcst

simddls (iloss I) bdtm tmc mcoh oeh hcputy mcoh orc rclcosch jrda tcoimèf.

Lcsdtmd @e pràory simddls, mcoh tcoimcrs tcoim dec iloss. @e scidehory simddls, mcohs dj

hcportacet orc cxpcitch td wdrg 23 pcr`dhs, hcputy prèi`pols 2>, oeh prèi`pols

?> (edraolly scidehory tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim 9> pcr`dhs pcr wccg).

Aolow` @e scidehory simddls, mcoh tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim bctwcce tmrcc oeh s`x

pcr`dhs pcr wccg. Hcputy mcohs orc cxpcitch td tcoim eèc pcr`dhs pcr wccg, oeh

mcohs dj hcportacet tcoim jull-tàc.

[oabò @e oll but tmc saollcst simddls tm`s s o edetcoimèf ohaè`strot`vc oeh

aoeofcròl rdlc.

[oez`bor Mcoh tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim up td ?2 pcr`dhs pcr wccg.

h`rcitdr dj oe clcacetory simddl `s cxpcitch td tcoim o rchuich ldoh (?3 pcr`dhs

pcr wccg) `j tmc simddl mos adrc tmoe ?3 ilosscs, oeh `s cxiusch jrda tcoimèf

idaplctcly `j tmc simddl mos adrc tmoe 2> scit`des.

Xmc pds`t`des dj mcoh tcoimcr orc sdactàcs ohvcrt`sch è dpce idapct`t`de.

@e Xmc Foabò, pdsts orc ohvcrt`sch eot`deolly, oeh tmc mcoh tcoimcrs oppdètch

ioe bc pdstch td oey simddl. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc pdst dj mcoh tcoimcr `s ohvcrt`sch by

tmc simddl aoeofcacet bdhy, jdr o spci`jì simddl. @e aoey dtmcr iduetr`cs tmc

pdsts orc j`llch w`tmdut dpce idapct`t`de. @e Cr`trco, [oabò, oeh L`bcrò, simddl

mcohs orc oppdètch, lorfcly ot tmc h`sirct`de dj ldiol dr rcf`deol chuiot`de djj`-

iòls. Xmcsc lcss-dpce prdichurcs aoy prdv`hc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr jovdr`t`sa è

sclcit`de, dr cvce idrrupt proitìcs. Cvce `j ldiol djjìòls imddsc wcll, tmc loig dj

troesporceiy oeh idapct`t`de aoy bc hcadrol`zèf jdr tcoimcrs wmd orc edt

sclcitch. Ydac cxoaplcs dj tmc prdichurcs jdr sclcitèf mcoh tcoimcrs è tmc iosc-

stuhy iduetr`cs orc prdv`hch è toblc 6.2.

XRO@E@EF DJ MCOH XCOIMCRY

Xroèèf dj mcoh tcoimcrs s edt rdutèc (scc jdr cxoaplc Bceecll oeh Ogycoapdef

2>>6), oeh e tmc iduetr`cs eiluhch e tmc stuhy aoey mcoh tcoimcrs (prdbobly tmc

aokdr`ty) moh edt bcce troèch jdr tmc`r rdlc. Vmcrc troèèf `s prdv`hch, `t adst

jrcqucetly togcs dec dj twd jdras. Ydac troèèf `s prdv`hch è tmc jdra dj smdrt

idurscs, typìolly dj o jcw wccgs‐ hurot`de, jdr mcoh tcoimcrs wmd orc è-pdst. Xmcsc

orc djtce jèoeich tmrdufm hdedr prdkcits, oeh movc djtce bcce prdv`hch jdr o

là`tch pcr`dh lègch w`tm cxtcreol juehèf. @e Lcsdtmd oeh Aolow`, mcoh tcoimcrs

Yupcrv s`de dj Xcoimcrs • ?>0



Xoblc 6.2 Yclcit`de dj Mcoh Xcoimcrs, Ydac Cxoaplcs

Cr trco Vmce o voioeiy or scs, o simddl h rcitdr s sclcitch by tmc zdbo (h`str it) aoeofcacet.

Yclcit`de `s, è tmcdry, bosch de tmc pcrjdraoeic dj tmc tcoimcr. Yclcit`de djtce diiurs

jrda w`tmè tmc simddl, but diios`deolly o h`rcitdr `s troesjcrrch jrda w`tmè tmc zdbo.

Xmc Foab o Vmcrc voioei cs or sc, tmcy orc ohvcrt sch eot`deolly, oeh cl f`blc tcoimcrs ioe opply.

Xd bc cl`f`blc, tcoimcrs aust movc mclh o pdst jdr ot lcost tmrcc ycors. Ymdrt-l`stèf `s

bosch de quol`jìot`des, oeh tmc jèol sclcit`de de oe ètcrv`cw. Xmc sclcit`de prdicss

togcs ètd ides`hcrot`de quol`jìot`des, lceftm dj scrvìc, pdstèf (tcoimcrs è morhsm`p

pdsts orc f`vce prcjcrceic è oiicss td prdadt`deol pdsts), oeh pcrjdraoeic. Lcttcrs dj

rcidaacehot`de jrda tmc`r rcf`deol h`rcitdrs orc cxpcitch, prdv`hèf oe dppdrtue`ty jdr

pcrjdraoeic td bc ides`hcrch. Bciousc voioei`cs orc ohvcrt`sch eot`deolly, ecwly

oppdètch mcoh tcoimcrs ioe bc pdstch td oey simddl.

Lcsdtmd ^ds t des orc ohvcrt sch by tmc simddl aoeofcacet bdhy, oeh sclcit`de s bosch de

quol`jìot`des oeh oe ètcrv`cw. Xmc sclcit`de `s rcv`cwch by tmc sce`dr chuiot`de djjìcr

bcjdrc tmc oppdètacet `s opprdvch. @j tmcrc `s ed quol`j`ch opplìoet, o tcoimcr aoy bcoppdètch oitèf mcoh, oeh tmc pdst `s rc-ohvcrt`sch oeeuolly uet`l j`llch. ^ràory mcoh

tcoimcrs orc rcqu`rch td movc o h`pldao-lcvcl quol`jìot`de oeh j`vc ycors dj cxpcr`ceic,

wm`lc scidehory mcoh tcoimcrs orc rcqu`rch td movc o hcfrcc oeh ?? ycors dj cxpcr`ceic.

L`bcr o Yimddl pr ei`pols orc sclcitch ot tmc iduety lcvcl, oeh sclcit de s mcov`ly èjluceich by tmc

h`strìt oeh iduety chuiot`de djjìcrs. Deic o sclcit`de `s aohc, tmc hdiuacets orc scet td

Aderdvò, wmcrc tmc AdC hci`hcs tmc solory lcvcl ot wmìm tmc prèi`pol w`ll bc oppdètch.

[oab o Mcohs orc sclcitch ot tmc h`str it lcvcl by h str it stojj bosch de quol j iot`des, ob l ty, oeh

cxpcr`ceic. Xmc usuol rdutc jdr prdadt`de `s vò tmc pds`t`des dj sce`dr tcoimcr oeh

hcputy mcoh. Mcohs jrda saollcr simddls ioe bc prdadtch td lorfcr decs, wmcrc tmcy

rcic`vc o lorfcr solory.

moh bcce troèch uehcr o vor`cty dj h`jjcrcet prdkcits oeh troèèf idurscs, oltmdufm

edec dj tmcsc rcaoèch è dpcrot`de ot tmc tàc dj tmc stuhy.

Xmc scideh idaade opprdoim wos td prdv`hc aoeofcacet troèèf tmrdufm o

ue`vcrs`ty idursc, typìolly è tmc jdra dj o dec- dr twd-ycor h`pldao idursc è chu-

iot`de aoeofcacet. Xmcsc movc là`tch iopoi`ty oeh typìolly rcoim dely o aèdr-

`ty dj mcoh tcoimcrs. Jull-tàc idurscs dj o ycor dr adrc olsd rcsult e tmc ldss dj mcoh

tcoimcrs jrda tmc`r pdsts jdr cxtcehch pcr`dhs, oeh aoy e sdac ioscs bc o potmwoy

td jurtmcr prdadt`de ètd chuiot`de aoeofcacet pds`t`des. Xoblc 6.9 suaaor`zcs

tmc proitìcs jdr troèèf mcoh tcoimcrs capldych è tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs.

ADE@XDR@EF DJ MCOH XCOIMCRY

Vm`lc tmc mcoh tcoimcr `s rcidfe`zch os o gcy èjluceic de simddl quol`ty oeh

cjjcit`vcecss, tmcrc `s rclot`vcly l`ttlc ade`tdrèf dj tmc`r pcrjdraoeic. F`vce tmc

rclot`vcly ldw jrcquceiy dj cxtcreol supcrv`s`de dj simddls, mcoh tcoimcrs movc

rclot`vc outdeday. Cvce wmcrc tmcrc orc ade`tdrèf systcas, tmcy jrcqucetly

cxiluhc simddl mcohs. @e [oabò, tmcrc `s oe èst`tut`deol ade`tdrèf jdra uschby stoehorhs djjìcrs (èspcitdrs) hurèf simddl supcrv`s`des, but edec dj tmc

??> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



Xoblc 6.9 Xroèèf dj Mcoh Xcoimcrs, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr trco O smdrt troèèf idursc s prdv`hch coim ycor jdr ecwly oppdètch simddl h`rcitdrs, td

f`vc tmca bosì sg`lls è aoeofèf tmc`r simddls. @e ohh`t`de, tmc Cr`trco @est`tutc dj

Xcimedldfy (C@X) `s prdv`hèf o jull-tàc twd-ycor h`pldao è chuiot`de aoeofcacet,wmìm iurrcetly mos ?96 simddl h`rcitdrs cerdllch.

Xmc Foabò O ecw dec-ycor icrt j iotc idursc o ach ot mcoh tcoimcrs oeh jdius ef spci jìolly de

simddl aoeofcacet `s mdstch by tmc ue`vcrs`ty. Xmc mcoh tcoimcrs orc de stuhy-lcovc

jdr tmc ycor, po`h by tmc Hcportacet dj Ytotc jdr Chuiot`de (HdYC), oeh bdehch td

wdrg è o simddl jdr ot lcost dec ycor ojtcrworh. Os port dj tmc idursc, tmc portì`poets

spceh twd wccgs wdrgèf ildscly w`tm oe cxpcr`ceich mcoh aostcr. Xm`s idursc bcfoe

è 2>>:’>6, w`tm ?0 mcoh aostcrs dr oitèf mcohs cerdllch.

Lcsdtmd Ot prcscet tmcrc s ed troèèf djjcrch jdr simddl pr ei pols, oltmdufm h`jjcrcet idurscs

movc bcce djjcrch è tmc post tmrdufm vor`dus imoeecls.

L`bcrò Xmcrc s ed aoehotdry aoeofcacet troèèf jdr prèi`pols.Aolow` ^rdv s`de dj tro e ef s edt rdutèc, oeh edt oll ecwly oppd etch mcoh tcoimcrs rcic vc

troèèf. @e tmc post, sdac troèèf diiurrch, djtce os port dj cxtcreolly juehch prdk-

cits. Jdr cxoaplc, tmc Aolow` Yimddl Yystcas Yuppdrt ^rdfroaac (AYYY^) prdv`hch

troèèf jdr tmrcc sce`dr stojj è pràory simddl. Ydac scidehory mcoh tcoimcrs olsd

uehcrtddg o tmrcc-wccg èhuit`de idursc, idvcrèf tdpìs èiluhèf jèoeic, ohaè`s-

trot`de, M@Z, oeh aoeofcacet dj stojj.

Sfoeho Rcicetly, smdrt èhuit`de idurscs movc bcce prdv`hch jdr mcoh tcoimcrs.

[oabò Xmcrc s ed aoehotdry troè ef jdr mcohs. Xmc eot`deol h stoeic chuiot de idllcfc jdr

tcoimcrs (E@YXIDL) djjcrs o twd-ycor idursc by h`stoeic lcoreèf, but tm`s iurrcetly mos

kust 9> stuhcets. Xmcrc orc prdpdsols è tmc tcoimcr chuiot`de h`rcitdrotc td cxpoeh

tmc sidpc dj troèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs.

mcohèfs rcjcr td tmc mcoh tcoimcr oeh m`s/mcr cjjcit`vcecss. @e Lcsdtmd, tmcrc `s

là`tch ade`tdrèf dj simddl prèi`pols, oeh tmcrc orc oecihdtol rcpdrts dj m`fm

obscetcc`sa oadef prèi`pols. Vm`lc ed djjìòl rcidrhs cx`st, dec èspcitdr cst`-

aotch tmot obdut molj dj tmc simddl prèi`pols wdulh bc obscet adrc tmoe scvce

hoys o adetm. Xm`s ceidurofcs tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, wmìm `s l`gcly td bc m`fmcr

de tmc hoys tmc prèi`pol `s obscet. @e joit, tmc Xcoimèf Ycrvìc Hcportacet

rcpdrtch tmot è sdac ioscs, tcoimcrs wmd wcrc joich w`tm h`si`plèory imorfcsrcspdehch w`tm ollcfot`des dj obscetcc`sa by tmc prèi`pol.

Olsd è Lcsdtmd, prèi`pols orc edaèolly oiiduetoblc td aoeofcacet bdorhs,

but è rcol`ty tmcy jrcqucetly hdaèotc tmcsc bdorhs. ôrtìulorly è orcos wmcrc

tmc prèi`pol `s tmc bcst-chuiotch pcrsde è tmc idaaue`ty, aoeofcacet bdorh

acabcrs aoy movc l`ttlc idej`hceic dr ob`l`ty td imollcefc o prèi`pol.

Rcidfe`zèf tmc àpdrtoeic dj quol`ty simddl lcohcrsm`p, sdac dj tmc idue-

tr`cs stuh`ch moh prdpdsols td àprdvc pcrjdraoeic è tmot orco. @e Sfoeho tmc

AdCY wos ideicrech tmot mcoh tcoimcrs tcehch td rcaoè è o sèflc simddl jdr

o ldef pcr`dh, sdactàcs jdr tmc`r cet`rc iorccrs. @e rcspdesc, tmc fdvcreacet AdCY bcfoe idapulsdry troesjcrs dj mcoh tcoimcrs, td rcjrcsm tmc lcohcrsm`p è

Yupcrv s`de dj Xcoimcrs • ???



Xoblc 6.8 Euabcr dj Xcoimcrs oeh @espcitdrs

Xcoimcrs @espcitdrs

(pràory oeh scidehory) (pràory oeh scidehory) Xcoimcrs pcr espcitdr

Cr`trco ?>,=:2 ?:3 :3

Foabò, Xmc 6,6>6 38 ?82

Lcsdtmd ?9,68? 88 9?2

Sfoeho ?02,=>= 23> 66?

[oabò 30,>6: 92: ?=?

[oez`bor =,2:? 9> 263

trdublch simddls oeh rchuic tmc idaploiceiy dj mcoh tcoimcrs. @aplcacetot`de

dj tmcsc troesjcrs mos bcce uecvce, oeh tmcrc movc bcce èi`hcets dj ldbbyèf by

mcoh tcoimcrs oeh idaaue`t`cs td rcvcrsc troesjcr hci`s`des.

@e Lcsdtmd, tmc AdCX moh prdpdsols td aogc prèi`pols adrc oiiduetoblc

tmrdufm capldyèf tmca de rcecwoblc idetroits. Xm`s wos ètcehch td prdv`hc

tmc AdCX w`tm tmc dppdrtue`ty td rcadvc o prèi`pol è tmc iosc dj vcry pddr pcr-

jdraoeic. @t wos prdpdsch tmot prèi`pols wmdsc idetroits wcrc edt rcecwch

wdulh rcvcrt td tmc`r pds`t`des os tcoimcrs. Xm`s rclot`vcly ldw-stogcs pceolty jdr

edercecwol wos cxpcitch td aogc `t adrc l`gcly tmot prèi`pols wmd pcrjdrach

pddrly wdulh bc rcadvch.

YS^CRZ@Y@DE OEH @EY^CIX@DE

@espcit`de dj simddls scrvcs twd aoè purpdscs. J`rst, t s o supcrv`s`de systca, ade-

`tdrèf cvcets è simddls, `hcet`jyèf h`jjìult`cs corly, oeh cesurèf quol`ty. Ycideh, `t

scrvcs os o jcchboig acimoe`sa, prdv`hèf èjdraot`de td pdlìy aogcrs obdut tmc

rcol`ty è simddls. Xmcsc twd rdlcs àply h`jjcrcet idvcrofc rcqu`rcacets. Oe cjjcit`vc

supcrv`s`de systca smdulh bc oblc td supcrv`sc cvcry simddl w`tm o rcosdeoblc jrc-

quceiy. O jcchboig systca aoy jueit`de cjjcit`vcly by cxoaèèf o iorcjully imdsce

soaplc dj simddls, but aust hcvcldp o syetmcs`s dj tmc jèhèfs dj rclcvoeic jdr aoe-

ofcacet oeh jcch tmcsc td tmc opprdpròtc pdèts è tmc chuiot`de aoeofcacet.

@e adst dj tmc iduetr`cs stuh`ch, tmc èspcitdrotc wos bosch c`tmcr ot o icetrol

ldiot`de dr hcicetrol`zch td h`strìt lcvcl. @e bdtm ioscs tmc jrcquceiy dj supcrv`-

s`de v`s`ts wos scvcrcly iurto`lch by tmc là`tch euabcr dj èspcitdrs (toblc 6.8)

oeh troespdrtot`de oeh ldf`stìol h`jjìult`cs, oeh adst simddls idulh cxpcit oe

èspcit`de v`s`t lcss jrcqucetly tmoe deic pcr ycor. Vmcrc troespdrtot`de `s o

aokdr prdblca, tmc adst `sdlotch simddls tceh td bc v`s`tch lcost jrcqucetly.

L`bcrò `llustrotcs supcrv`s`de h`jjìult`cs idaade td aoey dj tmc iduetr`cs.

L`bcròe iduety chuiot`de djjìcrs orc rcspdes`blc jdr supcrv`s`de dj tmc simddls

è tmc`r iduet`cs, oldef w`tm tmc`r aoeofcròl oeh ohaè`strot`vc jueit`des. Xmc

cxpcitot`de `s tmot coim simddl w`ll bc v`s`tch deic pcr scacstcr, but tmc proitìc

jolls jor smdrt dj tmot. Dec ICD ètcrv`cwch rcpdrtch tmot mc moh aoeofch td v`s`t

??2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



BD] 6.? CR@XRCO; XMC XCOIMCR YS^CRZ@Y@DE YPYXCA

@e [dbo Hcbub, Cr`trco, tmcrc orc 9>> simddls oeh 9,8>> tcoimcrs. Xmcsc orcsuppdrtch by 90 supcrv`sdrs jdr bosì chuiot`de oeh tmrcc supcrv`sdrs jdr

scidehory chuiot`de, f`vèf o rot`d dj dec supcrv`sdr jdr cvcry scvce simddls.

Coim scidehory simddl `s cxpcitch td rcic`vc twd v`s`ts pcr scacstcr, tmc j`rst

o smdrt dec-hoy v`s`t, oeh tmc scideh lostèf o wccg. @e clcacetory chuio-

t`de, supcrv`sdrs orc ceidurofch td ideicetrotc de tmc wcog simddls, oeh

simddls w`tm uequol`j`ch mcoh tcoimcrs ioe bc v`s`tch adetmly, dr è sdac

ioscs ault`plc tàcs è o adetm. Yupcrv`sdrs orc edt edraolly hrowe ètd

ohaè`strot`vc wdrg, oeh ioe hcvdtc 63 pcricet dj tmc`r wdrgèf tàc td

supcrv`s`de (èiluhèf supcrv`s`de dj aoeofcacet). Yupcrv`sdrs l`vc è tmc`r ilustcrs, oeh fcecrolly fct td simddls usèf publì troespdrtot`de dr wolgèf.

2> dj tmc ?=0 simddls è m`s iduety è tmc prcv`dus ycor. Oedtmcr, wmd wos jdrtu-

eotc td movc o hchìotch vcmìlc, moh v`s`tch :3 dj ??> simddls è m`s iduety è dec

ycor. @j tmcsc supcrv`s`de jrcqucei`cs idetèuc, tmc ovcrofc simddl aoy fd bctwcce

twd oeh j`vc ycors bctwcce supcrv`s`de v`s`ts, oeh tmc adst rcadtc simddls aoy

movc ides`hcrobly ldefcr supcrv`s`de etcrvols.

^RDA@Y@EF ^ROIX@ICY

O jcw iduetr`cs movc oim`cvch adrc jrcqucet supcrv`s`de by movèf o m`fmly

hcicetrol`zch èspcit`de stojj. @e Xmc Foabò o “ilustcr ade`tdr‑ `s olldiotch td

cvcry tce simddls, oeh `s cxpcitch td l`vc ot dec dj tmc simddls oeh trovcl by

adtdrb`gc td v`s`t coim simddl cvcry twd wccgs. Bdtm mcoh tcoimcrs oeh tcoimcrs

jèh tmc systca mclpjul, edtèf tmc bcecj`ts dj àprdvch suppdrt jdr tcoimcrs oeh

àprdvch idaaueìot`de w`tm h`strìt djjìcs (ZYD Xmc Foabò 2>>6). Xmcrc

orc èhìot`des tmot tcoimcr obscetcc`sa mos bcce rchuich jdlldwèf tmc ètrd-

huit`de dj tmcsc jrcqucet cxtcreol v`s`ts.

Cr`trco rcdrfoe`zch `ts supcrv`s`de systca è 2>>3. Yupcrv`sdrs moh bcce bosch

ot zdbo (rcf`deol) djjìcs, but tmcrc wcrc oigedwlchfch h`jjìult`cs è supcrv`s`de

jrcquceiy, rcsultèf aoèly jrda troespdrtot`de h`jjìult`cs. @e tmc rcjdra è

2>>3, supcrv`sdrs wcrc hcpldych td ilustcrs dj simddls (scc bdx 6.?), coim ilustcr

idapr`sèf opprdxàotcly => tcoimcrs, è bctwcce twd oeh tce simddls. Xmcsc

ilustcr supcrv`sdrs wcrc cxpcitch td l`vc ot dec dj tmc simddls oeh trovcl de jddt

dr by bìyilc oeh v`s`t coim tcoimcr tmrcc dr jdur tàcs pcr ycor. @e rcol`ty, tmc

jrcquceiy aoy bc ildscr td twìc pcr ycor. Xm`s rcjdra mos ldwcrch idsts by rchui-

èf tmc troespdrtot`de rcqu`rcacet jdr supcrv`s`de, oeh èircosch tmc jrcquceiy

dj v`s`ts. Xmcsc ilustcr supcrv`sdrs orc suppdrtch oeh troèch by o icetrol quol`ty

ossuroeic h`rcitdrotc, wmìm v`s`ts o soaplc dj obdut ?>> simddls coim ycor.

Yupcrv s`de dj Xcoimcrs • ??9



Xoblc 6.3 @espcit`de Yystcas oeh Jrcquceiy dj @espcit`de Z`s`ts, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Hcpldyacet dj espcitdrs Jrcquceiy dj simddl supcrv`s`de

Lcsdtmd Icetrol oeh h`strìt espcitdrs trovcl Jrcquceiy dj lcss tmoe deic o ycor, sdac

è djjìòl vcmìlcs. edt v`s`tch jdr tce ycors.

L`bcrò Ed scporotc espcit`de systca. ICDs Fdol s td v`s`t coim simddl deic coim

rcspdes`blc jdr espcit`de dj simddls scacstcr. @e proitìc, adst orc edt v s tch

è tmc`r iduet`cs. Bosch è iduety djjìcs. oeeuolly.

Sfoeho Icetrol, rcf`deol, oeh h`strìt èspcitdrs. Opprdxàotcly dec è ?: simddls v s`tch

Ovcrofc dj 6> simddls pcr espcitdr. lost ycor. Dely jdur tcoimcrs dbscrvch

Là`tch troespdrtot`de. è coim v`s`t.

[oabò Ytoehorhs djjìcrs ot h`strìt, prdvèic, Opprdxàotcly deic o ycor (CA@Y).

oeh icetrol lcvcls.

[oez`bor Djjìòl idaplcacet dj 9> espcitdrs, Xmc espcit`de scrvìc oàs td v`s`t coim

?3 de coim sloeh. Dec vcmìlc simddl cvcry twd ycors.

de coim `sloeh.

Iduetr`cs w`tm prda`sèf proitìcs

Cr`trco Ilustcr; dec jdr cvcry => tcoimcrs. Z`s`t coim tcoimcr twìc o ycor.

Xrovcl by bìyilc dr wolgèf.

Foabò, Xmc Ilustcr dec jdr ?> simddls. Xrovcl Cxpcitch deic o wccg. @e rcol`ty, aoybc

by adtdrb`gc. twìc o adetm.

Aolow` ^COs, jdr cvcry ?2’?3 simddls. Xrovcl Cxpcitch tmrcc tàcs o ycor. Aoey simddls

by adtdrb`gc. 9=> COs. rcpdrt dely oeeuol v`s`ts.

Aolow` moh o hcicetrol`zch supcrv`s`de systca sà`lor td Cr`trco oeh Xmc

Foabò, wmcrc ?2’?3 simddls wcrc frdupch ètd zdecs, w`tm o saoll tcoimcr hcvcl-

dpacet icetcr (XHI) oeh o pràory chuiot`de ohv`scr (^CO). Coim ^CO wos prd-

v`hch w`tm o mdusc, o adtdrb`gc, oeh o adetmly jucl olldwoeic (9,>>> AVG).

Mdwcvcr, tmc jrcquceiy dj v`s`ts wos auim ldwcr, oeh aoey simddls rcic`vch dely

oeeuol v`s`ts, hcsp`tc cxpcitot`des dj v`s`ts tmrcc tàcs o ycor. Xwd aoè joitdrs

oppcor td idetr`butc td tmc h`soppdètèf supcrv`s`de jrcquceiy rcpdrtch è

Aolow`. J`rst, ^COs orc hrowe ètd vor`dus dtmcr oit`v`t`cs, aoey dj wmìm djjcr

tmca dppdrtue`t`cs td core ohh`t`deol èidac. ^COs djtce drfoe`zc idurscs ot tmc`r

icetcrs, oeh ioe rcet tmc icetcr jdr dtmcr troèèf oit`v`t`cs oeh cvce idaaue`ty

oit`v`t`cs oeh wchhèfs. Xmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj o ectwdrg dj ^COs oeh icetcrs `s olsd

ottroit`vc td dtmcr fdvcreacet ofcei`cs oeh EFDs, wmd jrcqucetly rcet tmc joi`l`-

t`cs oeh èvdlvc tmc ^CO è tmc`r oit`v`t`cs. Ycideh, ^COs jrcqucetly ottr`butch tmcldw jrcquceiy dj simddl v`s`ts td o smdrtofc dj jucl jdr tmc`r adtdrb`gcs. @e dec iosc,

o h`strìt chuiot`de aoeofcr moh hci`hch td w`tmmdlh jucl jrda ^COs wmd h`h edt

j`lc rcpdrts de tmc`r simddl v`s`ts, rcsultèf è oe cvce ldwcr jrcquceiy dj v`s`ts.

Xoblc 6.3 suaaor`zcs tmc iurrcet èspcit`de systcas oeh jrcquceiy dj v`s`ts è

tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, m`fml`fmtèf tmc iduetr`cs tmot smdw prda`sèf proitìcs.

??8 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



Xoblc 6.: Oeeuol Rcpdrt td dlìy Aogcrs, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr trco Yupcrv sdrs rcpdrt td tmc [dbo djj ic twìc o ycor, oeh tm s ejdraot de `s jch ètd tmc

supcrv`s`de wdrgsmdps mclh twìc o ycor jdr [dbo oeh icetrol _O stojj. Xmc aoè prdblcas

rcpdrtch by supcrv`sdrs èiluhc (`) obsceic dj lcssde ploes, (``) èsujjì`cet osscssacetdj stuhcet prdfrcss, (```) usc dj o tcoimcr-icetcrch pchofdfy, oeh (`v) sdac tcoimcr

obscetcc`sa.

Foab o, Xmc Xmc Ytoehorhs oeh _uol`ty Ossuroeic H rcitdrotc s cxpcitch td idap`lc o syetmcs`s dj

tmc ilustcr ade`tdrs‐ rcpdrts oeh aogc tm`s ovo`loblc td tmc sce`dr aoeofcacet. Ot tmc

tàc dj tmc stuhy, tm`s moh edt bcce hdec.

Lcsdtmd Vdrg s uehcrwoy td idap lc tmc j eh efs dj espcit de rcpdrts, but tmcrc s edt yct o rdutèc

oeeuol rcpdrt suaaor`zèf tmc aokdr èspcit`de jèhèfs. Yuim o rcpdrt `s cev`sofch è

tmc chuiot`de b`ll iurrcetly bcjdrc tmc fdvcreacet.

L bcr o Vr ttce rcpdrts orc edt rdutècly aohc dj coim espcit de, oeh tmcrc `s ed idap lot`de dj

tmc fcecrol trcehs dbscrvch è èspcit`de.

Aolow` Xmc CAOY s cxpcitch td prdhuic oe oeeuol rcpdrt td tmc prèi`pol scirctory dj tmc

AdCZX, but tmc lost rcpdrt wos è 2>>8.

Sfoeho Xmc stoehorhs ofceiy prdhuics rcpdrts de spci j i ssucs, but ed dvcroll rcpdrt.

[oab o Ade tdrèf rcpdrts orc fotmcrch by djjìcrs ot coim h strìt. _uortcrly rcpdrts dutl e ef

oim`cvcacets orc prdhuich ot tmc h`strìt lcvcl w`tm idp`cs dj idaplctch ade`tdrèf

jdras ottoimch. Xmcsc rcpdrts orc scet td tmc pràory chuiot`de djjìcr (^CD), wmd tmce

rcpdrts de bcmolj dj tmc prdvèic td Lusogo. Xmc stoehorhs h`rcitdrotc hdcs edt usuolly

prdhuic oe oeeuol rcpdrt w`tm oe oeolys`s dj èspcit`de jèhèfs.

JCCHBOIG ACIMOE@YAY

Xmc acimoe`sas td prdv`hc jcchboig jrda simddl v`s`ts td pdlìy aogcrs wcrc

wcog è aoey dj tmc iduetr`cs stuh`ch (toblc 6.:). Ed iduetry moh o rdutèc sua-

aory dj èspcit`de jèhèfs prdv`hch td pdlìy aogcrs oeh tcoimcr troèèf èst`-

tut`des. Rcpdrts jrda èspcit`de scrvìcs wcrc è sdac ioscs ohaè`strot`vc

rcpdrts, jdiusch de tmc euabcr dj simddls v`s`tch oeh rcpdrtèf tmc wdrg dj tmc

èspcitdrs, rotmcr tmoe tmc jèhèfs jrda tmc`r wdrg. Xmcrc wcrc sdac cxoaplcs

dj suiicssjul jcchboig acimoe`sas. @e Cr`trco, wdrgsmdps mclh twìc o ycor prd-

v`hc o jdrua jdr ilustcr-bosch supcrv`sdrs td jcch boig td zdbo (rcf`deol) aoe-

ofcacet oeh td stojj jrda tmc quol`ty ossuroeic h`rcitdrotc. @e Sfoeho, tmc

chuiot`de stoehorhs ofceiy (CYO) mos prcporch rcpdrts de spci`jì `ssucs.

@EY^CIX@DE OEH @XY @AÔIX DE _SOL@XP

Vmce èspcitdrs v`s`t simddls, tmc cxtcet td wmìm tmcy dbscrvc tcoimcrs vor`cs.

Ydac èspcit`des ideicetrotc de `ssucs duts`hc tmc ilossrdda, suim os stuhcet

ottcehoeic, simddl jèoeic, tmc ideh`t`de dj tmc bu`lhèfs, oeh tmc prcsceic dj

tcxtbddgs. Xmc usc dj èspcitdrs os tmc ofcets jdr hoto idllcit`de ceidurofcs tmca

td jdius de tm`s edepchofdfìol wdrg. Vm`lc tmcsc orc àpdrtoet jueit`des, tmcy togc owoy jrda tmc iopoi`ty dj èspcitdrs td ade`tdr tcoimèf oeh lcoreèf.




Vmce èspcitdrs hd dbscrvc ilossrdda tcoimèf, tmcrc `s l`ttlc èjdraot`de de

wmot tmcy hd, dr wmot gèh dj jcchboig tmcy prdv`hc. Mdwcvcr, oecihdtol rcpdrts

suffcst tmot aoey espcitdrs orc pddrly cqu`ppch td prdv`hc pchofdfìol suppdrt,

oeh tceh td jdius de acimoeìol ssucs suim os tmc usc dj tcxtbddgs estcoh dj prd-

v`hèf proitìol pchofdfìol ohvìc. Aolow` mos prcporch o ilossrdda cvoluot`de

hdiuacet jdr èspcitdrs, td fu`hc tmca td dbscrvc oeh cxoaèc pchofdfy.

XCOIMCRY SE@DEY

Xcoimcrs ue`des prdv`hc suppdrt td tcoimcrs tmrdufm tmc`r ob`l`ty td adb`l`zc oeh

rcprcscet tcoimcrs‐ ètcrcsts eot`deolly, os wcll os tmrdufm tmc`r rcoim td tcoimcrs ot

tmc ldiol lcvcl. Oll ue`des è tm`s stuhy moh sdac rdlc è ohvdioiy jdr bcttcr poy

oeh ideh`t`des jdr tcoimcrs‘rdlcs tmot movc bcce ir`tì`zch è tmc ètcreot`deoll`tcroturc os ro`sèf idsts w`tmdut àprdvèf tmc lcoreèf dj stuhcets (VúÔaoe

2>>9). Mdwcvcr, ue`des olsd cefofch tcoimcrs è dtmcr oit`v`t`cs, èiluhèf pdlìy

oeolys`s, portì`pot`de è tmc fldbol ioapo`fes jdr chuiot`de, oeh ohvdioiy jdr

àprdvcacets è quol`ty. Ot tmc ldiol lcvcl, aoey prdv`hch scrvìcs td tmc`r

acabcrs, èiluhèf idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet, oiicss td irch`t, oeh o

rcidursc è tmc iosc dj uejo`r trcotacet. @e tm`s woy, tcoimcrs ue`des orc cvdlvèf

td jueit`de os bdtm o suppdrt jdr tcoimcrs oeh oe oiiduetob`l`ty imcig de tmc chu-

iot`de systca (Auehy ct ol. 2>>=).

@e adst iduetr`cs, tmc aokdr`ty dj publì tcoimcrs wcrc rcprcscetch by o ue`de.Rcprcscetot`de dj pr`votc tcoimcrs wos ldwcr, oeh adrc vor`ch. @e adst ioscs

ue`de acabcrsm`p wos vdluetory, oltmdufm `t wos outdaotì è Cr`trco oeh

L`bcrò. Xcoimcrs ue`des wcrc jèoeich jrda acabcr subsir`pt`des dj up td 2 pcr-

icet dj solory, adstly idllcitch by tmc aè`stry tmrdufm o poyrdll hchuit`de oeh

tmce possch de td tmc ue`de. Ot lcost dec ue`de è adst iduetr`cs wos olsd sup-

pdrtch td sdac hcfrcc by “s`stcr ue`des,‑ prchdaèoetly jrda Edrwoy, Ywchce,

Hceaorg, @rcloeh, oeh Ioeoho. Yuppdrt wos djtce jdiusch de iopoi`ty bu`lhèf dj

tmc ue`de oeh troèèf jdr tcoimcrs. Xmc imoroitcr`stìs dj tmc tcoimcrs ue`des è

tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs dj tm`s stuhy orc suaaor`zch è toblc 6.6.

XCOIMCRY SE@DEY OEH OHZDIOIP VDRG

Ohvdioiy wdrg wos oe àpdrtoet port dj scvcrol tcoimcrs ue`des‐ oit`v`t cs,

oltmdufm h`jjcrèf è jdra. @e [oabò, tmc aoè tcoimcrs ue`de moh o jull-tàc

cideda`st td ade`tdr chuiot`de spcehèf oeh pdlìy. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc tcoim-

crs ue`de moh o hcsg djjìcr jdr fcehcr, w`tm hut`cs èiluhèf ceidurofèf f`rls td

ides`hcr o iorccr è tcoimèf.

Xcoimcrs ue`des ploych prdaècet rdlcs è tmc eot`deol ioapo`fes jdr chu-iot`de è jdur dj tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs. Xmcsc ioapo`fes wcrc ideecitch td tmc

??: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



Xoblc 6.6 Imoroitcr`stìs dj Xcoimcrs Se`des è C`fmt Iduetr`cs

Y`fe`jìoet ue`des Acabcrs % dj tcoimcrs (cst.)

Cr`trco; Xcoimcrs Ossdiòt`de dj Cr`trco (XOC, cst. ?03=) 6,>>> :8

Clcacetory, a`hhlc simddl, m`fm-simddl, oeh tcoimcr

troècrs

Foabò, Xmc; Foabò Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de (FXS, cst. ?096) 3,3>> 6?,

Oll lcvcls (èiluhèf ede-tcoimèf stojj), bdtm publì

oeh pr`votc. =>% dj tcoimcrs

Aolow`; Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de dj Aolow` (XSA) Dvcr 8>,>>> 63

Oll lcvcls‘èiluhèf pràory, scidehory oeh tcimeìol

^YCSA‘^r`votc Yimddls Capldyccs Se`de dj Aolow`

Sfoeho; Sfoeho Eot`deol Xcoimcrs‐ Se de (SEOXS, cst. 2>>9 8>’83,>>> 2>’29

^rc-pràory td ue`vcrs`ty tcoimcrs. Acrfcr dj twd prcv`dus

ue`des (pr`votc tcoimcrs edw jdraèf dwe ue`de).

[oez`bor; [oez`bor Xcoimcr Se`de ([OXS, cst. 2>>2) 8,>>> 8=

Oll lcvcls; pràory, scidehory, tcoimcr troècrs,

publì, pr`votc, oeh uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs

Lcsdtmd; Ossdiòt`de dj Xcoimcrs (LOX, cst. ?0=:) :,?8? 83

^ràory oeh scidehory

Lcsdtmd Xcoimcrs‐ Xrohc Se`de (LXXS, cst. ?00>) 2,>>> ?3

^ràory oeh scidehory

Lcsdtmd ^rcsimddl Xcoimcrs‐ Ossdiòt`de

^rcsimddl dely

L`bcrò; Eot`deol Xcoimcrs‐ Ossdiòt`de dj L`bcrò ?>,>>>

6: (publ i)(EXOL, cst. ?09=)

Aoèly jrda publì simddls

Aderdvò Idabèch Yimddl Yystca Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de

[oabò; [oabò Eot`deol Se`de dj Xcoimcrs 90,>>> :>

([ESX, cst. ?039)

Oll scitdrs (`t wos tmc dely ue`de uet`l ?00?, wmce

l`bcrol`zot`de dj rcfulot`des olldwch dtmcr ue`des).

Bosì Chuiot`de Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de dj [oabò ?3,>>> 2=.:

(BCXS[, cst. 2>>>)

Dpce td oll tcoimcrs è Fr. ?’0 wmd movc pràory

tcoimcrs boigfrdueh

Ycidehory Yimddl Xcoimcrs‐ Se`de dj [oabò 3,9>> 26

(YCYXS[, cst. ?003)

Ycidehory tcoimcrs Fr. =’?2

Cstàotcs bosch de tcoimcr ue`de rcpdrtch acabcrsm`p.


Fldbol Ioapo`fe jdr Chuiot`de. Se`des è Sfoeho oeh L`bcrò (EXOL) wcrc

tmc imo`rs dj tmc`r eot`deol idol`t`des. Se`des è Lcsdtmd (LOX) oeh Aolow`

(XSA) wcrc olsd oit`vc è tmc`r eot`deol idol`t`des, wmìm uehcrtddg rcscorim

oeh oeolys`s de tdpìs suim os chuiot`deol quol`ty oeh ade`tdrèf fdvcreacet suppdrt td chuiot`de.



XCOIMCRY SE@DEY‐ XRO@E@EF OEH HCZCLDÂCEX VDRG

Ot tmc ldiol lcvcl, tcoimcrs ue`des prdv`hch frossrddts scrvìcs td tmc`r acabcrs.

Xroèèf oeh idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet wos prdv`hch è adst idue-tr`cs è o vor`cty dj orcos, èiluhèf idetcet-bosch è-scrvìc idurscs è Cefl`sm,

aotmcaotìs, oeh si`ceic7 troèèf jdr wdace7 idurscs suppdrtèf àprdvcacet

dj tcoimcrs‐ jdraol chuiot`deol quol`jìot`des7 oeh troèèf è prdjcss`deol ctmìs

oeh simddl rcprcscetot`de. Adst ue`des moh h`strìt dr zdeol broeimcs, olldwèf

jdr hcicetrol`zch prdv`s`de dj troèèf.

Irch`t scrvìcs wcrc djjcrch tmrdufm tcoimcrs ue`des è Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd,

oeh [oabò. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc tcoimcrs irch`t ue`de djjcrch lorfcr ldoes td tcoim-

crs tmoe tmcy idulh fct jrda boegs, o ldwcr ètcrcst rotc (iurrcetly ?.3 pcricet pcr

adetm), oeh rcpoyacet by solory hchuit`de (wmìm ovd`hch pceolty imorfcs `j solory poyacet wos hcloych). [oabò‐s bosì chuiot`de tcoimcrs ue`des wos buy-

èf bu`lhèf aotcròls è bulg oeh prdv`hèf tmca td tcoimcrs, wmd rcpo`h

tmrdufm solory hchuit`des dvcr o 9:-adetm pcr`dh. @t olsd prdv`hch sdac froets td

tcoimcrs td oss`st è poyèf jccs jdr upfrohèf idurscs.

M@Z/O@HY oworcecss troèèf dr rcscorim wos olsd prdv`hch by scvcrol dj tmc

ue`des, èiluhèf tmdsc è Cr`trco, Lcsdtmd, L`bcrò, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò. Xmc

Lcsdtmd Ossdiòt`de dj Xcoimcrs moh prdkcits ohhrcssèf oworcecss, prcvcet`de

oeh vdluetory tcstèf, os wcll os foèèf lcfol prdtcit`de jrda vìtà`zot`de jdr ts

acabcrs. @t publ`smch o bddg de l`jc-sg`lls chuiot`de e portecrsm`p w`tm tmc Aè-

`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Xroèèf. Sfoeho‐s ue`de mos defdèf rcscorim lddgèf ot

M@Z, os wcll os hcvcldpèf o wdrgploic M@Z/O@HY pdlìy jdr tcoimcrs. Ycc toblc 6.=

jdr o suaaory dj tmc frossrddts oit`v`t`cs dj tmc tcoimcrs ue`des è tmc iduetr`cs

èiluhch è tm`s stuhy.

IDAASE@XP @EZDLZCACEX; ^XOs OEH YAIs

Ldiol idaaue`t`cs, oeh porcets tmrdufm porcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`des (^XOs) oeh

simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs (YAIs), movc oe àpdrtoet rdlc td ploy è tmcquol`ty, fdvcreoeic, oeh oiiduetob`l`ty dj simddls (Broy 2>>?). @e idetcxts

wmcrc cxtcreol supcrv`s`de dj simddls `s là`tch, idaaue`ty bdh`cs aoy bc tmc

dely cxtcreol ofcets w`tm rcfulor oiicss td simddls. Mdwcvcr, hcsp`tc `ts

pdtcetòl, sdac stuh`cs movc jdueh là`tch porcetol èvdlvcacet è Ojrìo,

rcsultèf jrda pddr oworcecss oeh troèèf, oeh cx`stèf simddl aoeofcacet

proitìcs (ôes`r` 2>>=).

Adst iduetr`cs èiluhch è tm`s stuhy movc sdac idaaue`ty èvdlvcacet, c`tmcr

è tmc jdra dj ^XOs (Cr`trco, Foabò, L`bcrò, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò), dr YAIs (Lcsdtmd,

Aolow`, oeh [oez`bor). Jueh-ro`sèf cacrfch os tmc aoè oit`v`ty uehcrtogce by idaaue`t`cs è tmc iduetr`cs stuh`ch. ôrcets ro`sc adecy jdr simddl aotcròls,

??= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



Xoblc 6.= Frossrddts Oit`v`t`cs dj Xcoimcrs Se`des, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr`trco • Ycaèors oeh wdrgsmdps jdr tcoimcrs de prdjcss`deol ctmìs, M@Z, oeh O@HY oworcecss7

jdr simddl rcprcscetot`vcs dj tmc ossdiòt`de7 oeh jdr jcaolc tcoimcrs. Xmcsc wdrgsmdps

moh oll bcce suppdrtch jèoeiòlly by tmc s`stcr ossdiòt`des.• Xcoimcrs‐ ilub è Osaoro, os o vceuc jdr tcoimcrs td acct, w`tm sdac rcircot`deol

joi`l`t`cs (b`llòrhs, imcss, cti.), o sotcll`tc XZ, oeh o saoll l`brory. Xmc ilub wos aoeofch

by oe clcitch idaa`ttcc scporotc jrda tmc aoeofcacet dj tmc ossdiòt`de.

Foabò, Xmc • Cxtroaurol ilosscs‘jdraol ètces`vc suaacr idurscs td àprdvc tcoimcrs‐

chuiot`deol quol`jìot`des.

• J`vc-hoy troèèf idursc jdr oitèf ue`de rcprcscetot`vcs (tcoimcrs) è tmc`r simddls,

ro`sèf oworcecss dj tmc tcoimèf rcfulot`des oeh ob`l`ty td oit ot tmc simddl lcvcl.

• Xroèèf jdr wdace è lcohcrsm`p, prdadtèf f`rls‐ chuiot`de, aogèf tcoimcrs oworc

dj chuiot`de pdlìy, oeh lò`sèf w`tm dtmcr EFDs oeh chuiot`de portecrs.

• Hcvcldpacet dj troèèf prdfroa jdr simddl mcoh aostcrs, td prdv`hc bosì jèoeiòl

oeh aoeofcacet sg`lls.• ^rdv`hèf irch`t scrvìcs td tcoimcrs.

Lcsdtmd • @e-scrvìc troèèf td `ts acabcrs tcoimèf Cefl`sm, aotmcaotìs, si`ceic, oeh ort.

• Icetcrs jdr tmc troèèf oeh suppdrt dj tcoimcrs èvdlvch è jurtmcr stuh`cs (c.f.,

tcoimcrs prcporèf jdr h`pldao idursc cxoaèot`des).

• Ycaèors jdr acabcrs de prdfrcss oeh oim`cvcacets dj tmc ossdiòt`de oeh tmc

chuiot`de systca.

• ^rdv`hèf irch`t scrvìcs td tcoimcrs.

• M@Z/O@HY oworcecss, lcfol prdtcit`de jrda vìtà`zot`de, l`jc-sg`lls bddg.

L`bcrò • M@Z oworcecss troèèf td tcoimcrs, w`tm suppdrt jrda cxtcreol hdedrs, hurèf 2>>=.

Aolow` • Mdsts suaacr è-scrvìc idurscs jdr tcoimcrs w`tm Kue`dr Icrt`jìotc td fct o Aolow`

Yimddl Icrt`jìotc Cxoaèot`de. Hcsp tc o jcc dj 9,>>> AVG (opprdxàotcly $2>), tmcidursc wos dvcrsubsir`bch, oeh tmc euabcrs moh td bc rcstrìtch td ?,>>> pcr ycor.

Sfoeho • Mdsts suaacr è-scrvìc tcoimcr chuiot`de (@EYCX) idurscs, de idejlìt rcsdlut`de,

ilossrdda aoeofcacet, cti. Xmc Ioeohòe Xcoimcrs Jchcrot`de prdv`hcs suppdrt jdr

tmcsc idurscs.

• M@Z/O@HY rcscorim, oeh hcvcldpèf wdrgploic M@Z/O@HY pdlìy jdr tcoimcrs.

[oabò • Idurscs de wdrgcrs chuiot`de oeh troèèf, pràor`ly mclpèf tcoimcrs td uehcrstoeh

tmc`r r`fmts, oeh tmc struiturcs dj tmc chuiot`de systca oeh `ts aoeofcacet.

• ^rdv`hcs irch`t scrvìcs td tcoimcrs.

• Xroèèf oeh adb`l`zot`de dj tcoimcrs jdr M@Z/O@HY oworcecss oeh prcvcet`de.


dpcrotèf idsts (clcitrì`ty oeh wotcr), oeh simddl aoètceoeic. Xmcsc idetr`but`des

scrvc oe àpdrtoet jueit`de wmcrc tmcrc `s vcry là`tch juehèf jrda ede-poy-

rciurrcet cxpceh`turcs ot tmc simddl lcvcl.

Ydac idaaue`t`cs olsd idetr`butc tmrdufm poyèf dr tdppèf-up tcoimcrs‐

solor`cs. ôrcets è Aolow` oeh Sfoeho usc tmc`r idetr`but`des td capldy ohh`-

t`deol tcoimcrs e publì simddls, bdtm quol`j`ch oeh uequol`j`ch “vdluetccr tcoimcrs.‑

Cr`trcoe porcets djtce tdp-up bcecj`ts td tcoimcrs è tmc jdra dj oiidaadhot`de,

jddh, hdacstì mclp, oeh sdactàcs iosm, oltmdufm tmc siolc dj suppdrt vor`cs w`hcly. Xmcsc cxtro idetr`but`des pdtcetòlly rcsult è h`stdrt`des dj tmc tcoimcr



lobdr aorgct, os simddls e adrc ojjlucet orcos (wmd ioe ro`sc adrc juehs tmrdufm

porcet idetr`but`des) ioe ottroit oeh rctoè tmc bcttcr tcoimcrs, tmus idetr`butèf

td ècqu`ty è tcoimcr h`str`but`de.

Oltmdufm ^XOs oeh YAIs movc tmc pdtcetòl td oit os oe cxtro oiiduetob`l`ty

imcig de simddls by h`sidurofèf tcoimcr obscetcc`sa oeh mdlhèf mcoh tcoimcrs

oiiduetoblc, tmcrc wos là`tch cv`hceic dj tm`s diiurrèf è proitìc. @e Sfoeho,

simddls w`tm strdef porcetol èvdlvcacet, os èhìotch by porcetol idetr`but`des

oeh jrcquceiy dj porcet acctèfs, moh ldwcr tcoimcr obsceic (Mobyoràoeo

2>>6). @e Aolow` sdac simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs orc vcry oit`vc, è port

bciousc tmcy movc bcce troèch by EFDs. Os o rcsult, a`sbcmov`dr `s rcpdrtch,

bdtm td tmc simddl oeh tmc h`strìt chuiot`de aoeofcr. Os dec djjìòl edtch, “tmc

djjìc `s uehcr prcssurc jrda tmcsc pcdplc.‑

Mdwcvcr, è aoey ioscs, porcets ploy o vcry là`tch supcrv`sdry rdlc. Xm`s aoy scca surpr`sèf, f`vce tmc`r strdef ètcrcst è tmc quol`ty dj chuiot`de tmc`r im`l-

hrce rcic`vc. @t aoy bc tmot pddrly chuiotch porcets jccl ueoblc td imollcefc tmc

rclot`vcly wcll-chuiotch mcoh tcoimcr dj o simddl. Xmcrc wcrc aoey cxoaplcs è

simddl v`s`ts dj pddrly chuiotch frdups dj porcets sccaèfly hdaèotch by o

bcttcr-chuiotch oeh v`s`bly adrc-ojjlucet mcoh tcoimcr, rcjlcitèf cxpcr`ceics è

Vcst Ojrìo (Hc Frouwc ct ol. 2>>3). @t aoy olsd bc tmot porcets orc ueoworc dj

tmc`r r`fmt td hcaoeh bcttcr pcrjdraoeic. @e Sfoeho, Cr`trco, Lcsdtmd, oeh

Aolow`, sdac troèèf dj simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs wos uehcrwoy td prc-

porc porcets td gedw tmc`r rcspdes`b`l`t`cs oeh r`fmts. Vm`lc tmc idaaue`ty aoy sdactàcs mclp td aogc simddls adrc oiiduetoblc,

tmcrc orc dtmcr ioscs wmcrc porcetol èvdlvcacet suppdrts pddr proitìcs è

simddls. @e Lcsdtmd, idaaue`ty prcssurc aoy rcsult e o simddl capldyèf o ldiol

pcrsde è prcjcrceic td o bcttcr-quol`j`ch duts`hcr. @e Xmc Foabò oeh Sfoeho

tmcrc wcrc rcpdrts tmot mcoh tcoimcrs a`fmt jèh `t h`jjìult td togc h`si`plèory

oit`de ofoèst tcoimcrs l`vèf è tmc idaaue`ty. Xm`s `s ides`stcet w`tm tmc stot`s-

tìs è Sfoeho wmìm rcvcol tmot tcoimcrs wdrgèf è tmc`r h`strìt dj dr`fè wcrc

adrc l`gcly td bc obscet, by 9.3 pcricetofc pdèts (Mobyoràoeo 2>>6).


Mcoh tcoimcrs movc oe cedradus èjluceic de tmc quol`ty dj simddlèf, oeh de

tcoimcr ott`tuhcs oeh pcrjdraoeic. Pct systcas jdr troèèf, suppdrtèf, oeh supcr-

v`sèf mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc rclot`vcly wcog, oeh `t sccach tmot aoey mcoh tcoimcrs

h`h l`ttlc td oit`vcly supcrv`sc tmc`r tcoimcrs. @t sccas l`gcly tmot tmc pcrjdraoeic

dj mcoh tcoimcrs idulh bc cemoeich by o jdraol dr`cetot`de, aogèf ilcor wmot `s

cxpcitch dj tmca è tcras dj supcrv`s`de dj stojj. Os aoey mcoh tcoimcrs rcaoè

uetroèch, prdv`s`de dj bosì troèèf prdv`hèf proitìol aoeofcròl sg`lls, oeh e

?2> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo



portìulor tmc sg`lls dj aoeofèf pcdplc, wdulh scca prda`sèf. @e tmc idetcxt dj

là`tch troèèf, prdv`s`de dj br`cj è-scrvìc troèèf idurscs sccas adrc opprd-

pròtc tmoe ldefcr tcra troèèf, wmìm ioe rcoim dely o aèdr`ty dj mcoh tcoimcrs.

Ymdrt e-scrvìc troèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs aoy olsd prdvc adrc jlcx`blc è ohhrcss-

èf tmc h`jjcrcet ecchs dj mcoh tcoimcrs (scc HcKocfmcrc, V`llòas, oeh Gycyuec,

è prcss), oeh aoy mclp td hcvcldp idaaue`t`cs dj mcoh tcoimcrs, tmus prdv`hèf

o suppdrt acimoe`sa ot tmc ldiol lcvcl.

Deic è pds`t`de, tmcrc wcrc jcw systcas td c`tmcr suppdrt dr ade`tdr mcoh

tcoimcrs. F`vce tmc rclot`vcly `sdlotch rdlc dj mcoh tcoimcrs, `t sccas l`gcly tmot

tmcrc wdulh bc bcecj`ts è prdv`hèf mcoh tcoimcrs w`tm oe dppdrtue`ty td oiicss

sdac suppdrt, suim os o pccr-frdup dj ldiol mcoh tcoimcrs. @eircosèf tmc oiiduet-

ob`l`ty dj mcoh tcoimcrs olsd sccas bcecjìòl. Xmc systca prdpdsch è Lcsdtmd,

wmcrc mcoh tcoimcrs wdulh bc oppdètch de j`xch-tàc idetroits, ojtcr wmìm tmcy idulh c`tmcr rcvcrt td tmc`r tcoimèf pds`t`des dr bc oworhch o ecw tcra os mcoh

tcoimcr, scca td djjcr prda`sèf woys td ceoblc rcadvol dj mcoh tcoimcrs wmd orc

ueoblc td cjjcit`vcly aoeofc tmc`r simddls.

Vm`lc oll dj tmc iduetr`cs moh sdac supcrv`s`de dr èspcit`de systca, è rcol-

`ty tmc jrcquceiy dj èspcit`de wos djtce sd ldw os td bc uel`gcly td hctcr aol-

proitìc. Rcosdeobly jrcqucet cxtcreol supcrv`s`de dj simddls wos oim`cvch dely è

ioscs wmcrc tmcrc wcrc m`fmly hcicetrol`zch èspcitdrs, suim os tmc ilustcr ade`-

tdrs è Xmc Foabò oeh Cr`trco. @e iduetr`cs wmcrc troespdrtot de `s h`jjìult, tm`s

adhcl dj èspcit`de hcicetrol`zch td saoll ilustcrs dj simddls djjcrs tmc pdtcetòljdr rcfulor ade`tdrèf dj simddls.

Xcoimcrs ue`des olsd prdv`hch suppdrt td tcoimcrs tmrdufm o roefc dj oit`v`t`cs

ot tmc ldiol oeh eot`deol lcvcl. Vm`lc rclot`desm`ps w`tm tcoimcrs ue`des movc

djtce bcce scce è tcras dj poy borfoèèf, tmdsc è tmc stuhy wcrc olsd èvdlvch

è pdlìy oeolys`s, portì`pot`de è tmc fldbol ioapo`fes jdr chuiot`de, oeh prd-

v`hèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet idurscs oeh M@Z/O@HY oeh fcehcr oworcecss

troèèf. Xm`s `llustrotcs tmc imoefèf rdlc oeh/dr pcricpt`de dj tcoimcrs ue`des

jrda purc poy-borfoèèf drfoe`zot`des td prdjcss`deol drfoe`zot`des evdlvch e

bdtm pdlìy hòldfuc oeh scrvìc prdv`s`de.ôrcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`des oeh simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs ploych oe

àpdrtoet port è dpcrotèf idsts oeh simddl aoètceoeic è aoey ioscs, but jcw

moh rdlcs è oiiduetob`l`ty dr ade`tdrèf tosgs. Jueh-ro`sèf jdr tmc simddl wos

dec dj tmc`r aokdr oit`v`t`cs, oeh è sdac ioscs porcets olsd prdv`hch ohh`t`deol

poyacet (è è-gèh suppdrt) td fdvcreacet tcoimcrs dr poyacet jdr cxtro ede-

fdvcreacet tcoimcrs. Xmcrc wcrc sdac, but jcw, rcpdrts dj porcets ade`tdrèf

tcoimcr ottcehoeic dr togèf oit`de è ioscs wmcrc obscetcc`sa wos ueoiicptobly

m`fm. @e Sfoeho, dec h`strìt djjìcr rcpdrtch prcssurc jrda porcets td ohhrcss

tcoimcr obsceic. @e Aolow`, sdac simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs wcrc vcry

Yupcrv s`de dj Xcoimcrs • ?2?




oit`vc, e port bciousc dj troèèf tmrdufm EFDs. Xm`s suffcsts tmot troèèf dj por-

cet frdups, idabèch w`tm opprdpròtc cxtcreol suppdrts, ioe cemoeic tmc ob`l`ty

dj idaaue`t`cs td ade`tdr tmc`r simddls.

EDXC

?. O edtc de tcraèdldfy. Xmc aoeofcrs dj simddls orc gedwe by vor`dus t`tlcs èiluh-

èf mcoh tcoimcrs, prèi`pols, oeh h`rcitdrs. Xmc tcra “mcoh tcoimcr‑ `s usch fcecrolly mcrc,

but dtmcr t`tlcs orc usch wmce rcjcrrèf td spci`jì iduetr`cs.



?29

Xcoimcr Obsceic,

ôy H`str`but`de, oeh H`si`plèc

IMO^XCR =

@e oey systca `t aust bc oetì`potch tmot sdac pcrsdeecl w`ll jo`l td l`vc up tdtmc prdjcss`deol stoehorhs cxpcitch dj tmca. @e ldw-èidac iduetr`cs, dec dj

tmc rciurrèf ideicres `s tmc lcvcl dj tcoimcr obscetcc`sa. M`fm lcvcls dj

obsceic uehcraèc tmc quol`ty dj simddlèf, rchuic porcet idej`hceic è tmc

simddl, oeh tceh td rchuic stuhcet ottcehoeic. Jo`lurc td ohhrcss tcoimcr obsce-

tcc`sa jurtmcr ldwcrs tcoimcr adrolc oeh scts ldw stoehorhs jdr dtmcr tcoimcrs.

Pct sdac dj tmc obsceic `s iousch by fdvcreacet systcas, bdtm tmrdufm jo`lurc

td hcl`vcr poy td tcoimcrs, oeh è w`tmhrowol dj tcoimcrs td portì`potc è troèèf.

Vmce tcoimcrs orc obscet w`tmdut iousc, tmc ob`l`ty dj h`si`plèory systcas td

rcspdeh è oe opprdpròtc oeh tàcly aoeecr `s gcy td rchuièf tmc ecfot`vc

àpoit. Xm`s imoptcr cxoaècs tmrcc ospcits dj tmc aoeofcacet dj tcoimcrs;

(`) tcoimcr obscetcc`sa oeh pdss`blc rcspdescs td `t, (``) systcas jdr hcl`vcry dj

poy oeh tmc`r àplìot`des, oeh (```) h`si`plèory systcas.

XCOIMCR OBYCEXCC@YA

@e cvcry iduetry èiluhch è tm`s stuhy, sdac hcfrcc dj tcoimcr obsceic wos

rcpdrtch. Vmcrc tcoimcr obscetcc`sa `s m`fm, `t uehcraècs tmc quol`ty dj chuio-

t`de, os pup`ls orc lcjt td stuhy oldec (j`furc =.?). Xmc àpoit de stuhcets‐ lcore-

èf ioe bc vcry s`fe`jìoet7 o stuhy e [oabò smdwch tmot oe eircosc dj 3 pcricet

è tcoimcr obsceic rchuich lcoreèf by 8’= pcricet dj ovcrofc foès dvcr tmc ycor

(Hos ct ol. 2>>3). Obscetcc`sa olsd uehcraècs idej`hceic è publì simddlèf,

oeh `s dec dj tmc hr`vcrs dj tmc frdwtm dj ldw-idst pr`votc simddls. Oltmdufm pr`-

votc simddls djtce movc vcry pddr joi`l`t`cs oeh bohly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, tmcy

ottroit porcet rcsdurics bciousc tmcy orc pcric`vch td cesurc adrc tcoimcr idetoit

tàc tmoe publì simddls (bdx =.?).




Hcsp`tc tmc s`fe`jìoeic dj tmc prdblca, `t `s h`jjìult td fct hoto obdut tmc

cxtcet dj tcoimcr obscetcc`sa;

• Edec dj tmc iduetr cs è tm`s stuhy moh djjìòl tcoimcr obscetcc`sa stot stìs.

• Edec dj tmc iduetr cs e tm`s stuhy eiluhch ejdraot`de de tcoimcr obsceic e

tmc`r oeeuol chuiot`de ade`tdrèf stot`stìs.

• Xcoimcr ottcehoeic wos djtce rcidrhch ot tmc simddl lcvcl, but èjdraot`de wos

rorcly oeolyzch dr jch up td m`fmcr lcvcls.

Ecvcrtmclcss, sdac ehìot`de dj tmc siolc dj tcoimcr obscetcc`sa ioe bc jdueh

jrda ottcehoeic stuh`cs, usuolly bosch de ueoeedueich v`s`ts by ceuacrotdrs td

o soaplc dj simddls.

J`furc =.? Sfoeho; Xcoimcr Obscetcc`sa

@e Sfoeho, o stuhcet è pràory 6 troesir`bcs edtcs detd tmc bdorh, os tmc tcoimcr `s obscet

BD] =.? VMP IMDDYC ^R@ZOXC YIMDDLY4

Boeho, o tox` hr`vcr è Lusogo, [oabò, mos twd sdes ofch scvce oeh tce.

Oltmdufm edt wcoltmy (mc rcets tmc 2>-ycor dlh tox` de o ho`ly bos`s), mc poys

9>>,>>> [oabòe gwoimo ([AG) ($63) pcr tcra jdr coim dj m`s sdes td

ottceh o ldw-idst pr`votc simddl. Vmce osgch wmy, mc cxploèch tmot tcoimcrs

è fdvcreacet simddls orc “tdd ployjul‑ oeh ecvcr è tmc`r ilossrddas.



Xcoimcr Obsceic, ôy H`str`but`de, oeh H`si`plèc • ?23

Ytuh`cs dj obscetcc`sa movc jdueh vor`ch, but fcecrolly m`fm, rotcs dj tcoimcr

obsceic. O Vdrlh Boeg stuhy dj obsceic è s`x iduetr`cs wdrlhw`hc (Imouhmury

ct ol. 2>>:) jdueh oe ovcrofc dj ?0 pcricet dj tcoimcrs obscet wmce simddls wcrc

v`s`tch. @e [oabò o stuhy idehuitch è 2>>3 os port dj tmc publì cxpceh`turc

troigèf stuhy jdueh tmot ?= pcricet dj tcoimcrs wcrc obscet de tmc hoy dj tmc v`s`t

(Hos ct ol. 2>>3). O sà`lor siolc dj obsceic wos jdueh è Sfoeho, wmcrc o 2>>:

stuhy jdueh tmot oladst 2> pcricet dj oll tcoimcrs idulh edt bc jdueh è tmc

simddl ot tmc tàc dj ceuacrotdr v`s`ts. @e ohh`t`de, ecorly dec-tm`rh dj tcoimcrs

wcrc ot simddl, but duts`hc dj tmc ilossrdda wmce tmc ceuacrotdrs v`s`tch (bdx =.2)

(Mobyoràoeo 2>>6). Idabèèf tmc tcoimcrs wmd orc obscet w`tm tmdsc wmd orc

“obscet de tmc prca`scs,‑ `t sccas tmot lcss tmoe molj dj tmc cxpcitch euabcr dj

ilosscs wcrc oituolly hcl`vcrch.

Jdr tmc purpdscs dj oeolys`s, h`jjcrcet typcs dj tcoimcr obsceic ioe bc h`stè-fu`smch7 edeh`sirct`deory, capldycr-è`tòtch, oeh h`sirct`deory. @e tmc iosc dj

edeh`sirct`deory obsceic, o tcoimcr `s ueoblc td ottceh iloss os o idescquceic dj

joitdrs duts`hc dj m`s dr mcr idetrdl. Xypìol cxoaplcs aoy èiluhc scvcrc `llecss

dr èkury, dr jo`lurcs dj publì troespdrtot`de systcas. @e dec simddl v`s`tch è

Sfoeho, o scr`dusly `ll tcoimcr moh edt ottcehch tmc simddl jdr o euabcr dj

adetms, but tmc simddl moh edt rcpdrtch tmc obsceic td prdtcit tmc èidac dj

tmc`r `ll idllcofuc. @e L`bcrò oeh Edrtmcre Sfoeho, tcoimcr ottcehoeic mos bcce

scvcrcly h`sruptch by i`v`l str`jc7 aoey tcoimcrs movc lcjt pdsts oeh os aoey os

2> pcricet dj tcoimcrs è L`bcrò aoy movc lcjt tmc iduetry.Dtmcr tcoimcr obsceic `s capldycr-è`tòtch. @e tm`s iosc tmc tcoimcr `s obscet

bciousc dj oit`des dr dppdrtue`t`cs dj tmc capldycr, wmctmcr `t bc tmc simddl dr

tmc chuiot`de ohaè`strot`de. Cxoaplcs èiluhc trovcl td idllcit poy, td ottceh

idurscs, dr td pct`t`de ot chuiot`de djjìcs jdr o vor`cty dj bcecj`ts suim os stuhy

lcovc, troesjcr, dr poyacet dj olldwoeics. @e [oabò oeh L`bcrò, sdac rurol

simddls wcrc ildsèf jdr o euabcr dj hoys coim adetm os tcoimcrs trovclch td idl-

lcit oeh spceh tmc`r poy. @e Aolow` tmc dvcrhcpldyacet dj tcoimcrs td urboe

simddls lcjt aoey simddls w`tm adrc tcoimcrs tmoe ilosscs, olldwèf coim tcoimcr

td bc obscet o jcw hoys coim wccg. @e oladst oll iduetr`cs, ottcehoeic ot idurscs wos o s`fe`jìoet iousc dj tcoimcr obsceic. @e [oabò, tmc hotcs jdr tmc rcs`hcetòl

scss`des dj tmc h`stoeic troèèf idurscs wcrc edt olwoys syeimrde`zch w`tm simddl

mdl`hoys, iousèf s`fe`jìoet obsceic hurèf tmcsc pcr`dhs.

Dtmcr obsceics orc h`sirct`deory oeh tcoimcr è`tòtch. @e tmcsc ioscs tmc tcoimcr

idulh ottceh tmc simddl, but imdsc edt td. Cxoaplcs èiluhc cefofèf è dtmcr

èidac-fcecrotèf oit`v`t`cs, hdacstì oit`v`t`cs suim os iorèf jdr joa`ly acabcrs,

idaaue`ty oeh iulturol oit`v`t`cs suim os ottcehoeic ot wchhèfs oeh juecrols, dr

sàply obsceic bciousc tmc tcoimcr hdcs edt jccl l`gc wdrgèf. O euabcr dj cxoa-

plcs jrda Sfoeho m`fml`fmt tmcsc diiurrceics; scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc djtce obscet bciousc dj scideh kdbs, djtce è pr`votc simddls7 tcoimcr obsceic wos rcpdrtch td bc



?2: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

m`fmcr ot tmc stort dj tcra, wmce tcoimcrs w`tm im`lhrce wcrc djtce obscet td try td

oiiuaulotc tmc juehs td poy simddl jccs7 oeh jèolly, tcoimcr obsceic wos rcpdrtch

td bc m`fmcr è morvcst scosde oeh dtmcr pcog pcr`dhs è tmc ofrìulturol iolcehor,

wmce tcoimcrs aoy c`tmcr wdrg tmc`r dwe loeh, dr wdrg jdr poy de dtmcr joras.

RCY^DEYCY XD OBYCEXCC@YA

^DL@IP RCY^DEYCY

Edeh`sirct`deory obsceics orc lcss l`gcly td bc rcspdes`vc td pdlìy imoefc, oeh

ohhrcssèf iouscs suim os scr`dus llecss, wor, oeh i`v`l str`jc orc jor duts`hc tmc sidpc

dj chuiot`de pdlìy. Mdwcvcr, tcoimcr obsceic rcsultèf jrda trovcl h`jjìult`cs aoy

bc rchuich by prdv`s`de dj mdusèf ecor td simddls. O stuhy e Sfoeho (scc bdx =.2,

obdvc) jdueh ldwcrch tcoimcr obsceic ossdiòtch w`tm tcoimcr mdusèf oeh l`vèf e

tmc soac por`sm os tmc simddl. Mdwcvcr, `t `s edt ilcor tmot tm`s `s olwoys o sdlut`de.@e Lcsdtmd, dec rurol simddl v`s`tch moh capty tcoimcr mdusèf, os tmc tcoimcrs prc-

jcrrch td l`vc è o ecorby tdwe oeh trovcl by publì troespdrtot`de coim hoy.

Capldycr-è`tòtch obsceic `s m`fmly oaceoblc td imoefc. Xmc h`srupt`de rcsult-

èf jrda solory idllcit`de ioe bc rchuich c`tmcr by poyacet h`rcitly ètd tcoimcr

boeg oiiduets dr hcl`vcry dj poyacet h`rcitly td simddls (h`siussch lotcr è tm`s

imoptcr). Cesurèf tmot oppdètacets, troesjcrs, oeh prdadt`des orc àplc-

acetch cjjì`cetly oeh w`tmdut oey ecch jdr pct`t`deèf è pcrsde ot o h`strìt

djjìc idulh rchuic tmc obsceic dj tcoimcrs oeh mcoh tcoimcrs. Obsceic td ottceh

idurscs ioe bc rchuich by syeimrde`zèf troèèf idurscs w`tm simddl mdl`hoysoeh rchuièf tmc euabcr dj idurscs tmot ioe bc prdv`hch w`tmè simddl tàc.

BD] =.2 SFOEHO; ÔXXCREY DJ XCOIMCR OBYCEXCC@YA

O stuhy è 2>>:, bosch de survcys dj ?:> simddls è s`x h`strìts jrda tmrccrcf`des è Sfoeho, jdueh tmot;

• Ecorly dec-j`jtm dj tcoimcrs wcrc obscet, oeh ecorly dec-tm`rh wcrc

prcscet but edt è tmc`r ilossrdda ot tmc tàc dj ceuacrotdr v`s`ts.

• Yimddls w`tm strdef porcetol èvdlvcacet, os èhìotch by porcetol ide-

tr`but`des oeh jrcquceiy dj porcet acctèfs, moh ldwcr tcoimcr obsceic.

• Yimddls w`tm jueit`deèf tcoimcr mdusèf moh ldwcr tcoimcr obsceic.

• Xcoimcrs l`vèf è tmc soac por`sm os tmc simddl wcrc obscet lcss (by

0 pcricet).

Yduric; Mobyoràoeo 2>>6.




@e Xmc Foabò, mcoh tcoimcrs orc osgch td usc o qudto systca td rchuic tcoimcr

obsceic. Mcoh tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td ade`tdr tcoimcr obsceic oeh rcstrìt tmc

obsceic dj coim èh`v`huol tcoimcr td o aoxàua dj twd hoys pcr adetm. Oey

tcoimcr wmd mos bcce obscet w`tmdut pcra`ss`de `s hce`ch pcra`ss`de td ottceh

troèèf. Xm`s ecwly ètrdhuich pdlìy sccas l`gcly td àprdvc tmc h`str`but`de dj

troèèf idurscs td tcoimcrs, oeh prdv`hc sdac èicet`vc td àprdvc ottcehoeic.

Xmcrc orc strdef èhìot`des tmot h`sirct`deory tcoimcr obscetcc`sa ioe imoefc

s`fe`jìoetly è rcspdesc td imoefcs è ade`tdrèf oeh tmc idescquceics dj obsceic.

Yimddls aoeofch by edefdvcreacet ofcei`cs djtce oim`cvc ldwcr tcoimcr obsceic,

cvce wmce tcoimcr solor`cs rcaoè sà`lor dr ldwcr. Zcry ldw-idst pr`votc simddls

è Sfoeho oeh [oabò djtce movc m`fmcr tcoimcr ottcehoeic tmoe fdvcreacet

simddls, os ottcehoeic `s ade`tdrch oit`vcly by simddl aoeofcrs wmdsc èidac

hcpcehs de publì pcricpt`de dj tmc`r simddls. @e Xmc Foabò, imurim-rue simddlsorc rcpdrtch td movc m`fmcr tcoimcr ottcehoeic tmoe fdvcreacet simddls, oltmdufm

tcoimcrs movc tmc soac quol`jìot`des oeh core tmc soac solor`cs. Xmcsc imurim

simddls aoy movc adrc prdoit`vc aoeofcrs hr`vce by o scesc dj a`ss`de, oeh tmcy

olsd rdutècly w`tmmdlh o pdrt`de dj solory jrda tcoimcrs wmd orc obscet.

Xmcrc orc olsd cxoaplcs dj tcoimcr obsceic rcspdehèf td ade`tdrèf è fdv-

creacet simddls. @e Sfoeho o 2>>8 stuhy rcpdrtch obsceic rotcs dj 26 pcricet

(Imouhmury ct ol. 2>>:). Jdlldwèf fdvcreacet cjjdrts td àprdvc ade`tdrèf,

o stuhy usèf o sà`lor actmdh è 2>>: jdueh obsceic rotcs dj ?0 pcricet

(Mobyor aoeo 2>>6). @e Xmc Foabò, tcoimcr obsce-tcc`sa jcll jdlldwèf tmc ètrdhuit`de dj tmc ilustcr

ade`tdrs, wmd v`s`tch simddls de o rcfulor bos`s (typ`-

iolly twìc o adetm) oeh ade`tdrch tcoimcr ottcehoeic.

Vm`lc tmcsc suffcst tmot tcoimcr ottcehoeic rcspdehs

td ade`tdrèf, adst dj tmc iduetr`cs è tmc stuhy moh

wcog acimoe`sas jdr ade`tdrèf oeh troigèf

tcoimcr ottcehoeic. @e adst ioscs simddls wcrc

cxpcitch td rcidrh tcoimcr ottcehoeic, adst jrc-

qucetly w`tm o bddg è wmìm tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitchtd s`fe è ho`ly (toblc =.?). Mdwcvcr, è adst ioscs,

tmcrc wos ed idap`lot`de, oeolys`s, dr rcpdrtèf dj

tm`s hoto, c`tmcr è tmc simddl dr ot tmc icetrol lcvcl.

Dec cxicpt`de wos è [oez`bor, wmcrc simddls wcrc

cxpcitch td idap`lc rcidrhs dj ottcehoeic, oeh è

sdac ioscs cvce h`sploych tmc tcoimcr ottcehoeic hoto

de publì v`cw (scc j`furc =.2). @e Xmc Foabò,

rcf`deol djjìcs movc bcce hcvcldpèf o systca td

idap`lc tcoimcr ottcehoeic hoto jrda simddls, but by 2>>= tm`s wos st`ll èidaplctc.

J`furc =.2 [oez`bor; Ottcehoeicpdstcr

O pdstcr e tmc mcoh tcoimcr‐s djjìcs e o simddl

è [oez`bor, smdwèf ovcrofc adetmly ottce-hoeic jdr stuhcets oeh tcoimcrs.



?2= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Cxtcreol èspcit`de v`s`ts h`h edt olwoys ade`tdr tcoimcr ottcehoeic hoto. @e

[oabò, stoehorhs djjìcrs orc cxpcitch td idaplctc oe èst`tut`deol ade`tdrèf

jdra ojtcr coim simddl v`s`t, oeh o tcoimcr ade`tdrèf jdra ojtcr coim iloss supcr-

v`sch. Ec`tmcr dj tmcsc stoehorh jdras èiluhcs o ploic td idaacet de tcoimcr

ottcehoeic.

LCOHCRYM@^ OEH IDAASE@XP RCY^DEYCY

Mcoh tcoimcrs orc tmc adst sce`dr aoeofcrs ldiotch ot tmc simddl lcvcl, oeh smdulh

bc cxpcitch td ploy o icetrol rdlc è ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottcehoeic oeh rcaèhèf

tcoimcrs dj tmc`r rcspdes`b`l`t`cs. Mdwcvcr, mcoh tcoimcrs orc obscet jrda tmc simddl

cvce adrc djtce tmoe tcoimcrs, jrcqucetly jdr djjìòl busècss. Jdr cxoaplc, è

Sfoeho, 26 pcricet dj mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc obscet, idaporch td ?= pcricet dj rcfu-

lor tcoimcrs, w`tm ecorly molj dj tmc mcoh tcoimcr obsceics huc td djjìòl hut`cs

(Mobyoràoeo 2>>6). @e Lcsdtmd, dec h`strìt èspcitdr cstàotch tmot obdut molj

dj tmc simddl mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc obscet jdr adrc tmoe scvce hoys o adetm.

Cvce wmce mcoh tcoimcrs orc prcscet, tmcy orc djtce rcluitoet td put prcssurcde tcoimcrs td ottceh tmc`r ilosscs. Ydac mcoh tcoimcrs hd edt scc supcrv`s`de dj

tcoimcrs os tmc`r rdlc. Mcoh tcoimcrs djtce l`vc è ildsc prdxà`ty td tmc dtmcr

tcoimcrs, portìulorly è rurol orcos, oeh aoy jèh `t h`jjìult td togc oit`de

ofoèst tmc`r idllcofucs. Ogycoapdef oeh Osoetc (2>>3) hcsir`bc suim o s`tuot`de

è Fmoeo, suffcstèf tmot mcoh tcoimcrs aoy edt movc tmc ecicssory outmdr`ty td

cejdric rcfulot`des huc td tmc diiupot`deol iulturc dj tmc simddls.

Xmc ètrdhuit`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs è Xmc Foabò sccas td movc rcsultch è

èircosch oit`de by mcoh tcoimcrs td cejdric ottcehoeic rulcs. Yèic tmc ilustcr

ade`tdrs bcfoe td v`s`t simddls, rcf`deol djjìcs movc rcpdrtch oe eircosc e ioscsdj mcoh tcoimcrs rcqucstèf solory stdppofc dr dtmcr oit`des e rcspdesc td tcoimcr

Xoblc =.? Rcidrhèf dj Xcoimcr Ottcehoeic

Orc oll simddls cxpcitch td @s tcoimcr ottcehoeic hoto troigch

rcidrh tcoimcr ottcehoeic4 oeh oeolyzch icetrolly4

Cr`trco Pcs Ed

Foabò, Xmc Pcs Ed, but bcèf hcvcldpch.

Lcsdtmd Pcs, but edt oll hd. Ed

L`bcrò Pcs Ed

Aolow` Pcs Ed

Sfoeho Pcs Ed

[oabò Edt olwoys. Ed

[oez`bor Pcs Ed, but simddls idap`lc oeh sdac

h`sploy ovcrofc ottcehoeic.




obscetcc`sa. @t aoy bc tmot mcoh tcoimcrs jclt oe eircosch ecch td ohhrcss tcoimcr

ottcehoeic e tmc idetcxt dj frcotcr cxtcreol ade`tdrèf. @t s olsd pdss`blc tmot tmc

v`s`blc cxtcreol ade`tdrèf aohc `t cos`cr jdr mcoh tcoimcrs td ohhrcss `ssucs dj

obsceic w`tm tmc`r idllcofucs.

ôrcets oeh tmc idaaue`ty smdulh olsd bc è o strdef pds`t`de td ade`tdr

tcoimcr ottcehoeic. ôrcets fcecrolly movc o strdef idaa`tacet td chuiot`de jdr

tmc`r im`lhrce, os hcadestrotch by tmc w`llèfecss dj cvce rclot`vcly pddr porcets

td poy jdr pr`votc simddls. Vm`lc porcets orc djtce edt è o fddh pds`t`de td kuhfc

tmc quol`ty dj chuiot`de, tmcy orc edraolly oworc dj tmc jrcquceiy dj tcoimcr

ottcehoeic, portìulorly è tmc saollcr rurol simddls. Movèf tmc èjdraot`de oeh

o systca èv`tèf jcchboig, os wcll os o strdef pcrsdeol ètcrcst è tmc dutidac,

smdulh ceoblc porcets td ade`tdr oeh ceidurofc tcoimcr ottcehoeic. Xmcrc `s

sdac cv`hceic tmot strdef porcet èvdlvcacet `s ossdiòtch w`tm m`fmcr tcoimcr ottcehoeic. @e Sfoeho, simddls w`tm strdef porcetol èvdlvcacet, os èhìotch by

porcetol idetr`but`des oeh jrcquceiy dj porcet acctèfs, moh ldwcr tcoimcr

obsceic (Mobyoràoeo 2>>6).

Xmc àpoit dj porcet idaa`ttccs vor`cs, mdwcvcr. @e Aolow`, `t wos rcpdrtch

tmot sdac idaa`ttccs wcrc vcry oit`vc oeh gcpt tcoimcrs de tmc`r tdcs, but dtmcrs

h`h vcry l`ttlc. @t aoy bc adrc h`jjìult jdr porcets è rcadtc rurol simddls td

ade`tdr tcoimcrs bciousc (`) tmcy aoy bc lcss chuiotch tmoe tmc tcoimcrs oeh sd

jccl lcss oblc td ètcrvcec, oeh (``) tmcy aoy l`vc è o saoll idaaue`ty oeh jccl

ueoblc td iousc tces`des by ohhrcssèf tcoimcr obsceic.@e tm`s idetcxt, djjìòl systcas tmot idllcit ejdraot`de jrda porcets, os wcll os

troèèf oeh suppdrt jdr porcet frdups, aoy mclp porcets td ploy o rdlc e ohhrcss-

èf obscetcc`sa. Mdwcvcr, tmc iosc stuh`cs prdv`hch jcw cxoaplcs dj spci`jì

acosurcs td ceidurofc porcets‐ portì`pot`de, suim os osgèf porcet idaa`ttccs td

cehdrsc ottcehoeic rcidrhs, dr rcqu`rèf èspcitdrs td acct porcets oeh spci`j`-

iolly h`siuss ottcehoeic.

YOEIX@DEY OY O RCY^DEYC

Yoeit`des ofoèst tcoimcrs wmd orc obscet orc pdss`blc tmrdufm tmc acimoe`sa dj

jdraol h`si`plèory prdichurcs, but tmc ldef hurot`de oeh ueprchìtoblc dutidacs

dj tmcsc prdicsscs aoy bc hoaofèf td rclot`desm`ps oeh adrolc è o simddl oeh

h`sidurofc tmc`r usc. @e Lcsdtmd, adst h`si`plèory ioscs orc bcl`cvch td fd

uercpdrtch, os prèi`pols orc rcluitoet td fct èvdlvch è o lceftmy oeh idaplcx

prdicss tmot ultàotcly aoy edt rcsult è oey pds`t`vc oit`de. H`si`plèory prdic-

hurcs orc sldw, oeh tmc aokdr`ty dj ioscs rcsult è jèoeiòl pceolt`cs dr woreèfs.

@e sdac ioscs tmc rcfulot`des olldw tcoimcrs td ovd`h h`si`plèory oit`de usèf

tcimeìol`t`cs dj tcraèdldfy. Jdr cxoaplc, tmc rcfulot`des stotc tmot o tcoimcr smdulh edt bc “uercosdeobly obscet.‑ @e dec iosc, o tcoimcr wmd wos obscet jdr o




euabcr dj wccgs wm`lc mcrhèf m`s iottlc orfuch suiicssjully tmot tm`s wos o “rco-

sdeoblc obsceic,‑ os m`s joa`ly wos hcpcehcet de tmc iottlc.

@e Sfoeho, h`si`plèory prdicsscs orc olsd tàc-idesuaèf, togèf bctwcce

s`x adetms oeh jdur ycors td rcoim o ideilus`de. Mcoh tcoimcrs rcpdrtch tmot

togèf h`si`plèory oit`de idulh hoaofc rclot`desm`ps è tmc simddl oeh iousc

idejlìts w`tm tmc stojj dr tmc idaaue`ty. Idescqucetly, aoey mcoh tcoimcrs

ovd`h usèf h`si`plèory prdichurcs, sdactàcs prcjcrrèf td joi`l`totc troesjcrs

jdr “h`jjìult‑ tcoimcrs.

Xwd dj tmc iduetr`cs movc ètcrachòtc soeit`des tmot olldw sdac oit`de td

bc togce ofoèst oe obscet tcoimcr w`tmdut fdèf tmrdufm tmc jdraol h`si`pl`-

eory systca. @e L`bcrò, `j o tcoimcr `s obscet jdr adrc tmoe tmrcc hoys è o

adetm, tmc simddl `ssucs o woreèf oeh tmc tcoimcr‐s solory imcig `s w`tmmclh

uet`l tmc tcoimcr poys o jèc dj ?3> LRH (L`bcròe hdllors, S.Y. $2.3>) ot tmcldiol rcvceuc djjìc. Xm`s rclot`vcly saoll oaduet `s cqu`volcet td obdut 8 pcr-

icet dj tmc adetmly solory dj o pràory tcoimcr, dr lcss tmoe dec hoy‐s poy. Ecv-

crtmclcss, os oll dj tmc poy `s w`tmmclh uet`l tmc jèc `s po`h, tm`s pceolty `s o

hctcrrcet. Dec h`strìt chuiot`de djjìcr cxploèch tmot tm`s pceolty s edt olwoys

cejdrich, bciousc tmc h`strìt aoeofcacet mos sdac syapotmy jdr tmc h`jjìult

ideh`t`des è wmìm tcoimcrs wdrg, but tmot ecvcrtmclcss tmcrc `s usuolly ot lcost

dec jèc imorfch coim adetm.

@e Xmc Foabò, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oeh sdac quol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc po`h è

iosm ot tmc`r simddl. Coim tcoimcr aust bc prcscet è drhcr td rcic`vc poyacet, ostmc rci`p`cet aust s`fe jdr tmc poy, oeh mcoh aostcrs orc edt olldwch td s`fe jdr

obscet tcoimcrs. Xm`s cesurcs tmot tcoimcrs aust ot lcost bc prcscet de poyhoy è

drhcr td rcic`vc tmc`r poy. Jdr dtmcr tcoimcrs, poyacet `s outdaotì tmrdufm clci-

trdeì troesjcr. Mdwcvcr, rcf`deol outmdr`t`cs movc tmc pdwcr td rcqucst o solory

hchuit`de os o rcspdesc td o pcr`dh dj ueoutmdr`zch obsceic, dr solory stdppofc è

ioscs wmcrc tcoimcrs movc obsidehch. @e rcf`de 2 tmcrc wcrc opprdxàotcly 2,8>>

tcoimcrs oeh 03 ioscs dj c`tmcr solory stdppofc dr hchuit`de è 2>>: (toblc =.2).

Xmc lorfcst iotcfdry wos stdppofc dj solory jdr tmdsc wmd jo`lch td rcpdrt td tmc`r

pdsts ot tmc stort dj tmc tcra. Xmc rcf`deol djjìc rcpdrtch tmot tcoimcrs usuolly rcoppcorch deic tmc solory wos stdppch.

Xoblc =.2 Xmc Foabò; Yolory Hchuit`des oeh Ytdppofcs e Rcf`de 2, 2>>:

Yolory soeit`des Euabcr dj èi`hcets

Yolory hchuit`de (o rcspdesc td o tcapdrory obsceic) 2>

Yolory stdppofc jdr cx`stèf tcoimcrs (tcoimcrs c`tmcr lcjt tmc simddl 98

dr moh ldef-tcra obsceic w`tmdut cxploeot`de)

Yolory stdppofc jdr jo`lurc td rcpdrt (tcoimcrs wmd wcrc troesjcrrch 8?

td o simddl jo`lch td oppcor ot tmc stort dj tmc tcra)



Xcoimcr Obsceic, ôy H`str`but`de, oeh H`si`plèc • ?9?

FMDYX XCOIMCRY

Vmcrc tcoimcrs‐ aoeofcacet systcas orc wcog, prdblcas dj fmdst tcoimcrs ioe

oppcor. Fmdst tcoimcrs orc tmdsc wmd oppcor de tmc poyrdll but è rcol`ty orc edt tcoimèf. Xmcsc aoy bc hcl`bcrotc jrouh simcacs, dr rcsult jrda tcoimcrs wmd h`ch

dr lcjt tmc simddl yct rcaoè de tmc poyrdll. Fmdst tcoimcrs hrow rcsdurics jrda

tmc systca oeh rcsult è ldiol tcoimcr smdrtofcs, wmcrc tcoimcr olldiot`de `s bosch

de tmc prcsuach cx`stèf euabcr dj tcoimcrs.

Xmc siolc dj fmdst tcoimcrs `s h`jjìult td hctcraèc, but tmc euabcrs ioe bc

qu`tc substoetòl. @e Sfoeho, fmdst tcoimcrs wcrc cstàotch td oiiduet jdr 2> pcr-

icet dj tmc poyrdll e ?009, but jdlldwèf o scr`cs dj poyrdll ilcoeèf cxcri`scs, tm`s

moh jollce td oe cstàotch 8 pcricet è 2>>: (Vèglcr oeh Ydehcrfoorh 2>>6). @e

L`bcrò, tmcrc wos o w`hcsprcoh prdblca dj fmdst tcoimcrs jdlldwèf tmc h`srup-t`de dj tmc wor. Ohhrcssèf tm`s prdblca wos aohc h`jjìult by tmc pddr rcidrhs è

tmc chuiot`de scitdr oeh tmc wcog lègofc bctwcce tmc rcidrhs è tmc Aè`stry dj

Jèoeic (wmcrc poyrdll wos aoeofch) oeh tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de. O poyrdll

ilcoeèf cxcri`sc idehuitch by tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de è 2>>: rcsultch è tmc

rcidvcry dj :06 ueiosmch poyimcigs (jrda o tcoimcr jdric dj uehcr ?2,>>>) oeh

tmc rcadvol dj o euabcr dj fmdst tcoimcrs.

O euabcr dj iduetr`cs movc idehuitch oit`v`t`cs td àprdvc tmc oiiuroiy dj

tmc`r tcoimcr poyrdlls. @e [oez`bor, tmc fdvcreacet orroefch o dec-hoy poyrdll

ilcoeèf, wmcrc oll chuiot`de pcrsdeecl wcrc cxpcitch td bc ot tmc`r pdsts de o

spci`jì hotc, td bc imcigch by ceuacrotdrs. Xm`s cxcri`sc wos ètcehch td rcadvc

bdtm fmdst tcoimcrs oeh tcoimcrs mdlhèf adrc tmoe dec pdst. @e L`bcrò, poyrdll

systcas wcrc rcstruiturch td àprdvc oiiuroiy (è ohh`t`de td tmc 2>>: poyrdll

ilcoeèf cxcri`sc). Coim adetm o poyrdll l`st `s scet td cvcry prèi`pol, wmd icrt`-

j`cs tmot `t `s oiiurotc bcjdrc poyacet `s aohc. Xm`s adetmly imcigèf `s ètcehch

td rchuic tmc crrdrs è poyrdll oeh prdv`hc o ilcor lèc dj oiiduetob`l`ty è ioscs

wmcrc jrouh `s hctcitch.

HCL@ZCRP DJ ÔP

Xmc lorfc euabcr dj tcoimcrs oeh tmc`r w`hc fcdfropmìol h`str`but`de prcscet

ldf`stìol imollcefcs è tmc hcl`vcry dj poyacet. ôyacet systcas h`jjcrch bdtm

bctwcce iduetr`cs oeh sdactàcs w`tmè iduetr`cs. @e sdac ioscs, h`jjcrcet

iotcfdr`cs dj tcoimcrs wcrc po`h è o h`jjcrcet aoeecr, oeh è sdac ioscs rcadtc

tcoimcrs wcrc po`h è o h`jjcrcet aoeecr. ôyacet systcas h`jjcrch è adhc dj

poyacet, adhc dj hcl`vcry, oeh rcspdes`vcecss td imoefcs. Adhcs dj poyacet

èiluhch iosm, imcig, oeh clcitrdeì troesjcr. Adhcs dj hcl`vcry èiluhch h`rcit

boeg troesjcr, hcl`vcry td simddl, oeh systcas wmcrc tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch tdtrovcl td idllcit tmc`r poy. Os jdr rcspdes`vcecss, è sdac ioscs poyacet idulh



idetèuc jdr adetms ojtcr tmc hcporturc dj o tcoimcr, wm`lc dtmcr iduetr`cs moh

acimoe`sas oàch ot lègèf poyacet td tcoimcrs‐ prcsceic. O suaaory dj tmc

actmdhs dj poyacet è tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs `s prcscetch os toblc =.9.

ôyacet hcl`vcry systcas movc s`fe`jìoet aplìot`des jdr tcoimcr pcrjdraoeic.

Lotc dr uerclòblc hcl`vcry dj poy rcsults è morhsm`p jdr tcoimcrs, ldwcrs adrolc

oeh ldyolty, oeh ceidurofcs tcoimcrs td cefofc è scidehory èidac-fcecrotèf

oit`v`t`cs (Bceecll oeh Ogycoapdef 2>>6). Yystcas wmcrc tcoimcrs aust trovcl td

idllcit tmc`r poy ioe èircosc obscetcc`sa oeh rchuic tmc rcol voluc dj tmc poy-

acet, w`tm h`sprdpdrt`deotcly ecfot`vc apoits e tmc adst rcadtc ldiot`des. Xmc

rcspdes`vcecss dj poyacet systcas td imoefcs, èiluhèf tmc orr`vol oeh hcporturc

dj tcoimcrs, mos àplìot`des jdr tcoimcr oiiduetob`l`ty.

BOLOEI@EF XROZCL ZCRYSY LDIOL HCL@ZCRP

Rurol orcos orc adrc ojjcitch by tmc adhcs dj poyacet oeh hcl`vcry tmoe urboe

orcos. @e fcecrol, tcoimcrs è urboe orcos aoy rcic`vc poy è iosm, imcig, dr clci-

trdeì troesjcr, bciousc tmc trovcl idsts rcaoè ot o aèàua jdr oll tmrcc. @e idetrost,

rcqu`rèf rurol tcoimcrs td trovcl td idllcit tmc`r poy eircosch tcoimcr obscetcc`sa

è aoey iduetr`cs, w`tm tmc adst rcadtc ldiot`des ojjcitch adst ecfot`vcly. Xm`s

oppcorch td bc tmc iosc rcforhlcss dj wmctmcr poyacet wos è iosm, imcig, dr

clcitrdeì troesjcr. Jdr cxoaplc, è [oabò oeh L`bcrò, wmcrc tcoimcrs trovcl td

h`strìt djjìcs td idllcit tmc`r iosm dr imcigs, tmcrc wcrc adetmly ildsurcs dj o jcw hoys dr cvce o wccg è tmc adst rcadtc simddls. @e Lcsdtmd oeh Sfoeho, wmcrc

poy `s by clcitrdeì troesjcr, tcoimcrs orc rcqu`rch td trovcl td tmc`r boegs td

w`tmhrow tmc`r poy.

Xrovcl olsd djtce idacs w`tm ohh`t`deol idsts è tmc adst rcadtc rurol orcos,

jurtmcr èircosèf tmc h`sèicet`vcs td oiicpt o rurol pdstèf. @e L`bcrò, sdac

tcoimcrs rcpdrt spcehèf up td o quortcr dj tmc`r solory è trovcl idsts td idllcit

tmc`r poy. @e dtmcr ioscs, tcoimcrs poy o pcricetofc dj tmc`r solor`cs td ldiol ètcr-

achòr`cs suim os trohcrs wmd iosm imcigs dr spciòl`st ètcrachòr`cs wmd togc o

euabcr dj imcigs oeh trovcl td tmc tdwe td iosm tmca.H`jjcrcet strotcf`cs movc bcce tr`ch è scvcrol iduetr`cs td a`t`fotc tmc àpoit

dj trovcl. @e L`bcrò sdac simddls usc o rdto systca, wmcrc dec frdup dj tcoimcrs

fdcs td idllcit tmc`r imcig j`rst, oeh tmc scideh frdup fdcs wmce tmcy rcture,

tmcrcby olldwèf simddls td rcaoè dpcrotèf hurèf tmc poy pcr`dh coim adetm.

Oltmdufm o bcttcr oltcreot`vc td ildsèf tmc simddl, tm`s st`ll iouscs s`fe`jìoet h`s-

rupt`de td tmc simddls. @e Aolow` oeh [oabò, sdac mcoh tcoimcrs trovcl td idl-

lcit tmc poy. Xm`s rchuics tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, but ioe rcsult è ldef obsceics jrda

simddl jdr tmc mcoh tcoimcr. @e [oabò, e dec cxtrcac iosc, o mcoh tcoimcr spcehs

twd wccgs coim adetm idllcitèf tmc poy. Xm`s systca olsd èircoscs tmc r`sg dj tmcjt e troes`t, os tmc mcoh tcoimcr aoy ceh up trovclèf oldec w`tm tmc poy jdr tmc





Xoblc =.9 ôyacet Actmdhs, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Cr`trco; Xcoimcrs orc po`h è iosm. Coim scidehory simddl mos o iosm`cr, oeh tcoimcrs orc po`h de tmc prca`scs.

Jdr a`hhlc oeh clcacetory simddls, tmcrc `s o iosm`cr ot tmc sub-zdbo (o saollcr ue`t dj tmc zdbo) lcvcl, oeh coim

tcoimcr ioe fd td tmc iosm`cr oeh idllcit tmc`r solory. Bciousc tmcsc iosm`crs orc ot tmc sub-zdbo lcvcl, tmcrc `sl`ttlc h`srupt`de td tmc dpcrot`de dj tmc simddls.

Foabò, Xmc; _uol`j`ch tcoimcrs ioe bc po`h h`rcitly tmrdufm boeg troesjcr, oeh tmc aokdr`ty imddsc tm`s

dpt`de. Cvce è tmc adst rcadtc rcf`de (rcf`de :), tmcrc orc boegs è aokdr tdwes tmot olldw tcoimcrs td

oiicss tmc`r poy. Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc po`h è iosm ot tmc`r simddls. Coim tcoimcr aust bc prcscet è drhcr

td rcic`vc poyacet, os tmc rci`p`cet aust s`fe jdr tmc poy, oeh mcoh aostcrs orc edt olldwch td s`fe jdr

obscet tcoimcrs.

Xmc poy hcl`vcry systca àpdscs o ides`hcroblc burhce de tmc rcf`deol djjìcs. Coim rcf`de scehs o vcmìlc

td Boekul td idllcit tmc poyaostcr, wmd trovcls td coim simddl hcl`vcrèf tmc poy. @e rcf`de 3, `t `s cstàotch

tmot tm`s prdicss togcs dec jull wccg coim adetm. Mdwcvcr, tmc h`rcit poyacet systca prdv`hcs oe àachòtc

rcspdesc td obscet tcoimcrs, os coim tcoimcr aust s`fe tmc solory rcic`pt. Jdr tcoimcrs po`h tmrdufm boegs, `t

ioe togc sdac adetms td stdp poyacet `j o tcoimcr icoscs td wdrg.

Lcsdtmd; Xcoimcrs orc edw po`h tmrdufm clcitrdeì troesjcr ètd boeg oiiduets. @e urboe orcos, tm`s moh

rchuich tcoimcr obsceic td idllcit poy. @e rurol orcos, tmcrc orc djtce ed boegs ovo`loblc, tmus jdrièf tcoimcrs

td trovcl td w`tmhrow tmc`r poy. @e tmc adst rcadtc orcos, tm`s aoy togc ldefcr tmoe o wccgceh oeh ioe rcsult

è sdac obscetcc`sa.

L`bcrò; Xcoimcrs orc po`h by imcig. Edraolly tmcrc `s dec poy pdèt è coim iduety, oeh coim tcoimcr trovcls

coim adetm td idllcit m`s/mcr imcig. Jdr tmc rcadtc simddls tmc ldss dj tàc jdr solory idllcit`de ioe bc s`fe`j`-

ioet. @e tmc cxtrcac ioscs, `t ioe togc up td o wccg td trovcl td idllcit poy. Aoey rurol simddls ildsc jdr twd dr

tmrcc hoys jdr solory idllcit`de. Xmcrc `s o prdpdsol td sceh imcigs h`rcitly td tmc simddls. Xm`s wdulh rchuic tmc

ob`l`ty dj tcoimcrs wmd orc djtce obscet jrda tmc`r simddl td idllcit poy, but a`fmt edt rchuic tmc h`srupt`de

ordueh poy idllcit`de tàc, os tcoimcrs a`fmt st`ll ecch td trovcl ides`hcroblc h`stoeics td iosm tmc imcigs. O

rdto systca wos è ploic è sdac simddls v`s`tch.

Aolow`; Xcoimcrs ioe imdsc td bc po`h by imcig, è iosm, dr tmrdufm clcitrdeì troesjcr, but adrc tmoe

0> pcricet imddsc td bc po`h è iosm. Vmce tcoimcrs orc po`h è iosm, tmc adecy `s w`tmhrowe jrda tmc boeg

by tmc h`strìt chuiot`de aoeofcr (HCA), bosch de tmc vcr`j`ch l`st. Djjìòlly, tmc HCA smdulh tmce h`str`butc

tmc iosm td mcoh tcoimcrs ot o scr`cs dj poy-pdèts, usuolly tmc zdeol XHIs. @e proitìc, sdac HCAs rcqu`rc tmot

oll dj tmc mcoh tcoimcrs trovcl td tmc h`strìt djjìc td idllcit tmc poy. Ydac h`strìts movc rcpdrtch prdblcas dj

c`tmcr tmcjt dj tmc iosm è troes`t dr cabczzlcacet by tmc mcoh tcoimcrs.

Sfoeho; Xcoimcrs orc adstly po`h tmrdufm clcitrdeì troesjcr. Yèic clcitrdeì troesjcr wos ètrdhuich, poy

usuolly orr`vcs de tàc. Xcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td trovcl td tmc`r boeg td w`tmhrow tmc`r poy, iousèf sdac

obsceic è rurol orcos. Fdvcreacet pdlìy `s td ceidurofc tcoimcrs td dpce oe oiiduet è tmc ecorcst boeg,

but sdac tcoimcrs movc oiiduets è boegs è tmc`r mdac orcos oeh tceh td fd mdac de o adetmly bos`s td

idllcit tmc`r poy.

Xmc ètrdhuit`de dj clcitrdeì troesjcr mos rchuich tmc àachòtc soeit`de dj stdppofc dj poy jdr obscet

tcoimcrs. Vmce tcoimcr poy wos h`str`butch tmrdufm simddls, tcoimcrs wmd moh edt rcpdrtch jdr huty idulh edt

rcic`vc tmc`r poy, oeh `t wos rcturech td tmc aè`stry. @t `s edw rcpdrtch td togc sdac adetms td stdp poy è tmc

cvcet dj tcoimcrs jo`lèf td rcpdrt jdr huty.

[oabò; Xcoimcr poyrdll `s aoeofch ot tmc h`strìt lcvcl. Coim h`strìt djjìc rcic`vcs o bldig froet, oeh `s

rcspdes`blc jdr tmc poyacet dj solory oeh olldwoeics td tcoimcrs. @e urboe orcos, adst tcoimcrs orc po`h

tmrdufm boeg oiiduets. @e rurol orcos, tcoimcrs orc usuolly po`h è iosm, idllcitch jrda tmc h`strìt djjìc. Xrovcl

td idllcit poy iouscs sdac h`srupt`de. @e tmc adst rcadtc simddls, trovcl td tmc h`strìt djjìc de jddt ioe togc

o jcw hoys, oeh è dec cxtrcac iosc `t wos rcpdrtch tmot `t togcs tmc mcoh tcoimcr s`x hoys td wolg coim woy,

rcsultèf è obsceic jrda tmc simddl jdr twd wccgs coim adetm. H`strìt djjìcs movc tmc ob`l`ty td tcapdror`ly

bldig tmc poy dj tcoimcrs wmd movc edt bcce ottcehèf simddl, wmctmcr `t wos po`h è iosm dr clcitrdeì troesjcr.




cet`rc simddl. Xmcrc `s olsd tmc r`sg dj cabczzlcacet dj tmc juehs by tmc mcoh

tcoimcr. @e Sfoeho, tmc AdCY `s ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td dpce boeg oiiduets è

tmc ecorcst boeg, èstcoh dj trovclèf deic o adetm td boegs è tmc`r mdac orcos.

@e Lcsdtmd, tmc fdvcreacet `s ceidurofèf tmc cxpoes`de dj boegèf scrvìcs

tmrdufm tmc pdst djjìc, td prdv`hc tcoimcrs w`tm oiicss td tmc`r clcitrdeì juehs.

Ldiol hcl`vcry dj poy djjcrs oe oltcreot`vc td rcqu`rèf oll tcoimcrs td trovcl.

Hcl`vcry dj poy td simddls dr td ldiol poy-pdèts (usuolly lorfcr simddls dr tcoimcr

icetcrs) s idaade e Cr`trco, e rurol Aolow`, oeh jdr uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs e Xmc

Foabò. Hcl`vcry dj poy td simddls `s o tàc-idesuaèf oeh idstly dpcrot`de jdr

tmc aè`str`cs (oltmdufm `t ldwcrs idsts jdr tcoimcrs). @e sdac orcos è rurol

Aolow`, h`strìt chuiot`de djjìcrs spceh dec wccg cvcry adetm, w`tm o vcmìlc

oeh o pdlìc csidrt, hcl`vcrèf poy td simddls. @ecv`tobly, h`jjìult`cs dj wcotmcr,

rdoh ideh`t`des, vcmìlc aoètceoeic, oeh jucl rcsult è sdac h`srupt`des dj poy h`str`but`de. Hcsp`tc tmc idsts, tm`s aoy bc adrc cjjì`cet tmoe tmc aoss adetmly

obscetcc`sa dj èh`v`huol tcoimcrs trovclèf td idllcit dr iosm tmc`r imcigs.

Hcl`vcry td ldiol pdèts aoy olsd prdv`hc oe dppdrtue`ty td vcr`jy tcoimcr hoto

oeh imcig de tcoimcr ottcehoeic. @e Aolow`, jdr cxoaplc, tmc h`strìt chuiot`de

aoeofcrs orc cxpcitch td vcr`jy poyrdll hoto wm`lc hcl`vcrèf poy. @e Xmc Foabò,

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc po`h è iosm oeh aust bc prcscet wmce tmc poyaostcr

v`s`ts è drhcr td idllcit tmc`r poy, tmcrcby ohhèf oe cxtro oiiduetob`l`ty imcig.

CLCIXRDE@I XROEYJCRY

Clcitrdeì troesjcr dj juehs td boeg oiiduets `s èircosèfly ovo`loblc è scvcrol

iduetr`cs, èiluhèf Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò. Xm`s olldws

cjjì`cet, sàultoecdus troesjcr dj juehs td tcoimcrs, wm`lc aèà`zèf tmc r`sg dj

tmcjt hurèf hcl`vcry. Clcitrdeì troesjcr mos olsd èircosch de-tàc poyacet è

scvcrol iduetr`cs. Mdwcvcr, os acet`dech obdvc, clcitrdeì poyacet prcscets

h`jjìult`cs è rurol orcos wmcrc tmcrc `s èsujjì`cet oiicss td boegs. Os o rcsult, è

Aolow` adrc tmoe 0> pcricet dj tcoimcrs imddsc td bc po`h è iosm, oltmdufm

clcitrdeì poyacet `s ovo`loblc.Ssc dj clcitrdeì poyacet systcas bcjdrc boegèf scrvìcs orc w`hcly ovo`loblc

aoy èircosc tmc h`jjìulty dj poy idllcit`de jdr tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, tcoimcrs è

rurol orcos usch td bc oblc td iosm imcigs è ldiol smdps. V`tm tmc ètrdhuit`de dj

clcitrdeì poyacet tmcy orc jdrich td trovcl td tmc ecorcst tdwe td w`tmhrow iosm,

o kdurecy tmot ioe togc tmrcc hoys è tmc adst rcadtc simddls.

Bciousc dj ts m`fmly icetrol`zch eoturc, clcitrdeì troesjcr aoy olsd rchuic tmc

rcspdes`vcecss dj tmc systca td imoefcs suim os tcoimcr obsceic. @e Xmc Foabò

oeh Sfoeho, `t ioe togc adetms td stdp tmc poy dj oe obscet tcoimcr po`h tmrdufm

clcitrdeì troesjcr, but tcoimcrs po`h è iosm movc td bc pmysìolly prcscet tdidllcit tmc`r poy. Clcitrdeì poyacet ioe rcadvc tmc ob`l`ty dj o mcoh tcoimcr

td aogc àachòtc ètcrvcet`des td w`tmmdlh poy. Xmus, jdr cxoaplc, o tcoimcr




wmd obsidehs dr advcs td oedtmcr simddl w`tmdut pcra`ss`de aoy idetèuc td

fct po`h. Xmcsc h`jjìult`cs m`fml`fmt tmc ecch jdr cjjì`cet idaaueìot`des td

cesurc tmot tmc clcitrdeì poyrdll `s rcspdes`vc td simddl-lcvcl rcol`ty.

RCY^DEY@ZCECYY DJ ÔPACEX YPYXCAY

Xmc rcspdes`vcecss dj poyacet systcas td ecw tcoimcrs oeh tcoimcr troesjcrs,

olldwoeics, ed-smdws, oeh obsceics movc àplìot`des de bdtm tcoimcr oiidueto-

b`l`ty oeh tcoimcr adrolc. Oltmdufm idaporoblc rcscorim è Ojrìo `s ueovo`loblc,

rcscorim jrda rurol Imèo èhìotcs tmot ides`stcet poyacet aoy bc adrc àpdr-

toet tmoe solory oaduet (Yorfcet oeh Moeeua 2>>3). Lotc dr èides`stcet poy

idetèucs td bc oe `ssuc è scvcrol iduetr`cs, rcforhlcss dj wmctmcr tcoimcrs wcrc

po`h ot tmc simddl dr ot o icetrol ldiot`de.

Xmcrc wcrc scr`dus hcloys è tmc poyacet dj ecw tcoimcrs è sdac iduetr`cs.

Lcsdtmd oeh L`bcrò bdtm rcpdrtch hcloys dj up td s`x adetms è è`tòl poyacets.

Xmcsc hcloys ceidurofc, oeh è sdac ioscs jdric, tcoimcrs td togc up dtmcr èidac-

fcecrotèf oit`v`t`cs, pdss`bly rcsultèf e ecflcit dj tmc`r hut`cs. Deic tmcsc proitìcs

orc cstobl`smch, tmcy orc l`gcly td idetèuc cvce ojtcr solory poyacet idaaceics.

Cquolly hctràcetol td tcoimcrs‐ adrolc oeh hchìot`de orc rcfulor hcloys è

ohh`t`deol olldwoeics oeh a`stogcs è capldyacet. Ot tmc tàc dj tmc stuhy, Xmc

Foabòe morhsm`p olldwoeic moh edt bcce rcicetly po`h oeh tmc hdublc-sm`jt poy

wos hcloych by o jcw adetms.

H@YI@^L@EORP YPYXCAY

Adst iduetr`cs movc jdraol prdichurcs jdr h`si`plèèf tcoimcrs. @e adst ioscs,

tmcsc èvdlvc o scr`cs dj woreèfs, jdlldwch by o jdraol prdicss dj rcv`cw, ojtcr

wmìm h`si`plèory oit`de ioe bc brdufmt. Mdwcvcr, tmcsc h`si`plèory prdichurcs

orc usch è dely o saoll aèdr`ty dj ioscs. @t sccas tmot simddl aoeofcacet `s

djtce rcluitoet td usc tmc prdichurcs jdr o euabcr dj rcosdes;

• Xmc prdicss togcs o ldef tàc, oeh s burhcesdac jdr mcoh tcoimcrs oeh h`strìt

djjìòls.

• Hurèf tmc prdicss, tmc tcoimcr aoy iousc tces`de e tmc simddl. @e adst ioscs,

tmc tcoimcr aoy idetèuc td wdrg wm`lc tmc iosc prdicchs. @e Aolow` tmc tcoimcr

`s suspcehch c`tmcr de molj poy dr ed poy ot oll, but aoy rcaoè è tmc soac

orco, iousèf h`sidetcet. O suspcehch tcoimcr aoy cvce wdrg è o pr`votc

simddl, oeh bc os wcll djj os tmcy wcrc bcjdrc suspces`de.

• Xmc dutidac `s ueicrtoè, oeh è aoey ioscs h`si`plèory ioscs orc rckcitch,rctureèf tmc tcoimcr td tmc simddl oeh pdtcetòlly hdèf jurtmcr hoaofc td

rclot`desm`ps è tmc simddl.




@e Lcsdtmd è 2>>8, dely ?= pcricet dj

h`si`plèory ioscs rcsultch è h`sa`ssol dj tmc

tcoimcr (toblc =.8). Dtmcr ioscs rcsultch è

tmc tcoimcr bcèf rcturech td tmc simddl.

@e Aolow`, tmc Xcoimèf Ycrvìc Idaa`s-

s`de (XYI) rcidrhs dvcr tmc prcv`dus tmrcc

ycors smdw bctwcce 3> oeh ?>> tcoimcr h`s-

a`ssols coim ycor (lcss tmoe twd pcr ?,>>>

tcoimcrs). Xmc aoè rcosdes jdr h`sa`ssol

wcrc àadrol`ty (fcecrolly scxuol rclot`des

w`tm pup`ls) oeh obsidehèf, oiiduetèf jdr 90 pcricet oeh 23 pcricet dj oll

ioscs rcspcit`vcly. F`vce tmc w`hcsprcoh obscetcc`sa oeh rcpdrts dj scxuol obusc

dj pup`ls, tm`s sccas td èhìotc tmot dely o aèdr`ty dj ioscs dj a`sbcmov`dr oituolly rcoim tmc XYI.

Xwd cxoaplcs dj ldiol oeh ldw-stogcs ètcrvcet`des wcrc rcpdrtch‘bdtm

hcolèf w`tm obscetcc`sa. @e Xmc Foabò, o mcoh tcoimcr ioe rcqucst tcapdrory

stdppofc dj solory dj o tcoimcr wmd mos edt rcpdrtch jdr huty. Deic tmc solory `s

stdppch, aoey dj tmc a`ssèf tcoimcrs rcture td tmc`r pdsts, oeh tmc solory `s

quìgly rcèstotch. @e L`bcrò, solory imcigs dj obscet tcoimcrs ioe bc w`tmmclh ot

tmc ldiol lcvcl, pcehèf poyacet dj o saoll jèc. Xmcsc sàplc ètcrvcet`des orc

adrc l`gcly td bc usch, oeh td movc àachòtc pds`t`vc cjjcits, tmoe m`fm-stogcs

oeh prdtroitch h`si`plèory prdichurcs.


Ydac tcoimcr obscetcc`sa oeh a`sbcmov`dr wos rcpdrtch è oll iduetr`cs, but

ade`tdrèf oeh rcpdrtèf dj obscetcc`sa dr h`si`plèory diiurrceics wcrc pddr.

Ydac prda`sèf proitìcs jdr rchuièf obscetcc`sa oeh a`sbcmov`dr èiluhc;

• O rcqu`rcacet jdr simddls td ade`tdr, idap`lc, oeh rcpdrt tcoimcr ottcehoeic.

Ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottcehoeic aoy bc dec dj tmc jcw ldw-idst, quìg-wè

rcach`cs ovo`loblc td chuiot`de ploeecrs.• Ilcor fu`hclècs de obsceic. @e Xmc Foabò, mcoh tcoimcrs orc prdv`hch w`tm

fu`hclècs tmot rcstrìt tmc olldwoblc euabcr dj obsceics jdr oey rcosde coim

adetm. @e cjjcit, tm`s acoes tmot tcoimcrs wmd orc obscet w`tmdut iousc ldsc

dppdrtue`t`cs td ottceh troèèf dr dtmcr pdtcetòlly ottroit`vc cvcets.

• Cxtcreol ade`tdrèf. @e Xmc Foabò, tmc ètrdhuit`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs

wmd v`s`t tmc simddls rcfulorly oppcorch td ceoblc mcoh tcoimcrs td bc adrc

h`l`fcet è bdtm ohhrcssèf obsceics oeh togèf h`si`plèory oit`des, rcsultèf

è èircosch ottcehoeic.

• Hcvcldpacet dj “ldw-stogcs‑ h`si`plèory ètcrvcet`des. Vmcrc tcoimcrs wcrcobscet w`tmdut fddh iousc, h`si`plèory systcas wcrc djtce scce os tdd sldw,

Xoblc =.8 Lcsdtmd; H`si`plèc Ioscs Brdufmt tdOhkuhìot`de, 2>>8 (XYI Hoto)

Rcosde Euabcr %

Ioscs rcjcrrch td ohkuhìotdr 99

Ioscs rcturech jdr kuhfacet 2: 6=.=

Edt fu`lty 9 0.?

Jèch ?6 3?.3

H`sa`ssch : ?=.2




iuabcrsdac, oeh ueprchìtoblc td bc dj voluc. F`vce tmc uehcrstoehoblc

rcluitoeic dj mcoh tcoimcrs td è`tòtc h`si`plèory prdichurcs tmot aoy lcoh td

h`sa`ssol, tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj adrc aèdr oeh aachòtc soeit`des td hctcr a`s-

bcmov`dr `s adrc l`gcly td bc cjjcit`vc.

• @aprdvch rcspdes vcecss dj tmc poy systca. @t wos jrcqucetly rcpdrtch tmot

tcoimcrs wmd moh bcce obscet rcoppcorch wmce tmc`r poy wos stdppch. Yystcas

tmot olldw rop`h poy stdppofc è ioscs dj idetèuch obsceic scca l`gcly td bc

m`fmly cjjcit`vc è aèà`zèf obsceic.

Yurpr`sèfly, porcets wcrc edt djtce èiluhch è ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottce-

hoeic. Ade`tdrèf by porcets, wmd orc è s`tu oeh movc o strdef ètcrcst è tmc

quol`ty dj tmc simddl, sccas o prda`sèf boigup td tmc jdraol systcas. Oedtmcr

rcachy evdlvcs fmdst tcoimcrs; dec sàplc oit`de td ohhrcss tmc qucst`de dj fmdst tcoimcrs a`fmt bc td movc coim simddl h`sploy publìly tmc eoacs dj tmc tcoimcrs

de tmc poyrdll. Xm`s publì h`sploy dj èjdraot`de wdulh èircosc tmc euabcr dj

pcdplc wmd wdulh movc td idlluhc td aoètoè o fmdst tcoimcr.

Ot lcost o port dj tcoimcr obsceic wos capldycr-è`tòtch, c`tmcr tmrdufm jo`lurcs

è poy hcl`vcry systcas dr tmdufm prdv`s`de dj idurscs hurèf simddl tàc. Bdtm

dj tmcsc djjcr prda`sèf ovceucs td èircosc ottcehoeic. Oiicss td idurscs è

simddl tàc idulh bc rcfulotch, rcstrìtch td m`fm-voluc idurscs, oeh rot`dech td

cesurc cqu`toblc oiicss by tcoimcrs. @aprdvcacets è tmc hcl`vcry dj poy td tcoim-

crs, oeh tmc rcspdes`vcecss dj tmc poy systca td obsceic dr dtmcr imoefcs, sccacsscetòl td àprdvèf ottcehoeic.

Xmc ecch jdr adrc rclòblc poy h`str`but`de systcas ilcorly fdcs bcydeh tmc

`ssuc dj obscetcc`sa. Serclòblc poy iouscs adrolc prdblcas oeh aoy jdric tcoim-

crs td togc up dtmcr èidac-fcecrotèf oit`v`t`cs, suim os scideh kdbs dr èjdraol

jccs. Mdwcvcr, tmc bcst imdìc bctwcce clcitrdeì troesjcr, iosm, dr imcig, dr

bctwcce movèf tcoimcrs trovcl dr movèf poy hcl`vcrch ldiolly, hcpcehs de ldiol

i`riuastoeics, èiluhèf tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj boegèf scrvìcs. @t `s l`gcly tmot tmc

dptàua poy systca w`ll ioll jdr h`jjcrcet strotcf`cs è tmc adst rcadtc simddls

tmoe tmdsc tmot orc ohcquotc è urboe orcos.ôy systcas olsd ecch td bc rcspdes`vc td imoefcs, suim os tmc orr`vol dj ecw

tcoimcrs, obsceics dj tcoimcrs, oeh hcotms dr hcporturcs. Ldiol idetrdl dvcr poy irc-

otcs adrc rop`h rcspdesc td tmcsc imoefcs, but aoy olldw sdac ldiol idllus`de jdr

àprdpcr proitìcs. Clcitrdeì h`str`but`de dj poy djjcrs o rclòblc h`str`but`de, but

jcw iduetr`cs movc hcvcldpch idrrcspdehèf prdicsscs tmot jcch up èjdraot`de

obdut ldiol imoefcs oeh cesurc tmot tmc solory poyacet `s ohkustch rop`hly è

rcspdesc td imoefch i`riuastoeics.





?90

Xmc Xcoimèf Iorccr

IMO^XCR 0

J

dr adst prdjcss`deols, dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de dr ohvoeicacet prdv`hc oe

àpdrtoet adt`vot`de jdr pcrjdraoeic oeh prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet7 tmcy olsd

oss`st est`tut`des e rctoèèf sg`llch stojj. Xcoimèf s o prdjcss`de tmot tcehs tdmovc o rclot`vcly jlot iorccr struiturc, w`tm idaporot`vcly jcw dppdrtue`t`cs jdr

prdadt`de w`tmè tmc ilossrdda. @etcreot`deolly, aoey iduetr`cs orc strufflèf td

hcvcldp iorccr struiturcs tmot w`ll prdv`hc o jlcx`blc wdrgjdric, rctoè tolcet è tmc

prdjcss`de, oeh ceidurofc tcoimcrs w`tm o rcworhèf oeh ottroit`vc iorccr potm.

@e tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmc hdaèoet adhc dj capldyacet jdr

tcoimcrs wos os publì scrvoets, w`tm pcraoecet, jull-tàc capldyacet de r`f`h

solory siolcs. Jdr tcoimcrs, tm`s prdv`hch sciurc capldyacet but l`ttlc rcworh jdr

àprdvch prdjcss`deol pcrjdraoeic. Jdr tmc chuiot`de systcas, tmc prdadt`de

systcas prdv`hch aoeofcrs w`tm l`ttlc jlcx`b`l`ty td rctoè tolcetch tcoimcrs dr

ohhrcss pcrjdraoeic prdblcas. Xmc hdaèoeic dj jull-tàc pcraoecet pds`t`des

prdv`hch l`ttlc jlcx`b`l`ty td j`ll tcapdrory voioei`cs (suim os tmdsc tmot or`sc e tmc

iosc dj aotcre`ty lcovc dr prdldefch `llecss), prdv`hc jdr port-tàc stojjèf, dr

rcspdeh td o hrdp è dvcroll tcoimcr rcqu`rcacets. @e tmc obsceic dj jlcx`blc

capldyacet dpt`des, tmcrc wos sdac usc dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oeh rct`rch

tcoimcrs è tcapdrory pdsts.

^rdadt`deol dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs wcrc rclot`vcly là`tch, oeh djtce

èvdlvch lcovèf tmc ilossrdda. @e rcspdesc td lcf`tàotc ideicres obdut jo`recss

oeh troesporceiy, prdadt`des wcrc djtce bosch de quol`jìot`des oeh sce`dr`ty.

Xmcsc prdv`hch oe èicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs td upfrohc tmc`r quol`jìot`des. @e sdac

ioscs tmcsc dppdrtue`t`cs r`sgch ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td ecflcit tmc`r hut`cs è

drhcr td ovo`l tmcasclvcs dj port-tàc stuhy dppdrtue`t`cs. Ydac iduetr`cs prd-

v`hch fcecrdus dppdrtue`t`cs jdr po`h stuhy lcovc, wmìm prdv`hch dppdrtue`t`cs

jdr tcoimcrs td oiicss jurtmcr chuiot`de. Mdwcvcr, tmcrc wcrc èhìot`des tmot tmcsc

sdactàcs scrvch td advc sdac dj tmc bcst chuiotch tcoimcrs dut dj tmc prdjcss`de.

Ecvcrtmclcss, tmcrc wcrc prda`sèf trcehs os wcll. Ydac dj tmc iduetr`cs wcrc

togèf stcps td rcv`sc iorccr oeh prdadt`de struiturcs td cemoeic tmc lègofc

bctwcce pcrjdraoeic oeh prdadt`de. Mdwcvcr, tmcsc iduetr`cs wcrc strufflèf

w`tm tmc imollcefc dj lègèf iorccr prdfrcss`de td pcrjdraoeic wm`lc cesurèf

bdtm jo`recss oeh troesporceiy è tmc prdicss.




XMC HDA@EOEIC DJ ^CRAOECEX ^SBL@I-YCRZ@IC XCOIMCRY

@e oll ioscs, adst publì simddl tcoimcrs wcrc capldych os pcraoecet publì

scrvoets, w`tm l`ttlc dr ed prdv`s`de jdr port-tàc dr tcapdrory capldyacet (toblc 0.?). @e idetrost td tmc w`hcsprcoh usc dj idetroit tcoimcrs è Jroeidpmdec

Ojrìo (scc Jyjc 2>>67 Hcabàlà 2>>37 oeh Hutm`llcul 2>>3), tmcrc wos ed lorfc-

siolc systcaotì usc dj idetroit tcoimcrs è publì simddls (`.c., quol`j`ch tcoimcrs

capldych by tmc fdvcreacet de tcapdrory idetroits). Xm`s fovc tcoimcrs o acos-

urc dj sciur`ty è tmc`r pds`t`des, èircosèf tmc ottroit`vcecss dj tmc prdjcss`de.

Mdwcvcr, tmc jull-tàc eoturc dj tmc pds`t`des ircotch sdac èjlcx`b`l`ty e tcoimcr

prdv`s`de. Xmc èob`l`ty td capldy tcoimcrs de o port-tàc bos`s rcsultch è uehcr-

ut`l`zot`de è sdac ioscs, typìolly è saoll scidehory simddls, wmcrc tmcrc wcrc

dpt`deol subkcits tmot rcqu`rch dely o jcw ilosscs pcr wccg.@e o jcw ioscs, tcoimcrs wcrc capldych tmrdufm dtmcr capldyacet orroefc-

acets, usuolly td ohhrcss tcoimcr smdrtofcs. @e Xmc Foabò oeh Aolow`, rct`rch

tcoimcrs wcrc olldwch td rcaoè capldych de tcapdrory idetroits, os “adetm-td-

adetm‑ capldyccs, oeh rcic`vch o j`xch solory dr frotu`ty poyacet oldef w`tm

tmc`r pces`des. @e o tm`rh iosc, Cr`trco, tmcrc wcrc lorfc euabcrs dj yduef pcdplc

cefofch è tmc`r pcr`dh dj idapulsdry eot`deol scrvìc.

SE_SOL@J@CH XCOIMCRY

@e ohh`t`de, è oladst oll ioscs tmcrc wcrc s`fe`jìoet euabcrs dj uequol`j`ch tcoim-

crs. Xmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, usuolly capldych de o tcapdrory bos`s,

prdv`hch sdac jlcx`b`l`ty è tmc tcoimèf lobdr jdric. Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc

capldych uehcr o vor`cty dj tceurc orroefcacets (toblc 0.2). @e Cr`trco, L`bcrò,

Sfoeho, oeh [oez`bor, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc capldych de o pcraoecet bos`s

Xoblc 0.? Capldyacet Ytotus dj _uol`j`ch Xcoimcrs è ûblì Yimddls

Iduetry Capldyacet stotus dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs e publì simddls

Cr`trco Adst wcrc pcraoecet i`v`l scrvoets

Olsd lorfc euabcrs hdèf o pcr`dh dj eot`deol scrvìc

Foabò, Xmc ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets

Ydac rct`rch tcoimcrs rcture de tcapdrory idetroits

Lcsdtmd ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets

L`bcrò ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets

Aolow` ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets

Ydac rct`rch tcoimcrs rcture de tcapdrory idetroits

Sfoeho ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets

[oabò ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets

[oez`bor ^craoecet i`v`l scrvoets



Xmc Xcoimèf Iorccr • ?8?

os i`v`l scrvìc tcoimcrs. @e Xmc Foabò, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc usuolly

capldych de ??-adetm idetroits, wmìm iorr`ch ed pces`de r`fmts dr tcraèol fro-

tu`ty. @e Lcsdtmd, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc edraolly capldych os tcapdrory

tcoimcrs. @e bdtm Xmc Foabò oeh Lcsdtmd, idetroits jdr uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs

idulh bc rcecwch èhcjè`tcly.

Xmc rcauecrot`de dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs olsd vor`ch w`hcly, oltmdufm `t wos

usuolly substoetòlly ldwcr tmoe tmc poy dj tmc`r quol`j`ch idllcofucs (toblc 0.9).

@e Xmc Foabò, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs corech dely 8> pcricet dj tmc solory dj o

ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcr. L`bcrò oppcorch td bc oe cxicpt`de, w`tm quol`j`ch oeh

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs coreèf oladst tmc soac oaduet, but tm`s wos oe ueusuol

oeh tcapdrory pmcedacede, os oll publì scrvoets wcrc po`h de idaprcssch

solory siolcs è oe cjjdrt td ohhrcss tmc jèoeiòl ir`s`s jdlldwèf tmc h`srupt`vc

idejlìt.

Xoblc 0.2 Capldyacet Ytotus dj Sequol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcrs*

Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oso pcricetofc dj

Iduetry pràory tcoimcrs Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrsCr`trco ?3 Capldych os pcraoecet i`v`l scrvoets

Foabò, Xmc 2? Capldych de tcapdrory idetroits dj ?? adetms.

Ed pces`de r`fmts, but ioe bc rc-capldych coim ycor.

Lcsdtmd 90 Edraolly capldych os tcapdrory tcoimcrs. Xmcrc s ed

là`t td tmc hurot`de dj capldyacet.

L`bcrò 3: Capldych os pcraoecet i`v`l scrvoets

Aolow` ?> Sequol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc ed ldefcr rciru`tch. Cx`stèf

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc pcraoecet i`v`l scrvoets, but tmc

fdvcreacet `s tryèf td rcadvc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs jrda

tmc systca.

Sfoeho 92 Capldych os i`v`l scrvoets, but de j`xch poy siolcs (ed

oeeuol èircacets)

[oabò :.: @ejdraot`de edt ovo`loblc.

[oez`bor ?9 Capldych os i`v`l scrvoets

Xoblc 0.9 Idapor`sde dj Sequol`j`ch oeh _uol`j`ch Xcoimcr Yolor`cs

Sequol`j`ch _uol`j`ch Sequol`j`ch tcoimcr solorytcoimcr solory tcoimcr stortèf os o pcricetofc dj

(SY$) solory (SY$) quol`j`ch tcoimcr solory

Xmc Foabò 2=8 6>6 8>

Lcsdtmd ?,60: 2,9:: 6:

L`bcrò :38 ::> 00

Sfoeho =36 ?,8?2 :?

*Edtc tmot tmc pcricetofc dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs rcpdrtch mcrc, oeh tmc pcricetofc dj quol`j`ch tcoim-

crs rcpdrtch è imoptcr ? hd edt olwoys ohh td ?>> pcricet, os sdac iduetr`cs moh dtmcr iotcfdr`cs dj

tcoimcr, èiluhèf stuhcet tcoimcrs de ploicacet, oeh tcoimcrs dj uegedwe quol`jìot`de stotus.

WA`ssèf

@ejdraot`deQ




XCOIMCR YOLORP ^RDFRCYY@DE

ûblì scrvìc tcoimcrs wcrc edraolly capldych de j`xch solory siolcs, w`tm solor`cs

èircosèf è outdaot i oeeuol stcps uet l tmcy rcoim o plotcou (j`furc 0.?). XmcFoabò, Lcsdtmd, Aolow`, Sfoeho, [oabò, oeh [oez`bor usch tmcsc eircacetol

siolcs. @e tmcsc siolcs, tmc solory typìolly rdsc by ??’29 pcricet dvcr o pcr`dh dj

scvce td tce ycors (toblc 0.8). @e Xmc Foabò, tmcrc wos oe ohh`t`deol ldef scrv-

ìc èircacet ojtcr ?9 ycors, ro`sèf tmc poy td 9: pcricet obdvc tmc stortèf solory.

@e L`bcrò oeh Cr`trco, bdtm è h`jjìult buhfctory ideh`t`des, tmcrc wcrc ida-

prcssch solory siolcs, w`tm v`rtuolly ed oeeuol prdfrcss`de.

@e tmc tcoimcr solory siolcs, tdtol frdwtm jdr o tcoimcr w`tmdut o prdadt`de wos

adhcst. Dely twd dj tmc iduetr`cs, Foabò oeh Lcsdtmd, moh tdtol l`jctàc

èircoscs dj dvcr ?3 pcricet. Rcscorim è tmc Se`tch Ytotcs suffcsts tmot tmc rclo-t`vcly sldw frdwtm dj tcoimcr solor`cs aogcs tcoimèf lcss ottroit`vc jdr a`h-iorccr

tcoimcrs, oeh aoy ceidurofc ottr`t`de dj tmc adst iopoblc oeh adst capldyoblc

(Mdxby oeh Lc`fm 2>>8).

Edec dj tmc iduetr`cs djjcrch pcrjdraoeic-bosch èicet`vc poy jdr tcoimcrs.

Xmcrc `s sdac cv`hceic jrda dtmcr rcf`des tmot suim ohh`t`deol bdeuscs ioe bc

usch td ceidurofc bcttcr pcrjdraoeic oadef tcoimcrs (Zcfos 2>>37 Lovy 2>>6).

Jdr cxoaplc, rcscorim jrda @srocl èhìotcs tmot pcrjdraoeic-bosch poy bdeuscs

jdr tcoimcrs lch td èircoscs e stuhcet oim`cvcacet, pràor`ly tmrdufm imoefcs e

tcoimèf actmdhs, ohh`t`deol ojtcr-simddl tcoimèf, oeh èircosch rcspdes`vcecss

td stuhcets‐ ecchs (Lovy 2>>8).

J`furc 0.? Yolory ^rdfrcss`de dj _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr (w`tmdut ^rdadt`de),Cxprcssch os o ^cricetofc dj tmc Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràoryXcoimcr

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s o l o r y o s o %

d j s t o r t ` e f s o l o r y

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ycor?3

ycor?8

ycor?9

ycor?2

ycor??

ycor?>

ycor0

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LcsdtmdFoabò Aolow` [oabò



Xmc Xcoimèf Iorccr • ?89

Mdwcvcr, `t `s oigedwlchfch tmot tcoimcr èicet`vc systcas t`ch td stuhcet pcr-

jdraoeic rcqu`rc sdpm`stìotch acimoe`sas td ovd`h jovdrèf pr`v`lcfch frdups

oeh jurtmcr cemoeièf tmc èicet`vcs jdr tcoimcrs td ldiotc è tmc simddls è bcttcr

orcos. Rcscorim jrda Lotè Oacrìo smdws tmot tcoimcrs rcspdeh td èicet`vcs, but edt ecicssor`ly è prchìtoblc woys (Zcfos 2>>3)7 wm`lc pcrjdraoeic-bosch poy

ioe àprdvc tcoimcr pcrjdraoeic oeh adrolc, `t ioe olsd lcoh td ueètcehch oeh

uehcs`rch idescquceics. O iosc e pdèt s dec simddl-bosch eicet`vc prdfroa e

Gceyo tmot t`ch poy èicet`vcs td bdtm tcoimcr bcmov`dr oeh tcst sidrcs (Flcwwc,

@lòs, oeh Grcacr 2>>9). Xmc rcsult wos o s`fe`jìoet eircosc e stuhcet sidrcs7 but

tmc foè wos edt ottr`butch td àprdvch tcoimcr ottcehoeic, edr wos tmcrc o

imoefc è mdacwdrg oss`feacets dr pchofdfy. @estcoh, tmcrc wos cv`hceic tmot

tcoimcrs djjcrch adrc tcst prcporot`de scss`des duts`hc rcfulor iloss mdurs, w`tm ed

cjjcit de hrdpdut rotcs dr ldef-tcra stuhcet rcsults.

D^^DRXSE@X@CY JDR ^RDADX@DE

@e tmc idetcxt dj rclot`vcly là`tch oeh r`f`h solory prdfrcss`de, dppdrtue`t`cs jdr

prdadt`de foè èircosèf àpdrtoeic è adt`votèf oeh rctoèèf stojj. @e oll dj

tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmcrc wcrc sdac dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs td foè prd-

adt`de td o m`fmcr solory siolc. Xmcsc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de aoy bc iloss`-

j`ch etd tmrcc typcs. J`rst, e sdac ioscs tmcrc wcrc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr h`sirct`deory,

acr`t-bosch prdadt`des td pdsts suim os sce`dr tcoimcr, wmìm prdv`hch eircosch

poy but rctoèch tmc cxpcrt`sc è tmc ilossrdda. Ycideh, oeh adrc idaadely,

tcoimcrs moh tmc dppdrtue`ty jdr advcacet td h`jjcrcet solory siolcs, bosch de

àprdvch oiohcaì quol`jìot`des. Jèolly, tmcrc wcrc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdad-

t`de td edetcoimèf pds`t`des, usuolly è simddl aoeofcacet dr èspcit`de.

ACR@X-BOYCH ^RDADX@DE

Dppdrtue`t`cs jdr acr`t-bosch prdadt`de w`tmè tmc ilossrdda orc oe àpdrtoet

jcoturc dj tcoimcr iorccr struiturcs. Xmcy ioe ceidurofc tcoimcrs td str`vc jdr cxicl-

lceic oeh oss`st è rctoèèf tolcetch tcoimcrs. Vmcrc pdsts dj sce`dr tcoimcr orc

Xoblc 0.8 Yolory dj o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr os o cricetofc dj YtortèfYolory, Ossuaèf Dely Outdaotì ^rdadt`des

Pcor 3 Pcor ?> Pcor ?3

Foabò, Xmc ??9 ?29 ?9:

Lcsdtmd ??8 ?22 ?22

Aolow` ?>= ??9 ??9

[oabò ?>: ??? ???




lègch w`tm ohh`t`deol rcspdes`b`l`t`cs, tmcy ioe olsd prdv`hc o acimoe`sa jdr è-

simddl acetdrèf dj lcss-cxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs. Jdr prdadt`deol systcas td movc

voluc è adt`votèf tcoimcrs td àprdvc tmc`r pcrjdraoeic, tmc sclcit`de aust bc

pcric`vch td bc fceuècly bosch de acr`t. Yystcas tmot orc pcric`vch td bc uejo`r

aoy movc o hcadt`votèf cjjcit (ZYD Xmc Foabò 2>>6).

O jcw dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh systcas tmot olldwch idapct`t`vc prd-adt`de td pds`t`des dj sce`dr tcoimcr. @e Aolow` oeh Xmc Foabò, tcoimcrs wcrc

oblc td opply jdr prdadt`deol pds`t`des, w`tm sclcit`de bosch ot lcost portly de oe

ètcrv`cw (toblc 0.3). @e L`bcrò tmcrc wcrc pds`t`des dj sce`dr tcoimcr, but tmcsc

wcrc j`llch ot tmc ldiol lcvcl oeh o idapct`t`vc prdicss wos edt olwoys rcqu`rch.

Cesurèf tmot iorccr prdfrcss`de wos pcric`vch os jo`r wos prdblcaotì. @e

L`bcrò, bciousc prdadt`des wcrc ot tmc h`sirct`de dj tmc ldiol h`strìt chuiot`de

djjìcr oeh im`cj chuiot`de djjìcr, tmc bos`s jdr sclcit`de wos edt olwoys troespor-

cet. Xm`s lch td tmc pcricpt`de tmot prdadt`de h`h edt jo`rly rcjlcit ilossrdda pcr-

jdraoeic. @e Aolow`, oltmdufm ètcrv`cws wcrc idehuitch by o h`vcrsc poecl usèf stoehorh`zch qucst`des, tmc acabcrs dj tmc etcrv`cw poecl h`h edt movc oiicss td

rcpdrts de bcmov`dr dr pcrjdraoeic jrda mcoh tcoimcrs, pràory chuiot`de ohv`s-

crs, dr espcitdrs wmce aogèf tmc`r sclcit`des. Xm`s iousch sdac ideicre tmot tmc

ètcrv`cw systca h`h edt ohcquotcly rcidfe`zc tmc bcst pcrjdracrs. Os dec Xcoim-

èf Ycrvìc Idaa`ss`de acabcr edtch, “O hruegorh w`ll fct prdadtch j mc tolgs

wcll.‑ @e Xmc Foabò, tmc jdraol sclcit`de ir`tcrò jdr prdadt`de èiluhch quol`-

jìot`des, lceftm dj scrvìc, pdstèf (morhsm`p pdsts f`vce prcjcrceic) oeh pcr-

jdraoeic. Mdwcvcr, o stuhy by ZYD è Xmc Foabò (2>>6) èhìotch tmot sdac

tcoimcrs jclt tmot prdadt`des wcrc idehuitch è oe uejo`r aoeecr.@e ohh`t`de, tmcrc `s o r`sg tmot oiicss td prdadt`de w`ll bc cos`cr jdr tcoimcrs

ecorcr td urboe icetcrs dr rcf`deol ohaè`strot`vc icetcrs. Xcoimcrs è tmcsc orcos

Xoblc 0.3 Acr`t-bosch ^rdadt`des, Yuaaory dj ^roitìcs

Foabò, Xmc ^ds t`des wcrc ohvcrt`sch eot deolly oeh tcoimcrs e oey simddl idulh opply. Opplìoets

wcrc smdrt-l`stch bosch de quol`jìot`des, oeh tmce sclcitch jdr ètcrv`cws. Xmc sclcit`de

prdicss ides`hcrch quol`jìot`des, lceftm dj scrvìc, pdstèf (morhsm`p pdsts f`vce prcjcr-ceic), oeh pcrjdraoeic. Xm`s olldwch tcoimcr ottcehoeic oeh bcmov`dr td bc togce ètd

oiiduet. O pcrjdraoeic oppro`sol systca moh bcce hcvcldpch but edt jully àplcacetch,

oeh wos edt iurrcetly è usc.

L`bcr o Xcoimcrs wcrc sclcitch jdr prdadt de ot tmc h sirct`de dj tmc ldiol h strìt chuiot de

djjìcr oeh im`cj chuiot`de djjìcr. Xm`s prdicss h`h edt olwoys olldw jdr troesporcet hci`-

s`des de prdadt`des.

Aolow` Xmc euabcr dj prdadt deol pdsts ovo loblc wos hctcraèch oeeuolly, oeh sclcit de wos

bosch de o wr`ttce opplìot`de oeh oe ètcrv`cw. @etcrv`cws wcrc idehuitch by o poecl

dj tmrcc, èiluhèf rcprcscetot`vcs dj tmc Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de, tmc Xcoimèf Ycrvìc

Idaa`ss`de, oeh oe èhcpcehcet dbscrvcr. @etcrv`cws usch stoehorh qucst`des, idvcrèf

orcos dj iurrìulua idetcet, prdjcss`deol bcmov`dr, oeh rcidrh gccpèf. Mdwcvcr, tmcpoecl h`h edt movc oiicss td rcpdrts de bcmov`dr dr pcrjdraoeic jrda mcoh tcoimcrs,

pràory chuiot`de ohv`scrs, dr èspcitdrs.




aoy jèh `t cos`cr td fct èjdraot`de obdut tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj pdsts, oeh td aogc

oe opplìot`de. Xmcy aoy olsd movc adrc jrcqucet idetoit w`tm aoeofcacet oeh

frcotcr v`s`b`l`ty. @e Xmc Foabò, hcsp`tc tmc jdraol ir`tcrò, tcoimcrs rcpdrtch jcor-

èf tmot tmcy wdulh bc “jdrfdttce dr sg`ppch dvcr by tmc rclcvoet outmdr`t`cs‑

wm`lc de rurol pdstèfs (ZYD Xmc Foabò 2>>6).

YOLORP H@JJCRCEX@OX@DE BOYCH DE OIOHCA@I _SOL@J@IOX@DEY

@e adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tcoimcr solor`cs wcrc lègch td oiohcaì quol`j -

iot des. Lègèf poy td quol`j iot`des aoy mclp td ottroit bcttcr-quol j`ch ioeh`hotcs

td tcoimèf, oeh icrtoèly prdv`hcs oe èicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs td upfrohc tmc r quol`j -

iot des. But tmc iosc stuh`cs suffcst tmot dvcrrclòeic de quol jìot`des os o hctcra -

eoet dj poy aoy movc sdac ecfot vc cjjcits, èiluhèf ceidurofèf tcoimcrs td

pr`dr t`zc upfrohèf tmc`r quol j iot des dvcr ottcet de td tmc`r hut`cs. @e ohh t`de,

wmcrc tcoimcrs outdaot iolly rcic`vc lorfc èircoscs è poy w`tm àprdvch quol`jìo-

t`des, `t ioe bc h jj iult jdrfdvcreacets td aoeofc oeh prchìt tcoimcr poyrdll idsts,

portìulorly wmcrc pr`votc prdv`hcrs prdv`hc idurscs jdr lorfc euabcrs dj tcoimcrs.

@e Lcsdtmd, tmc stortèf solory jdr o tcoimcr w`tm

o h`pldao quol`jìot`de wos =9 pcricet m`fmcr tmoe

tmc stortèf poy jdr o tcoimcr w`tm o icrt`jìotc quol-

`jìot`de (toblc 0.:). Xm`s ircotch o strdef eicet`vc

jdr tcoimcrs td portì`potc è è-scrvìc upfrohèf

idurscs. @e tmc obsceic dj cjjcit`vc acosurcs td

aoeofc pcrjdraoeic, tm`s wdulh oppcor td prdv`hc

oe èicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs td ecflcit tmc`r tcoimèf è drhcr td pursuc tmc`r stuh`cs.

@e [oabò, tmc outdaotì solory èircosc jdlldwèf àprdvch quol`j iot`des moh

fcecrotch o aorgct jdr è-scrvìc upfrohèf idurscs de o siolc tmot moh s`fe jìoet

buhfctory àpl iot des. Ycidehory tcoimcrs w tm o hcfrcc corech obdut 9> pcricet

adrc tmoe tcoimcrs w`tm o h`pldao quol j iot`de

(toblc 0.6). Xm`s h jjcrceic è poy ceidurofch tmc

frdwtm dj tmc [oabò Dpce Se`vcrs ty, djjcrèf oe

è-scrvìc upfrohèf idursc td tcoimcrs w`tm o

h`pldao quol jìot`de. Xm`s pr`votcly jèoeich èst`-

tut`de moh ploes td cerdll osaoey os :,>>> stuhcets

de `tsupfrohèf idurscs.

^RDADX@DE XD AOEOFCR@OL ^DY@X@DEY

^rdadt`de td aoeofcròl pds`t`des, typìolly mcoh tcoimcr dr hcputy mcoh, prdv`hcs

oedtmcr aokdr potmwoy jdr iorccr ohvoeicacet jdr tcoimcrs. F`vce tmc eoturc dj

chuiot`de systcas, tmc euabcr dj aoeofcacet pds`t`des è simddls `s rclot`vcly saoll. @e Xmc Foabò, jdr cxoaplc, mcoh tcoimcrs oiiduetch jdr dely 3 pcricet dj

tcoimcrs, wm`lc =9 pcricet dj tcoimcrs orc capldych ot tmc bosì frohc (toblc 0.=).

Xoblc 0.: Lcsdtmd; ^ràory Xcoimcr YoloryYiolcs, 2>>:

Oeeuol soloryè S.Y. hdllors Aè Aox

Xcoimcr w`tm icrt`jìotc 2,?2> 9,668

Xcoimcr w`tm h`pldao 9,=== 8,:?8

Xoblc 0.6 [oabò; Ycidehory Xcoimcr YoloryYiolcs, 2>>6

Oeeuol solory e S.Y. hdllors Aè AoxXcoimcr w tm h`pldao 9,6=: 8,2?2

Xcoimcr w`tm hcfrcc 3,>>6 3,36>




Xmc pdss`b`l`ty dj o prdadt`de td mcoh

tcoimcr smdulh oit os oe èicet`vc td ceidurofc

fddh pcrjdraoeic oadef tcoimcrs. Mdwcvcr,

tmc sclcit`de systcas usch djtce là`tch tm`s

bcecj`t, oeh è sdac ioscs prdv`hch ohvcrsc

èicet`vcs. Vmcrc prdadt`de td tmc pdst dj

mcoh tcoimcr wos idapct`t`vc, `t wos djtce

lègch td oiohcaì quol`jìot`des, rotmcr tmoe

pcrjdraoeic. @e dtmcr ioscs, mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc

sclcitch by aoeofcacet w`tmdut o idapct`t`vc

prdicss. Yuim systcas tceh td jovdr tmdsc w`tm m`fm v`s`b`l`ty td aoeofcacet, oeh

ircotc o pcricpt`de tmot o rcadtc ldiot`de rchuich tmc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdad-

t`de. Xwd dj tmc iduetr`cs prdv`hch cemoeich prdadt`deol dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs jrda rcadtc simddls. @e Xmc Foabò, prcjcrceic wos f`vce td tmdsc wmd

togc morhsm`p pdsts. @e [oabò, mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc edraolly sclcitch jrda w`tmè

tmc simddl, prdv`hèf frcotcr dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de è saollcr simddls.

Ô@H YXSHP LCOZC

Adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs prdv`hch dppdrtue`t`cs jdr po`h stuhy lcovc jdr

sdac tcoimcrs. Xmc dppdrtue`ty jdr stuhy lcovc aoy mclp td bu`lh iopoi`ty è tmc

systca, oeh cemoeic tmc ottroit`vcecss dj tcoimèf os o iorccr. Jdr aoey yduef pcdplc w`tmdut tmc jèoeiòl acoes td pursuc ue`vcrs`ty idurscs, tcoimèf aoy bc

oe dppdrtue`ty td jèoeic o m`fmcr chuiot`de hcfrcc (Mchfcs 2>>27 Xdwsc ct ol.

2>>27 Ogycoapdef oeh Ytcpmces 2>>2). Mdwcvcr, è sdac dj tmc ioscs tmc siolc

oeh tcras dj stuhy lcovc aohc `t o potmwoy td lcovc tmc prdjcss`de, oeh èircosch

ottr`t`de dj sdac dj tmc bcst-chuiotch tcoimcrs.

@e Xmc Foabò, jdr cxoaplc, o simddl lcovcr w`tm tmrcc irch`ts ioe cetcr Xmc

Foabò Idllcfc oeh core o icrt`jìotc quol`jìot`de. Ojtcr twd ycors dj tcoimèf,

tmcy ioe opply td rcture td tmc idllcfc oeh upfrohc td o h`pldao. Ojtcr o jurtmcr jcw

ycors dj tcoimèf, tmcy ioe opply jdr jurtmcr stuhy lcovc, oeh upfrohc td o hcfrcc. V`tm o hcfrcc, tmc tcoimcr mos frcotly cemoeich dppdrtue`t`cs jdr dtmcr capldy-

acet. O bdehèf simcac `s è ploic td rcqu`rc tcoimcrs td rcaoè è scrvìc jdr tmc

soac euabcr dj ycors os tmcy spcet de stuhy lcovc, but cejdricacet `s wcog.

Xcoimcrs è Sfoeho orc cet`tlch td opply jdr stuhy lcovc `j tmc aè`stry bcl`cvcs

tmc systca rcqu`rcs tmc sg`lls toufmt è tmc idursc. @e proitìc, `t `s rcpdrtch tmot

tcoimcrs è Sfoeho orc oblc td fct stuhy lcovc jdr idurscs edt h`rcitly rclotch td

tmc`r wdrg. @e [oabò, tcoimcrs wmd orc idej`rach è tmc`r pdsts orc oblc td opply

jdr po`h stuhy lcovc. Ytuhy lcovc `s usuolly froetch wmcrc tmc tcoimcr mos o ide-

j`rach djjcr dj o ploic de o idursc, oeh tmc AdC bcl`cvcs tmot tmc systca rcqu`rcstmc sg`lls toufmt è tmc idursc. Xm`s `s w`hcly usch by tcoimcrs dj bosì chuiot`de

Xoblc 0.= Xmc Foabò; ^rdpdrt`de dj LdwcrBosì Xcoimcrs Vmd Orc ^rdadtch

Bosì simddls Euabcr dj tcoimcrs %

_uol`j`ch tcoimcrs 9,?66 =9.?

Yce`dr aostcrs 20> 6.:

Hcputy mcoh aostcrs ?:9 8.9

Mcoh aostcrs ?0? 3.>

Xdtol 9,=2? ?>>

Yduric; Xmc Foabò MR tcoimcr hotobosc 2>>6.




td hd o h`pldao è scidehory tcoimèf, è drhcr td a`frotc td scidehory-lcvcl

tcoimèf. @e L`bcrò, stuhy lcovc `s usch td prdv`hc tcoimcrs w`tm hcfrcc-lcvcl quol-

`jìot`des td j`ll tmc ecch è scidehory simddls, but hcsp`tc o bdehèf simcac, jcw

oituolly rcture td tcoim è fdvcreacet scidehory simddls.

Xmc siolc dj stuhy lcovc `s qu`tc s`fe`jìoet. @e Lcsdtmd, adrc tmoe ?3> tcoim-

crs pcr ycor orc froetch stuhy lcovc, cqu`volcet td opprdxàotcly tmc cet`rc dutput

dj ecw pràory tcoimcrs jrda prc-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf. @e Xmc Foabò, adrc

tmoe molj dj tmc stuhcets è tmc h`pldao idursc è 2>>6 wcrc cx`stèf tcoimcrs

usèf stuhy lcovc td upfrohc.


Xmc tcoimcr iorccr struiturc smdulh prdv`hc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr ohvoeicacet è oaoeecr tmot adt`votcs tcoimcrs td wdrg h`l`fcetly oeh pcrjdra wcll tmrdufmdut

tmc`r iorccrs, wm`lc bu`lhèf oeh rctoèèf cxpcrt`sc w`tmè tmc tcoimèf prdjcs-

s`de. Xm`s `s o imollcefèf tosg, os tmcrc orc lorfc euabcrs dj tcoimcrs, wdrgèf è

o vor`cty dj idetcxts, oeh tmc systca aust boloeic tmc idapctèf hcaoehs jdr

jlcx`b`l`ty oeh àportòl`ty. rdv`s`de dj èicet`vcs td ejluceic tcoimcr bcmov`dr s

idaplcx, oeh ioe ircotc ueètcehch idescquceics (Zcfos 2>>3). Ecvcrtmclcss,

tmcsc ioscs suffcst tmot e aoey iduetr`cs tmc tcoimcr iorccr struiturc wos edt wcll

hcs`fech td adt`votc pcrjdraoeic dr rctoè tolcet, oeh è sdac ioscs tmcrc wcrc

ilcor ohvcrsc èicet`vcs è tmc iorccr struiturc. O scr`cs dj prda`sèf orcos jdr hcvcldpacet dj tcoimcr iorccr struiturcs cacrfcs jrda tmc ioscs.

YID^C JDR ADRC JLC]@BLC XCOIMCR IDEXROIXY

Yystcas tmot olldw jdr sdac capldyacet dj tcoimcrs de port-tàc idetroits dr de

tcapdrory idetroits idulh bc bcecjìòl. Xmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj port-tàc tcoimcrs

idulh olldw jdr adrc cjjì`cet tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, portìulorly è tmc idetcxt dj

dpt`deol subkcits è saoll scidehory simddls. Xmc ob`l`ty td rciru`t tcapdrory

tcoimcrs idulh mclp td prdv`hc subst`tutc tcoimcrs jdr ioscs dj aotcre`ty lcovc dr ldef-tcra llecss.

O IORCCR ÔXM JDR SE_SOL@J@CH XCOIMCRY

V`tm tmc w`hcsprcoh usc dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, oeh tmc rclòeic dj aoey dj tmc

iduetr`cs de tmca, tmcrc `s o ecch td movc o ilcor oeh ploeech rdutc jdr uequol`-

j`ch tcoimcrs td bcidac quol`j`ch. Xm`s `s l`gcly td bc portìulorly àpdrtoet è

rurol orcos, wmcrc rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs aoy bc dec dj tmc vòblc

woys td jèh tcoimcrs jdr sdac simddls. Hcvcldpèf o potmwoy td o quol`jìot`de `sl`gcly td eircosc adt`vot`de oeh pcrjdraoeic dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, but s l`gcly




td rcqu`rc iorcjul hcs`fe td cesurc tmot dppdrtue`t`cs td foè o quol`jìot`de orc

ovo`loblc è oll ldiot`des oeh tmot r`fdrdus oeh opprdpròtc stoehorhs orc oppl`ch.

L@EG@EF IORCCR ^RDFRCYY@DE V@XM ^CRJDRAOEIC

@e tmc idetcxt dj tmc rclot`vcly idaprcssch tcoimcr poy siolcs, oeh tmc rclot`vcly

là`tch prdadt`deol dppdrtue`t`cs, dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de orc l`gcly td bc

m`fmly sdufmt ojtcr. Ytrdefcr oeh adrc troesporcet acimoe`sas td togc pcrjdra-

oeic etd ides`hcrot`de e prdadt`de hci`s`des djjcr oe dppdrtue`ty td ceidurofc

hcs`rch pcrjdraoeic. Yàplc acosurcs, suim os troigèf tcoimcr ottcehoeic oeh

usèf oeeuol bcmov`drol rcpdrts jrda mcoh tcoimcrs, idulh bc usch td fu`hc prd-

adt`deol hci`s`des. Xmc Foabò wos ilcorly hcvcldpèf frcotcr lègofc bctwcce

pcrjdraoeic oeh iorccr prdfrcss`de by cesurèf tmot tcoimcr pcrjdraoeic wosusch os o ir`tcr`de è aogèf prdadt`de hci`s`des.

@e dtmcr rcf`des, portìulorly è Lotè Oacrìo, sdac iduetr`cs movc cxpcr`-

acetch w`tm pcrjdraoeic-bosch poy. ^crjdraoeic-bosch poy ioe djjcr sdac

bcecj`ts, oltmdufm `t `s ilcor tmot frcot iorc aust bc togce td ovd`h ueètcehch

uehcs`roblc idescquceics, suim os cxilus`de dj wcogcr stuhcets, dvcrcapmos`s de

tcoimèf td tmc tcst, dr prdv`hèf oe èircosch h`sèicet`vc jdr tcoimcrs td togc up

pdsts è orcos dj chuiot`deol h`sohvoetofc (Zcfos 2>>37 Lovy 2>>6).

Acimoe`sas orc ecchch td cesurc tmc dbkcit`v`ty oeh troesporceiy dj pcr-

jdraoeic ade`tdrèf systcas. ^rdadt`des scce os uejo`r orc l`gcly td hcadt`votctcoimcrs. Vmcrc prdadt`des orc bosch de tmc kuhfacet dj h`strìt dr rcf`deol djj`-

iòls, tm`s aoy jovdr tmdsc w`tm frcotcr v`s`b`l`ty ot tmc h`strìt lcvcl. ^rdadt`des

lègch td mcoh tcoimcr rcpdrts aoy lcovc mcoh tcoimcrs è o pds`t`de td oit os fotc-

gccpcrs, aogèf hci`s`des bosch de pcrsdeol rclot`des, dr cvce cxoitèf o jcc jdr

o jovdroblc rcpdrt. Iorcjul hcs`fe dj irdss-imcigs oeh boloeics `s ecchch td

hcvcldp rdbust struiturcs.

R@YGY V@XM _SOL@J@IOX@DE-HR@ZCE ^RDADX@DE

^rdadt`de systcas bosch cet`rcly de oiohcaì quol`jìot`des rue tmc r`sg dj irc-

otèf ohvcrsc èicet`vcs. J`rst, tcoimcrs aoy tceh td ecflcit tmc`r hut`cs è drhcr td

pursuc stuhy dppdrtue`t`cs. Ycideh, tcoimcrs è rcadtc orcos aoy movc lcss oiicss

td dppdrtue`t`cs td oiicss upfrohèf idurscs, tmus prdv`hèf o jurtmcr h`sèicet`vc

td oiicpt o rurol pdst. Xm`rh, quol`jìot`de-bosch systcas ioe ircotc o hcaoeh jdr

lorfc-siolc prdv`s`de dj upfrohèf idurscs, w`tm idescquceics jdr tmc dvcroll

tcoimcr wofc b`ll. Selcss iorcjully rcfulotch, tmcrc `s o r`sg tmot pddr quol`ty

idurscs w`ll bc prdv`hch, rcsultèf è èircosch rciurrcet poy idsts but dely aor-

fèol àprdvcacets è quol`ty.



Jèoeièf Xcoimcrs

ÔRX @Z





?3?

Xcoimcr Jèoeic

IMO^XCR ?>

X

mc pdlì`cs rclotch td tcoimcr supply, hcpldyacet, troèèf, oeh aoeofcacet

orc hcvcldpch w`tmè tmc idestroèts dj ovo`loblc rcsdurics. Xcoimcr rcauecro-

t`de `s tmc gcy idst hr`vcr è chuiot`de, oiiduetèf jdr 08 pcricet dj pràory

chuiot`de cxpceh`turc e Cr`trco oeh 00 pcricet e Xmc Foabò (2>>: hoto). Ycttèf tmc opprdpròtc lcvcl dj tcoimcr poy `s portìulorly h`jjìult, os pdlìy aogcrs ecch td

boloeic tmc hcs`rc td prdv`hc ottroit`vc rcauecrot`de poigofcs td rciru`t, rctoè, oeh

adt`votc fddh tcoimcrs7 tmc oà dj ue`vcrsol oiicss td chuiot`de7 oeh tmc idestroèts

dj publì jèoeics. Xm`s imoptcr cxoaècs tmc ssucs dj tcoimcr jèoeic, e tmrcc aoè

scit`des.

Xmc j`rst port ides`hcrs tcoimcr poy idsts è tmc idetcxt dj dvcroll eot`deol

jèoeics oeh etcreot`deol bceimaorgs. Xcoimcr jèoeic s portìulorly imollcefèf

bciousc dj tmc vcry lobdr-ètces`vc eoturc dj tcoimèf oeh tmc lorfc euabcrs dj

tcoimcrs rcqu`rch. Jdr cxoaplc, è o iduetry w`tm ?= pcricet dj tmc pdpulot`de ètmc pràory simddl ofc roefc, oeh o pup`l tcoimcr rot`d dj 83;?, ue`vcrsol pràory

chuiot`de rcqu`rcs jdur tcoimcrs jdr cvcry tmdusoeh dj pdpulot`de. Xmc euabcr dj

tcoimcrs rcqu`rch jdr ue`vcrsol bosì chuiot`de edraolly cxicchs tmc euabcr dj

wdrgcrs rcqu`rch è oey dtmcr publì scrvìc, oeh è sdac iduetr`cs tcoimcrs

oiiduet jdr adrc tmoe molj dj tmc cet`rc publì-scitdr wdrgjdric. Os o rcsult,

tcoimcr rcauecrot`de pdlìy mos o s`fe`jìoet àpoit de dvcroll publì jèoeics,

oeh m`fm tcoimcr solor`cs ioe idestroè tmc cxpoes`de dj oiicss td chuiot`de.

Xmc scideh port cxoaècs tmc rcauecrot`de dj pràory tcoimcrs. Xmc iosc-

stuhy iduetr`cs moh olrcohy cxpcr`ceich tmc cxpoes`de td aoss portì`pot`de èpràory chuiot`de, oeh molj moh frdss cerdllacet rotcs dvcr ?>> pcricet. Xmc

solor`cs po`h td pràory tcoimcrs vor`ch o frcot hcol, bdtm è oituol voluc oeh è

rclot`de td tmc FH^ dj tmc iduetr`cs. Xmcsc solor`cs orc cxoaèch è idapor`sde

w`tm solor`cs dj dtmcr diiupot`des, tmc pdvcrty lècs, oeh ètcreot`deol edras.

Xmc tm`rh port cxoaècs tmc qucst`de dj tmc rcauecrot`de dj scidehory tcoim-

crs. Adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh yct td prdv`hc scidehory chuiot`de jdr

tmc aokdr`ty, oeh moh frdss cerdllacet rotcs dj uehcr 8> pcricet. @t `s ilcor tmot

tmc trceh è tmc idaèf ycors w`ll bc tmc cxpoes`de dj portì`pot`de è scidehory

chuiot`de, w`tm idescqucet imollcefcs jdr tmc jèoeièf dj scidehory tcoimcrs.




XMC IMOLLCEFC DJ CHSIOX@DE J@EOEIC

^rdv`hèf ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de tcehs td bc adrc idstly, rclot`vc td pcr

iop`to FH^, è ldw-èidac iduet`cs tmoe è m`fm-èidac iduetr`cs. M`fmcr b`rtmrotcs e ldw-èidac iduetr`cs lcoh td o frcotcr prdpdrt`de dj tmc pdpulot`de e tmc

simddl-ofc roefc, oeh tmcrcjdrc o frcotcr euabcr dj tcoimcrs. Xcoimcr rcqu`rc-

acets orc jurtmcr èircosch by m`fm rcpct`t`de rotcs, idabèch w`tm tmc cerdll-

acet dj dvcr-ofc pup`ls, djtce rcsultèf è frdss cerdllacet rotcs m`fmcr tmoe

?>> pcricet. @e ohh`t`de, tmc rcauecrot`de idsts dj tcoimcrs è ldw-èidac idue-

tr`cs tceh td bc m`fmcr, rclot`vc td pcr iop`to FH^, tmoe è m`fm-èidac iduetr`cs

(bdx ?>.?). Oldefs`hc tm`s rclot`vcly m`fmcr idst, ldw-èidac iduetr`cs jrcqucetly

BD] ?>.? XCOIMCR YOLOR@CY RCLOX@ZC XD FH^ ^CR IO^@XO

@e fcecrol, “tmc ovcrofc wofc po`h td tcoimcrs, os o ault`plc dj iduetry pcr

iop`to èidac, tcehs td hcilèc os iduetr`cs hcvcldp cidedaìolly. Xmc

ovcrofc oeeuol wofc è tmc soaplc dj vcry ldw èidac iduetr`cs stuh`ch

wos è tmc roefc dj 9 td 8 tàcs pcr iop`to FH^ (oltmdufm w`tm substoetòl

voròeic, os wc movc edtch). @e a`hhlc-èidac iduetr`cs è Lotè Oacrìo

`t `s è tmc roefc dj 2 td 2.3 tàcs pcr iop`to FH^, oeh è tmc DCIH `t `s iur-

rcetly obdut ?.= tàcs pcr iop`to FH^‑ (Brues, Aèfot, oeh Rogdtdaololo

2>>9, p. :0).

Xwd joitdrs aoy idetr`butc td tm`s trceh. J`rst, w`tm èircosèf hcvcldp-

acet, tmc prdpdrt`de dj chuiotch pcdplc è tmc iduetry tcehs td èircosc,

oldef w`tm tmc prdpdrt`de dj kdbs rcqu`rèf lcvcls dj chuiot`de idaporoblc

td tcoimèf. Mceic, wm`lc tcoimcr poy idetèucs td r`sc è rcol tcras, `t

tcehs td joll rclot`vc td tmc eot`deol ovcrofc. Ycideh, os iduetr`cs hcvcldp,

tmcrc `s oe èircosèf rcqu`rcacet jdr ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de oeh rco-

sdeoblc iloss s`zcs. Xcoimcr solor`cs tmot orc m`fm ault`plcs dj FH^ tceh td

aogc ue`vcrsol chuiot`de ueojjdrhoblc oeh tmcrcjdrc tceh td c`tmcr rchuic

oiicss td chuiot`de dr èircosc iloss s`zcs.

Adrc rcicet hoto suppdrt tm`s fcecrol trceh. DCIH hoto (DCIH 2>>=,

p. 888) èhìotc tmot è DCIH iduetr`cs, tmc solor`cs jdr tcoimcrs è

pràory oeh ldwcr scidehory chuiot`de w`tm ?3 ycors dj cxpcr`ceic roefc

jrda >.=2 tàcs pcr iop`to FH^ (è Muefory) td >.== tàcs pcr iop`to

FH^ (è Ywchce). Vdrlhw`hc, ovcrofc stortèf solor`cs jdr tcoimcrs orc

?.82 tàcs tmc pcr iop`to FH^ (S@Y 2>>6, p. ?83). @e tmc c`fmt Ojrìoe

iduetr`cs è tm`s stuhy, tmc ovcrofc stortèf solory jdr o pràory tcoimcr wos

9.9 tàcs FH^ pcr iop`to.



Xcoimcr Jèoeic • ?39

ro`sc o saollcr prdpdrt`de dj tmc FH^ è toxcs, prdv`hèf o saollcr rcsduric cevc-

ldpc jrda wmìm td jèoeic chuiot`de. Xmc Chuiot`de jdr Oll‘Jost Xroig @e`tòt`vc èhìot`vc jroacwdrg (CJO-JX@

2>>8) prdv`hcs o adhcl dj tmc rcsduric olldiot`des rcqu`rch td suppdrt tmc prdv`-

s`de dj ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de (toblc ?>.?). Xm`s adhcl suffcsts tmot o

tcoimcr solory dj 9.3 tàcs pcr iop`to FH^ ioe bc ojjdrhoblc `j fdvcreacet rcv-

ceucs rcoim ?= pcricet dj FH , `j 2> pcricet dj rcvceuc `s olldiotch td chuiot`de,

oeh `j o m`fm pr`dr`ty `s oss`fech td pràory chuiot`de.

Xm`s adhcl `s edt ètcehch td bc edraot`vc, but td prdv`hc o scr`cs dj ida-

por`sdes ofoèst wmìm tmc àplìot`des dj rcsduric olldiot`de pottcres ioe bc

ilcorly v`s`blc. ûblì cxpceh`turc de chuiot`de è tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs vor`ch w`hcly.

Xmrcc dj tmc iduetr`cs, Cr`trco, L`bcrò, oeh Xmc Foabò, hcvdtch lcss tmoe

?> pcricet dj tmc`r buhfct td chuiot de, tmc j rst twd bciousc dj tmc`r sciur ty s`t-

uot`des, oeh Xmc Foabò huc td `ts rcicet cidedaì ir s`s (j`furc ?>.?). Xmcsc ldw

olldiot`des td chuiot de suffcst tmot è tmcsc tmrcc ioscs, `t w ll bc h jjìult td prd-

v`hc ue`vcrsol jrcc pràory chuiot`de uelcss tcoimcr solor`cs joll ides`hcrobly

bcldw tmc lcvcl dj 9.3 tàcs pcr iop`to FH . Ot tmc dtmcr ceh dj tmc spcitrua,

publ i cxpceh turc de chuiot de è Sfoeho oeh Lcsdtmd wos adrc tmoe 9> pcr-

icet dj tdtol fdvcreacet cxpceh`turc, lcovèf frcotcr sidpc jdr èircosch tcoimcr rcauecrot`de.

Xoblc ?>.? Adhcl dj Ojjdrhob`l`ty dj Se`vcrsol Chuiot de, Yàpl`j`ch jrda CJO-JX@ @ehìot`vc Jroacwdrg

Euabcr dj tcoimcrs rcqu`rch Jèoeic ovo`loblc jdr tcoimcrs

^rdpdrt`de dj tmc pdpulot`de e tmc ?=% Fdvcreacet spcehèf os o % dj FH^ ?=%

pràory simddl-ofc idmdrt (`.c., oaduet dj fdvcreacet rcvceuc)

Frdss cerdllacet s ??>% (èiluhèf ?>> Olldiot`de td chuiot`de 2>% dj 2>%

?>% rcpct`t`de), but ossuaèf ?>% è fdvcreacet spcehèf, dr 9.:% (9.:% dj FH^)

pr`votc simddls, cerdllacet è publì dj FH^

simddls `s ?>>%

ûp`l-tcoimcr rot`d 83;? Olldiot`de td pràory chuiot`de 3=%

(ossuaèf : ycors pràory chuiot de) (2.?% dj FH^)

Euabcr dj tcoimcrs rcqu`rch 8 Olldiot`de td pràory tcoimcrs :6%

pcr ?,>>> dj pdpulot`de (>.8% dj rcauecrot`de dj :6% dj pràory (?.8% dj FH^)

?,>>> dj pdpulot`de apl cs ?=> pdpulot`de) chuiot de buhfct

simddl-ofc im`lhrce, oeh ot 83;?, 8

tcoimcrsOjjdrhoblc tcoimcr solory

`j >.8% dj tmc pdpulot`de orc

tcoimcrs oeh ?.8% dj FH^ `s

ovo`loblc, ovcrofc tcoimcr solory

ioe bc 9.3 tàcs FH^ (?.8/>.8 1 9.3)




Xmc smorc dj tmc chuiot`de buhfct hcvdtch td bosì chuiot`de olsd vor`ch

w`hcly oirdss tmc iduetr`cs, roefèf jrda uehcr 2> pcricet è Cr`trco td adrc tmoe

6> pcricet è Xmc Foabò oeh [oabò (toblc ?>.2). Idapor`sdes orc idaplìotch

by tmc voròt`de e tmc hurot`de dj tmc pràory chuiot`de iyilc, wmìm roefch jrda

j`vc td eèc ycors. Ioliulot`de dj tmc prdpdrt`de dj chuiot`de cxpceh`turc de o

pcr-ycor bos`s rcvcols tmot dely twd dj tmc iduetr`cs, Sfoeho oeh [oabò, wcrc

olldiotèf sujjì`cet juehs td pràory chuiot`de td aotim tmc JX@ èhìot`vc

adhcl.

>

3

?>

?3

2>

93

23

% d

j c x p c e h ` t u r c

9>

Foabò, Xmc Cr`trco L`bcrò Aolow` [oez`bor JX@ [oabò Sfoeho Lcsdtmd

J`furc ?>.? ^cricetofc dj ûblì Cxpceh`turc Olldiotch td Chuiot`de Idaporch w`tm JX@Bceimaorg

Xoblc ?>.2 ^cricetofc dj Chuiot`de Cxpceh`turc Olldiotch td Bosì Chuiot`de

Bosì chuiot`de os % olldiotch td% dj chuiot`de Pcors e bosì pràory chuiot`de

cxpceh`turc chuiot`de iyilc pcr ycor e iyilc

JX@* 3=.>% 6 Opprdxàotcly =%

Cr`trco ?0.6% 3 9.0%

L`bcrò 2=.>% : 8.6%

Lcsdtmd 96.>% 6 3.9%

Sfoeho ::.9% 6 0.3%

Aolow` 3>.3% = :.9%

Foabò, Xmc 6>.0% 0 6.0%

[oabò 68.>% 0 =.2%

* JX@ èhìot`vc j`furc `s rclotch td tmc lceftm dj tmc pràory iyilc; 82% `j 3 ycors, 3>% `j : ycors, 3=% `j 6 ycors, oeh:8% `j = ycors. Idetèuèf tm`s trceh, 0 ycors wdulh bc kust uehcr 62%.




^R@AORP XCOIMCR RCASECROX@DE

Xmc bosì poy jdr o pràory tcoimcr è tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs vor`ch w`hcly,

bdtm è obsdlutc voluc oeh os o ault`plc dj pcr iop`to FH^. Jdr tmc purpdscs dj ida-por`sde, tmc j`furcs usch orc tmc stortèf solory jdr o quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcr w`tm

tmc adst idaade quol`jìot`de bcèf prdv`hch ot tmc tàc, wmìm wos è oll ioscs

c`tmcr o icrt`jìotc dr h`pldao quol`jìot`de.? @e S.Y. hdllor tcras, tmc oeeuol solory

roefch by o joitdr dj s`x, jrda $80> è [oez`bor td $9,202 è [oabò (toblc ?>.9).

Vmce idevcrtch ètd purimosèf

pdwcr por`ty (^^^) hdllors, oe

ohkustacet jdr tmc h`jjcrcet idsts è

coim iduetry, tmc fop eorrdwch

sl`fmtly, w`tm solor`cs roefèf jrda^^^$?,983 td ^^^$:,>=2. Xmc stort-

èf solory, cxprcssch os o ault plc dj

pcr iop`to FH^ olsd vor ch, roefèf

jrda ?.3 tàcs pcr iop`to FH^ è

[oez`bor td j`vc tàcs pcr iop`to

FH^ è Sfoeho (scc toblc ?>.8 oeh

j`furc ?>.2).

Xwd fcecrol trcehs a`fmt bc

cxpcitch e tcoimcr poy. J`rst, t a`fmt bc cxpcitch tmot iduetr`cs w`tm m`fmcr FH^

wdulh poy m`fmcr tcoimcr solor`cs (è hdllor tcras). Xm`s pottcre wos rcjlcitch td

sdac cxtcet. Xmc tcoimcr solor`cs wcrc m`fmcr è tmc twd iduetr`cs w`tm tmc m`fm-

cst FH^ pcr iop`to ([oabò oeh Lcsdtmd), but tmc pottcre wos edt ides`stcet.

Sfoeho oeh Xmc Foabò moh vcry sà`lor pcr iop`to FH^, but tmc tcoimcr solory

Xoblc ?>.9 Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr(Cxiluhèf Olldwoeics)

Hdllors, purimosèfPcor S.Y. hdllors pdwcr por`ty (^^^)

Cr`trco 2>>3 62= 2,99>Foabò, Xmc 2>>6 6>6 2,:62

Lcsdtmd 2>>: 2,9:: 8,9>0

L`bcrò 2>>6/>= ::> ?,983

Aolow` 2>>: 386 ?,:89

Sfoeho 2>>:/>6 ?,8?2 8,>33

[oabò 2>>6 9,202 :,>=2

[oez`bor 2>>6 80> ?,9=:

Xoblc ?>.8 Oeeuol Ytortèf Yolor`cs jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr oeh ^cr Iop`to FH^

Iduetry Roegch S.Y. hdllor td ^cr iop`to Yolory os o

by pcr iop`to Yolory e ldiol iurrceiy Yolory e S.Y. FH^ e S.Y. ault`plc dj pcrFH^ Pcor ldiol iurrceiy cximoefc rotc hdllors hdllors iop`to FH^

L`bcrò 2>>6 ::> ? ::> $?:> 8.?

Aolow` 2>>: 6:,38= ?8> 386 $?:> 9.8

Cr`trco 2>>3 ?>,02> ?3 62= $228 9.9

Sfoeho 2>>: 2,8>>,>>> ?,6>> ?,8?2 $2=> 3.>

Foabò, Xmc 2>>6 ?0,>=> 26 6>6 $20> 2.8

[oez`bor 2>>6 :?2,:>> ?,23> 80> $99> ?.3

[oabò 2>>6 ?9,?:6,6=> 8,>>> 9,202 $60= 8.?

Lcsdtmd 2>>: ?:,39: :.0= 2,9:: $0== 2.8




è Sfoeho wos hdublc tmot è Xmc Foabò. [oez`bor moh o pcr iop`to FH^ hdu-

blc tmot dj L`bcrò dr Aolow`, but po`h ldwcr tcoimcr solor`cs.

Ycideh, t a`fmt bc cxpcitch tmot tcoimcr solor`cs cxprcssch os o ault`plc dj pcr

iop`to FH^ wdulh bc ldwcr è iduetr`cs w`tm o m`fmcr F^H pcr iop`to. Xm`s pot-

tcre wos edt cv`hcet ot oll; tcoimcr solory os o ault`plc dj FH^ vor`ch w`hcly, oeh

wos edt ides`stcetly ldwcr è tmc m`fmcr èidac iduetr`cs.

@e ohh t`de td solory, adst iduetr`cs moh o euabcr dj ohh t`deol olldwoeicspo`h td tcoimcrs. Xmcsc èiluhèf mdusèf olldwoeics, troespdrtot`de olldwoeics,

>

93>>

9>>>

23>>

2>>>

?3>>

?>>>

3>>

L`bcrò Aolow` Cr`trco Sfoeho [oez`borFoabò, Xmc [oabò Lcsdtmd

solory FH^ pcr iop to

J`furc ?>.2 Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr oeh FH^ cr Iop`to

>

p r ` a o r y t c o i m c r s t o r t ` e f s o

l o r y ` e S Y $

> 2>> 8>> :>> =>> ?,>>> ?,2>>

93>>

9>>>

23>>

2>>>

?3>>

?>>>

3>>

FH^ pcr iop`to

L`bcrò

Aolow`

Sfoeho

[oez`bor

[oabò

Lcsdtmd

Foabò, XmcCr`trco



olldwoeics jdr morhsm`p ldiot`des,

oeh hdublc-sm jt olldwoeics. Xmcsc

olldwoeics ioe movc o s`fe`jìoet

àpoit de tdtol idapcesot`de. @e

Xmc Foabò, ohh`t`deol olldwoeics

ioe ohh adrc tmoe 3> pcricet td

tmc bosì solory (toblc ?>.3). Xwd dj

tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, Sfoeho

oeh Aolow`, moh sàpl`j`ch tmc

solory siolcs by ètcfrotèf mdusèf

olldwoeics ètd tmc bosì poy

(toblc ?>.:).


Xoblc ?>.3 Xmc Foabò; Xmc @apoit dj Olldwoeics deXcoimcr ôy

^ràory tcoimcr, Rcf`de :,

stortèf solory, S.Y.$ Rcf`de ? morhsm`p pdstBosì poy 30 30

Rcf`deol olldwoeic (>’?6.3%) ?> (?6.3%)

Morhsm`p olldwoeic (9>’8>%) 28 (8>%)

Xrovcl olldwoeic ?0

Mdusèf olldwoeic 0

Xdtol jdr o sèflc-sm`jt tcoimcr 66 ?>2

Hdublc sm`jt (3>%) 20 20

Xdtol jdr o hdublc-sm`jt tcoimcr ?>6 ?9?

Xoblc ?>.: Yuaaory dj Olldwoeics o`h td Xcoimcrs

Iduetry Ohh`t`deol olldwoeics

Cr trco Ldiol idaaue`t cs djtce prdv`hc oiidaadhot de, jddh, hdacstì mclp, oeh, è sdac ioscs, iosm

Foab o, Xmc Xroespdrt olldwoeic 3>> FAH ($?=) pcr adetm (urboe orcos)

Rcet olldwoeic 23> FAH ($0) pcr adetm (rurol orcos)

Rurol orcos bdeus bctwcce 6.3 pcricet oeh ?6.3 pcricet dj solory

Morhsm`p olldwoeic bctwcce 9>’8> pcricet dj solory

Hdublc sm`jt olldwoeic, 3> pcricet dj solory

Lcsdtmd Morhsm`p ldiot de olldwoeics dj 263 LYL pcr adetm (obdut 9? pcricet dj stortèf solory)

L`bcrò Ydac mdusèf prdv`hch by EFDs

Aolow` Mdusèf olldwoeic obdl smch è 2>>8 oeh eidrpdrotch etd bosì solory

Mdusèf `s prdv`hch è o aèdr`ty dj simddls

Xmc aè`stry dpcrotcs o ldoe simcac tmot ioe prdv`hc ldoes ot prcjcrcetòl rotcs td tcoimcrs.

Idaacriòl boegs orc rcluitoet td f`vc ldoes td tcoimcrs, oeh tcoimcrs orc rcqu`rch td sccg

opprdvol jrda tmc ^craoecet Ycirctory dj tmc AdCZX bcjdrc cetcrèf ètd o idaacriòl ldoe

ofrccacet.

Sfoeho Ed mdusèf olldwoeic, os tmcsc wcrc eidrpdrotch etd bosì poy è o solory rcjdra

Xcoimcr mdusèf `s prdv`hch, but dely è o aèdr`ty dj simddlsMorh-td-rcoim olldwoeic dj ?3 pcricet dj solory

[oabò Yubs stceic olldwoeic dj 263’20>,>>> [AG ($:?’:3) pcr adetm (opprdxàotcly 22 pcricet dj

solory) hcpcehèf de frohc oeh aor`tol stotus

Hdublc-sm`jt olldwoeic dj 2> pcricet

Rcspdes`b`l`ty olldwoeic dj 2> pcricet td icrt`jìotc mdlhcrs tcoimèf uppcr bosì ilosscs dr

h`pldao mdlhcrs tcoimèf m`fm simddl

Rciru`tacet oeh rctcet`de olldwoeic dj 2> pcricet dj bosì solory td hcfrcc mdlhcrs

[oez bor Xcoimèf olldwoeic dj 23 pcricet dj solory

Mdusèf olldwoeic dj :’?> pcricet dj solory

Xroespdrt olldwoeic, c`tmcr 3,>>> X[Y pcr adetm (obdut 3 pcricet dj solory) dr oituol trovcl

idst (wmìmcvcr `s frcotcr)




@e sdac iduetr`cs tmcrc moh bcce substoetòl eircoscs e tcoimcr rcauecrot`de

è tmc prcichèf ycors, w`tm tcoimcr solor`cs dutpoièf èjlot`de. @e Aolow` eda`-

eol tcoimcr solor`cs tr`plch bctwcce 2>>> oeh 2>>8, cxicchèf tmc rotc dj ejlot`de

oeh rcsultèf e o rcol eircosc dj 8> pcricet. @e Sfoeho, e ohh`t`de td tmc oeeuol

èircosc, pràory tcoimcrs wcrc oworhch oe cxicpt`deol èircosc dj 99 pcricet dj

solory è 2>>:. @e tmc pcr`dh jrda 2>>> td 2>>:, tmc Sfoeho idesuacr prìc èhcx

frcw by 99 pcricet, wm`lc è tmc soac pcr`dh pràory tcoimcr solor`cs frcw by

??0 pcricet oeh scidehory tcoimcrs‐ solor`cs frcw ?26 pcricet. @e [oabò, solor`cs

rdsc by 23 pcricet è 2>>8, jdlldwch by èircoscs dj ?9 pcricet oeh ?: pcricet è

tmc jdlldwèf ycors. @e L`bcrò, tmc cacrfceiy bosì solory jdr publì scrvoets wos

èircosch jrda obdut $2> pcr adetm è 2>>3’>: td opprdxàotcly $9> pcr adetm

è 2>>:’>6, oeh td $33 jdr 2>>6’>=.

Edt oll iduetr`cs cxpcr`ceich oe èircosc. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, oeolys s by Srwìg, Aopuru, oeh Egmdbdt` (2>>3) èhìotcs tmot oeeuol solory èircoscs

rcsultch è saoll èircoscs è rcol èidac jdr tmc pcr`dh ?00> td ?000, but loffch

bcmèh èjlot`de o ?000, suim tmot by 2>>3, tmc solory moh opprdxàotcly 03 pcr-

icet dj tmc voluc dj tmc ?00> solory. @e Cr`trco solor`cs movc olsd stofeotch sèic

?006 oeh orc bcl`cvch td bc jollèf è rcol tcras.

MDV ^R@AORP XCOIMCR YOLOR@CY IDAÔRC

Xcoimcr solor`cs rclot`vc td tmc pdvcrty lèc; Xcoimcrs è tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs wcrc edt m`fmly po`h, w`tm stortèf solor`cs jdr o quol`j`ch tcoimcr roefèf jrda $8?

td $268 pcr adetm. Vm`lc è oll ioscs tmc tcoimcr solor`cs cxicchch tmc obsdlutc

pdvcrty lèc dj dec hdllor è purimosèf pdwcr por`ty pcr hoy (SECYID-CJO

2>>=), o tcoimcr tryèf td suppdrt o joa`ly de tmc stortèf solory idulh cos`ly joll

uehcr $2 pcr hoy ^^^. @e [oez`bor oeh L`bcrò, tmc tcoimcr solory wos opprdx`-

aotcly $8 pcr hoy ^^^, oeh o joa`ly w`tm twd tcoimcrs, bdtm capldych de fdv-

creacet solor`cs, w`tm twd im`lhrce, wdulh jèh tmcasclvcs l`vèf de $2 pcr pcr-

sde pcr hoy. O joa`ly w`tm dely dec wofc corecr wdulh bc cvce wdrsc djj.

Cvce è tmc iduetr`cs wmcrc solory oppcors rclot`vcly m`fm, tcoimcrs rcpdrtch ide-s`hcroblc morhsm`p. @e [oabò, tmc stortèf solory wos tmc cqu`volcet dj $?6 pcr hoy

^^ , but tmc tcoimcrs ue`des,usèf hoto jrda tmc icetrol stot`stìs djj ic, smdwch tmot

tmc stortèf solory dj o pr aory tcoimcr wos rdufmly twd-tm`rhs dj tmc idst dj tmc bosì

ecchs bosgct jdr o joa ly dj s`x (toblc ?>.6).

Os wcll os iousèf morhsm`p, ldw solor`cs prdv`hc strdef prcssurcs jdr tcoim-

crs td sccg dtmcr sdurics dj èidac, wmctmcr tmrdufm dtmcr èidac-fcecrot ef

oit`v t`cs dr tmrdufm àpdsèf imorfcs de tmc`r stuhcets. Idevcrscly è L`bcrò,

`t wos rcpdrtch tmot rcicet èircoscs è solory moh bcce rcjlcitch è èircosch

tcoimcr ottcehoeic, oeh tmot pr`votc simddls jdueh `t adrc h`jjìult td ottroit tcoimcrs.




^ràory tcoimcr solor`cs

rclot`vc td tmc pr`votc lobdr

aorgct; Idapor`sdes w`tm tmc

solor`cs è tmc pr`votc scitdr

orc aohc h`jjìult bciousc dj

tmc là`tch s`zc dj tmc pr`votc

scitdr, oeh tmc h`jjìulty è

dbtoèèf rclòblc hoto. @e

Cr`trco tmcrc wcrc oecihdtol

rcpdrts tmot o smdrtofc dj aoe-

uol lobdr mos rcsultch è

m`fmcr poy jdr iosuol lobdrcrs tmoe jdr

tcoimcrs. Ydac adrc dbkcit`vc hoto wcrcovo`loblc è Lcsdtmd, wmcrc tmcrc orc aè-

àua wofc lcvcls jdr h`jjcrcet frohcs dj

pr`votc scitdr wdrgcrs (toblc ?>.=). Xmc

solory dj o quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcr wos

sà`lor td tmc aèàua wofc jdr o ide-

struit`de aoimèc dpcrotdr, wm`lc tmc

solory dj oe uequol`j`ch tcoimcr wos ldwcr

tmoe tmc aèàua wofc jdr o troèch

sciur`ty fuorh.^ràory tcoimcr solor`cs rclot`vc td

tcoimcrs è pr`votc simddls; @e adst iduetr`cs tmc bcttcr-rcsdurich pr`votc simddls

wcrc oblc td poy adrc tmoe publì scrvìc solor`cs, oeh td ottroit tmc bcst tcoimcrs

oeh tmdsc è subkcits wmcrc tmcrc `s o smdrtofc. M`fmcr wofcs jdr pr`votc simddl

wcrc rcpdrtch è Cr`trco, Xmc Foabò, oeh Aolow`, oltmdufm tmcrc wcrc o là`tch

euabcr dj dppdrtue`t`cs ovo`loblc. Oltmdufm poy è pr`votc simddls `s sdactàcs

ldwcr tmoe è publì simddls è L`bcrò, tmc poigofc dj ohh`t`deol bcecj`ts (jddh

olldwoeic, trovcl olldwoeic, oeh po`h troèèf) idetèucs td aogc tmc pr`votc

simddl rcauecrot`de adrc ottroit`vc. Ottr`t`de td EFDs wos olsd oe `ssuc èL`bcrò, wmcrc `t wos rcpdrtch tmot aoey dj tmc frohuotcs wmd quol`jy è chuio-

t`de oeh tmc tcoimcrs wmd upfrohc td hcfrcc quol`jìot`des movc advch td tmc

EFD scitdr.

Xcoimcr rcauecrot`de rclot`vc td dtmcr publì scitdr kdbs; @e bdtm Aolow`

oeh Lcsdtmd, tmc mcoltm scrvìc djjcrch m`fmcr poy tmoe tmc chuiot`de scitdr, portly

bciousc dj tmc ecch td rctoè cxpcrt`sc. Os o rcsult, stuhcets w`tm si`ceic subkcits

ot tmc Eot`deol Se`vcrs`ty dj Lcsdtmd wcrc rcpdrtch td prcjcr mcoltm idurscs td

chuiot`de idurscs. Srwìg, Aopuru, oeh Egmdbdt` (2>>3) orfuch tmot tcoimcr

rcauecrot`de wos o lcss ottroit`vc poigofc tmoe tmdsc jdr dtmcr publì scrvoets w`tm sà`lor quol`jìot`des bciousc tmcy djjcrch lcss oiicss td ldoes, oeh bciousc

Xoblc ?>.6 Ytortèf Yolory jdr o _uol`j`ch ^ràory Xcoimcr

SY$ pcr adetm $^^^ pcr adetm $^^^ pcr hoy

Cr`trco :? ?08 :

Foabò, Xmc 30 229 6

Lcsdtmd ?06 930 ?2

L`bcrò 33 ??2 8

Aolow` 8: ?96 3

Sfoeho ??= 99= ??

[oabò 268 3>6 ?6

[oez`bor 8? ??: 8

Xoblc ?>.= Lcsdtmd; Eot`deol Aèàua Vofc, 2>>3,

oeh Yclcitch Xcoimcr Yolor`cs (è LYL)

Adetmly Oeeuol

Hdacstì wdrgcr 29> 2,6:>

Xcxt`lc fcecrol wdrgcr :89 6,6?:

Fcecrol aèàua wofc :69 =,>6:

Xroèch sciur`ty fuorh 098 ??,2>=

Idestruit`de aoimèc dpcrotdr ?,8>> ?:,=>>

Sequol`j`ch tcoimcr w`tm YXH 6 ==> ?>,3:>

Sequol`j`ch tcoimcr w`tm IDYI ?,>8: ?2,332

_uol`j`ch tcoimcr w`tm icrt`jìotc ?,96= ?:,39:



?:> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

tmc è`tòl poy `s adrc djtce hcloych bciousc dj tmc tcoimcrs‐ fcdfropmìol ldio-

t`des (toblc ?>.0).

@e Xmc Foabò, tmc ûblì Cxpceh`turc Rcv`cw (^CR) suffcsts tmot tcoimcrs‐

è`tòl solor`cs aoy bc idaporoblc td (dr cxicch) tmdsc dj dtmcr publì scrvìc kdbs,but aoy r`sc adrc sldwly oeh ottroit jcwcr ohh`t`deol bcecj`ts;

Vm`lst Frohuotc tcoimcrs orc cet`tlch td frohc = è Xmc Foabò Fdvcreacet poy

siolc, tmc`r iduetcrports w tm cqu volcet quol`jìot des orc oppdètch ot frohc 6 dj tmc

soac poy siolc `.c., cideda`st. Mdwcvcr wmcrc tmc iohct cideda st aoy bc prdadtch

saddtmly td tmrdufm tmc m`fmcr lcvcl dj tmc ohaè`strot vc lohhcr `.c., td Yce`dr oeh

^rèi`pol dr H`rcitdr pds`t`des wmcrc tmcy w`ll cekdy è ohh`t`de td tmc`r bosì solor`cs

dtmcr bcecj`ts `.c., ior olldwoeic, dvcrscos troèèf/tr`ps (pcr h`cas), cti., tmc m`fmcst

lcvcl tmc frohuotc tcoimcr aoy rcoim `s td bc o prèi`pol oeh tmot cvce aoy togc oauim ldefcr tàc bcjdrc tmot rcolly aotcròl`zcs. Frohuotc tcoimcrs aoy ecvcr cekdy

trovcls oeh pcr h`cas tmot dtmcr prdjcss`deols è dtmcr scitdrs aoy cekdy èircacetolly

tmrdufmdut tmc`r iorccrs. (Caoeì Idesultèf 2>>:.)

Lobdr aorgct s`feols; Xwd fcecrol pottcres cacrfch è o euabcr dj tmc iosc-

stuhy iduetr`cs. J`rst, tcoimcr solor`cs scca esujjì`cet td rctoè tmc adst chuiotch

tcoimcrs, portìulorly tmdsc w`tm quol`jìot`des è aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. @e

L`bcrò, adst dj tmc frohuotcs jrda hcfrcc-lcvcl chuiot`de idurscs hd edt rcture

td publì simddls. @e Aolow`, Sfoeho, [oabò, oeh Lcsdtmd tmcrc s rcpdrtch td bcm`fmcr ottr`t`de dj tmc frohuotc tcoimcrs oeh tmdsc w`tm aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic.

Ycideh, tcoimcr solor`cs scca sujjì`cet td ottroit tmc lcss wcll chuiotch, wmd typ-

ìolly movc jcwcr oltcreot`vc dppdrtue`t`cs. @e Lcsdtmd, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wdrg

os vdluetccrs (w`tmdut poy) è fdvcreacet simddls, sdactàcs jdr ycors, è tmc

mdpc dj fcttèf o pds`t`de os oe uequol`j`ch tcoimcr oeh lotcr upfrohèf. @e

Aolow`, wmce 2,0>> pds`t`des è tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs wcrc ohvcrt`sch è

2>>3, tmcrc wcrc 2=,>>> opplìoets. @e Sfoeho, tdd, tmc pds`t`des è tcoimcr

idllcfcs orc dvcrsubsir`bch.

Xogce tdfctmcr, tmcsc suffcst tmot tmc tcoimèf prdjcss`de `s adrc ottroit`vctd tmdsc w`tm ldwcr oiohcaì quol`jìot`des, wmd aoy movc jcwcr oltcreot`vc

Xoblc ?>.0 Lcsdtmd; Idapor`sde dj Yolor`cs è Mcoltm oeh Chuiot`de (è LYL)

Mcoltm scitdr Ytortèf solory Chuiot`de scitdr Ytortèf solory

Eursc oss`stoet 22,>>> Icrt`jìotc tcoimcr ?:,39:

Ytojj eursc 98,>>> H`pldao pràory tcoimcr 9>,928

Hcfrcc mdlhcrs (publì ohaè`strotdrs, 8=,>>> Frohuotc 39,9:8

publì oiiduetoets, cti.)

Ypciòl`st (hditdr) ?96,23: Yimddl prèi`pol, ==,29:

m`fm simddl



Xcoimcr Jèoeic • ?:?

dppdrtue`t`cs. Os o rcsult, tcoimèf tcehs td rciru`t tmdsc wmd h`h edt fct ploics e

dtmcr idurscs. @e Cr`trco tmc cetry quol`jìot`de jdr pràory tcoimèf mos bcce

jollèf, os tmc bcst-quol`j`ch simddl lcovcrs cetcr dtmcr prdjcss`des. @e Xmc Foa-

bò, tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc mos bcce ueoblc td j`ll `ts idurscs è rcicet ycors

bciousc tmc bcst-quol`j`ch opplìoets imdsc ploics e dtmcr est`tut`des. @e Aolow`,

uecapldyacet `s m`fm oeh tmc tcoimèf idurscs orc dvcrsubsir`bch, but oladst

?3 pcricet dj tmc stuhcets lcjt tmc tcoimcr troèèf idursc è tmc j`rst ycor, aoèly

td kdè tmc pdlìc oeh tmc Aè`stry dj Ofrìulturc.

J@EOEI@EF XMC C]ÔEY@DE DJ YCIDEHORP CHSIOX@DE

Jdr tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmc frcotcst j`siol imollcefcs è chuiot`de wcrc l`gcly

td bc ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. Oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh aohc substoetòlprdfrcss è tmc cxpoes`de dj pràory chuiot`de, oeh jdur moh frdss cerdllacet

rotcs dj adrc tmoe ?>> pcricet (toblc ?>.?>). Cerdllacet rotcs ot tmc scidehory

lcvcl wcrc auim adrc adhcst, roefèf jrda 92 pcricet td 3= pcricet jdr tmc ldwcr

scidehory oeh os ldw os : pcricet è tmc uppcr scidehory. Xmc hcaoeh jdr oiicss

td scidehory chuiot`de s l`gcly td r`sc, os tmc euabcr dj pràory simddl lcovcrs e

Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo `s sct td hdublc è tmc ecxt tce ycors (Lcwè 2>>=).

@e sdac iduetr`cs tmc idst dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de ot tmc scidehory lcvcl wos auim

m`fmcr tmoe ot tmc pràory lcvcl, oeh sccach l`gcly td idestroè cxpoes`de

(toblc ?>.??). Jdr tmc purpdscs dj idapor`sde, tmc idst dj tcoimcr prdv`s de wos ioliulotch pcr stuhcet, bosch de tmc ovcrofc pup l-tcoimcr rot d oeh tmc stortèf

solory dj o quol j`ch tcoimcr. @e Aolow`, jdr cxoaplc, o pràory tcoimcr coreèf $386

pcr ycor oeh tcoimèf o iloss dj 6: pup`ls rcsultch è oe ovcrofc idst pcr stuhcet

pcr ycor dj $6 (toblc ?>.?2). Ot tmc uppcr scidehory lcvcl è Aolow , o stortèf solory

dj $2,320 oeh oe ovcrofc iloss s zc dj 2? rcsultch è o idst pcr stuhcet dj $?2>.

Xoblc ?>.?> Frdss Cerdllacet Rotcs è tmc C`fmt Iduetr`cs Ytuh`ch

Ldwcr scidehory/

Pcor dj hoto ^ràory a`hhlc simddl Sppcr scidehoryCr`trco 2>>8’>3 62 8= 28

Foabò, Xmc 2>>3’>: =3 30 93

Lcsdtmd 2>>: ?26 8>o ‘

L`bcrò 2>>: =6b 92b ??b

Aolow` 2>>: ?22 2>o ‘

Sfoeho 2>>: ??2 22o ‘

[oabò 2>>6 ?98 3= 23

[oez`bor 2>>: 08 8> :

o. Ycidehoryb. Cstàotc



?:2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

Edt oll iduetr`cs moh suim cxtrcac h`jjcrcetòls bctwcce tmc pràory oeh sci-

dehory lcvcls. Xoblc ?>.?? smdws tmc idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc scidehory lcvcls os o

pcricetofc dj tmc idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc pràory lcvcl. @e Cr`trco oeh Xmc Foabò,tmc tcoimcr idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc uppcr scidehory lcvcl wos lcss tmoe hdublc tmot

ot tmc pràory lcvcl. Ot tmc dtmcr cxtrcac, è Sfoeho, Lcsdtmd, oeh Aolow`, tmc

tcoimcr idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc uppcr scidehory lcvcl wos adrc tmoe j`vc tàcs tmc

idst ot tmc pràory lcvcl (j`furc ?>.9).

Xmc ohh`t`deol idst dj tcoimcr prdv`s`de wos hr`vce by bdtm m`fmcr solor`cs oeh

ldwcr ut`l`zot`de. Xmc stortèf solory jdr quol`j`ch ldwcr scidehory tcoimcrs wos de

ovcrofc 83 pcricet m`fmcr tmoe tmc stortèf solory jdr pràory tcoimcrs, oeh tmc

stortèf solory jdr uppcr scidehory tcoimcrs wos de ovcrofc adrc tmoe hdublc

tmc solory jdr pràory tcoimcrs. But oe cvce frcotcr ohh`t`deol idst rcsultch jrdatmc ldwcr tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. Oirdss tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs, tmc

Xoblc ?>.?? Xcoimcr Idst ^cr Ytuhcet è Ldwcr oeh Sppcr Ycidehory, Cxprcssch oso ^cricetofc dj tmc Idst ot ^ràory Lcvcl

Idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc ldwcr Idst pcr stuhcet ot tmc uppcr

scidehory os o % dj idst pcr scidehory os o % dj idst pcrI^Y stuhcet ot tmc pràory lcvcl stuhcet ot tmc pràory lcvcl

Cr`trco ??? ?:0

Foabò, Xmc ?:0 ?02

Lcsdtmd 9?6 330

L`bcrò 892 8=>

Aolow` ?,>08 ?,:69

Sfoeho 8?6 39:

[oabò ??3 8??

[oez`bor 23> 2:>

Xoblc ?>.?2 Xcoimcr Idst ^cr Ytuhcet (I^Y) ot ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Lcvcls (è SY$)

^ràory Ldwcr scidehory Sppcr scidehory

Yolory ^XR I^Y Yolory ^XR I^Y Yolory ^XR I^Y

Cr`trco 62= 39 ?8 0:> :9 ?3 ?,?:> 3> 29

Foabò, Xmc 6>6 8? ?6 6=6 26 20 ?,>:? 92 99

Lcsdtmd 2,9:: 83 39 8,990 2: ?:6 6,:9: 2: 208

L`bcrò ::> 92 2? :66 = =0 :09 6 00

Aolow` 386 6: 6 ?,:39 2? 60 2,320 2? ?2>

Sfoeho ?,8?2 8= 20 2,92= ?0 ?29 2,006 ?0 ?3=[oabò 9,202 38 :? 9,6=: 38 6> 3,>>6 2> 23>

[oez`bor 0=0 93 ?8 ?,>?6 20 93 ?,>38 20 9:

Edtcs; Yolory usch `s tmc stortèf solory jdr o tcoimcr quol`j`ch td tcoim ot coim lcvcl. @e Cr`trco, a`hhlc simddl `s uschè ploic dj ldwcr scidehory.



Xcoimcr Jèoeic • ?:9

ovcrofc pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d è pràory simddls wos 8=, wm`lc tmc ovcrofc stuhcet-

tcoimcr rot`d ot tmc ldwcr scidehory lcvcl wos 9?, oeh 2: ot tmc uppcr scidehory.

Xmcsc m`fmcr stojjèf lcvcls è scidehory simddls rcsult jrda tmrcc joitdrs. J`rst,scidehory tcoimcrs edraolly tcoim jdr dely o pdrt`de dj tmc simddl hoy, rcsultèf

è o rcqu`rcacet jdr adrc tmoe dec tcoimcr pcr iloss. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, sci-

dehory tcoimcrs orc cxpcitch td tcoim 9> pcr`dhs pcr wccg, wm`lc coim iloss `s

toufmt ot lcost 8> pcr`dhs pcr wccg. Ycideh, bciousc tcoimcrs spciòl`zc è portì-

ulor subkcits, edt oll tcoimcrs orc tàc-toblch jdr tmc jull euabcr dj pcr`dhs,

portìulorly è subkcits wmcrc tmcrc `s oe dvcrsupply, dr tmc lcss pdpulor dpt`deol

subkcits. Xm`rh, m`fm prdv`s`de dj dpt`deol subkcits è scidehory simddls djtce

rcsults è saoll iloss s`zcs è sdac dj tmc lcost pdpulor dpt`des. Xmcsc proitìcs

rcsult è ldw stuhcet-tcoimcr rot`ds, cvce wmce tmc iloss s`zcs orc vcry m`fm è tmcidrc subkcits.

@A^L@IOX@DEY JDR ^DL@IP AOGCRY

Adst dj tmcsc iduetr`cs oss`fe o m`fm pr`dr`ty td chuiot`de, oeh `t oiiduets jdr o

s`fe`jìoet prdpdrt`de dj eot`deol cxpceh`turc. @e oll ioscs, tcoimcr rcauecrot`de

lcvcls prcscet h`jjìult imdìcs, oeh tmc ecch td boloeic tmc hcs`rc td èircosc

tcoimcr idapcesot`de w`tm ides`hcrot`des dj ojjdrhob`l`ty oeh cxpoes`de dj

oiicss. Xmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh stortèf solor`cs jdr pràory tcoimcrs roefèf

jrda ?.3 tàcs td j`vc tàcs pcr iop`to FH^. @t sccas tmot tcoimcr solor`cs wcrc

J`furc ?>.9 Xcoimcr Idst ^cr Ytuhcet ot ^ràory oeh Ycidehory Lcvcl

pràory uppcr scidehcryldwcr scidehcry

>

3>

?>>

?3>

2>>

93>

X c o i m c r i d s t p c r p u p ` l ` e S Y h d l l c r s p c r y c o r

23>

9>>

Cr`trco Xmc Foabò Lcsdtmd L`bcrò Aolow` Sfoeho [oabò [oez`bor



?:8 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

lorfcly hctcraèch pdl`tìolly. Xcoimcr solory, os o ault`plc dj pcr iop`to FH^, wos

edt strdefly rclotch td c`tmcr tmc prdpdrt`de dj eot`deol spcehèf hcvdtch td chu-

iot`de dr tmc pcr iop`to FH^.

Xcoimcrs wcrc edt wcll po`h è obsdlutc tcras. Ydac tcoimcrs w`tm o joa`ly

core solor`cs tmot put tmca edt jor obdvc tmc pdvcrty lèc. Mdwcvcr, tmcy orc po`h

auim adrc tmoe ovcrofc è tmc`r iduetr`cs. Hoto jrda tmc Aolow` Frdwtm oeh

Hcvcldpacet Ytrotcfy (Fdvcreacet dj Aolow` 2>>:) suffcst tmot cvce o pràory

tcoimcr de tmc stortèf solory `s è tmc tdp 3 pcricet dj Aolowòes è tcras dj

èidac.

Xmcsc solor`cs wcrc sujjì`cet td ottroit tcoimcrs, oeh è aoey ioscs tmcrc wcrc

tcoimcrs è pr`votc simddls oeh pr`votc tcoimcrs è fdvcreacet simddls w`llèf td

wdrg jdr lcss tmoe tmc fdvcreacet poy. Mdwcvcr, tmc solor`cs h`h edt scca sujj`-

i`cet td ottroit oeh rctoè wcll-quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, è portìulor tcoimcrs w`tmhcfrccs e aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. @e proitìc, tmc solory lcvcl moh djtce rcsultch

è tcoimèf bcèf scce os tmc “prdjcss`de dj lost rcsdrt,‑ ottroitèf opplìoets wmd

h`h edt aoeofc td fct o ploic è tmc`r prcjcrrch idursc dr iorccr. Xm`s pottcre mos

àplìot`des jdr pdlìy aogcrs, wmd aust c`tmcr adb`l`zc adrc juehs td ro`sc

tcoimcr rcauecrot`de, dr rcohkust tmc`r cxpcitot`des td hcol w`tm ottroitèf lcss-

quol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

@e porollcl w`tm tmc h`jjìulty dj prdv`hèf sustoèoblc oeh ohcquotc jèoeic jdr

tcoimcrs, tmcsc iduetr`cs oll joic tmc imollcefcs dj cxpcitch cxpoes`de ot tmc sci-

dehory lcvcl. @e coim dj tmcsc iduetr`cs, cerdllacet wos frdwèf adst rop`hly èscidehory chuiot`de, è rcspdesc td suiicssjul cxpoes`de è pràory cerdllacet

oeh èircosch pràory idaplct`de. Iurrcet idst struiturcs, bdtm tcoimcr solor`cs

oeh ut`l`zot`de, aogc prdv`s`de dj tcoimcrs jdr tmc scidehory lcvcl s`fe`jìoetly

adrc cxpces`vc tmoe tmc prdv`s`de dj pràory tcoimcrs. V`tm tmcsc idst struiturcs,

rcoimèf ecor-ue`vcrsol scidehory chuiot`de w`ll rcqu`rc vcry substoetòl eircoscs

è jèoeic jdr tcoimcrs, wmìm s uel`gcly td bc rcol`stì. Xmcsc suffcst strdefly tmot

èircoscs è tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de w`ll bc rcqu`rch è drhcr td ottoè aoss scidehory

chuiot`de.

EDXC

?. Edtc tmot stortèf solory `s usch mcrc os tmc bos`s jdr idapor`sde. Xmc dvcroll ojjdrh-

ob`l`ty dj tmc tcoimcr wdrgjdric `s hctcraèch by tmc dvcroll tcoimcr wofc b`ll, wmìm

w`ll olsd bc èjluceich by tmc rotc dj èircosc dj solory oeh tmc prdpdrt`de dj tcoimcrs

wmd orc adrc cxpcr ceich.



Ideilus`de

ÔRX Z





?:6

Imollcefcs, Xrcehs, oeh

^rda`sèf ^roitìcs

IMO^XCR ??

Jèhèf tmc r`fmt pdlì`cs td ohhrcss tcoimcr `ssucs `s icetrol td tmc imollcefcs dj bdtm cxpoes`de oeh quol`ty dj chuiot`de. Xmc iduetr`cs cxoaèch oll joich

imollcefcs è prdv`hèf o sujjì`cet supply dj tcoimcrs, è cesurèf cqu`toblc

hcpldyacet dj tmdsc tcoimcrs, è hcvcldpèf sujjì`cet quol`ty è tcoimcrs, oeh è

jèoeièf tcoimcrs. Vm`lc `t `s tcaptèf td v`cw tmcsc hàces`des dj tcoimcr pdlìy

è sdlot`de, e rcol`ty tmcy orc etcrlègch, oeh hcvcldpacets e dec hàces`de ioe

movc hctràcetol àpoit è oedtmcr. Hcvcldpacet dj o boloeich sct dj tcoimcr pdl`-

i`cs rcqu`rcs o mdl`stì v`cw, boloeièf tmc hcs`roblc w`tm tmc oim`cvoblc è sccgèf

td jèh tmc adst opprdpròtc sdlut`des oirdss tmc scitdr. Xm`s imoptcr bcfès w`tm oe

dvcrv`cw dj tmc pràory imollcefcs oeh trcehs è coim dj tmc aoè orcos dj tcoimcr

pdlìy, oeh troics tmc ètcrideecit`des bctwcce tmc idapctèf pr`dr`t`cs. Jèolly, `t

m`fml`fmts sdac prda`sèf proitìcs tmot aoy djjcr opprdpròtc sdlut`des jdr idue-

tr`cs joièf sà`lor imollcefcs.

YS^^LP

Oll dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh o a`saotim bctwcce tmc eot`deol rcqu`rcacet

jdr ecw tcoimcrs oeh tmc iurrcet dutput dj ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. @e twd dj tmc

iduetr`cs, Lcsdtmd oeh Xmc Foabò, tmc oeeuol dutput dj pràory tcoimcrs wos

lcss tmoe tmc oeeuol ldss dj pràory tcoimcrs. @e s`x dj tmc c`fmt ioscs, tmc oeeuol

dutput dj troèch pràory tcoimcrs wos lcss tmoe : pcricet dj tmc tcoimcr wdrg-

jdric, wmìm a`fmt bc ides`hcrch o edraol ottr`t`de rotc (toblc ??.?).

@e adst ioscs, tmc a`saotim bctwcce supply oeh rcqu`rcacets moh rcsultch è

tcoimcr smdrtofcs, but è tmrcc ioscs, [oez`bor, Sfoeho, oeh [oabò, tmcrc wcrc

cxicss pràory tcoimcrs. Cvce è tmdsc tmrcc ioscs, tmcrc wcrc smdrtofcs dj quol`-

j`ch scidehory tcoimcrs, oeh smdrtofcs è spci`jì ldiot`des oeh spciòl`zot`des.

Edec dj tmc iduetr`cs moh rdbust acimoe`sas td rcfulotc tcoimcr troèèf td

aotim rcqu`rcacets. ^loeeèf hcportacets tcehch td prdkcit tdtol tcoimcr

rcqu`rcacets, but rorcly prdkcitch ottr`t`de dj cx`stèf tcoimcrs oeh tmc rcqu`rch



?:= • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

supply dj ecw tcoimcrs. @e sdac ioscs, fdvcreacet ob`l`ty td idetrdl tcoimcr sup-

ply wos bcèf rchuich, w`tm èircosèf outdeday dj tmc tcoimcr troèèf èst`tu-

t`des. @e [oez`bor, jdr cxoaplc, tmc Egruaom Xcoimcr Xroèèf Idllcfc moh bcce

troesjcrrch td tmc sca`-outdedadus Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor, rcsultèf è o

rchuich dutput dj pràory aotmcaotìs tcoimcrs.

Ohcquotc ploeeèf jdr tcoimcr supply w`ll rcqu`rc ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcr ottr`-

t`de. ^ràory tcoimcr ottr`t`de rotcs vor`ch w`hcly, jrda 2 pcricet è Cr`trco td

0 pcricet è [oabò. @t sccas rcosdeoblc td ossuac tmot, è o stoblc systca, ottr`-t`de rotcs dj ot lcost : pcricet orc l`gcly, os tm`s ossuacs tmot tmc ovcrofc tcoimcr

w`ll tcoim jdr ?: ycors. Xmc aokdr iousc dj tcoimcr ottr`t`de è adst ioscs wos vdl-

uetory rcs`feot`de, prcsuaobly td togc oedtmcr kdb. Os o rcsult, ottr`t`de `s l`gcly

td jluituotc w`tm imoefcs è lobdr aorgct dppdrtue`t`cs. Ottr`t`de wos edt cvce

oirdss oll typcs dj tcoimcr. @e oll dj tmc ioscs wmcrc hoto wcrc ovo`loblc, tmc ottr`-

t`de rotc dj scidehory tcoimcrs wos m`fmcr tmoe tmot dj pràory tcoimcrs. @e

Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, tmc ottr`t`de rotc wos 9 pcricet jdr pràory tcoimcrs, oeh

?> pcricet jdr scidehory tcoimcrs. @e ohh`t`de, tmcrc wcrc rcpdrts tmot ottr`t`de wos

m`fmcr jdr bcttcr-chuiotch tcoimcrs, oeh tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. Olsd m`fm lcvcls dj wostofc (troèch tcoimcrs edt togèf up tcoimèf kdbs) wcrc

rcpdrtch è sdac ioscs, portìulorly jdr tcoimcrs w`tm m`fmcr lcvcl quol`jìot`des,

oeh tmdsc quol`j`ch e aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. @e [oabò, jdr cxoaplc, tmc eua-

bcr dj tcoimcrs w`tm hcfrccs wos opprdxàotcly twìc tmc oeeuol dutput dj frohu-

otcs w`tm hcfrccs e chuiot`de, suffcstèf tmot adst dj tmcsc frohuotcs hd edt stoy

ldef è tcoimèf `j tmcy stortch ot oll.

Jdr oll dj tmcsc iduetr`cs, scidehory chuiot`de cerdllacet wos cxpoehèf

adrc rop`hly tmoe pràory cerdllacet. ^loeeèf jdr scidehory tcoimcr supply `s

adrc idaplcx, os typìolly scidehory tcoimcrs orc spciòl`zch è twd tcoimèf subkcits. Vm`lc adst iduetr`cs cxpcit o hcfrcc-lcvcl quol`jìot`de ot lcost jdr uppcr

Xoblc ??.? Dutput dj ^ràory Xcoimcrs os o ^cricetofc dj tmc ^ràory Xcoimcr Euabcrs

Rcploicacet rotc; tcoimcr

Euabcr dj Ecwly troèch dutput os o pcricetofc Edtcs de tcoimcr

pràory tcoimcrs tcoimcrs coim ycor dj tcoimèf jdric dutput hotoCr`trco 6,?38 :88 0.> 2>>:’>6

Foabò, Xmc 8,866 23: 3.6 2>>:

Lcsdtmd ?>,?62 22> 2.2 2>>:

L`bcrò 2:,?== :3> 2.3 Ecw idursc

Aolow` 89,?06 2,880 3.6 @etogc 2>>:

Sfoeho ?3>,?93 :,620 8.3 @etogc 2>>:

[oabò 3>,:?3 2,00> 3.0 Dutput 2>>3

[oez`bor 3,6=? ?,0>6 99.> Dutput 2>>6



Imollcefcs, Xrcehs, oeh ^rda`sèf ^roitìcs • ?:0

scidehory tcoimcrs, jcw movc oe ohcquotc supply dj frohuotc tcoimcrs, oeh e proi-

tìc adst scidehory tcoimcrs movc h`pldao-lcvcl quol`jìot`des.

YMDRXOFCY

@e adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmc èohcquotc supply dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs

moh rcsultch e lorfc-siolc usc dj uequol`j`ch pràory tcoimcrs. @e jdur dj tmc ioscs,

L`bcrò, Lcsdtmd, Xmc Foabò, oeh Sfoeho, adrc tmoe dec-tm`rh dj pràory tcoim-

crs wcrc uequol`j`ch. @e s`x dj tmc ioscs, lcss tmoe molj dj tmc scidehory tcoimcrs

wcrc quol`j`ch. Vmcrc tmc dutput dj troèch tcoimcrs s èohcquotc, tmcrc s ed rcol-

`stì oltcreot`vc td w`hcsprcoh usc dj uetroèch tcoimcrs è tmc achùa tcra. Xmc

lcvcl dj chuiot`de dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs vor`ch w`hcly, but wos è adst ioscs

ldwcr tmoe tmc lcvcl dj chuiot`de dj tmc quol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xmc smdrtofc dj quol`-j`ch scidehory tcoimcrs wos rcsultèf e sdac upworh a`frot`de dj pràory tcoim-

crs td scidehory simddls, djtce rcploich by uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs è tmc pràory

simddls. @e twd ioscs, Cr`trco oeh Xmc Foabò, tmc hdacstì scidehory tcoimcr

supply wos sd là`tch tmot tmc iduetry wos hcpcehcet de cxpotròtc tcoimcrs jdr

sdac subkcits.

YCIDEHORP CHSIOX@DE OY O IDEYXRO@EX

@e sdac dj tmc iduetr`cs, tmc supply dj ecw tcoimcrs wos idestroèch by tmc là-`tch euabcr dj simddl lcovcrs w`tm tmc rcqu`rch cetry quol`jìot`des. @e Lcsdtmd

oeh Xmc Foabò, tmc tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs wcrc ueoblc td j`ll tmc ovo`loblc

spoics huc td o smdrtofc dj quol`j`ch opplìoets. @e Cr`trco, tmc cetry rcqu`rcacets

moh bcce ldwcrch td ohhrcss tmc soac prdblca. Xm`s ordsc bciousc tmc tdtol eua-

bcr dj ploics è ue`vcrs`ty idurscs oeh tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs wos oladst cquol

td tmc tdtol euabcr dj simddl lcovcrs w`tm tmc rcqu`rch cetry quol`jìot`des. Xyp`-

iolly tmc bcst quol`j`ch wcet td tmc ue`vcrs`ty idurscs, lcovèf o là`tch pddl dj

pdtcetòl cetroets td tcoimcr troèèf.

AOXMCAOX@IY OEH YI@CEIC

@e oladst oll ioscs tmcrc wos o adrc oiutc smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs oeh

tmc si`ceics. @e [oez`bor, wmcrc pràory tcoimcrs spciòl`zc, tmcrc wos o smdrtofc

dj pràory aotmcaotìs tcoimcrs. @e dtmcr iduetr`cs, wmcrc pràory tcoimcrs orc

edt cxpcitch td spciòl`zc, tmcrc wcrc rcpdrts dj pddr aotmcaotìol sg`lls è pr`-

aory tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, tmc èspcitdrs wcrc rcpdrtèf ioscs dj pràory tcoimcrs

sg`ppèf aotmcaotìs oltdfctmcr, os tmcy h`h edt jccl oblc td tcoim `t. Sedjjìòl

tcoimcr spciòl`zot`de wos w`hcly rcpdrtch, portìulorly è tmc uppcr frohcs dj pr`-aory simddl, oeh sccach td or`sc jrda ideicre tmot edt oll tcoimcrs wcrc oblc td




tcoim spci`jì subkcits. @e Xmc Foabò, L`bcrò, Lcsdtmd, Aolow`, oeh Sfoeho,

simddls jrcqucetly moh èjdraol orroefcacets td olldw pràory tcoimcrs td

spciòl`zc.

Xmc smdrtofc dj aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimcrs wos cvce adrc oiutc ot tmc

scidehory lcvcl. Oladst oll iduetr`cs rcpdrtch smdrtofcs dj tcoimcrs è tmcsc sub-

kcits, rcsultèf è rclòeic de uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oeh è o jcw ioscs cxpotròtc

tcoimcrs td tcoim tmcsc gcy subkcits. @e tcoimcr troèèf, tmc prdpdrt`de dj stuhcets

bcèf prcporch jdr aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimèf wos djtce èohcquotc. @e

Lcsdtmd jdr cxoaplc, dely = pcricet dj tmc stuhcet tcoimcrs è tmc Lcsdtmd Idllcfc

dj Chuiot`de wcrc stuhyèf aotmcaotìs os dec dj tmc`r twd tcoimèf subkcits. @e

[oez`bor, Lcsdtmd, Xmc Foabò, Aolow`, oeh Sfoeho, tmc idllcfcs wcrc ueoblc td

èircosc tmc euabcr dj stuhcet tcoimcrs è tmcsc subkcits bciousc dj tmc là`tch

euabcr dj opplìoets w`tm tmc prcrcqu`s`tc aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic quol`jìot`des. Xm`s wcogecss è aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic suffcsts o vì`dus iyilc, wmcrc o

smdrtofc dj simddl lcovcrs w`tm sujjì`cet aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic oim`cvcacet

rcsults è o là`tch supply dj tcoimcrs è tmcsc subkcits, oeh tmus rcsults è pddr

tcoimèf dj tmcsc subkcits è bdtm pràory oeh scidehory simddls.

H@YXR@BSX@DE

Adst iduetr`cs moh bdtm tcoimcr smdrtofcs è sdac simddls oeh uecapldych

tcoimcrs sccgèf wdrg è dtmcr orcos. Xm`s idèi`hceic dj dvcrsupply oeh smdrtofcsuffcsts tmot cqu`toblc tcoimcr prdv`s`de s uel`gcly td bc oim`cvch acrcly by ide-

tèuot`de dj iurrcet pdlì`cs.

@e oladst oll ioscs, tmcrc wcrc vcry s`fe`jìoet ècqu`t`cs è tmc pup`l-tcoimcr

rot`d, td tmc hctràcet dj adst rcadtc rurol orcos. Xmc ètroh`strìt hcpldyacet

ècqu`t`cs wcrc djtce frcotcr tmoe ètcrh`strìt ècqu`t`cs, oeh djtce aosgch by

tmc usc dj h`strìt ovcrofcs è rcpdrtch stot`stìs. @e dec h`strìt è [oabò, tmc

pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d roefch jrda 22;? td 2?>;?. Xmcsc ldiol h`jjcrceics è tcoimcr

h`str`but`de uehcrlèc tmc apdrtoeic dj aìrd-fcdfropmy e tcoimcr hcpldyacet.

Joitdrs suim os prdxà`ty td o rdoh oeh ovo`lob`l`ty dj mdusèf aoy aogc decsimddl auim adrc ottroit`vc tmoe oedtmcr.

Y`x ohh`t`deol fcecrol pottcres cacrfch;

?. Xmc bcst-quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc h`str`butch adrc uecquolly tmoe tcoimcrs è

fcecrol. Xmc rcadtc orcos moh jcwcr quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcrs oeh jcwcr froh-

uotc scidehory tcoimcrs.

2. Xmcrc wos o fcehcr hàces`de td tmc fcdfropmìol h`str`but`de, w`tm jcwcr

jcaolc tcoimcrs è rurol orcos.

9. Xmdsc tcoimcrs e port iulorly smdrt supply, suim os tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs oeh

si`ceic, wcrc uehcrrcprcscetch è rcadtc rurol orcos.



Imollcefcs, Xrcehs, oeh ^rda`sèf ^roitìcs • ?6?

8. Xcoimcrs w`tm M@Z wcrc, è sdac ioscs, olldwch td advc td adrc urboe orcos,

c`tmcr jdraolly dr èjdraolly.

3. @e icetrol`zch hcpldyacet systcas, tmc adtmcr tdefuc wos rorcly ides hcrch è

tmc sclcit`de dj tcoimcrs jdr portìulor orcos. Idescqucetly, tcoimcrs wcrc

pdstch td orcos wmcrc tmcy h`h edt spcog tmc ldiol loefuofc.

:. Cvce è orcos wmcrc tmc publì outmdr`t`cs sccach ueoblc td hcpldy tcoimcrs,

tmcrc wcrc pcdplc w`tm sdac lcvcl dj chuiot`de w`llèf td wdrg os tcoimcrs,

djtce os vdluetccrs w`tm ldw dr aèàol poy.

Xmc hcpldyacet prdblca sccas l`gcly td bcidac adrc oiutc os scidehory chuio-

t`de cxpoehs td adrc rurol orcos, os tm`s w`ll rcqu`rc tmc hcpldyacet dj bcttcr-

chuiotch tcoimcrs, w`tm frcotcr capldyacet dpt`des, td rcadtc orcos.

HC^LDPACEX YPYXCAY

Adst dj tmc iduetr`cs usch ploeech hcpldyacet systcas, w`tm hcpldyacet hci`-

s`des aohc ot tmc eot`deol dr subeot`deol lcvcl. @e tmcsc systcas o icetrol ofceiy

`s rcspdes`blc jdr hcpldyacet dj eh`v`huol tcoimcrs td spci`jì simddls. @e fcecrol,

tmcsc systcas orc wcogcech by pddr ob`l`ty td cejdric hcpldyacet, os tcoimcrs

c`tmcr jo`l td togc up tmc uepdpulor pdsts dr quìgly orroefc td lcovc tmcsc pdsts.

Xmc iuaulot`vc cjjcit dj tmcsc s o frcotcr euabcr dj uej`llch pdsts e rcadtc orcos,

m`fmcr turedvcr, oeh lcss cxpcr`ceich stojj.

Lcsdtmd usch o vcry h`jjcrcet opprdoim, w`tm rciru`tacet dj tcoimcrs by simddl

aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs. @e tm`s systca, tcoimèf pdsts orc olldiotch td simddls

by tmc aè`stry, oeh tmc rcspdes`b`l`ty jdr sclcit`de dj tmc tcoimcr l`cs w`tm tmc

simddl. Xmc cjjcit dj tm`s ldiol rciru`tacet `s tmot `t ircotcs o jdra dj lobdr aorgct

jdr tcoimcrs. Xcoimcrs sclj-sclcit tmc simddls td wmìm tmcy w`ll opply, oeh tmus

movc sdac imdìc è ldiot`de. Rurol simddls djtce rciru`t pcdplc olrcohy l`vèf è

tmc orco. Xm`s mos rcsultch è o rclot`vcly cvce h`str`but`de dj tcoimcrs oeh mos

ovd`hch tmc m`fm ottr`t`de djtce ossdiòtch w`tm rcadtc simddls7 mdwcvcr, tmcrc

rcaoès oe uecvce h`str`but`de dj tmc quol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Xmcrc `s èircosèf usc dj adrc ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet, è oe ottcapt td

ohhrcss tmc hcpldyacet àboloeic. @e [oabò, tcoimcrs orc f`vce o imdìc dj tmc

h`strìt e wmìm tmcy w`ll wdrg. @e Sfoeho, tmc fdvcreacet s p`ldtèf o systca dj

ohvcrt`sèf scidehory tcoimèf pdsts jdr spci`jì simddls. @e sdac iduetr`cs tmc

proitìc dj rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs oeh subscqucet prdv`s`de dj è-

scrvìc troèèf ircotcs o jdra dj ldiol rciru`tacet, oeh `s oe àpdrtoet acimo-

e`sa jdr prdv`s`de dj tcoimcrs è tmc rcadtc orcos.

Adst iduetr`cs prdv`hch sdac jèoeiòl èicet`vcs td ceidurofc tcoimcrs td

ldiotc è rcadtc orcos, but tmcsc wcrc djtce uehcraèch by pddr torfctèf.

Hcsp`tc tmcsc èicet`vcs, h`jjìulty è ottroitèf tcoimcrs td rcadtc orcos pcrs`stch.




Xmc dec cxicpt`de td tm`s pottcre wos è Xmc Foabò, wmcrc o ecw èicet`vc, dj

9>’8> pcricet dj bosì poy, sccach td bc cjjcit`vc è ottroitèf tcoimcrs td tmc

adst h`jjìult simddls. V`tmè twd ycors dj tmc ètrdhuit`de dj tmc èicet`vc,

82 pcricet dj tmc tcoimcrs è rurol simddls wmd wcrc edt rcic`vèf tmc èicet`vc

moh rcqucstch o troesjcr td o morhsm`p simddl. Xm`s suffcsts tmot jèoeiòl èice-

t`vcs, `j bdtm substoetòl oeh wcll torfctch, ioe ottroit ot lcost sdac tcoimcrs.

Xmcrc wos sdac prdv`s`de dj tcoimcr mdusèf, but tm`s idvcrch dely o aèdr`ty

dj tcoimcrs, oeh tmc prdv`s`de dj mdusèf wos edt olwoys wcll torfctch ot tmc adst

h`jjìult ldiot`des. Vm`lc prdv`s`de dj mdusèf aoy bc portìulorly àpdrtoet è

ceidurofèf jcaolc tcoimcrs td oiicpt o pdst ot o simddl, mdusèf oldec aoy edt

bc sujjì`cet td dvcridac tmc h`sohvoetofcs dj o pdst è o rcadtc ldiot`de.

Xmcrc wcrc èhìot`des tmot tmcrc orc sdac quol`j`ch tcoimcrs w`llèf td wdrg

è rurol orcos. @e Aolow`, tmc EFD Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda ^cdplc td ^cdplc(HO^^) dpcrotch o tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc spci`jìolly torfctèf yduef pcdplc

w`llèf td wdrg è rurol orcos, wmìm rcpdrtch suiicss è fcttèf `ts frohuotcs td

rcture td rurol simddls. @e port, tm`s suiicss hcpcehch de sclcit`de dj ètcrcstch

ioeh`hotcs ètd tmc prdfroa.

Jdr fdvcreacet tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs, sclcit`de wos edraolly bosch de oio-

hcaì quol`jìot`des, rotmcr tmoe ètcrcst è tcoimèf dr w`llèfecss td tcoim è o

spci`jì ldiot`de. Xm`s actmdh dj sclcit`de sccas bòsch tdworh sclcit`de dj stu-

hcets jrda orcos wmcrc tmc lcvcl dj chuiot`de `s olrcohy m`fmcr (suim os urboe

orcos), jurtmcr cxoicrbotèf tmc h`str`but`de prdblca.

SX@L@[OX@DE

Xcoimcr wdrgldohs vor ch w`hcly. ràory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch (djjì olly) td tcoim

bctwcce ?2.3 oeh 23 mdurs pcr wccg. @e adst iduetr`cs, scidehory tcoimcrs wcrc

cxpcitch td tcoim jcwcr mdurs pcr wccg tmoe pràory tcoimcrs. Djjìòl tcoimèf

mdurs wcrc os ldw os ?: mdurs è ldwcr scidehory oeh ?2 mdurs è uppcr scidehory.

@e adst iduetr`cs pràory tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td tcoim oll subkcits td dec

iloss. @e tmc dec cxicpt`de, [oez`bor, tcoimcrs wcrc cxpcitch td spciòl`zc è decdj tmrcc ilustcrs dj subkcits; aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics, muaoe`t`cs, dr Orobì

oeh @sloaì stuh`cs. @e [oez`bor, tmc cxpcitch tcoimèf mdurs wcrc twd-tm`rhs dj

tmc simddl idetoit tàc, rcqu`rèf tmrcc tcoimcrs jdr cvcry twd ilosscs. @e dtmcr

iduetr`cs, hcsp`tc tmc pdlìy dj edespciòl`st tcoimcrs, tmcrc wos cv`hceic dj ejdr-

aol spciòl`zot`de è o euabcr dj iduetr`cs, portìulorly è tmc dlhcr frohcs.

Ault`frohc tcoimèf wos w`hcly usch è adst iduetr`cs, portìulorly è rurol

orcos. @e sdac ioscs tm`s wos o rcsult dj o hcl`bcrotc tcoimcr hcpldyacet pdlìy7 è

dtmcr ioscs `t wos o ecicss`ty rcsultèf jrda jo`lurc td hcpldy tcoimcrs td rcadtc

simddls. Hcsp`tc tmc w`hcsprcoh usc dj ault`frohc tcoimèf, è`tòl tcoimcr troè-èf h`h edt olwoys prcporc tcoimcrs td tcoim è ault`frohc s`tuot`des.



Imollcefcs, Xrcehs, oeh ^rda`sèf ^roitìcs • ?69

@e proitìc, ut`l`zot`de wos djtce ldwcr tmoe tmc djjìòl cxpcitot`de. St`l`zot`de

wos rchuich by dvcrsupply dj tcoimcrs è sdac simddls tmrdufm jo`lurcs dj tmc

hcpldyacet systca, oeh by dtmcr proitìcs tmot rchuich tcoimcrs‐ wdrgldohs (c.f.,

Xmc Foabò‐s rcl`f`dus tcoimcrs). @e scidehory simddls, ut`l`zot`de wos jurtmcr

rchuich os o idescquceic dj tmc roefc dj dpt`deol subkcits, oeh tcoimcr subkcit

spciòl`zot`de. Os o rcsult, tmc tcoimcrs dj tmc lcost pdpulor subkcits tcehch td movc

bdtm o l`fmtcr wdrgldoh oeh saollcr ilosscs.

XRO@E@EF

^rc-scrvìc troèèf dj pràory tcoimcrs roefch jrda ?2 wccgs td tmrcc ycors, edr-

aolly jdlldwèf idaplct`de dj uppcr scidehory simddl (toblc ??.2). Xmcsc idurscs

vor`ch è struiturc, w`tm sdac èiluhèf jull ycors dj wdrg bosch è simddls. Jdr scidehory tcoimcrs, adst iduetr`cs moh huol systcas, w`tm h`pldao idurscs dj twd

dr tmrcc ycors, oeh hcfrcc idurscs dj tmrcc dr jdur ycors. Xmcrc wos o fcecrol trceh

tdworh èjlot`de dj tmc hurot`de oeh icrt`jìot`de dj tcoimcr troèèf. @e o jcw

ioscs, tmc icrt`jìotc idurscs moh bcce rcploich by h`pldao idurscs, oeh ot tmc sci-

dehory lcvcl tmcrc wcrc ottcapts td movc oll tcoimcrs troèch td tmc hcfrcc lcvcl.

Xoblc ??.2 Hurot`de dj ^rc-scrvìc Xcoimcr XroèèfIduetry ^ràory tcoimcrs Ycidehory tcoimcrs; h`pldao Ycidehory tcoimcrs; hcfrcc

Cr`trco Dec-ycor icrt`jìotc Xwd-ycor h`pldao jdr a`hhlc simddl Jdur-ycor hcfrcc jdr scidehory

tcoimcrs simddl tcoimcrs

Foabò, Xmc Xmrcc-ycor icrt jìotc, dec e M`fmcr Xcoimcrs Icrt`j iotc (MXI), Jdur-ycor hcfrcc idursc, edraolly oe

idllcfc, twd e simddl tmrcc-ycor h`pldao idurscs, dj upfrohc jdr oe cx`stèf tcoimcr,

twd ycors e idllcfc jdlldwch by twd ycors jdr oe MXI mdlhcr, tmrcc

dec ycor dj tcoim ef è o simddl ycors jdr o pràory tcoimcr

Lcsdtmd Xmrcc-ycor h`pldao, tmrcc ycors H`pldao e Chuiot de (scidehory), Eot deol ue vcrs`ty, jdur-ycor

è idllcfc, sèic rcdrfoe`zch os o tmrcc-ycor h`pldao. hcfrcc prdfroa

o soehwìm adhcl (tmrcc ycors,

but a`hhlc ycor è simddl)

L bcr o ?2-wccg cacrfceiy idursc, Xwd-ycor icrt jìotc, ed ldefcr Se vcrs`ty, jdur-ycor hcfrcc idurscs

but dec-ycor icrt j iotc bc ef è dpcrot de

ètrdhuich

Aolow` Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc, dec e Xmrcc-ycor h`pldao Jdur-ycor hcfrcc

idllcfc, dec è simddl

Jdracrly A@@XC^ (è-simddl)

Sfoeho Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc Xwd-ycor h`pldao Xmrcc-ycor hcfrcc

[oabò Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc, dec e Xwd-ycor h`pldao, eircosch Jdur-ycor hcfrcc

idllcfc, dec e simddl td tmrcc ycors e 2>>3

[oez`bor Xwd-ycor icrt`jìotc Xwd-ycor h`pldao Xmrcc-ycor hcfrcc




Cetry td tcoimcr troèèf wos edraolly bosch de oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic. Xmc

oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic rcqu`rch td cetcr tcoimcr troèèf wos qu`tc ldw, oeh è

sdac ioscs hcilèèf. @e Cr`trco, jdr cxoaplc, tmc cetry rcqu`rcacets moh jollce os

cxpoes`de dj oltcreot`vc m`fmcr chuiot`de dppdrtue`t`cs rchuich tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj

quol`j`ch simddl lcovcrs.

@e fcecrol, tcoimcr troèèf idurscs wcrc scce os lcss hcs`roblc tmoe dtmcr m`fmcr

chuiot`de dpt`des, oeh os o rcsult, tcoimcr troèèf tcehch td obsdrb stuhcets wmd

jo`lch td fct ploics è tmc`r j`rst imdìc idurscs. @e Cr`trco, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot tmc

bcst stuhcets oha`ttch td tmc Cr`trco @est`tutc dj Xcimedldfy tcehch edt td sclcit

chuiot`de idurscs, sd tmc chuiot`de idurscs tcehch td bc j`llch w`tm stuhcets w`tm

rclot vclyldwsidrcs, jdrwmda chuiot dewos edttmc r j`rstprcjcrceic.Xmcchuiot de

idurscs moh portìulor h`jjìulty è ottroitèf sujjì cet stuhcets w`tm quol`j iot`des è

aotmcaot is oeh si ceic. Xmc pddr chuiot deol stoehorh dj cetroets prcscetch quol-`ty prdblcas, rcjlcitch è m`fm jo`lurc rotcs è sdac ioscs,oeh o adrcfcecrol ideicre

obdut tmc lcvcl dj chuiot de dj stuhcets è dtmcrs.

Xmc tcoimcr troèèf iurrìulua wos edt olwoys wcll ol`fech w`tm tmc ecchs dj

tmc ilossrdda. Xmrcc aokdr dbscrvot`des cacrfc. J`rst, troèèf è pchofdfìol

actmdhs wos djtce tmcdrctìol, aogèf `t lcss l`gcly td movc oe àpoit de ilossrdda

proitìcs. Ycideh, tmc tcoimèf dj tmc idetcet gedwlchfc (tmot `s, tmc subkcits tmot

o tcoimcr wdulh bc cxpcitch td tcoim) wos djtce edt ildscly ol`fech td tmc simddl

iurrìulua. Xm`rh, tmcsc h`jjìult`cs wcrc djtce idapduehch by stuhcets‐ pddr prd-

jì`ceiy è tmc loefuofc dj èstruit`de. Xcoimcr troècrs wcrc edt olwoys wcllcqu`ppch td hcl`vcr troèèf è o proitìol oeh rclcvoet aoeecr. Ydac, portìulorly

è pràory tcoimcr troèèf, moh l`ttlc cxpcr`ceic tcoimèf ot tmc opprdpròtc lcvcl.

@e oladst oll ioscs, prc-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf èiluhch o pcr`dh dj tcoimèf

proitìc. Xmc hurot`de dj tmc pcr`dh dj proitìc tcoimèf vor`ch w`hcly, jrda s`x

wccgs è Sfoeho td twd ycors è Xmc Foabò. Ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, tcoimèf

proitìc wos fcecrolly adrc là`tch, roefèf up td o tcra è hurot`de. @e Aolow`,

Cr`trco, oeh Sfoeho, tmcrc wos ed jdraol tcoimèf ploicacet jdr stuhcets è

hcfrcc-lcvcl idurscs. Xmc tcoimèf proitìc wos edt olwoys wcll ètcfrotch ètd tmc

rcst dj tmc tcoimcr prcporot`de prdfroa, oeh stuhcet tcoimcrs jrcqucetly rcic`vchlà`tch pchofdfìol suppdrt wm`lc è simddl. Yuppdrt systcas è simddls wcrc

rclot`vcly wcog, oeh tmc troèèf prdv`hch td tmdsc cxpcitch td acetdr stuhcet

tcoimcrs wos vcry là`tch.

@E-YCRZ@IC XRO@E@EF

Adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs moh sdac systca jdr prdv`hèf cacrfceiy è`tòl

troèèf oeh quol`jìot`des td uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs. Xmcsc è-scrvìc troèèf

idurscs vor`ch è hurot`de oeh struiturc, but typìolly èvdlvch bctwcce twd oehjdur ycors dj port-tàc stuhy suppdrtch by sdac idabèot`de dj rcs`hcetòl




troèèf ot o tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc, smdrt idurscs prdv`hch ot ldiol icetcrs, oeh

prètch sclj-stuhy aotcròls. Xmc siolc dj tmc è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf idurscs

aogcs `t uel`gcly tmot oll dj tmc uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ioe bc troèch quìgly. @e

Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, coim idmdrt dj tcoimcrs togce ètd tmc è-scrvìc idursc wos

opprdxàotcly ?> pcricet dj tmc tdtol dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Xmc è-scrvìc tcoimcr troèèf idurscs usuolly, but edt olwoys, rcqu`rch ldwcr

cetry quol`jìot`des tmoe tmc ioapus-bosch idurscs. Xm`s aohc tmc è-scrvìc

idurscs oe ottroit`vc potmwoy ètd tmc tcoimèf iorccr jdr aoey wmd wdulh edt

movc rcoimch tmc m`fmcr stoehorhs rcqu`rch e tmc prc-scrvìc idursc. Hcsp`tc tmcsc

ldwcr cetry rcqu`rcacets, tmcrc wcrc sdac tcoimcrs wmd wcrc ueoblc td foè cetry

ètd tmc e-scrvìc idurscs bciousc dj tmc`r pddr oiohcaì quol`jìot`des, oeh tmcsc

adstly rcaoèch è scrvìc os uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs.

Xmcrc `s ed ilcor cv`hceic dj rclot`vc quol`ty dj h`jjcrcet prdfroas, but fcecr-olly oecihdtol cv`hceic suffcstch tmot tmc quol`ty dj tmc tcoimcrs w`tm è-scrvìc

oeh prc-scrvìc troèèf wos idaporoblc, w`tm sdac rcpdrts tmot tmc tcoimcrs jrda

tmc è-scrvìc idurscs wcrc adrc sg`llch è tmc ilossrdda, oeh tmot tmdsc jrda tmc

prc-scrvìc idurscs moh bcttcr uehcrstoehèf dj oiohcaì idetcet, portìulorly dj

aotmcaotìs oeh Cefl`sm.

@e ohh`t`de td è-scrvìc troèèf dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, tmcrc wos è sdac

ioscs s`fe`jìoet è-scrvìc upfrohèf dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs ceidurofch by tmc sub-

stoetòl poy eircoscs ossdiòtch w`tm aprdvch quol`jìot`des. @e o jcw ioscs, suim

os [oabò, lorfc-siolc tcoimcr upfrohèf by h`stoeic chuiot`de prcscetch jèoeiòlimollcefcs jdr tmc fdvcreacet.

IDEX@ES@EF ^RDJCYY@DEOL HCZCLDÂCEX

Yystcas jdr idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc rclo-

t`vcly uehcvcldpch. Xmc adst idaade adhol`ty wos icetrolly ploeech hcl`vcry dj

smdrt idurscs de spci`jì tdpìs, suim os tmc ètrdhuit`de dj o ecw iurrìulua. O

jcw iduetr`cs moh hcvcldpch oltcreot`vc systcas. @e [oabò, jdr cxoaplc, tmcrc

wcrc zdeol rcsduric icetcrs, scrvèf saoll euabcrs dj simddls oeh stojjch by otcoimcr de o vdluetccr bos`s. Xcoimcrs w`tmè tmc zdec wcrc cxpcitch td `hcet`jy

tmc`r dwe troèèf ecchs, usuolly hrowèf de ldiolly ovo`loblc cxpcrt`sc.

AOEOFCACEX

MCOH XCOIMCRY

Xmc àpdrtoet rdlcs dj mcoh tcoimcrs è aoeofèf simddls, lcohèf tcoimcrs, oeh

cstobl`smèf tmc iulturc dj tmc simddl wcrc oll wcll rcidfe`zch, but è proitìc,

aoey mcoh tcoimcrs hcvdtch auim dj tmc`r tàc td rclot`des w`tm ohaè`strot`vc




outmdr`t`cs duts`hc tmc simddl. Xroèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs wos spdrohì oeh h`h edt

rcoim tmc aokdr`ty dj mcoh tcoimcrs. @e fcecrol, systcas jdr aoeofèf mcoh tcoim-

crs wcrc wcog.

YS^CRZ@Y@DE OEH @EY^CIX@DE

Oll iduetr`cs moh sdac gèh dj systca dj cxtcreol supcrv`s`de dj simddls, but è

adst ioscs tmc jrcquceiy dj v`s`ts wos tdd ldw td cjjcit`vcly ade`tdr quol`ty. @e s`x

dj tmc c`fmt iduetr`cs, tmc ovcrofc jrcquceiy dj simddl v`s`ts wos lcss tmoe deic pcr

ycor, oeh tmc jrcquceiy dj supcrv`s`de dj coim tcoimcr auim ldwcr. Xwd iduetr`cs

moh oim`cvch m`fmcr supcrv`s`de jrcqucei`cs. @e Xmc Foabò, simddls wcrc v`s`tch

cvcry wccg dr twd, oeh è Cr`trco, coim tcoimcr wos v`s`tch twìc pcr ycor. Bdtm moh

oim`cvch tm`s lcvcl dj supcrv`s`de tmrdufm tmc usc dj hcicetrol`zch èspcit`de sys-tcas, w`tm èspcitdrs ade`tdrèf oeh l`vèf ecor o saoll euabcr dj simddls. @e

Xmc Foabò, ilustcr ade`tdrs wcrc rcspdes`blc jdr opprdxàotcly tce simddls

coim oeh trovclch by adtdrb`gc. @e Cr`trco, ilustcr supcrv`sdrs wcrc rcspdes`blc jdr

=> tcoimcrs coim oeh trovclch by bìyilc dr de jddt.

Acimoe`sas td prdv`hc pdlìy-rclcvoet jcchboig jrda simddl supcrv`s`de wcrc

olsd wcog. Edec dj tmc c`fmt ioscs moh o rdutèc suaaory dj èspcit`de jèhèfs

prdv`hch td pdlìy aogcrs. Xmcrc wcrc sdac fddh proitìcs è Sfoeho, wmcrc tmc

Chuiot`de Ytoehorhs Ofceiy (CYO) moh prcporch rcpdrts de spci`jì `ssucs, oeh è

Cr`trco, wmcrc tmc ilustcr supcrv`sdrs act twìc o ycor td smorc jèhèfs oeh prd-

v`hc jcchboig td rcf`deol djjìòls.

Xmc cxtcet td wmìm èspcitdrs oeh supcrv`sdrs oituolly supcrv`sch oeh sup-

pdrtch tcoimèf vor`ch. @e sdac iduetr`cs èspcit`de v`s`ts ideicetrotch de hoto

idllcit`de oeh ohaè`strot`vc `ssucs. Xmcrc wos l`ttlc cv`hceic tmot èspcitdrs oeh

supcrv`sdrs wcrc ohcquotcly prcporch td prdv`hc acoeèfjul pchofdfìol suppdrt,

oeh auim dj tmc`r jcchboig sccach td jdius de adrc acimoeìol `ssucs, suim os

lcssde ploeeèf oeh tmc usc dj tcoimèf aotcròls.

XCOIMCR OBYCEXCC@YA

Ydac tcoimcr obscetcc`sa wos rcpdrtch è oll iduetr`cs, but è rcol`ty l`ttlc wos

gedwe obdut tmc cxtcet oeh iouscs dj obscetcc`sa. @e Sfoeho, wmcrc o stuhy dj

obscetcc`sa moh bcce idehuitch, oe ovcrofc dj 2> pcricet obsceic wos rcidrhch.

@e oladst oll ioscs, rcidrhs dj tcoimcr ottcehoeic wcrc gcpt ot tmc simddl lcvcl,

usuolly è tmc jdra dj oe ottcehoeic bddg tmot tcoimcrs s`fech de o ho`ly bos`s.

Mdwcvcr, jcw dj tmc iduetr`cs moh o systca jdr idap`lèf oeh oeolyzèf tm`s èjdr-

aot`de. Dec dj tmc cxicpt`des wos è [oez`bor, wmcrc sdac simddls rcidrhch

adetmly tcoimcr ottcehoeic j`furcs oeh h`sploych tmca è tmc mcoh tcoimcr‐s

djjìc. @e Xmc Foabò, o systca jdr ade`tdrèf ottcehoeic wos uehcr hcvcldp-acet, w`tm tmc oà dj troigèf tcoimcr ottcehoeic ot coim simddl.




Xmcrc wos sdac èhìot`de tmot tcoimcr obsceic wos rcspdes`vc td ade`tdrèf.

@e Xmc Foabò, w`tm tmc etrdhuit`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs oeh rcfulor cxtcreol v`s-

`ts td simddls, t wos rcpdrtch tmot tcoimcr obsceic moh jollce, oeh tmc ei`hceic dj

mcoh tcoimcrs rcqucstèf stdppofc dj poy jdr tcoimcrs wmd moh obsidehch moh

èircosch.

Vmcrc tcoimcrs wcrc obscet w`tmdut fddh iousc, h`si`plèory systcas wcrc

djtce scce os tdd sldw, iuabcrsdac, oeh ueprchìtoblc td bc dj voluc. @e o jcw

ioscs tmcrc wcrc saollcr, adrc àachòtc soeit`des tmot idulh bc usch td hctcr

iosuol obsceic. @e L`bcrò, simddls wcrc oblc td w`tmmdlh tmc solory dj o tcoimcr

wmd moh bcce obscet uet`l o saoll j ec wos po`h ot tmc ldiol rcvceuc djjìc. @e Xmc

Foabò, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs wcrc po`h è iosm, oeh mcoh tcoimcrs moh tmc h`s-

irct`de td w`tmmdlh poyacet è ioscs dj obsceic. Sehcr o ecw systca è Xmc

Foabò, ed tcoimcr wos td bc obscet jdr adrc tmoe twd hoys pcr adetm jdr oey rcosde, oeh oe ueoutmdr`zch obsceic a`fmt rcsult è tmc`r èob`l`ty td ottceh o

troèèf idursc.

Auim dj tmc tcoimcr obsceic wos ottr`butoblc td capldycr bcmov`dr, adst jrc-

qucetly solory idllcit`de, obsceic td ohhrcss ohaè`strot`vc `ssucs, dr obsceic td

ottceh troèèf. @aprdvcacets è ohaè`strot`vc systcas, oeh pdlì`cs fdvcreèf

tmc oaduet dj troèèf tmot ioe bc prdv`hch w`tmè simddl tàc, idulh s`fe`j`-

ioetly rchuic tcoimcr obsceic.

Hcl`vcry dj poy wos prdblcaotì è aoey iduetr`cs, oeh moh portìulorly

ohvcrsc idescquceics jdr tmc adst rcadtc simddls. @e L`bcrò oeh [oabò, sdacrcadtc simddls rdutècly ildsch jdr up td o wccg coim adetm os tcoimcrs trovclch

td idllcit tmc`r poy. @eircosèfly, iduetr`cs (èiluhèf Xmc Foabò, Lcsdtmd,

Sfoeho, oeh [oabò) wcrc a`frotèf td tmc usc dj clcitrdeì troesjcr ètd tcoimcr

boeg oiiduets. Xm`s àprdvcs tmc cjjì`ceiy dj hcl`vcry, but w`tmdut ohcquotc ide-

trdls aoy rchuic tmc rcspdes`vcecss dj tmc systca td tcoimcr obsceic dr advcacet

td dtmcr simddls.

I@Z@L YDI@CXP

@e adst iduetr`cs, tmcrc wos sdac jdra dj porcet èvdlvcacet è simddls, c`tmcr

tmrdufm porcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`des dr simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs. Vmcrc

tmcsc wcrc oit`vc, jueh-ro`sèf jdr tmc simddl wos dec dj tmc`r aokdr oit`v`t`cs, oeh

ploych oe àpdrtoet port è dpcrotèf idsts oeh simddl aoètceoeic. @e sdac

ioscs porcets olsd prdv`hch ohh`t`deol poyacet (è è-gèh suppdrt) td fdvcre-

acet tcoimcrs dr poyacet jdr cxtro edefdvcreacet tcoimcrs. Xmcrc wcrc sdac,

but jcw, rcpdrts dj porcets ade`tdrèf tcoimcr ottcehoeic dr togèf oit`de e ioscs

wmcrc obscetcc`sa wos ueoiicptobly m`fm. @e Sfoeho, dec h`str it djjìcr rcpdrtch

prcssurc jrda porcets td ohhrcss tcoimcr obsceic. @e Aolow`, sdac simddl aoe-ofcacet idaa`ttccs wcrc vcry oit`vc, è port bciousc dj troèèf tmrdufm EFDs.




Xcoimcrs ue`des wcrc olsd prcscet e oll iduetr`cs, oeh è adst ioscs tmc aokdr-

`ty dj publì tcoimcrs wcrc rcprcscetch by o ue`de. Xmcsc tcoimcrs ue`des ploych o

vor`cty dj rdlcs. Oll moh sdac rdlc è ohvdioiy jdr bcttcr poy oeh ideh`t`des jdr

tcoimcrs, but aoey wcrc olsd evdlvch e prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet oit`v`t`cs, prd-

v`hèf troèèf dppdrtue`t`cs jdr tcoimcrs dr mclpèf td hcjèc idhcs dj prdjcs-

s`deol idehuit.

XMC XCOIMCR IORCCR YXRSIXSRC

Xmc hdaèoeic dj i`v`l-scrvìc iorccr struiturcs, imoroitcr`zch by pcraoecet

oppdètacets, j`xch poy prdfrcss`de, oeh prdadt`de bosch mcov`ly de oiohcaì

quol`jìot`des prdv`hch l`ttlc rcworh jdr cxicllceic è tmc ilossrdda. @e oll dj tmc

iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, quol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc capldych os pcraoecet i`v`l scrvoets. Xmcrc wos ed s`fe`jìoet usc dj idetroit tcoimcrs. Xcoimcrs wcrc capldych de

smdrt-tcra idetroits dely wmce uequol`j`ch, dr è sdac ioscs wmcrc rct`rch tcoim-

crs wcrc djjcrch dppdrtue`t`cs td wdrg ojtcr rct`rcacet ofc.

Xmcrc wcrc lorfc euabcrs dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, sdactàcs capldych os pcr-

aoecet i`v`l scrvoets, oeh sdactàcs capldych de tcapdrory idetroits. Adst

iduetr`cs moh sdac jdra dj è-scrvìc upfrohèf idursc td olldw uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs td bcidac quol`j`ch. Cetcrèf os oe uequol`j`ch tcoimcr wos o aokdr potm-

woy ètd tmc prdjcss`de è adst iduetr`cs. @e Lcsdtmd, jdr cxoaplc, tmc rciru`t-

acet dj uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs cxicchch tmc rciru`tacet dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs èsdac ycors.

Jdr i`v`l scrvìc tcoimcrs, poy wos de r`f`h siolcs, w`tm j`xch oeeuol èircacets

oeh o plotcou lcvcl ojtcr o euabcr dj ycors. O typìol tcoimcr idulh cxpcit solory

èircacets dj ?>’23 pcricet dj stortèf solory dvcr tmc j`rst tce ycors dj scrvìc.

Edec dj tmc iduetr`cs moh oey systca jdr pcrjdraoeic-bosch èircoscs.

Xmcrc wcrc là`tch dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de w`tmè tmc ilossrdda. Ydac

iduetr`cs moh o frohc dj sce`dr tcoimcr, but jcw moh rdbust acr`t-bosch systcas

jdr sclcit`de td tmcsc pdsts. @e Aolow`, pcrjdraoeic rcpdrts jrda mcoh tcoimcrs

oeh èspcitdrs wcrc spci`jìolly cxiluhch jrda tmc sclcit`de prdicss. @e L`bcròoeh Cr`trco, tmc sclcit`de wos ot tmc h`sirct`de dj h`strìt djjìòls oeh edt troes-

porcet. @e adst ioscs, tmcrc wcrc frcotcr dppdrtue`t`cs jdr ohh`t`deol poy tmrdufm

àprdvch quol`jìot`des, wmìm edraolly prdv`hch oe outdaotì advc td o m`fmcr

poy siolc. Xmcsc outdaotì èircoscs, wmce edt boloeich by dtmcr dppdrtue`t`cs,

prdv`hc oe èicet`vc td sccg ohh`t`deol quol`jìot`des cvce `j tm`s èvdlvcs ecflcit

dj huty.

Xmc rclot`vcly cosy cetry td tmc tcoimèf prdjcss`de, oeh tmc dppdrtue`t`cs jdr

prdfrcss de è oiohcaì quol jìot`des, aogc tcoimèf o rdutc td dtmcr prdjcss`des

jdr sdac. Xcoimèf `s o prdjcss`de tmot `s dpce td aoey wmd, bciousc dj là tch oio-hcaì pcrjdraoeic dr jèoeiòl acoes, ioeedt oiicss dtmcr jdras dj pdstscidehory




chuiot`de. Xmc èircosèf ovo`lob`l`ty dj upfrohèf idurscs td mclp tcoimcrs advc

jrda icrt`jìotc td h`pldao quol`jìot`des, oeh td hcfrcc quol`jìot`des, aogcs

tcoimèf oe ottroit`vc “stcppèf stdec‑ td dtmcr prdjcss`des. Xmcsc dpt`des orc

portìulorly ottroit`vc e Xmc Foabò, wmcrc lorfc euabcrs dj tcoimcrs ovo`l tmca-

sclvcs dj jull-tàc po`h stuhy lcovc ojtcr o jcw ycors dj scrvìc. Xmc àpoit dj stuhy

lcovc `s s`fe`jìoet. @e Xmc Foabò è 2>>6, tmc euabcr dj tcoimcrs lcovèf td stort

jull-tàc stuhy lcovc wos oladst molj dj tmc euabcr dj ecwly quol`j`ch tcoimcrs

rciru`tch. @e Sfoeho, stuhy lcovc wos tmc aoè rcosde jdr tmc hcporturc dj sci-

dehory tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd, ?3> tcoimcrs wcrc froetch stuhy lcovc è 2>>3, adrc

tmoe molj dj tmc tdtol euabcr dj ecw tcoimcrs troèch.

XCOIMCR J@EOEIC Xcoimcr rcauecrot`de vor`ch w`hcly. Xcoimcrs wcrc fcecrolly edt wcll po`h, yct

wcrc po`h o ault`plc dj pcr iop`to FH , oeh auim adrc tmoe tmc ovcrofc wofc.

Ytortèf poy jdr o quol`j`ch pràory tcoimcr roefch jrda $80> pcr ycor e [oez`bor

td $9,202 è [oabò. Xmcsc orc ilcorly edt m`fm solor`cs. @e [oez`bor oeh L`bcrò,

o tcoimcr w`tm dec hcpcehcet wdulh movc o pcr-pcrsde eidac dj lcss tmoe $2 pcr

hoy (purimosèf pdwcr por`ty). Cvce è [oabò, tmc tcoimcrs ue`des, usèf hoto

jrda tmc icetrol stot`stìs, smdwch tmot tmc stortèf solory dj o pràory tcoimcr wos

dely twd-tm`rhs dj tmc idst dj tmc bosì bosgct dj ecchs jdr o joa`ly dj s`x. De tmc

dtmcr moeh, tmcsc solor`cs rcprcscetch ault`plcs dj FH^ pcr iop`to, roefèf jrda?.3 tàcs è [oez`bor td j`vc tàcs è Sfoeho.

@e fcecrol, wmce idaporch td dtmcr fdvcreacet kdbs w`tm tmc soac cetry

quol`jìot`des, tcoimèf wos scce os movèf o sldwcr poy prdfrcss`de, jcwcr dppdr-

tue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de, oeh sdactàcs jcwcr dppdrtue`t`cs jdr ohh`t`deol bcec-

j`ts. Mcohquortcrs-bosch i`v`l scrvìc kdbs wcrc fcecrolly pcric`vch td djjcr cos`cr

wdrgèf ideh`t`des oeh frcotcr dppdrtue`t`cs jdr prdadt`de. Cvce kdbs l`gc tmc

pdlìc jdric wcrc scce os adrc ottroit`vc tmoe tcoimèf è sdac ioscs, portly

bciousc dj tmc frcotcr dppdrtue`t`cs jdr coreèf ohh`t`deol èidac.

Os o rcsult, tcoimèf tcehch td obsdrb tmdsc wmd ottoèch tmc aèàua quol-`jìot`des but jo`lch td fct oey dj tmc kdbs scce os adrc hcs`roblc. Xm`s pottcre dj

rciru`tèf idetr`butch td tmc h`jjìulty dj ottroitèf tcoimcrs jdr subkcits wmcrc

tmcrc wos o lobdr aorgct smdrtofc, suim os aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. Rclot`vcly ldw

solory lcvcls olsd oppcorch td idetr`butc td ottr`t`de. @e oll ioscs wmcrc hoto wcrc

ovo`loblc, rcs`feot`de wos tmc pràory iousc dj tcoimcr ottr`t`de, adst dj wmìm

wos prcsuaobly td advc td oltcreot`vc capldyacet. Xmcrc orc sdac èhìot`des

tmot tcoimcr rctcet`de rcspdehs td solory advcacets. @e Sfoeho, tcoimcr ottr`t`de

jcll by 28 pcricet bctwcce 2>>3 oeh 2>>:, jdlldwèf o 99 pcricet poy èircosc.

@e oll c`fmt ioscs, tmc cxpoes`de dj ldwcr scidehory chuiot`de wos dutpoièf tmot dj pràory chuiot`de, rcsultèf e frcotcr rcqu`rcacets jdr ohh`t`deol tcoimcrs



?=> • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

ot tmc scidehory lcvcl. Iurrcet idst struiturcs, hr`vce by m`fmcr solor`cs oeh ldwcr

ut`l`zot`de, rcsultch è tcoimcr idsts tmot, de o pcr-stuhcet bos`s, wcrc o ault`plc

dj tmc idsts ot tmc pràory lcvcl. @e Aolow`, tmc idst dj ldwcr scidehory tcoimcrs

de o pcr-stuhcet bos`s wos ?? tàcs tmot dj tcoimcrs ot tmc pràory lcvcl. @e L`bcrò

oeh Sfoeho, tmc idst ot tmc scidehory lcvcl wos dvcr jdur tàcs tmc idst ot tmc pr`-

aory lcvcl. Xmcsc m`fm idst rot`ds orc ec`tmcr csscetòl edr ub`qu`tdus. @e Xmc

Foabò, tmc idst ot tmc ldwcr scidehory lcvcl wos ?.6 tàcs tmot ot tmc pràory

lcvcl, wm`lc è [oez`bor tmc rot`d wos ?.23 tàcs. Jdr tmdsc iduetr`cs w`tm strui-

turcs tmot rcsult è m`fm tcoimcr idsts ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, tm`s `s l`gcly td prdvc

o s`fe`jìoet borr`cr td tmc cxpoes`de dj scidehory cerdllacet.

FCEHCR ^CRY^CIX@ZC

@t `s ilcorly hcs`roblc td movc jcaolc tcoimcrs è simddls, os tmcy pdtcetòlly

èircosc tmc portì`pot`de oeh rctcet`de dj f`rls, bdtm by aogèf simddls sojcr

ploics jdr f`rls oeh by oitèf os rdlc adhcls dj chuiotch prdjcss`deol wdace. Xmc

prdpdrt`de dj jcaolc tcoimcrs vor`ch, but wos è oll ioscs ldwcr è scidehory

simddls tmoe è pràory simddls. Mdwcvcr, tmcrc wcrc strdef fcdfropmìol pottcres

è tmc prcsceic dj jcaolc tcoimcrs. Xmcrc wcrc adrc jcaolc tcoimcrs è urboe

orcos, oeh o m`fmcr prdpdrt`de dj aolc tcoimcrs e tmc adst rcadtc orcos. Xm`s wos

truc cvce è Lcsdtmd, wmcrc tmc aokdr`ty dj tcoimcrs wcrc jcaolc.

Jcaolc tcoimcrs wcrc rcpdrtch td bc lcss adb`lc tmoe aolc tcoimcrs. @e iulturcs

wmcrc `t `s ueusuol jdr o aoe td advc td jdlldw m`s w`jc, aorr`ch jcaolc tcoimcrs

aust c`tmcr stoy ecor tmc`r musboehs dr spl`t up tmc`r joa`l`cs, w`tm tmc idescqucet

jèoeiòl idsts, r`sg dj hoaofc td tmc`r rclot`desm`ps, oeh pdss`bly cvce èircosch

r`sg dj M@Z èjcit`de. Jdr ueaorr`ch tcoimcrs, tmcrc wcrc rcpdrts dj strdef joa`ly

oeh sdiòl prcssurc td ovd`h pdstèfs è rcadtc orcos, wmìm wcrc pcric`vch os

uesojc jdr sèflc wdace.

Xmc scideh potmwoy ètd tcoimèf, tmrdufm rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch tcoim-

crs wmd lotcr ottoè quol`jìot`des, aoy oss`st e rciru`tèf adrc jcaolc tcoimcrs e

tmc rcadtc simddls. Os tm`s acimoe`sa edraolly rciru`ts ldiol tcoimcrs olrcohy

rcs`hcet è tmc orco, `t aoy bc cos`cr td rciru`t jcaolc tcoimcrs. @e Lcsdtmd jdr

cxoaplc, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs è aduetoè orcos orc djtce wdace olrcohy l`vèf

è tmc orco.

M@Z

M@Z ejcit`de rotcs jdr tcoimcrs vor`ch w`hcly oirdss tmc c`fmt iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs,

roefèf jrda ?.2 pcricet td 26 pcricet (toblc ??.9). Vm`lc tm`s `s pràor`ly o

muaoe trofchy, `t olsd moh àplìot`des jdr tmc chuiot`de systca. Xmc j`rst oeh

adst dbv`dus àpoit wos tmc ldss dj tcoimcrs tmrdufm `llecss oeh hcotm. Vm`lcspci`jì iouscs dj `llecss orc edt edraolly rcidrhch, è tmc iduetr`cs w`tm m`fm



Imollcefcs, Xrcehs, oeh ^rda`sèf ^roitìcs • ?=?

M@Z èjcit`de rotcs, tcoimcr hcotm oeh `llecss oiiduetch jdr ottr`t`de dj bctwcce

>.:: pcricet oeh 9 pcricet dj tmc tcoimcr wdrgjdric oeeuolly.

@e ohh`t`de, M@Z/O@HY wos djtce o joitdr è tcoimcr hcpldyacet, idetr`butèf

td tmc ècqu`ty dj hcpldyacet os adrc tcoimcrs wcrc troesjcrrch td simddls ecor achìol joi`l`t`cs. Jdr cxoaplc, è Sfoeho tcoimcrs wmd orc M@Z pds`t`vc orc joi`l-

`totch td c`tmcr troesjcr td o ldiot`de ecor achìol joi`l`t`cs dr td ovd`h rchcpldy-

acet è drhcr td aoètoè lègofc w`tm tmc`r iurrcet achìol prdv`hcrs. @e [oa-

bò, tcoimcrs wmd orc `ll orc olldwch td troesjcr td o simddl ecor o mcoltm ilèì `j

tmcrc `s edt dec ecor tmc`r pdst. Aoey dj tmc sìg tcoimcrs orc rcjcrrch td tmc Se`-

vcrs`ty Xcoimèf Mdsp`tol è Lusogo. @e Aolow`, tmc pdlìy hctcraècs tmot o “rco-

sdeoblc oiidaadhot`de‑ bc aohc jdr stojj w`tm M@Z. @e proitìc, tm`s acoes

l`fmtcr hut`cs oeh troesjcr td o ldiot`de ecor o mdsp`tol. Xcoimcrs w`tm M@Z oeh

O@HY orc jrcqucetly troesjcrrch td urboe simddls td bc ecorcr td achìol joi`l`t`cs. Os o rcsult, tmc pcricetofc dj sìg tcoimcrs è urboe orcos `s m`fmcr, idetr`butèf td

m`fmcr obscetcc`sa è tmcsc orcos.

Xmc burhce dj tmc poehcaì olsd jcll de tmc chuiot`de systca è o vor`cty dj

dtmcr woys (toblc ??.8). @e Aolow`, m`fm ottr`t`de dj h`strìt chuiot`de djjìòls wos

rcpdrtch, rchuièf tmc aoeofcacet iopoi`ty è tmc systca. Jurtmcr, tmc hcotms dj

tcoimcrs oeh tmc`r rclot`vcs iousc s`fe`jìoet h`srupt`de, os idllcofucs lcovc tmc`r

pdsts td oss`st `ll jr`cehs oeh ottceh juecrols. @e sdac ioscs tmcrc orc dtmcr, lcss

dbv`dus àpoits. @e Aolow`, wmce tcoimcrs h`c, tmc aè`stry poys jdr tmc purimosc

dj tmc idjjè oeh troespdrtot`de dj tmc bdhy td tmc mdac orco. Vmce rclot`vcs l`v-èf w`tm o tcoimcr h`c, tmc aè`stry olsd poys jdr tmc troespdrtot`de idsts. F`vce tmc

Xoblc ??.9 Yuaaory dj M@Z @ejcit`de Rotcs oeh Xcoimcr Ottr`t`de Rotcs

Ovo loblc hoto de M@Z ejcit`de Xcoimcr ottr`t`de rotc (oll iouscs)

Cr`trco Ed hoto de M@Z stotus dj tcoimcrs 2%

Eot`deol èjcit`de rotc cstàotch ot 2’9%

Foabò, Xmc Ed hoto de M@Z stotus dj tcoimcrs 9%

Eot`deol èjcit`de rotc cstàotch ot ?.2%

Lcsdtmd Cstàotcs dj M@Z prcvolceic oadef tcoimcrs roefc 9% pràory, up td ?>% scidehory

jrda 22% td 26%.

L`bcrò M@Z prcvolceic rotc jdr tmc ?3’80 ofc frdup wos Cstàotch ot ?.:%

cstàotch ot 2’3%

Aolow` @ejcit`de rotc oadef tcoimcrs s cstàotch ot ?3’23% 3% pràory, ?>% scidehory

Sfoeho @ejcit`de rotc cstàotch ot :.8% e tmc fcecrol pdpulot`de 3% pràory, :% scidehory

[oabò Ohult ejcit`de rotc cstàotch ot ?:% 0%, tmdufm aoy bc dvcrcstàotchZdluetory tcstèf dj tcoimcrs è 2>>3’>:, ?=% dj tmdsc by ètcrsimddl advcacet

wmd wcrc tcstch wcrc jdueh td bc M@Z pds`t`vc

[oez`bor Ed hoto de tcoimcr ejcit`des rotcs 3% pràory, :’6% scidehory



?=2 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

lorfc euabcr dj hcotms, tm`s àpdscs o ides`hcroblc idst, obsdrbèf auim dj tmc

h`sirct`deory buhfct dj sdac h`strìts oeh rchuièf tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj aè`stry

vcmìlcs jdr dtmcr purpdscs.

XCOIMCR @YYSCY ’ OE @EXCRIDEECIXCH YPYXCA

Iduetr`cs joic o scr`cs dj imollcefcs è prdv`s`de dj tcoimcrs. J`rst, tmcrc orc

imollcefcs dj tcoimcr supply oeh cesurèf oe opprdpròtc supply dj tcoimcrs.

Ycideh, tmcrc orc imollcefcs dj tcoimcr h`str`but`de oeh fcttèf tcoimcrs td tmc

simddls è tmc adst h`sohvoetofch rcadtc idaaue`t`cs. Xm`rh, tmcrc orc imol-

lcefcs dj tcoimcr quol`ty, èiluhèf ottroitèf su`tobly quol`j`ch pcdplc, prdv`h-

èf tmc r`fmt troèèf oeh suppdrt, oeh aoeofèf td cesurc quol`ty dj scrvìc

hcl`vcry. Jèolly, tmcrc orc jèoeiòl idestroèts, wmìm prcscet tmc imollcefcs dj

suppdrtèf cxpoes`de dj idvcrofc oeh rctcet`de dj tcoim-

crs è tmc adst cjjì`cet aoeecr pdss`blc.

Xmcsc jdur hàces des‘supply, h`str`but`de, quol`ty,

oeh idst‘orc ètcrrclotch, oeh o boloeich pdlìy jdr tcoim-

crs aust ides`hcr `ts àpoit de coim hàces`de (j`furc ?.?,

de pofc =). Xmc dbv`dus oit`des td ohhrcss prdblcas è dec

orco djtce movc ecfot`vc àpoits è dtmcr orcos. Xmc aoè

pdlìy dpt`des è coim dj tmcsc jdur orcos, oeh tmc`r àpl`-

iot`des jdr dtmcr orcos, orc dutlèch bcldw;

Xoblc ??.8 Xmc Idetr`but`de dj Xcoimcrs‐ Hcotm oeh @llecss td Ottr`t`de

^cricetofc dj Hcotm oeh llecss

Xdtol tcoimcr os pcricetofc dj

Iousc dj ottr`t`de Euabcr tcoimcrs wdrgjdric tcoimcr wdrgjdricLcsdtmd, pràory oeh H`ch ?9? ?9,3>> >.06

scidehory, 2>>8 ^rdldefch `llecss 8 ?9,3>> >.>9 ?.>>

Aolow`, pràory, 2>>: H`ch :?= 89,?06 ?.89

^rdldefch `llecss ?80 89,?06 >.98 ?.6=

Aolow`, scidehory, 2>>: H`ch ?36 ?>,9=: ?.3?

^rdldefch `llecss ?69 ?>,9=: ?.:6 9.?=

Sfoeho, pràory, 2>>3 H`ch 62? ?88,=92 >.3>

^rdldefch `llecss 889 ?88,=92 >.9? >.=>

Sfoeho, scidehory, 2>>3 H`ch ?0? 82,:69 >.83

^rdldefch `llecss 0? 82,:69 >.2? >.::

[oabò, fdvcreacet H`ch :>6 8=,?23 ?.2:

simddls, 2>>3 ^rdldefch `llecss ?2? 8=,?23 >.23 ?.3?

J`furc ??.? Xcoimcr ^dlìy; Jdur@etcrrclotch Hàces`des

Yupply H`str`but`de

_uol`ty Idst



Imollcefcs, Xrcehs, oeh ^rda`sèf ^roitìcs • ?=9

^DL@IP D^X@DEY XD OHHRCYY YS^^LP H@JJ@ISLX@CY

@e drhcr td eircosc tmc supply dj quol`j`ch tcoimcrs, iduetr`cs aoy sccg td eircosc

tcoimcr rcauecrot`de dr rchuic cetry rcqu`rcacets, w`tm idescqucet aplìot`desjdr idst oeh quol`ty. Os auim dj ottr`t`de sccas td rcsult jrda advcacet td dtmcr

kdbs, èircosch solory `s l`gcly td oss`st è rctoèèf tcoimcrs jdr ldefcr è tmc prd-

jcss`de. @e ohh`t`de, os tmc pds`t`de dj tcoimcr tcehs td bc pcric`vch os lcss ottroi-

t`vc tmoe dtmcr publì scrvìc kdbs w`tm sà`lor cetry quol`jìot`des, èircosch

solory rclot`vc td dtmcr publì scrvoets s l`gcly td ottroit o frcotcr prdpdrt`de dj tmc

ovo`loblc simddl lcovcrs ètd tcoimèf. Mdwcvcr, tm`s ètcrvcet`de w`ll olsd èircosc

tmc idst pcr tcoimcr, w`tm idescqucet r`sgs td ojjdrhob`l`ty.

@e iduetr`cs wmcrc tmc supply s idestroèch by tmc ovo`lob`l`ty dj su`toblc quol-

`j`ch opplìoets, tmc dbv`dus rcoit`de aoy bc td rchuic tmc cetry stoehorh. Ot tmctàc dj tmc iosc stuhy v`s`ts, bdtm Lcsdtmd oeh Xmc Foabò wcrc cxpcr`ceièf

smdrtofcs dj quol`j`ch opplìoets td tcoimcr-troèèf idurscs. @e bdtm ioscs tmc

cetry rcqu`rcacets wcrc subscqucetly ldwcrch è profaotì advcs td rciru`t suj-

jì`cet ioeh`hotcs. Dj idursc, tm`s mos aplìot`des jdr tmc quol`ty dj tcoimèf, oeh

tmc hurot`de oeh idetcet dj tmc troèèf td bc prdv`hch.

Oe cvce adrc h`jjìult prdblca or`scs è tmc iduetr`cs wmcrc tmcrc `s o smdrt-

ofc dj tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs oeh tmc si`ceics. Xmcrc orc olrcohy ldwcr cetry

rcqu`rcacets jdr stuhcets w`tm tmcsc subkcits è [oez`bor, Lcsdtmd, oeh Sfoeho,

yct o smdrtofc rcaoès. Jurtmcr rchuit`des e cetry rcqu`rcacets aoy idaprda`sc

quol`ty dj tcoimèf. Edec dj tmc iduetr`cs wcrc djjcrèf ohh`t`deol èicet`vc poy-

acets td tcoimcrs dj tmcsc subkcits, but os tmcsc subkcits orc olsd è m`fm hcaoeh

è tmc lobdr aorgct, oe èicet`vc poyacet wdulh prdbobly movc td bc qu`tc sub-

stoetòl td bc cjjcit`vc.

^DL@IP D^X@DEY XD OHHRCYY HC^LDPACEX

Morhsm`p olldwoeics (dr dtmcr bdeus poyacets) oeh tmc prdv`s`de dj mdusèf aoy

bc ides`hcrch è tmc ottcapt td èircosc cqu`ty dj hcpldyacet, but bdtm movc idst

àplìot`des. Ohh`t`deol poyacets oeh morhsm`p olldwoeics movc edt rcadvch tmc

ècqu`ty dj hcpldyacet è adst ioscs, but scca td movc moh o vcry pds`t`vc àpoit

è Xmc Foabò, wmcrc tmc èicet`vc `s bdtm strìtly torfctch oeh vcry substoetòl

(9>’8> pcricet dj poy). ôyacets dj tm`s siolc movc dbv`dus àplìot`des jdr

tcoimcr idst, oeh orc l`gcly td bc rcol`stì dely wmcrc tcoimcr solory `s olrcohy ldw

oeh o s`fe`jìoet èircosc è ovcrofc tcoimcr idst idulh bc ides`hcrch.

Edejèoeiòl pdlì`cs td ohhrcss tmc hcpldyacet prdblca aoy movc quol`ty

àplìot`des. @e [oabò, tcoimcrs wmd movc scrvch jdr twd ycors orc olldwch td

opply jdr troesjcr, oeh tmc h`strìt djjìcs orc dvcrwmclach by rcqucsts jdr troesjcr

jrda rurol pdsts. Xm`s ircotcs o iyilc wmcrc yduef, ècxpcr`ceich tcoimcrs wdrg è



?=8 • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

tmc adst `sdlotch simddls oeh tmce frohuolly troesjcr boig td tmc adrc hcs`rch

ldiot`des. @e Xmc Foabò, tcoimcrs wdrgèf è morhsm`p ldiot`des orc f`vce prcj-

crceic e idapct`t`de jdr prdadt`deol pdsts. Vm`lc tm`s aoy prdv`hc oe eicet`vc

td rcaoè e o rurol pdst, `t rchuics tmc ob`l`ty td prdv`hc o acr`t-bosch prdadt`de

systca. @e Lcsdtmd, simddls rciru`t tcoimcrs h`rcitly, ircotèf o lobdr aorgct jdr

tcoimcrs. Vm`lc tm`s rcsults è rcosdeobly cvce h`str`but`de dj tcoimcrs, tmc bcst-

quol`j`ch tcoimcrs orc oblc td sciurc tmc kdbs è tmc adst hcs`rch ldiot`des.

Jdrich rch`str`but`de dj tcoimcrs, wmìm idulh cesurc cvce hcpldyacet, s olsd

l`gcly td rcsult è o frcot hcol dj ldss dj tolcet, oeh portìulorly jcaolc tcoimcrs, os

tmdsc wmd orc uew`llèf td advc lcovc tmc prdjcss`de td jèh oltcreot`vc capldy-

acet è tmc pr`votc scitdr dr lcovc tmc wdrgjdric oltdfctmcr.

^DL@IP D^X@DEY XD @A^RDZC _SOL@XP

Ro`sèf tmc lcvcl dj oiohcaì quol`jìot`des td àprdvc tcoimcr quol`ty mos àpl`-

iot`des jdr idst, supply, oeh h`str`but`de dj tcoimcrs. @e aoey ioscs pràory

tcoimcr quol`jìot`des orc bcèf upfrohch jrda icrt`jìotc lcvcl td h`pldao lcvcl.

@e Lcsdtmd jdr cxoaplc, tmc è`tòl tcoimcr quol`jìot`de mos bcce troesjdrach

jrda o icrt`jìotc td o h`pldao prdfroa. Xm`s mos rcsultch è o s`fe`jìoet èircosc

è tcoimcr rcauecrot`de. Xmc stortèf solory jdr o tcoimcr w`tm o h`pldao s =9 pcr-

icet m`fmcr tmoe tmot jdr o tcoimcr w`tm o icrt`jìotc. @t mos olsd bcce oiidapoe`ch

by oe èircosc è cetry stoehorhs, rcsultèf è rcstrìtch supply. Ot tmc scidehory lcvcl, tmc trceh mos bcce td èircosc tmc cxpcitch quol`j`-

iot`de jrda h`pldao td hcfrcc lcvcl. @e [oabò jdr cxoaplc, m`fm simddl tcoim-

crs orc cxpcitch td movc o hcfrcc, oltmdufm è proitìc dely ?2 pcricet movc dec.

Xmc tcoimcrs w`tm m`fmcr chuiot`deol quol`jìot`des scca adrc rcluitoet td

ldiotc è rurol orcos, idesi`dus dj tmc`r stotus os frohuotcs oeh tmc oltcreot`vcs

ovo`loblc è tmc lobdr aorgct. Yà`lorly, è Aolow` `t wos rcpdrtch tmot “frohuotcs

wdulh edt l`vc è o auh mdusc wmcrc tmcy movc td hrow wotcr jrda 2 g`ldactcrs

owoy.‑

_uol`ty aoy olsd bc àprdvch tmrdufm bcttcr aoeofcacet, rchuièf obsce-tcc`sa, oeh cesurèf cjjì`cet dpcrot`de dj simddls. But cjjcit`vc oit`de td rchuic

obscetcc`sa `s olsd l`gcly td bc idstly, oeh aoy rchuic tcoimcr supply. Cjjcit`vc

acosurcs td rchuic obscetcc`sa orc l`gcly td èvdlvc bdtm frcotcr ade`tdrèf

w`tmè simddls oeh frcotcr cxtcreol ade`tdrèf dj simddls, bdtm dj wmìm iorry

idsts.

ACOYSRCY XD RCHSIC IDYXY DR @A^RDZC CJJ@I@CEIP

Xmc gcy hr`vcrs dj tcoimcr idsts orc tcoimcr rcauecrot`de oeh tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de. Oey rchuit`de dj tcoimcr poy `s l`gcly td jurtmcr rchuic tmc ottroit vcecss dj tcoimèf os o




prdjcss`de, tmus rchuièf supply, èircosèf ottr`t`de, oeh rchuièf tmc quol`ty dj

ètogc. @eircoscs è tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de aoy olsd rchuic tmc dppdrtue`ty jdr sci-

dehory coreèfs, tmus prdv`hèf o hc joitd joll è coreèfs jdr sdac tcoimcrs.

Os `llustrotch by tmcsc cxoaplcs, tmc m`fmly ètcrideecitch eoturc dj tcoimcr

pdlì`cs acoes tmot oey pdlìy ètcrvcet`de aoy movc ecfot`vc àplìot`des jdr

dec dj tmc dtmcr hàces`des. Xm`s `s edt td suffcst tmot edec dj tmcsc acosurcs

ioe bc àplcacetch‘sdac orc hcs`roblc oeh bcecjìòl. Mdwcvcr, ed sèflc pdl-

ìy ètcrvcet`de smdulh bc ides`hcrch è `sdlot`de jrda tmc dvcroll systca. Xmc

hcvcldpacet dj opprdpròtc tcoimcr pdlìcs smdulh èvdlvc o ioliulotch scr`cs dj

trohc-djjs bctwcce tmcsc idapctèf pr`dr`t`cs. Vm`lc `t `s ilcor tmot tmcrc `s ed sè-

flc sdlut`de, sdac prda`sèf `hcos oeh pdss`b`l`t`cs cacrfc, os hcsir`bch è tmc

jdlldwèf porofropms.

^RDA@Y@EF ^ROIX@ICY

^loeeèf jdr tcoimcr supply; Adst dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs h`h edt movc ohc-

quotc systcas jdr ade`tdrèf oeh rcfulotèf tcoimcr supply. Os o rcsult, è oladst

oll ioscs tcoimcr supply wos dut dj boloeic w`tm rcqu`rcacets, c`tmcr prdhuièf oe

èopprdpròtc euabcr dj tcoimcrs dr oe èopprdpròtc boloeic dj subkcit spciòl-

`zot`des. Xcoimcr rcqu`rcacets idulh cos`ly bc jdrciost, bosch de tmc prdkcitch

rcqu`rcacets (olrcohy ovo`loblc è scitdr ploes) oeh èjdraot`de de tcoimcr ottr`-

t`de (wmìm idulh bc sdurich tmrdufm c`tmcr muaoe rcsduric hoto dr Chuiot`deAoeofcacet @ejdraot`de Yystcas (CA@Y) survcys). Oe oeeuol rcv`cw dj tmc sup-

ply boloeic jdr coim lcvcl oeh subkcit spciòl`zot`de, oeh subscqucet ohkustacet

dj tmc ètogc td tcoimcr troèèf idulh s`fe`jìoetly àprdvc tcoimcr supply.

Xmc scideh potm ètd tcoimèf; Jdr aoey dj tmc iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tmc iur-

rcet dutput dj pràory tcoimcrs `s èohcquotc, sd sdac rciru`tacet dj uequol`j`ch

tcoimcrs `s ècv`toblc. Xmc pottcre dj rciru`tèf uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs ldiolly oeh

tmce prdv`hèf dppdrtue`t`cs td upfrohc tmca td quol`j`ch stotus tmrdufm è-

scrvìc troèèf mos bcidac o scideh potm ètd tmc prdjcss`de. @j fddh-quol`ty

è-scrvìc troèèf ioe bc prdv`hch, tm`s scideh potm ioe mclp ohhrcss tmc prdblcadj tcoimcr h`str`but`de by rciru`tèf tcoimcrs olrcohy rcs`hcet è tmc orcos wmcrc

tmcrc orc tcoimcr smdrtofcs. Bu`lhèf tmc iopoi`ty dj pcdplc wmd orc jrda tmc

rcadtc orcos sccas o bcttcr ldef-tcra sdlut`de tmoe prdv`hèf subs`h`cs td

ceidurofc tcoimcrs jrda dtmcr orcos td advc td ploics tmcy ides`hcr uehcs`roblc.

Xm`s ioe idetr`butc td ohhrcssèf tmc tcoimcr fcehcr fop è rurol orcos, by prdv`h-

èf oiicss td tcoimèf kdbs jdr jcaolc tcoimcrs olrcohy l`vèf è tmc orco, oeh tmus

ovd`hèf tmc spci`jì h`jjìult`cs dj hcpldyèf jcaolc tcoimcrs td rcadtc orcos.

Ldiot`de-spci`jì tcoimcr rciru`tacet; Icetrol rciru`tacet dj tcoimcrs, jdl-

ldwch by ploeech hcpldyacet, mos ides`stcetly iousch h`jjìult`cs os tcoimcrsrcs`st advèf td tmc lcost hcs`rch ldiot`des. Ydac iduetr`cs movc advch td systcas



?=: • Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo

wmcrc kdbs è spci`jì ldiot`des orc ohvcrt`sch oeh tcoimcrs sclj-sclcit by imddsèf

td opply jdr tmc kdbs. @e Sfoeho, sèic tmc idaplct`de dj tmc iosc stuhy, tmc fdv-

creacet mos bcfue td ohvcrt`sc pdsts è spci`jì rurol orcos td ohhrcss tmc uecvce

hcpldyacet dj scidehory tcoimcrs. Xmcsc systcas oppcor td oss`st è fcttèf tcoim-

crs ètd rurol ldiot`des. @e [oabò, tmc tcoimcrs wmd opply jdr kdbs è o portìulor

h`strìt orc auim adrc l`gcly td togc up tmc pdst tmoe tmdsc wmd orc troesjcrrch td

o h`strìt tmcy h`h edt imdsc. @t sccas l`gcly tmot tm`s `s cjjcit`vc bciousc, cvce `j

tcoimcrs wdulh prcjcr oe urboe pdst, tmcy aoy jccl auim adrc idajdrtoblc adv-

èf td o rurol orco wmcrc tmcy olrcohy movc sdac rclot`vcs dr jr`cehs. @e Xmc

Foabò, stuhcet tcoimcrs rotch o pdst ecor mdac dr rclot`vcs os o auim m`fmcr pr`-

dr`ty tmoe o ldiot`de è oe urboe icetcr. Lcsdtmd, wmcrc o systca dj rciru`tèf

tcoimcrs jdr spci`j i ldiot`des mos bcce è ploic jdr sdac tàc, mos bcce vcry sui-

icssjul è oim`cvèf cvce h`str`but`de dj pràory tcoimcrs, oltmdufm tmcrc rcaoèprdblcas è ottroitèf aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic tcoimcrs td rurol scidehory simddls.

Ypci`jì ètcrvcet`des jdr aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceics; Dec dj tmc adst ide-

s`stcet pottcres oirdss tmcsc c`fmt iosc stuh`cs wos tmc smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs dj

aotmcaotìs oeh si`ceic. @e fcecrol, tmcrc wos o wcogecss è tmc aotmcaotìol

sg`ll dj pràory tcoimcrs, o smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs dj aotmcaotìs ot tmc scidehory

lcvcl, oeh o smdrtofc dj cetroets td tcoimcr troèèf w`tm cxpcrt`sc è aotmcaotìs

oeh si`ceic. Brcogèf tm`s vì`dus iyilc `s l`gcly td rcqu`rc spciòl acosurcs. Dec

dpt`de `s tmc prdv`s`de dj bddstcr idurscs è tcoimcr idllcfcs, td àprdvc tmc

aotmcaotìol oeh si`cet`jì uehcrstoehèf dj stuhcet tcoimcrs. Yuim bddstcr idurscs orc ploeech è Lcsdtmd oeh orc bcèf àplcacetch è Xmc Foabò.

Brdohcr ir`tcrò jdr sclcit`de ètd tcoimcr troèèf; Yclcit`de ètd tcoimcr

troèèf mos troh`t`deolly bcce bosch aoèly de oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic. @e sdac

ioscs tm`s bòscs tmc sclcit`de tdworh stuhcets jrda adrc urboe oeh bcttcr-djj

boigfrduehs, wmd orc adrc l`gcly td movc bcttcr oiohcaì rcsults. Xmcsc orc lcss

l`gcly td scc pràory tcoimèf os tmc`r ldef-tcra iorccr fdol, dr td bc w`llèf td

oiicpt o pdst è o rcadtc rurol simddl. Pct tmc suiicss dj tmc tcoimcr troèèf idl-

lcfc è Aolow` dpcrotch by tmc EFD Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda cdplc td ^cdplc

(oeh sà`lor idllcfcs è Adzoab`quc oeh Oefdlo) è ottroitèf stuhcets wmd woet td wdrg è rurol orcos hcadestrotcs tmot tmcrc orc pcdplc wmd bdtm woet td

tcoim è rurol simddls oeh movc tmc ob`l`ty td suiicch è prc-scrvìc tcoimcr

troèèf. Brdohcr sclcit`de ir`tcrò, èiluhèf bdtm oiohcaì pcrjdraoeic oeh

ètcrv`cw, djjcr oe dppdrtue`ty td hrow ètd tcoimèf adrc dj tmdsc wmd woet

tcoimèf os tmc`r iorccr, adrc dj tmdsc wmd orc w`llèf td wdrg è rurol orcos, oeh

adrc stuhcets jrda lèfu`stì oeh ctmeì aèdr`t`cs wmd orc uehcrrcprcscetch è

tcoimèf.

Xorfctch èicet`vcs jdr tcoimcrs è rcadtc orcos; @e tmc smdrt tcra tmcrc `s o

ecch td ottroit adrc tcoimcrs td rcadtc rurol orcos. Xmc iosc dj Xmc Foabò `llus-trotcs tmot jèoeiòl èicet`vcs, wmcrc ides`hcroblc è siolc oeh vcry iorcjully




torfctch, ioe s`fe`jìoetly èircosc tmc w`llèfecss dj tcoimcrs td wdrg è h`jjìult

orcos. @e Xmc Foabò, jdlldwèf tmc ètrdhuit`de dj tmc èicet`vcs, cxpcr`ceich

tcoimcrs wcrc rcqucstèf troesjcrs td morhsm`p simddls. @e 2>>=, adrc tmoe dec-

tm`rh dj tmc tcoimcrs è rcf`des 9, 8, oeh 3 wmd wcrc edt è morhsm`p simddls

rcqucstch troesjcrs td morhsm`p pdsts.

Ade`tdrèf dj tcoimcr ottcehoeic; Xmcrc wcrc strdef èhìot`des tmot tcoimcr

obscetcc`sa idulh bc rchuich (tmdufm edt clàèotch) by ade`tdrèf. @e

Sfoeho, tmc obscetcc`sa rotc jcll jrda 26 pcricet è 2>>8 td ?0 pcricet è 2>>:,

jdlldwèf èircosch acosurcs td ade`tdr ottcehoeic. @e Xmc Foabò, `t wos

rcpdrtch tmot imurim-rue simddls moh m`fmcr tcoimcr ottcehoeic tmoe fdvcreacet

simddls bciousc aoeofcrs rdutècly ade`tdrch ottcehoeic oeh hchuitch poy

jrda tcoimcrs wmd wcrc obscet w`tmdut pcra`ss`de. Olsd è Xmc Foabò, jdlldw-

èf tmc ètrdhuit`de dj ilustcr ade`tdrs, wmd v`s`tch simddls de o rcfulor bos`s, `t wos rcpdrtch tmot tcoimcr obscetcc`sa hcircosch oeh tmc euabcr dj ioscs dj mcoh

tcoimcrs togèf oit`de td ohhrcss obscetcc`sa eircosch. Edtc tmot è bdtm Sfoeho

oeh Xmc Foabò, ed ohh`t`deol soeit`des dr pceolt`cs wcrc ètrdhuich. Xmc

tcoimcr obscetcc`sa hcircosch sàply è rcspdesc td ade`tdrèf. @e adst dj tmc

iosc-stuhy iduetr`cs, tcoimcr ottcehoeic wos ade`tdrch ot tmc simddl lcvcl

tmrdufm oe ottcehoeic bddg. Mdwcvcr, tm`s hoto wos rorcly idap`lch dr oeolyzch,

c`tmcr ot tmc simddl dr h`strìt lcvcl.

Hcicetrol`zch ade`tdrèf; @e adst iduetr`cs, simddls wcrc èspcitch by cxtcr-

eol djjìòls lcss tmoe deic pcr ycor, oeh è sdac ioscs auim lcss. @e Lcsdtmd, sdacsimddls moh edt bcce v`s`tch jdr tce ycors. Xm`s jrcquceiy dj èspcit`de `s ilcorly

èsujjì`cet td oit os o quol`ty ossuroeic acimoe`sa. Xwd iduetr`cs moh auim

adrc jrcqucet cxtcreol supcrv`s`de dj simddls, oeh e bdtm ioscs (Xmc Foabò oeh

Cr`trco), tm`s wos oim`cvch by movèf hcicetrol`zch èspcitdrs scrvèf saoll ilus-

tcrs dj simddls, l`vèf è tmc`r ilustcr, oeh usèf ldw-idst troespdrtot`de. @e Xmc

Foabò, ilustcr ade`tdrs l`vc ot dec dj tmc tce simddls è tmc`r ilustcr oeh orc

prdv`hch w`tm o adtdrb`gc jdr troespdrtot`de. @e tmc idetcxt dj tmc m`fm idst dj

troespdrtot`de oeh tmc smdrtofc dj vcmìlcs, hcicetrol`zot`de dj supcrv`s`de td tmc

ilustcr lcvcl sccas td bc tmc adst vòblc actmdh td cesurc rcosdeoblc supcrv`s`dejrcqucei`cs.

^roitìol troèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs; Ed aottcr mdw jrcqucet tmc cxtcreol

supcrv`s`de, tmc ho`ly supcrv`s`de dj tcoimcrs jolls td simddl aoeofcacet. Hcsp`tc

tmc oigedwlchfch àpdrtoeic dj simddl lcohcrs, tdd djtce mcoh tcoimcrs wcrc `ll-

prcporch jdr tm`s rdlc. Adst iduetr`cs moh ed outdaotì troèèf jdr mcoh tcoimcrs.

@estcoh, smdrt idurscs wcrc prdv`hch, jrcqucetly w`tm cxtcreol juehs, oeh saoll

euabcrs wcrc hrowe ètd ldef-tcra ue`vcrs`ty-bosch idurscs. ^rdv`s`de dj rdu-

tèc, proitìol troèèf td oll mcoh tcoimcrs ot tmc tàc wmce tmcy togc up tmc pdsts

sccas o prda`sèf acosurc td àprdvc tmc quol`ty dj aoeofcacet oeh supcrv`-s`de dj simddls.





?=0

Ogycoapdef, G., oeh G. Osoetc. 2>>3. Xcoimcr Adt`vot`de oeh @eicet`vcs; O ^rdj`lc dj Fmoeo.Icetrc jdr @etcreot`deol Chuiot`de, Se`vcrs`ty dj Yusscx. Ogycoapdef, G., oeh H. Ytcpmces. 2>>2. “Cxpldrèf tmc Boigfrduehs oeh Ymopèf dj

Bcfèeèf Ytuhcet Xcoimcrs è Fmoeo; Xdworh Frcotcr Idetcxtuol`sot`de dj Xcoimcr Chuiot`de.‑ @etcreot`deol Kdureol dj Chuiot`deol Hcvcldpacet 22 (9/8); 2:2’68.

Oehrob`, X., K. Hos, oeh O. @. Gmwoko. 2>>:. “O Hàc o Hoy; Xmc ^dss`b`l`t`cs oeh Là`ts dj ^r`votc Yimddlèf è ôg`stoe.‑ ^dlìy Rcscorim Vdrgèf ôpcr 8>::, Vdrlh Boeg, Vosmèftde, HI.

Opplctde, Y., O. Y vcs, oeh K. Adrfoe. 2>>:. “Xmc @apoit dj @etcreot`deol Xcoimcr A`frot`dede Yimddlèf e Hcvcldpèf Iduetr`cs‘Xmc Iosc dj Ydutmcre Ojrìo.‑ Fldbol`sot`de, Ydi`-ct`cs oeh Chuiot`de 8 (?); ?2?’82.

Ovolds, B. 2>>>. “^dlì`cs jdr Xcoimcr Chuiot`de è Hcvcldpèf Iduetr`cs.‑ @etcreot`deol

Kdureol dj Chuiot`deol Rcscorim 99; 836’68.Bceecll, ^., oeh G. Ogycoapdef. 2>>6. Xcoimcr Adt`vot`de è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo oeh

Ydutm Osò. HJ@H Chuiot`deol ôpcr Ed. 6?. Csscx, Se`tch Gèfhda.Broy, Aorg. 2>>?. “Idaaue`ty ôrtecrsm`ps è Chuiot`de; Hàces`des, Zoròt`des, oeh

@aplìot`des.‑ SECYID, ôr`s.TTTTTT. 2>>=. Hdublc-Ym`jt Yimddlèf; Hcs`fe oeh Dpcrot`de jdr Yimddl Cjjcit`vcecss. Jue-

hoacetols dj Chuiot`deol ^loeeèf 0>, ôr`s; SECYID @etcreot`deol @est`tutc jdr Chuiot`deol ^loeeèf (@@C^).

Brdig-Stec, B. 2>>6. “Loefuofc dj @estruit`de oeh Ytuhcet ^crjdraoeic; Ecw @es`fmts jrdaRcscorim è Xoezoeò oeh Ydutm Ojrìo.‑ @etcreot`deol Rcv`cw dj Chuiot`de 39; 3>0’9>.

Brues, B., O. Aèfot, oeh R. Rogdtdaololo. 2>>9. “Oim`cvèf Se`vcrsol ^ràory Chuiot`de

by 2>?3; O Imoeic jdr Cvcry Im`lh.‑ Vdrlh Boeg, Vosmèftde, HI.Io`lldhs, J. 2>>?. “Jèoeièf Ycidehory Chuiot`de è Yclcitch Jroeidpmdec Iduetr`csdj Ojrìo; @ssucs oeh ^crspcit`vcs.‑ @e Jèoeièf Ycidehory Chuiot`de è Hcvcldpèf

Iduetr`cs; Ytrotcf`cs jdr Yustoèoblc Frdwtm, chs. G. Lcwè oeh J. Io`lldhs. ôr`s;SECYID, @@C^.

Imopaoe, H. 2>>3. Rciru`tacet, Rctcet`de oeh Hcvcldpacet dj Yimddl ^rèi`pols. ôr`s;SECYID, @@C^/@CO.

Imouhmury, E., K. Moaacr, A. Grcacr, G. Aurol`hmoroe, oeh J. Molscy Rdfcrs. 2>>:.“A`ssèf è Oit`de; Xcoimcr oeh Mcoltm Vdrgcr Obsceic è Hcvcldpèf Iduetr`cs.‑ Kdureol dj Cidedaì ^crspcit`vcs 2> (?); 0?’??:.

Hos, K`smeu, Ytcjoe Hcride, Koacs Mobyoràoeo, oeh ^roa`lo Gr`smeoe. 2>>3. “Xcoimcr Ymdigs oeh Ytuhcet Lcoreèf; Cv`hceic jrda [oabò.‑ ^dlìy Rcscorim Vdrgèf ôpcr,

Vdrlh Boeg, Vosmèftde, HI.

Rcjcrceics



?0> • Rcjcrceics

Hc Frouwc, O., I. Lufoz, H. Bolhà, I. Hògmotà, H. Hdufede, A. Adustopmo, oehH. Dhusmèo. 2>>3. “Hdcs Hcicetrol`zot`de Lcoh td Yimddl @aprdvcacet4 Jèhèfsoeh Lcssdes jrda Rcscorim è Vcst-Ojrìo.‑ Kdureol dj Chuiot`de jdr @etcreot`deol Hcvcl-dpacet ?(?). mttp;//www.cqu`p?29.ect/KC@H/ortìlcs/?/?’?.phj.

HcKocfmcrc, K.F., R. V`llòas, oeh R. Gycyuec, R. @e prcss. “Sfoehoe Ycidehory YimddlMcohtcoimcrs‐ Cjjìoiy; Vmot Gèh dj Xroèèf jdr Vmda4‑ @etcreot`deol Kdureol dj Chu-

iot`deol Hcvcldpacet hd`;?>.?>?:/k.`kchuhcv.2>>=.>9.>>?.Hcabàlà, A. 2>>3. O Ytuhy dj ^ràory Xcoimcr Chuiot`de oeh Aoeofcacet è Jrceim Ypcog-

èf Vcst Ojrìo; Idaporot`vc Yyetmcs`s Rcpdrt . Vosmèftde, HI; Vdrlh Boeg.Hcabàlà , A., B.R. Aòrd, @@. 2>>9. “^chofdfìol Rcecwol oeh Xcoimcr Hcvcldpacet è

Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo; O Xmcaotì Yyetmcs`s.‑ ôpcr idaa`ss`dech jdr 2>>9 OHCO B`ceeòl Acctèf. ôr`s; OHCO.

Hutm`llcul, Pocl. 2>>3. “Lcssdes Lcoret è tmc Ssc dj ”Idetroit‐ Xcoimcrs.‑ Yyetmcs`sRcpdrt. ôr`s; @@C^.

CJO-JX@ (Chuiot`de jdr Oll‘Jost Xroig @e`tòt`vc). 2>>8. “Chuiot`de jdr Oll’Jost Xroig

@e`tòt`vc; Oiiclcrotèf ^rdfrcss tdworhs _uol`ty Se`vcrsol ^ràory Chuiot`de‘ Jroacwdrg.‑ JX@ Ycirctoròt, Vosmèftde, HI.

Caoeì Idesultèf. 2>>:. Rcpublì dj Xmc Foabò, Hcportacet dj Ytotc jdr Chuiot`de,ûblì Cxpceh`turc Rcv`cw.

Jyjc, Olci. 2>>6. “Xmc Ssc dj Idetroit Xcoimcrs è Hcvcldpèf Iduetr`cs; Xrcehs oeh@apoit.‑ Vdrgèf ôpcr 232, @LD, Fcecvo.

F`drhoed, C. 2>>=. Yimddl Ilustcrs oeh Xcoimcr Rcsduric Icetrcs. Juehoacetols dj Chuiot`deol^loeeèf =:, ôr`s; SECYID @etcreot`deol @est`tutc jdr Chuiot`deol ^loeeèf (@@C^).

Flcwwc, ^., E. @lòs, oeh A. Grcacr, 2>>9. “Xcoimcr @eicet`vcs.‑ Vdrgèf ôpcrs; 0:6?,Eot`deol Burcou dj Cidedaì Rcscorim, Ioabr`hfc, AO.

Fdvcreacet dj Aolow`. 2>>:. Aolow` Frdwtm oeh Hcvcldpacet Ytrotcfy, Jdr ^dvcrty td

^rdspcr`ty 2>>:’??.Mobyoràoeo, Koacs. 2>>6. “Imoroitcr`zèf Xcoimcr Obsceic è Sfoeho; Cv`hceic jrda2>>: Se`t Idst Ytuhy.‑ Hrojt rcpdrt.

Mchfcs, Kdme. 2>>2. “Xmc @apdrtoeic dj ^dstèf oeh @etcroit`de w`tm tmc Chuiot`deBurcouiroiy è Bcidaèf o Xcoimcr è Fmoeo.‑ @etcreot`deol Kdureol dj Chuiot`deol Hcvcl-dpacet 22; 939’::.

Mdxby, I., oeh O. Lc`fm. 2>>8. “ûllch Owoy dr ûsmch Dut4 Cxploèèf tmc Hcilèc dj Xcoimcr Opt`tuhc è tmc Se`tch Ytotcs.‑ Xmc Oacrìoe Cidedaì Rcv`cw 08 (2); 29:’8:.

Gohzoa`ro, C. I. 2>>:. Xcoimcr Adt`vot`de oeh @eicet`vcs e Aolow`, [dabo; Icetrc jdr Chu-iot`de Rcscorim oeh Xroèèf, Se`vcrs`ty dj Aolow`.

Lovy, Z. 2>>8. “ôyèf jdr ^crjdraoeic oeh Xcoimcrs‐ Cjjdrt, ^rdhuit`v`ty, oeh Frohèf Ctmìs.‑ Vdrgèf ôpcr ?>:22, Eot`deol Burcou dj Cidedaì Rcscorim, Ioabr`hfc, AO.

TTTTTT. 2>>6. “Ssèf ^crjdraoeic-Bosch ôy td @aprdvc tmc _uol`ty dj Xcoimcrs.‑ XmcJuturc dj Im`lhrce ?6(?).

Lcwè, G. 2>>=. “Ytrotcf`cs jdr Yustoèoblc Jèoeièf dj Ycidehory Chuiot`de è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo.‑ Vdrgèf ôpcr ?9:, Vdrlh Boeg, Vosmèftde, HI.

Lcwè, Gc`tm, oeh Koect Ytuort. 2>>9. “Rcscorimèf Xcoimcr Chuiot`de; Ecw ^crspci-t`vcs de ^roitìc, ^crjdraoeic oeh ^dlìy.‑ Ault`-Y`tc Xcoimcr Chuiot`de Rcscorim^rdkcit (ASYXCR) Yyetmcs`s Rcpdrt. HJ@H Chuiot`deol ôpcr Ed. 80o. Csscx, Se`tchGèfhda.

Lòef, ]òdyoe. 2>>2. “Sfoeho ^dst-^ràory Chuiot`de Ycitdr Rcpdrt.‑ Ojrìo Rcf`deMuaoe Hcvcldpacet Vdrgèf ôpcr Ycr`cs, Vdrlh Boeg, Vosmèftde, HI.

L`ttlc, O.V., ch. 2>>:. Chuiot`de jdr Oll oeh Ault`frohc Xcoimèf; Imollcefcs oeh Dppdrtue`-

t`cs. Hdrhrcimt, Ectmcrloehs; Yprèfcr.



Rcjcrceics • ?0?

AiCwoe, ^., oeh L. Yoet`bïÿcz. 2>>3. “Xcoimcr oeh ^rèi`pol @eicet`vcs è Acxìd.‑ @e@eicet`vcs td @aprdvc Xcoimèf; Lcssdes jrda Lotè Oacrìo, ch. C. Zcfos. Vosmèftde,HI; Vdrlh Boeg ^rcss.

Aìmocldwo, G. 2>>?. “^ràory Chuiot`de _uol`ty è Jroeidpmdec Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo;Hctcraèoets dj Lcoreèf Oim`cvcacet oeh Cjjì`ceiy Ides`hcrot`des.‑ Vdrlh Hcvcldp-acet 20 (?>); ?:00’6?:.

Aulgcce, O`hoe, Hov`h V. Imopaoe, Kdoe F. HcKocfmcrc, oeh Cl`zobctm Lcu. 2>>6.Rciru`tèf, Rctoèèf, oeh Rctroèèf Ycidehory Yimddl Xcoimcrs oeh ^rèi`pols è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo. YC@O Xmcaotì Ytuhy Ed. 8. Vosmèftde, HI; Vdrlh Boeg.

Auehy, G. Imcrry, Y. Moffcrty, A. Aoilurc, R. oeh A. Y`vosubroaoeòa. 2>>=. “Bosì Chu-iot`de, I`v`l Ydi`cty ôrtì`pot`de oeh tmc Ecw O`h Orim`tciturc; Lcssdes jrda BurgèoJosd, Gceyo, Aol` oeh Xoezoeò.‑ Ioeohòe @etcreot`deol Hcvcldpacet Ofceiy oeh tmcDetor`d @est`tutc jdr Ytuh`cs è Chuiot`de, Se`vcrs`ty dj Xdrdetd, Ioeoho.

DCIH. 2>>3. Xcoimcrs Aottcr; Ottroitèf, Hcvcldpèf oeh Rctoèèf Cjjcit`vc Xcoimcrs. ôr`s;DCIH.

TTTTTT. 2>>=. Chuiot`de ot o Floeic. ôr`s; DCIH.ôes`r`, Egdb`. 2>>=. “@aprdvèf Idaa`tacet td Bosì Chuiot`de jdr tmc Aèdr`t`cs è

Bdtswoeo; O Imollcefc jdr ^dlìy oeh ^roitìc.‑ @etcreot`deol Kdureol dj Chuiot`deol

Hcvcldpacet 2= (8); 88:’30.^èf-Aoe Vdef, oeh Im`-Yua Vdef. 2>>3. “^rdadt`de Ir`tcrò oeh Yot`sjoit`de dj

Yimddl Xcoimcrs è Mdef Gdef.‑ Chuiot`deol Aoeofcacet Ohaè`strot`de Lcohcrsm`p

99 (8); 829’86.Yorfcet, Xoeko, oeh Ca`ly Moeeua. 2>>3. “Gccpèf Xcoimcrs Moppy; Kdb Yot`sjoit`de

oadef ^ràory Yimddl Xcoimcrs è Rurol Edrtmwcst Imèo.‑ Idaporot`vc Chuiot`deRcv`cw 80 (2).

Yimw`llc, K., A. Hcabàlà, oeh K. Yimubcrt. 2>>6. Fldbol ^crspcit`vcs de Xcoimcr Lcoreèf;

@aprdvèf ^dlìy oeh ^roitìc. Juehoacetols dj Chuiot`deol ^loeeèf, =8. ôr`s;SECYID @etcreot`deol @est`tutc jdr Chuiot`deol ^loeeèf (@@C^).Ymèycgwo, @sooi. 2>>:. Rcpdrt de Se`vcrsol ^dst ^ràory Chuiot`de oeh Xroèèf . AdCY,

Sfoeho. Xdwsc, ., H. Gcet, J. Dsog`, oeh E. G`ruo. 2>>2. “Ede-frohuotc Xcoimcr Rciru`tacet oeh

Rctcet`de; Ydac Joitdrs Ojjcitèf Xcoimcr Cjjcit`vcecss è Xoezoeò.‑ Xcoimèf oeh

Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ?=; :96’:32.S@Y (SECYID @est`tutc dj Ytot`stìs). 2>>:. Xcoimcrs oeh Chuiot`deol _uol`ty; Ade`tdrèf

Fldbol Ecchs jdr 2>?3. Ecw Pdrg; SECYID @est`tutc dj Ytot`stìs.TTTTTT. 2>>6. Chuiot`de Iduets; Vdrlh Chuiot`de @ehìotdrs 2>>6. Ecw Pdrg; SECYID @est`-

tutc dj Ytot`stìs.SECYID’CJO (Se`tch Eot`des Chuiot`deol, Yi`cet`jì oeh Iulturol Drfoe`zot`de‘CJO

Fldbol Ade`tdrèf Rcpdrt Xcoa). 2>>9. Fcehcr oeh Chuiot`de jdr Oll, Xmc Lcop td Cquol`ty.CJO Fldbol Ade`tdrèf Rcpdrt. ôr`s; SECYID.

TTTTTT. 2>>=. Dvcridaèf @ecquol`ty; Vmy Fdvcreoeic Aottcrs. ôr`s; SECYID.Srwìg, Koacs, ûlcef Aopuru, oeh Aìmocl Egmdbdt`. 2>>3. “Xcoimcr Adt`vot`de oeh

@eicet`vcs @e Lcsdtmd.‑ O rcscorim rcpdrt prcporch jdr tmc prdkcit Xcoimcr Adt`vot`deoeh @eicet`vcs è Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo oeh Ydutm Osò. Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuiot`de,Aoscru, Lcsdtmd.

Zcfos, C., ch. 2>>3. @eicet`vcs td @aprdvc Xcoimèf; Lcssdes jrda Lotè Oacrìo. Vosmèftde,HI; Vdrlh Boeg.

Zcrspddr, O. oeh YC@O tcoa. 2>>=. Ot tmc Irdssrdohs; Imdìcs jdr Ycidehory Chuiot`de è Yub-

Yomoroe Ojrìo. Vosmèftde, HI; Vdrlh Boeg.



?02 • Rcjcrceics

Z`llcfos-Rcàcrs, C. 2>>9. Xcoimcr ^rdjcss`deol Hcvcldpacet; Oe @etcreot`deol Rcv`cw dj tmcL`tcroturc. ôr`s; SECYID @etcreot`deol @est`tutc jdr Chuiot`deol ^loeeèf (@@C^).

Zdluetory Ycrvìcs Dvcrscos (ZYD). Xmc Foabò. 2>>6. Xcoimcrs Ypcog Dut; O ^dlìy Rcscorim Rcpdrt de Xcoimcrs‐ Adt`vot`de oeh ^cricpt`des dj Xmc`r ^rdjcss`de è Xmc Foabò.

ZYD Xmc Foabò, Boekul. Vèglcr, Hdeolh, oeh Lors Ydehcrfoorh. 2>>6. “Xmc Cjjì`ceiy dj ûblì Chuiot`de è

Sfoeho.‑ Vdrlh Boeg, Vosmèftde, HI. Vdrlh Boeg. 2>>>. “Cjjcit`vc Yimddlèf è Rurol Ojrìo, Rcpdrt 9; Iosc Ytuhy Br`cjs de

Rurol Yimddlèf.‑ Vdrgèf popcr. mttp;//fd.wdrlhboeg.drf/HLX?DO90V>.TTTTTT. 2>>9. Vdrlh Hcvcldpacet Rcpdrt 2>>8; Aogèf Ycrvìcs Vdrg jdr ^ddr ^cdplc. Ecw

Pdrg; Dxjdrh Se`vcrs`ty ^rcss. VúÔaoe, Luhfcr. 2>>9. “Yimddlèf Rcsdurics, Chuiot`deol @est`tut des oeh Ytuhcet ^cr-

jdraoeic; tmc @etcreot`deol Cv`hceic.‑ Dxjdrh Bullctè dj Cidedaìs oeh Ytot`stìs :3 (2);??6’?6>.



?09

@ehcx

Edtc; b èhìotcs bdxcs, j èhìotcs j`furcs, oeh t èhìotcs toblcsChuiot`de jdr Oll‘Jost Xroig @e`tòt`vc

èhìot`vc jroacwdrg (CJO-JX@2>>8), ?39

Chuiot`de Actmdhs Ohv`sdry Ycrvìc(CAOY), Aolow`, 06

Chuiot`de Ytoehorhs Ofceiy (CYO),Sfoeho, ??3

chuiot`de stoehorhs ofceiy (CYO),Sfoeho, ?6:

chuiot`de trcehs, ?3’?0

Cefl`sm, subkcits toufmt è, 2:, =8Cr`trco

Osaoro Xcoimcr Chuiot`de @est`tutc(OXC@), 2=’20, =8, ==

imollcefcs, trcehs, ?:=’?:0, ?68, ?6:,?6=, ?=6

idaade tro`ts, ?8Cr`trco @est`tutc dj Xcimedldfy, 6=, ?68Cr`trcoe Yimddl Lcovèf Icrt`jìotc,

0>e.?Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de, =6AdCX, ??2

simddls ade`tdrèf, ??tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?8>’?82tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de,

88’8=, 86 j.9.2tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?3?, ?39, ?3=’?30,

?:?’?:2tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?98tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ??, ?>=’?>0,

??2’??9, ??9b.6.?, ??3’??:, ??=,?2>’?2?

tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?=, ?=t.?.8,

23’20tcoimcr supply rcstroèts, 2

O

Ojrìo, Yub-Yomoroe. Ycc portìulor tdpìs Oefdlo, ?> Osaoro Xcoimcr Chuiot`de @est`tutc

(OXC@), 2=’20 Osaoro Xcoimcr Chuiot`de @est`tutc

(OXC@), Cr`trco, =8, ==

B

Bdtswoeo, 26

bdys, ottcehoeic rotcs, ?=

I

Ioabr`hfc Dvcrscos YimddlIcrt`jìotc, 30

IHYY (Idaaue`ty Hoy Ycidehory Yimddls), 2:

Imèo, ?93ilustcr ade`tdrs, 06, ?>?, ??9, ?2=Idaaue`ty Hoy Ycidehory Yimddls

(IHYY), 2:

HHor Cs Yolooa, ==Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda ^cdplc td ^cdplc

(HO^^), ?>Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda ^cdplc td ^cdplc

Idllcfc, Aolow`, :>, ?62, ?=:H`stoeic Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroa

(HXC^), Lcsdtmd, 02, 03h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs (HRXs), Lcsdtmd,

06, ?>>’?>?b.:.2

CChuiot`de jdr Oll, ?, ?9



?08 • @ehcx

Cr`trco (idetèuch)tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc, 09, 0:’0=tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 63, 6=’60,

=2’=3, =6’==tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :2, :6

Cr`trco @est`tutc dj Xcimedldfy, 6=, ?68cxpotròtc tcoimcrs, usc, 26’2=, ==

J

jcoaolc tcoimcrsldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet, 0

jcaolc tcoimcrsimollcefcs, trcehs, ?=>pcricetofc dj idaporch td aolc

tcoimcrs, ?=, ?0t.?.3

Rcachòl @e`tòt`vc jdr Jcaolc Xcoimcrs(R@JX), Foabò, 66, =8

tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de, 8?,89’88, 88t.8.2

tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 66

F

Foabòimollcefcs, trcehs, ?:6, ?:0’?6>,

?62’?68, ?6:’?66, ?60’?=>,?=9’?=8, ?=:’?=6

ilustcr ade`tdrs, 06, ?>?, ??9Idllcfc, 3=, 6:, 6=, ==, 09, ?8:, ?:?Foabò Idllcfc, 3=Foabò Idllcfc ^ràory Xcoimcrs

Icrt`jìotc, 8>morhsm`p bdeuscs, 9, 3:M`fmcr Xcoimcrs Icrt`jìotc (MXI)

idursc, 0:, ?>9aotmcaotìs, si`ceics bddstcr

idurscs, ?>aotmcaotìs, si`ceics tcoimèf

smdrtofcs, 26

^ràory Xcoimèf Icrt`jìotc, 08ûblì Cxpceh`turc Rcv`cw (^CR), ?:>rop`h tcoimcr rcqu`rcacet prdkcit`de

adhcl, 9:b.2.2Rcachòl @e`tòt`vc jdr Jcaolc Xcoimcrs

(R@JX), 66, =8simddls

ilustcr ade`tdrs systca, 3’:

ade`tdrèf, ??tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?26’?9>,

?9>t.=.2, ?9:

tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, 6, ?8?’?82,?88’?8=

tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de, 8?’82,88’8:, 80, 3>b.9.?, 39t.9.0, 33’36,36t.9.??, 3=’30

tcoimcr h`si`plèc, ?9:tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?3?, ?39’?36,

?30’?:2tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?98tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ??, ?>0, ??9, ??:,

??=, ?2>’?2?tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8’?3, ?=,

?=t.?.8, 23’26, 20t.2.2, 90’8>tcoimcr supply rcstroèts, 2tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc, 02’03, 06,

?>?, ?>9tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 68’==

tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :8’:3, :6 Zdluetory Ycrvìcs Dvcrscos (ZYD), ==

Fmoeo, ?2=fmdst tcoimcrs, ?9?, ?96f`rls, ottcehoeic rotcs, ?=Fldbol Ioapo`fe jdr Chuiot`de, ??6

M

mcoh tcoimcrs, ??, ?>6’??2, ?2>’?2?,?22e.?, ?2=, ?9>, ?63’?6:, ?06

M`fmcr Xcoimcrs Icrt`jìotc (MXI) idursc,

Foabò, 0:, ?>9M@Z/O@HY, ??=, ?2?imollcefcs, trcehs, ?6?, ?=>’?=9,

?=?t.??.9, ?=2, ?=2t.??.8

èjcit`de rotcs, cjjcit, ?=, ?0t.?.: dvcrv`cw, 8tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de,

83, 8:t.9.8

@

è-scrvìc chuiot`de oeh troèèf (@EYCX)idaa`ttccs, [oabò, 0=

G

Gceyo, ?89Gdroeì tcoimcrs, :8Gyoabdfd Se`vcrs`ty, Sfoeho, ==

L

loefuofc dj èstruit`de, 83,8:t.9.9, =8

Lotè Oacrìo, ?89, ?8=Lcsdtmd

Ioabr`hfc Dvcrscos YimddlIcrt`jìotc, 30



@ehcx • ?03

imollcefcs, trcehs, ?:6, ?:0’?6>,?66’?60, ?=9’?=8, ?=:

IDYI (simddl lcovèf cxoaèot`de), 2=H`stoeic Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroa

(HXC^), 02, 03h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs (HRXs), 06h`strìt rcsduric tcoimcrs (HRXs),

Lcsdtmd, 06, ?>>’?>?b.:.2Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuiot`de, 2=,

6:’66, 02, ?6>ldiol rciru`tacet systca, 9, 0Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de oeh Xroèèf, 3:Eot`deol Se`vcrs`ty dj Lcsdtmd, 2=,

=9, ?30tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?2=

tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?8?’?82tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de, 86,

3>’3?, 3?t.9.6, 38’3:, 3=’:>tcoimcr h`si`plèc, ?9:tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?39, ?33,

?3=’?:>, ?:2tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?92, ?98’?93tcoimcr poyacet systca, :tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ?>=’???, ??=, ?2>tcoimcr supply, idestroèts, 2tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8, ?=,

?=t.?.8, ?0t.?.3, 28’23, 23t.2.?,26’2=, 98, 90tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc, 02’03, 06,

?>>’?>?, ?>9tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 68’=>, =9tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :2, :8’::,

::t.8.9, := Xcoimèf Ycrvìc Hcportacet, ???

Lcsdtmd Idllcfc dj Chuiot`de, 2=, ?6>L`bcrò

imollcefcs, trcehs, ?:0’?6>, ?66fmdst tcoimcrs, ?9?

Ytcllo Aor`s Idllcfc, 60tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?23, ?9>tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?8>’?82,

?88, ?86tcoimcr h`si`plèc, ?9:tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?39, ?3:, ?3=’?30tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?92, ?93tcoimcr poyacet systca, :tcoimcr solory, 6tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ?>0, ??2’??9,

??:’??=

tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8’?3,26, 93

tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc, 09’08, 0:tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 63’6:,

6=’60tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :8’:6Se`vcrs ty dj L`bcrò, 93

A

Aolowìmollcefcs, trcehs, ?6>, ?62, ?66’?6=,

?=>’?=2, ?=8, ?=:Hcvcldpacet O`h jrda ^cdplc td ^cdplc

Idllcfc ot Im`loefdao, :>,?62, ?=:

Chuiot`de Actmdhs Ohv`sdry Ycrvìc(CAOY), 06

M@Z/O@HY, cjjcit de tcoimcrs,tcoimèf, 8

Aolow` Frdwtm oeh Hcvcldpacet Ytrotcfy, ?:2

Abcefwc ^ràory Yimddl, 30 j.9.8

A@@XC^ (Aolow` @etcfrotch @e-Ycrvìc Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroaac),63, =>

pràory chuiot`de ohv`scrs (^CO), 06,?>?, ??8

simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs, :

tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?23tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?82, ?88tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de, 89,

89t.9.?, 88, 8:, 8=’80, 80t.9.3’9.:,

30’:>tcoimcr hcvcldpacet icetcr

(XHI), ??8tcoimcr h`si`plèc, ?9:tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?3:’?36,

?30’?:2tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?92, ?98tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ?>0’??>, ??8,

??6’?22tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8’?3, 28,

2:, 98tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc,

0:’06, ?>?tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 63, 66’60,

=9, =3’=6tcoimcr troèèf idllcfc, ?>tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :2’:3, :3b.8.?,

::’:=aolc tcoimcrs

pcricetofc dj idaporch td jcaolc tcoimcrs, ?=, ?0t.?.3



?0: • @ehcx

aotmcaotìs, si`ceics tcoimèf bddstcr idurscs, ?>imollcefcs, trcehs, ?:0’?6>si`ceic ioaps jdr scidehory

stuhcets, 8>smdrtofc dj tcoimcrs, 2, 26’2=, 20. 9>tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, oeh, 60

Abcefwc ^ràory Yimddl, 30 j.9.8acetdrs, =:’=6A@@XC^ (Aolow` @etcfrotch @e-Ycrvìc

Xcoimcr Chuiot`de ^rdfroaac),63, =>

Adzoab`quc, ?>

E

Eot`deol Se`vcrs`ty dj Lcsdtmd, 2=,=9, ?30

Egruaom Xcoimcr Xroèèf Idllcfc, [oez`bor, 63, =2, ==, ?:=

^

porcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`des (^XOs), :,??=’?2>

pràory chuiot`de ohv`scrs (^CO), Aolow`,06, ?>?, ??8

pràory simddls

chuiot`de trcehs, ?3’?0cerdllacet èircosc, ?9pràory tcoimcrs. Ycc olsd portìulor tdpìs

upworh a`frot`de td scidehory simddltcoimèf, 2:

R

Rcachòl @e`tòt`vc jdr Jcaolc Xcoimcrs(R@JX), Foabò, =8

rurol simddls èicet`vcs torfctèf, ?>

Y

simddl lcovcrsfdèf td ue`vcrs`ty èstcoh dj td tcoimcr

troèèf, 2=’9>, ?:0simddl lcovcrs fdèf td ue`vcrs`ty èstcoh

dj td tcoimcr troèèf, 90’8>simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs (YAIs),

??=’?2>simddls

chuiot`de trcehs, ?3’?0cerdllacet frdwtm, ?6t.?.?’?6t.?.2, 29,

?:?, ?:?t.?>.?>

cerdllacet èircosc, ?>, ?9cerdllacet rotcs, ?6t.?.2

mcoh tcoimcrs, ?>=’??2Abcefwc ^ràory Yimddl, 30 j.9.8

pup`l-tcoimcr rot`d, ?3, ?6t.?.9, 23pup`l-tcoimcr rot`de, 82 j.9.?, 89, 89t.9.?

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, prdpdrt`de,?=t.?.8

ycors dj simddlèf, ?: j.?.?si`ceics. Ycc aotmcaotìs, si`ceics

tcoimèf scidehory simddls

chuiot`de trcehs, ?3’?0cerdllacet frdwtm, ?6t.?.2, 29cerdllacet èircosc, ?9simddl lcovcrs fdèf td ue`vcrs`ty

èstcoh dj td tcoimcr troèèf, 2=’20

scidehory tcoimcrs. Ycc olsd portìulor tdpìspràory tcoimcrs, upworh a`frot`de td

scidehory simddl tcoimèf, 2:smdrtofcs, 23’2:uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, 23’2:

Y`crro Lcdec, 26Ydutm Ojrìo, 26, 83Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor (YS[O), 92,

63, =2, ==, ?:=Ytcllo Aor`s Idllcfc, L`bcrò, 60Yub-Yomoroe Ojrìo. Ycc portìulor tdpìs

X

Xoezoeò, 83tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?29’?9?, ?96

imollcefcs, trcehs, ?6:’?66fmdst tcoimcrs, ?9?, ?96mcoh tcoimcrs, ?>=ade`tdrèf, ?>’??ade`tdrèf, cjjcit, ?>dvcrv`cw, :stot`stìs, ?28b.=.?, ?28 j.=.?, ?2:b.=.2,

?26 j.=.2, ?2=t.=.?, ?9>t.=.2

tcoimcr iorccr struiturcimollcefcs, ?90, ?86’?8=imollcefcs, trcehs, ?6=’?60dvcrv`cw, :’6po`h stuhy lcovc, ?8:’?86pcraoecet publì-scrvìc tcoimcrs, ?8>,

?8>t.0.?, ?8?prdadt`de dppdrtue`t`cs, ?89’?8:,

?88t.0.3, ?83t.0.:’0.6, ?8:t.0.=solor`cs, ?8?t.0.9, ?82’?89, ?82 j.0.?,

?89t.0.8, ?83t.0.:’0.6

uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, ?8>’?8?,?8?t.0.2’0.9, ?86’?8=



@ehcx • ?06

tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`deimollcefcs, 8?’82imollcefcs, trcehs, ?6>’?62ètcrideecitch systca, =dvcrv`cw, 2’9strotcf`cs, 32’:>systcas, 83’32uecvce h`str`but`de, 82’83

tcoimcr hcvcldpacet icetcr (XHI),Aolow`, ??8

tcoimcr h`si`plèory systcas, :, ?29,?93’?96

tcoimcr jèoeièf imollcefcs, ?3?’?38, ?:9’?:8imollcefcs, trcehs, ?60’?=>

idsts pcr stuhcet, ?:2t.?>.??’?>.?2,?:9 j.?>.9

ètcrideecitch systca, =dvcrv`cw, 6pràory tcoimcrs, ?33’?:?rcsduric rcstroèts, cjjcit, ?9’?8solor`cs, ?32b.?>.?, ?33t.?>.9’?>.8,

?3: j.?>.2, ?30t.?>.6’?>.=,

?:>t.?>.0, ?:2t.?>.?2scidehory tcoimcrs, ?:?’?:9

tcoimcr èicet`vcs, rcadtc orcos, ?>

tcoimcr ètcrvcet`de jdr aotmcaotìs, si`ceic, ?>tcoimcr loefuofc prdjì`ceiy, 8’3tcoimcr poy, ?96

hcl`vcry systcas, ?29, ?9?’?93dvcrv`cw, :solor`cs, ?8?t.0.9, ?82’?89, ?82 j.0.?,

?89t.0.8, ?83t.0.:’0.6, ?32b.?>.?,

?33t.?>.9’?>.8, ?3: j.?>.2,?30t.?>.6’?>.=, ?:>t.?>.0,?:2t.?>.?2

tcoimcr pdlì`cs, ?, ?=2’?=6

tcoimcr prdv`s`de. Ycc olsd portìulor tdpìstcoimcr quol`ty, =tcoimcr rciru`tacet

ldiol rciru`tacet systca, 9ldiot`de-spci`jì, 9, 36’3=

tcoimcr rciru`tacet, ldiot`de-spci`jì, 0tcoimcrs. Ycc olsd portìulor tdpìs

hcpldyacet èjcit`de rotcs, cjjcit, ?=,?0t.?.:

jèoeiòl eicet`vcs, 38’36M@Z/O@HY, cjjcit de, 8

mdusèf, prdv`s`de, 39’38, 39t.9.0,38j.9.9, 33t.9.?>

`ssucs oeh pdlì`cs, ?=2’?=3Gdroeì tcoimcrs, :8loefuofc dj èstruit`de, 83, 8:t.9.9prda`sèf proitìcs, ?=3’?=6rurol simddls èicet`vcs torfctèf, ?>

tcoimcrs, uequol`j`ch, 0, ?8>’?8?,?8?t.0.2’0.9, ?86’?8=

ldiol rciru`tacet systca, 3=’:>prdpdrt`de, ?=t.?.8

tcoimcr smdrtofcsimollcefcs, trcehs, ?:0cxpotròtc tcoimcrs, usc, 26’2=fcecrolly, 28aotmcaotìs, si`ceics tcoimèf

smdrtofcs, 26’2=, 20. 9>, ?:0’?6>

ploeeèf jdr, 9>’9=rcspdescs td, 9=’8>simddl lcovcrs fdèf td ue`vcrs`ty

èstcoh dj td tcoimcr troèèf,2=’20, 90’8>, ?:0

subkcit-spci`jì smdrtofcs, 26’2=upworh a`frot`de td scidehory simddl

tcoimèf, 2:tcoimcr supcrv`s`de

obscetcc`sa, ?>’??imollcefcs, ?>6, ?2>’?22

idaaue`t`cs, porcet tcoimcr ossdiòt`des(^XOs), simddl aoeofcacet idaa`ttccs (YAIs), ??=’?2>,?66’?6=

hcicetrol`zch ade`tdrèf, ??mcoh tcoimcrs, ?>6’??2, ?2>’?2?,

?22e.?, ?63’?6:, ?06èspcit`de, supcrv`s`de systcas,

??2’??:, ??2t.6.8, ??9b.6.?,??8t.6.3, ??3t.6.:, ?6:

dvcrv`cw, 3’:tcoimcr ue`des, ??:’??=, ??6t.6.6,

??0t.6.=, ?2?tcoimcr supply. Ycc olsd tcoimcr smdrtofcs

ottr`t`de, 2, 8, =, 29’28, 26, 9?, 9?b.2.?,

99, 99t.2.9, 98, 98t.2.8, 8>imollcefcs, trcehs, ?:6’?:0, ?:=t.??.?

morhsm`p bdeuscs, 9, 3:ètcrideecitch systca, =ldiol rciru`tacet systca, 9, 3=’:>ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet, 9aoeofcacet dj, 2ecch, cstàot`de, 9?’92b.2.?, 9:b.2.2,

96b.2.9dvcrv`cw, ?’2



?0= • @ehcx

tcoimcr supply (idetèuch)ploeeèf jdr, =’0, 9>’9=prda`sèf proitìcs, ?=3’?=6rop`h tcoimcr rcqu`rcacet prdkcit`de

adhcl, 9:b.2.2rcstroèts, 2 wostofc, 98’93, 8> wmcrc tcoimcrs spciòl`zc, 96b.2.9

tcoimcr troèèf imollcefcs, trcehs, ?69’?63ctmeì aèdr`t`cs, torfctèf, ?>lèfu`stì aèdr`t`cs, torfctèf, ?>sclcit`de ètd, ?>

tcoimcr troèèf, e-scrvìcimollcefcs, trcehs, ?68’?63

iloss`jìot`des, 0?idetèuèf prdjcss`deol hcvcldpacet

(I^H), 3, 0:’?>?, 0=t.:.8, 00b.:.?,

?>>’?>?b.:.2, ?>9, ?63dvcrv`cw, 3uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, 0?’03, 02t.:.?,

?>?’?>2upfrohèf quol`jìot`des, 03, 03t.:.9,

0:, ?>2’?>9tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrv ic

boloeièf rcqu`rcacets, 60’=?

imollcefcs, ==’0>imollcefcs, trcehs, ?69’?68, ?69t.??.2iurrìulua, =?’=8àprdvèf, 69loefuofc dj èstruit`de, =8acetdrs, =:’=6dvcrv`cw, 8pchofdfìol troèèf, =?’=2pràory prc-scrvìc troèèf, 69’66,

68t.3.?, 63t.3.2, 6:t.3.9scidehory prc-scrvìc troèèf, 66’60,

6=t.3.8, 60t.3.3

subkcit idetcet, =2’=8tcoimcr troècrs, =6’==tcoimèf proitìc, =8’=6

tcoimcr troèèf, uequol`j`ch tcoimcrs, 0tcoimcr troèèf idllcfcs, =6tcoimcr troèèf ir`tcrò, ?>tcoimcr troèèf iurrìulua, 8’3,

=?’=8tcoimcr troèèf quol`ty, =tcoimcr ue`des, :, ??:’??=, ??6t.6.6,

??0t.6.=, ?2?

tcoimcr ut`l`zot`deimollcefcs, trcehs, ?62’?69

hdublc-sm`jt tcoimèf, :2, :3b.8.?,::’:6, :6t.8.8

joitdrs ojjcitèf, :?’:2àprdvcacets è, :=’:0ault`frohc tcoimèf, :2, :=’:0, :0t.8.3dvcrstojjèf, :8dvcrv`cw, 9’8spciòl`zot`de, :8’:: wdrgldohs, :?, :28.?, :2’:8, :9t.8.2,

::t.8.9, 6>e.? Xmc Foabò. Ycc Foabò

S

Sfoehoimollcefcs, trcehs, ?:6, ?:0’?6>, ?68,

?6:’?66, ?60’?=?, ?=9, ?=6Chuiot`de Ytoehorhs Ofceiy (CYO),

??3, ?6:fmdst tcoimcrs, ?9?Gyoabdfd Se`vcrs`ty, ==ldiol rciru`tacet systca, 0ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet, 9AdCY, ???’??2, ?98eot`deol tcoimcrs idllcfcs (EXI), 2=’20pràory tcoimcr idllcfcs (idrc-^XIs), 09pràory tcoimcrs idllcfcs (^XI), 20

tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, :, ?28 j.=.?,?23’?2:, ?2:b.=.2, ?26’?2=, ?9>tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?8>’?82, ?8:tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de,

82’89, 83, 38’3:, 3=tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?39’?3=, ?:>, ?:2tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?92, ?98tcoimcr poyacet systca, :tcoimcr solory, 6tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ?>=, ???’??2, ??3,

??6’?2?tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8’?3, ?=,

?=t.?.8, 28, 2=’20, 90’8>tcoimcr troèèf, e-scrvìc, 02’09,

03, 06tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 69, 66’60,

=?, =3, ==tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :9’::, :=Sfoeho Ohvoeich Icrt`jìotc dj

Chuiot`de (SOIC), 20’9>ue`vcrsol pràory chuiot`de (S^C), 28

Se`vcrs`ty dj L`bcrò, 93Se`vcrs`ty dj [oabò, 93

Se`vcrs`ty Xcoimèf Mdsp`tol, Lusogo,[oabò, ?=?



@ehcx • ?00

Z

Zdluetory Ycrvìcs Dvcrscos (ZYD), ==

V

wostofc, 98’93 Vcst Ojrìo, ?2> wdrgldohs, :?, :28.?, :2’:8, :9t.8.2,

::t.8.9, 6>e.? Vdrlh Chuiot`de @ehìotdrs Yurvcy

(S@Y2>>6), :9’:8

[

[oabòimollcefcs, trcehs, ?:6’?:=, ?6>’?6?,

?63, ?66, ?60, ?=?,

?=9’?=8, ?=:è-scrvìc chuiot`de oeh troèèf

(@EYCX) idaa`ttccs, 0=ldiol rciru`tacet systca, 0ldiot`de-spci`jì rciru`tacet, 9Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de, 3:, ?8:tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?29, ?28b.=.?, ?23,

?26’?2=tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?82, ?83’?8:tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de,

82’83, 86, 3?’32, 32t.9.=, 39t.9.0,

38, 3:, 3=tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?38’?33, ?3=, ?:>tcoimcr poy hcl`vcry, ?92, ?98tcoimcr poyacet systca, :tcoimcr solory, 6tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ?>=’???, ??:, ??=tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8, 28’23,

23t.2.?, 2:’26, 20, 99, 93

tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc, 0:’0=,00b.:.?, ?>9

tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 66’=>, =9,=3’=6

tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :9, ::’:=Se`vcrs ty dj [oabò, 93Se`vcrs`ty Xcoimèf Mdsp`tol ot

Lusogo, ?=?[oabò Dpce Se`vcrs`ty ([ODS),

6=, ?83[oabò Dpce Se`vcrs`ty ([ODS), 6=, ?83[oez`bor

imollcefcs, trcehs, ?:6’?6>, ?62, ?6:,?60’?=>, ?=9

fmdst tcoimcrs, ?9?

Aè`stry dj Chuiot`de (AdC), 92Egruaom Xcoimcr Xroèèf Idllcfc, 63,

=2, ==, ?:=Ytotc Se`vcrs`ty dj [oez`bor (YS[O), 92,

63, =2, ==, ?:=tcoimcr obscetcc`sa, ?26, ?26 j.=.2tcoimcr iorccr struiturc, ?8>’?82tcoimcr hcpldyacet/h`str`but`de, 89tcoimcr jèoeièf, ?33, ?3=tcoimcr solory, 6tcoimcr supcrv`s`de, ??=

tcoimcr supply, smdrtofcs, ?8’?3, ?=,?0t.?.3, 28’23, [email protected].?, 2:, 2=,9?b.2.?, 98, 8>

tcoimcr troèèf, è-scrvìc, 09’08,06’0=

tcoimcr troèèf, prc-scrvìc, 69, 63,6=’60, =?’=2, =6’==

tcoimcr ut`l`zot`de, :?, :9’:8, ::







CID-OSH@X

Cev`rdeacetol Bcecj`ts Ytotcacet

Xmc Vdrlh Boeg `s idaa`ttch td prcscrvèf cehoefcrch jdrcsts oeh eoturol rcsdurics.Xcoimcrs è Oefldpmdec Ojrìo ; @ssucs è Xcoimcr Yupply, Xroèèf, oeh Aoeofcacet s prètch de:># Rdloeh Dpoquc, o rciyilch popcr aohc w`tm 9> pcricet pdst-idesuacr wostc. XmcDjjìc dj tmc ûbl`smcr jdlldws tmc rcida-acehch stoehorhs jdr popcr usofc sct by tmc

Frcce ^rcss @e`tòt`vc, o edeprdj`t prdfroa sup-pdrtèf publ`smcrs è usèf j`bcr tmot `s edt sdurich jrda cehoefcrch jdrcsts. Jdr adrcèjdraot`de, v`s`t www.frcceprcssè`tòt`vc.drf.

Yovch;• : trccs• 2 a`ll`de BXSs dj

tdtol cecrfy • 380 pduehs dj ect

frccemdusc foscs• 2,303 folldes dj

wostc wotcr • ?3= pduehs dj sdl`h wostc





X

coimcrs orc ot tmc mcort d fddh chuiot`de, oeh fddh tcoimcr pdlì`cs orc

csscetòl td cesurc ohcquotc supply, hcpldyacet oeh aoeofcacet d tcoimcrs.

Cerdllacet è pràory chuiot`de mos frdwe rop`hly è Yub-Yomoroe Orìo. Pcttcoimcr pdlìy è tmc rcf`de mos djce cvdlvch w`tmdut ilcor ploeeèf7 è tmc obsceic d

oe dvcroll strotcfy, iduetr`cs movc cxpcr`ceich scr`dus prdblcas w`tm tcoimcr supply oeh

hcpldyacet, os wcll os w`tm tmc quol`ty d tcoimèf.

Bosch de iosc stuh`cs d chuiot`de systcas oeh proitìcs è c`fmt Cefl`sm-spcogèf

O ` t ` X m ` O l m Oj ` @ ` X m Y l X ` `

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