TEACHING HUMAN RIGHTS THROUGH SERVICE …discover.wooster.edu/mkrain/files/2012/12/HRQ-2004.pdfTEACHING HUMAN RIGHTS THROUGH SERVICE LEARNING ... in the development and implementation

TEACHING HUMAN RIGHTS THROUGH SERVICE LEARNING *

Matthew Krain Department of Political Science

The College of Wooster Wooster, OH 44691, USA

330-263-2469 [email protected]

Anne M. Nurse Department of Sociology and Anthropology

The College of Wooster Wooster, OH 44691, USA

330-262-4288 [email protected]

* The authors wish to thank Susie Sargent, Neha Sahgal, Amanda Mizeur, Linda Morgan-Clement, Emily Todd, Leon Horton, Pamela Nurse, the Wayne-Holmes Juvenile Attention Center, John Thompson, the Wooster Volunteer Network, and the College of Wooster for their assistance in the development and implementation of this project. We would also like to thank Jeff Lantis, Kent Kille, and the editor of Human Rights Quarterly for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article.

Teaching Human Rights through Service Learning

1

Classes that deal with human rights issues are among the most popular in the social

science undergraduate curriculum. Students have intense interest in the courses, and

strong opinions on the subject matter. Because these opinions are often based on media

reports and stereotypes, and may be founded on the false assumption that questions about

human rights in democratic societies are moot, these courses provide a unique

opportunity for teaching students to think more broadly about human rights. In addition,

they can present the instructor with a number of pedagogical challenges.

In this article we describe an innovative service learning project designed for use

in undergraduate courses examining human rights issues. Our project was designed as

part of a semester-long seminar for first year undergraduate students on the topic of

human rights.1 The goals of the project included helping students critically evaluate the

theory and practice of human rights, highlighting the relevance of human rights concerns

to their lives and their communities, and demonstrating that students could evaluate and

affect these universal issues at the local level.

The project involved bringing our students to a juvenile prison where each was

paired with a resident who was roughly the same age as the student. This allowed our

students to interact with a group of individuals like themselves, but whose rights were

severely restricted. The partners worked on creating and decorating plaster masks of their

faces. Our hope was that while working together on the artwork, students and residents

would converse, and would come to see each other as more real, more "human," and not

all that different from one another. We chose mask making as the interactive cooperative

art project because of the powerful symbolism it suggested. We hoped students would see


2

the creation of these masks from the faces of their partners as a way to “give a face to the

faceless," and to emphasize their humanity.

Initially, many of the student participants found it difficult to acknowledge

similarities between themselves and those whom society saw as criminally deviant. By its

completion, the exercise had allowed for extensive personal contact between student and

resident, humanizing the incarcerated juveniles, and providing inspiration and learning

for both groups. It also vividly illustrated the role of dehumanization in affecting human

rights of those on the fringes of society. The project forced students to reconsider

questions about rights not accorded certain individuals in our society, and did so within

the broader context of ongoing learning and discussions about human rights issues writ

large. The project also allowed our students to examine human rights issues in their local

community.2 It challenged their assumptions about the relevance of human rights

concerns to their own communities and about the importance of evaluating human rights

in democratic societies.

This article discusses the project in detail, including its planning, implementation,

and pedagogical value. It begins with an overview of human rights education, followed

by thoughts on the benefits and challenges of a service learning approach. The article

concludes with an assessment of the effectiveness of our activity.

Teaching Human Rights


3

The full realization of human rights depends on proper education.3 The Universal

Declaration of Human Rights highlights the importance of “teaching and education to

promote respect for these rights and freedoms.”4 Human rights educators hope to develop

self-aware and knowledgeable citizens willing to acknowledge and address injustice,

even in the face of state authority. Their task is complicated by a school system whose

conventional role is to socialize students into the existing social structure.5 Moreover,

examining human rights from the perspective of only one discipline oversimplifies what

is a complex set of issues. A good human rights education demands an interdisciplinary

approach to provide information about fundamental rights, develop critical thinking skills

and a willingness to question the status quo, and challenge students to apply global

theoretical principles to local challenges.6

There are a variety of methods for teaching human rights. Many of the more

innovative ones involve the use of case analyses, interactive technology and/or

simulations7 and discussion of actual cases. The assumptions underlying these techniques

are that they will more likely pique student interest, provide them with an understanding

of complex world situations, and equip them with the skills to deal with concrete

problems. Yet often such approaches deal with cases or issues that have no immediate

relevance to the everyday lives of students.

In-depth examination of cases more proximate to the student emphasizes the

relevance of these cases to their own lives. As Pritchard8 notes, students need to examine

specific local problems in order to make international human rights standards important

to them. Service learning, a pedagogical strategy growing in popularity in recent years,

provides all of the advantages of the “at-arms-length” teaching techniques of case


4

analysis, interactive technology or simulation approaches, but with the added advantage

of even greater immediacy and relevancy for students.

A Service Learning Approach

Service learning is experiential learning designed to provide a needed service to the

community while allowing students to learn and apply course concepts in the real world.9

Service learning differs from community service in that the former involves the

interdependent linkages between coursework and volunteer activity.10 Thus coursework is

informed by student action, and action is informed by, and occurs within the context of,

the academic study of relevant topics. In order for it to be a successful pedagogical tool,

the service activity must be directly linked to the course and its objectives, and must be

carefully interwoven into the learning process set out in the course.11

Service learning allows students to move beyond textbook examples and

participate in actual cases. Students taking part in service learning projects can put names

and faces to the otherwise anonymous people affected by human rights issues.

Immersing themselves in a real world environment helps them to see the complexity of

situations faced by the people with whom they interact. Acting within their own

community while learning about broader and less proximate issues helps students see the

relevance of human rights issues globally and locally, in theory and in practice. Despite

these obvious advantages, however, there have been few if any service learning exercises

designed to teach human rights at the college level.12

Benefits of a Service Learning Approach


5

Educators have long recognized the benefits of service learning as pedagogical tool.

Beginning with John Dewey,13 a range of academics have pointed out that the most

effective way to teach concepts is through active learning strategies involving real-world

application.14 Areas in which service learning has been found to be particularly useful are

in enhancing conceptual and theoretical understanding,15 factual learning,16 cognitive skill

development,17 values education,18 and the tolerance and appreciation of diversity.19

Service learning helps students gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter while

developing the skills necessary to transfer that knowledge to new situations.20

Furthermore, the service learning experience helps students actively apply their

new knowledge. It helps them develop social awareness and a sense of social

responsibility,21 a sense of personal efficacy,22 citizenship skills,23 and community

engagement skills.24 Together these help students develop an enduring civic identity.25

Indeed, those who engage in service learning programs have been found to be more likely

to volunteer soon after the experience,26 as well as later in life.27

There appears to be a growing preference among college-age students for

community service over other types of civic or political activity.28 A recent survey

showed that only 26 percent of college students in their first year reported thinking that

receiving political information was important, while 74 percent reported having done

volunteer work in high school.29 Moreover, many reports have shown that students view

service learning as a positive educational experience.30 Service learning takes advantage

of this shift in student preferences for learning and for action by linking text and

classroom to service, thereby demonstrating the interdependence and mutual applicability

of scholastic and experiential learning.31


6

Challenges of a Service Learning Approach

In the last twenty years a number of important criticisms of service learning have been

raised. We agree that service learning is a risky venture, but we designed our project with

these potential criticisms in mind. In this section we outline some of the major

difficulties associated with service learning and briefly note how our project attempted to

deal with them. We follow this with a detailed description of the project itself, and

conclude with advice for those interested in replicating it.

Problem 1: Service Learning Might Encourage Reliance on Anecdotal Evidence

Some have argued that service learning encourages students to rely on anecdotal evidence

and individual experiences instead of systematic analysis to understand social problems.

They maintain that students can come away from service learning with personal

experiences that make them unwilling to accept any research findings contradicting their

experiences.32. In order to insure that experiential learning complemented, rather than

replaced, systematic analysis, we made every effort to integrate the course curriculum

with the students’ community experiences. This enabled us to facilitate an instructor-

moderated experiential-intellectual dialogue in the classroom. We found that during the

discussions, students drew from course concepts and other students’ experiences, as well

as from their own personal experiences, to reach generalizations about prisoners and the

prison system. At the same time, our discussion forced them to recognize the complexity

and diversity of the real world.


7

We also required students to keep a journal during the project. This assignment

was motivated by research showing that journal keeping, in conjunction with in-class

discussions and other means of structured reflection are integral to the pedagogical

success of service learning projects.33 Without reflection, service can lead students to see

their activity as isolated event, rather than an opportunity for systematic observation and

analysis.34 In addition to facilitating meaningful student reflection, journals function as a

written record of the project, and of student intellectual growth during the project.35

Problem 2: Service Learning Might Reinforce Negative Stereotypes

A related criticism of service learning is that in some instances, it may reinforce negative

stereotypes about oppressed groups. It is possible that students can encounter people who

do, in fact, mirror society’s image of them.36 Responding to this concern, we stressed

issues of sensitivity to diversity within our project orientation sessions. As Hondagneu-

Sotelo and Raskoff37 point out, however, this step alone does not always solve the

tendency to accept negative stereotypes. Therefore, we adopted Hondagneu-Sotelo and

Raskoff’s38 suggestions to counter these potential problems. We integrated scholarship on

race, class, and gender throughout all portions of the course, and spent significant time

during the orientation and in lessons prior to the project explicitly examining the specific

groups, institutions, and practices that the students would encounter during their service.

Problem 3: Service Learning Might Promote Voluntarism as THE Solution

Others argue that service learning promotes the idea of voluntarism as a solution to large-

scale social problems.39. For example, both Strand40 and Walker41 suggest that instead of


8

addressing the root causes of social problems, service learning may encourage students

simply to work within the existing system. Therefore, during our postservice debriefing

sessions, we discussed what could be done to improve human rights issues within the

current political and social environment. We also spent significant time discussing the

changes that could not be achieved within the current system, and what would need to

change in order for such improvements to occur.

Problem 4: Service Learning Often Imposes Itself upon a Captive Target Population

A final criticism of service learning is that it can involve outsiders imposing projects on

an unwilling population.42 This was of particular concern to us when working with

residents of a correctional facility. It would have been easy for the young people to

believe that their participation in our activities was linked to their chances of parole. We

were keenly aware of this possibility and made it clear that residents were free to opt out

of the project without negative sanctions. Additionally, residents who expressed any

discomfort with the application of plaster to their face were provided with the option of

using a Styrofoam head. When we presented these options to the residents, however, all

chose to participate fully in the project. When we talked to them later, many commented

that they had few diversions in their daily lives and the mask making provided an

exciting change from the routine.

The Project

From the first day of our class, we let students know that service learning was a vital

component of their coursework. While all students were required to participate in service


9

learning, they did have a number of options. We encouraged students to participate in the

mask-making project but those who were uncomfortable were given the option of

volunteering in another capacity at the prison or organizing a community book drive for

the residents.43

The mask-making project was organized in four two-hour sessions over a period

of two weeks. We believe eight hours is the minimum amount of time required, and

because masks need time to set, the project must be done over a number of days. We

acknowledge recent findings that suggest sustained service is most beneficial in terms of

pedagogical outcomes.44 At the same time, however, there is research indicating that

short-term service learning experiences provide many of the same benefits as longer term

projects.45 In the absence of resources and time, we selected the more concentrated time

period. The service learning component of the course occurred near the middle of the

semester. This enabled us to develop course themes, review relevant literature, and

analyze specific examples while still having time for a proper orientation. After the

completion of the project, students were given an opportunity to reflect upon their service

learning experience. We found that they were able to experience the passion necessary

for activism while gaining the distance and perspective necessary for systematic analysis.

We required students to keep a journal during the project to further encourage

reflection and systematic analysis. In early journal entries students were asked to reflect

upon their perceptions of the project and its goals, the nature of service, their

preconceptions about prison populations and their thoughts on human rights issues as

they relate to the incarcerated. Once the project was underway, students were asked to

discuss their experiences at the correctional facility and their interactions with the


10

incarcerated youth with whom they were paired. They were also asked to begin making

more general observations about conditions in the facility and the freedoms allowed or

denied to the incarcerated. Once our structured visits concluded we asked students to

reflect upon the entire experience and to begin to draw larger generalizations, as well as

to examine how their own thinking about correctional facilities, prisoners, and human

rights were affected.

Session #1: Orientation

At the beginning of our orientation session, we reviewed some of the theoretical issues

we had covered to that point in the semester. We discussed the various definitions of

human rights,46 the debate over universal versus culturally relative human rights,47 and

the distinctions between human and civil rights.48 We also addressed the academic and

policy debates about the legitimacy of concerns over human rights in “free” societies.

Specifically we asked whether the United States has a human rights problem with regard

to how it treats its prison population.49 Finally, we focused on the issue of juveniles

within the United States’ criminal justice system.50

Next, we provided a more practical training session for our students. We

discussed the rules of the prison, guidelines for appropriate behavior, and issues of

sensitivity and confidentiality. Because the population of the correctional center is drawn

from the surrounding community, we stressed the importance of keeping the identities (or

any identifying information) of the residents absolutely confidential. We also talked

about our own students’ fears and perceptions.


11

Following this, we taught the students how to make masks. Because neither

author was familiar with the process, we invited an artist from the community to help us.

Mask making is not difficult, but it is important to do it correctly so that the plaster does

not stick to the skin and the masks set properly. The artist used one of our students as a

model and taught the class how to create a plaster mask. Our students then selected

partners and practiced on one another.

Session #2: Initial Contact and Mask Making

On the second day of the project we traveled to the juvenile detention facility. We had

informed the staff as to the number of students we were bringing so that we could pair

our students one-to-one with the residents. To set the residents at ease about the mask-

making process, our guest artist demonstrated on one of the students. In addition, our

students brought the masks they had constructed in the previous session as examples of a

finished product. We then paired students and residents and had them engage in a series

of icebreakers. After this activity our students made a mask for their partner. Mask

making was the perfect activity for our purposes because it forced the two people to have

contact with each other, but required little conversation while the mask was setting. This

meant that there was a sense of closeness but it did not force conversation. Nevertheless,

we observed that, after a brief period of somewhat tense interaction, much

communication -- verbal and nonverbal -- occurred between students and residents. After

completion, the masks were left to set at the facility.

Session #3: Mask Decoration amidst Conversations


12

We returned two days later with a variety of art supplies (paints, glue, glitter, magazines,

buttons). The students went immediately and sat with their partners. Both students and

residents decorated their masks. This provided a perfect opportunity for conversation

about the masks and other topics as well. Some of the residents asked our students about

life at college, and there were discussions about life at the juvenile prison. This day was

the most important in fulfilling the purpose of our project, allowing the students and

residents to come to know each other better. To further this end, we had each partner

help the other write a card explaining the design they chose for their mask. By the end of

the session the room was noisy with laughter and conversation. We photographed the

masks to enable a public (on-line) exhibit of the artwork,51 but left the residents’ masks at

the center so they could take them with them when released.

Session #4: Initial In-Class Structured Reflection

The final part of this project was an extended discussion with our students relating their

experience to course concepts. When we met, we encouraged each of them to talk about

what they learned. We then asked students to draw some generalizations from the

experiences of the class.

Structured Reflection in the Aftermath of the Project

As previously described, our class discussions were augmented with journal-writing

activities designed to help students link their experiences to broader human rights issues.

These and other scholarly efforts to put the experience into a broader academic context

continued throughout the rest of the semester. For example, reference was made to life in


13

correctional facilities in subsequent lessons on a range of issues concerning human rights

in democratic societies. In particular, we found that reflection and analysis of our service

learning experiences significantly enhanced assignments and in-class discussions about

child labor, police brutality, prison conditions, and the death penalty. Moreover,

reviewing the service learning project in light of debates on these issues helped students

to locate and evaluate their experiences within larger policy and academic contexts.

Assessment

Very few studies effectively assess the impact of service learning on student learning and

other outcomes.52 There are a number of reasons for this lack of research. First, it is

difficult to isolate the effects of service learning from those resulting from the classroom

component of a course. Second, it is difficult to develop measures that are

comprehensive enough to capture diverse outcomes resulting from a service learning

experience. Finally, while some researchers have assessed student progress at the

conclusion of the term in which the service learning occurred, few have overcome the

logistical problems associated with tracking long-term learning gains.

With these challenges in mind, we used several tools to help us assess the effects

of the mask-making project. At the conclusion of our course, we asked all students to fill

out a special evaluation of the service learning experience. This evaluation was adapted

from a survey instrument developed by researchers from the Graduate School of

Education at the University of California, Berkeley, and it covered a range of possible

outcomes.53 In addition, we asked the students for permission to use their journals as part

of our evaluation. To assess long-term effects of the project, we administered a follow-up


14

survey a year later. This survey asked about the students’ retention of course concepts,

their participation in volunteer work, and any attitudinal changes that they believed

resulted from service learning.

Researchers have found that a number of benefits may be associated with service

learning. Here we focus on the effects of our project on four key outcomes: student

learning, student service, classroom dynamics and student engagement.

Effects on Student Learning

In the survey we conducted immediately following the project, we directly asked students

whether they thought that the service learning component of the class enhanced their

understanding of the course material, including the rights of prisoners. Of the 27

responses, 26 (96 percent) agreed that it did.

One year later, we asked students the same question, this time asking them to use

a scale from zero (not effective) to five (highly effective). The average rating was 4.4,

with half of the students rating service learning’s effectiveness in teaching course

concepts as a 5. In the free-response section of the follow-up survey, students

commented that service learning "helped me associate what I learned with a visual

image," and "made the course much more relevant to me." One student noted that:

Just being there and seeing the psychological effects of a

prison really drove home all of the concepts we learned

about. One can read a study about prisons all they want to,

but until you see the effects firsthand you really have no


15

idea how much freedom and control is lost. It was very

educational.

Others commented that the experience helped them understand that not all learning

occurs in the traditional classroom, and that learning "on their own time" could be

beneficial.

The direct contact and interaction facilitated by the mask-making project served

to humanize the prison population, allowing the students to see inmates as individuals

deserving of basic human rights. In a journal entry, one student commented

I never would have thought that these kids would have as

much potential as I saw in that room. I realize that some of

them are just tough and immature kids, but some are the

products of a society that they did not choose. They were

born into harsh lives, and they were doing what they could

to get by. I went in expecting a bunch of punks and I came

out with a new respect for what they have had to deal with

all their lives.

Another student commented


16

It wasn’t until the second day that I noticed the

individuality that each one of the residents carried. They

were all different, and not just typical criminals.

Finally, a student wrote that he was nervous before going to the Center, but quickly

discovered that

My “art partner” is actually not that different than me in

that we both shared the love of sports… He painted his

[mask] like a hockey mask, which was the sport that he

participated in before he was sentenced. I painted mine in

honor of the sports that I now play. This struck me

[because] he was just like me except he had made a bad

decision in his life.

Survey responses a year after the project suggest that students retained this lesson beyond

the duration of the project and the class. Students reiterated their newfound realization

that the residents of the juvenile detention center were "just like normal kids you could

find anywhere." Others generalized beyond children to prisoners of any age: "[the

experience] showed me that a prisoner is just as human as any of us... everyone makes

mistakes." Another recalled: "I learned that although people make bad choices... they are

not necessarily bad people." Students noted that the experience helped to humanize the

incarcerated by "putting a face to the issues," and enabled students to rethink their


17

positions on human rights issues by allowing them "an insider's perspective." Many

students wrote that the experience increased their ability to sympathize more generally

with others in less fortunate circumstances: "It opened my eyes to different people and

situations. I've become more open and less judgmental."

Perhaps because of their newfound ability to see prisoners as individuals not all

that different from themselves, our students’ journals suggested that they came to see the

denial of basic levels of education as the central human rights issue in the juvenile justice

system. Many students wrote in their journals about the lack of rehabilitation programs

available to residents. At least half of the students commented on the substandard quality

of the education that was being offered to the residents. One wrote

I feel that the education offered to the residents there is not

adequate. I understand that sometimes it is not possible to

teach these kids what they would learn in a public school,

but the style of education used there is not an effective one.

It basically tells the kids to sit there and be quiet and do

busy-work [sic].

In survey responses a year later, at least five of the nineteen respondents noted that the

experience also alerted them to issues that they would otherwise not have considered,

including rights differentials between children and adults, and between the incarcerated

and the rest of society.


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Effects on Student Service

Researchers have found that one of the positive outcomes of service learning is that

students who might not otherwise have done volunteer work continue to do so after their

experience. In our initial class survey, conducted at the end of the term, 25 out of 27

students (93 percent) agreed that the service learning project “increased or strengthened

your desire to serve others in need,” and the same 25 out of 27 said that they planned to

continue volunteering. The students’ experience at the juvenile prison was compelling

enough that 15 out of 27 (55 percent) indicated that they planned to do their volunteer

work at the prison. One said:

I plan to volunteer hours on Sunday at this center. I feel an

obligation to go back. I think everyone should go back

with me and help instead of going to church.

This notion of service as a citizen’s obligation was echoed in student responses to our

survey as well. 22 out of 27 (82 percent) students said that service learning, “increased or

strengthened your belief that helping those in need is one’s social responsibility.”

Moreover, students appeared to see their current and future service as having an impact.

To see whether the students’ intentions to participate in volunteer work actually

translated into action, we included questions on our one-year follow-up survey about

participation in any type of volunteer work. Of the 19 students who responded to the

survey, 6 (32 percent) said they had done volunteer work in the six months following the

project and 7 (37 percent) said they were currently involved in some type of volunteer


19

work. Of these students, 4 had made a weekly commitment to continue working with the

residents at the detention center. While it is clear that many of our students did not follow

through on their intentions to continue volunteer work (at least in the year following the

project), the fact that 37 percent were engaged in such work is impressive given estimates

suggesting that among all students at the College, only 15 percent are participating in

volunteer work during any given semester.54

In free response answers, students who continued their service activities explained

how our service learning project affected their decision to participate. One student

remarked that the experience helped make clear "who I want to become." Two others

took away from the experience an increased desire to "change the system." Four students

noted that they felt a sense of increased efficacy. One wrote that the project "finally made

me realize the effect I can have in the lives of people." Another explained that "it just

gives me a good feeling and makes me feel like I made a small difference in someone

else's life." While the program may not have had lasting effects on all students, it had a

dramatic positive impact upon those that it did affect. Even students who had service

experience before the project benefited. One student wrote:

Personally, I've known about the importance of

volunteerism for a while now. However, I think that service

learning goes a long way to expose others who [sic] may

not have experienced volunteer work to the realm of

volunteerism. The work we did certainly exposed me to a

part of the world that I had never really thought of before.


20

Effects on Classroom Dynamics and Student Engagement

Although difficult to measure, both authors noted that the service done by students had an

impact on classroom dynamics. While providing students with an enjoyable and

entertaining experience was not our primary goal, we found that the enthusiasm

generated by the art project spilled over in very positive ways into our classroom

discussions and activities. Students felt bonded to each other as a result of their shared

experience, and became comfortable sharing their thoughts in class. Moreover, their real-

life encounter with a human rights issue made them far more engaged with learning and

applying course concepts.

Conclusions

Our experience suggests that service learning can be a valuable tool in the

teaching of human rights. Our students were better able to link broad theoretical concepts

to real-world human rights issues. In particular, humanizing prison inmates was an

important outcome of this service learning project because it also gave students the tools

to view marginalized groups as human and deserving of basic rights. The experience also

vividly illustrated to our students the relevance of human rights concerns to their own

lives and communities. It also demonstrated to them their potential efficacy in

confronting and evaluating these issues, and inspired many to attempt to do so soon after

the experience was over. While our service learning project did not have lasting effects

on all of our students, we can conclude that it did have a dramatic positive impact on

those it did affect.


21

We believe that this project could be modified in many ways and still provide

beneficial results. While the project was designed to be implemented over four class

sessions (for a total of eight class hours), it could easily be expanded to be an ongoing

semester-long project. Indeed, much of the literature on service learning suggests that the

benefits of repeated interaction and extended project duration are significant. The project

was initially developed to be used in a class on human rights, but has also been applied

with equal success in a class on criminal deviance.55 It could also be appropriated or

adapted for any class that deals with issues of human rights on the local or global levels,

the public policy or sociology of detention and criminal deviance, or even classes that

touch on the role of dehumanization in large scale communal conflict. A similar service

learning project could also aid and engage a different marginalized group, depending

upon the focus of the class or the educational goals of the instructor. Finally, it would be

possible to use an art project other than mask making, or to engage in another type of

interactive and cooperative activity altogether. Nevertheless, we found that the

symbolism of the masks as “giving a face to the faceless” did not seem to be lost on

either students or residents.


22

Endnotes

1 The course syllabus can be found at: http://www.wooster.edu/polisci/mkrain/fys.html.

2 This project can also be used to teach students about the social construction of deviance.

See Anne Nurse & Matthew Krain, Mask-making: A Service Learning Approach to

Teaching the Social Construction of Deviance (2002) (unpublished manuscript, on file

with authors).

3 Alicia Ely-Yamin, Empowering Visions: Toward a Dialectical Pedagogy of Human

Rights, 15 Human Rights Quarterly 640 640-685 (1993).

4 Charles P. Henry Educating for Human Rights, 13 Human Rights Quarterly 420 421

(1991). (notes that other cornerstones of the global human rights regime, such as the

Convention on the Rights of the Child, also emphasize the importance of human rights

education).

5 Id. at 420.

6 Paul J. Martin, Human Rights—Education for What? 9 Human Rights Quarterly 414

414-420 (1987). See also Kathleen Pritchard, Political Science and the Teaching of

Human Rights, 11 Human Rights Quarterly 459 459-475 (1989). See also Nancy

Flowers et al., The Human Rights Education Handbook: Effective Practices for


23

Learning, Action and Change, (2000), at

http://www.hrusa.org/hrmaterials/hreduseries/hrhandboojk1/toc.html.

7 See e.g., Howard Tolley, Jr. Project THRO: Teaching Human Rights On-Line, 20

Human Rights Quarterly 945 945-961 (1998).

8 Kathleen Pritchard, Political Science and the Teaching of Human Rights, 11 Human

Rights Quarterly 945 945-961 (1998).

9 Janet S. Eyler and D.E. Giles, Jr., Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning? Jossey-

Bass 3-5 (1999).

10 Benjamin Barber, Afterword, in Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and Models for

Service-Learning in Political Science 228 (Richard M. Battistoni & William E. Hudson

eds., 1997). See also Glenn Beamer, Service Learning: What’s a Political Scientist

Doing in Yonkers? 31:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 557 557-561 (1998). See also

Judy Primavera, The Unintended Consequences of Volunteerism: Positive Outcomes for

Those Who Serve in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based

Service Learning 125-140 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999).

11 Kathleen Maas Weigert, Academic Service Learning: Its Meaning and Relevance in

Academic Service Learning: A Pedagogy of Action and Reflection 5-7 (Jeffrey Howard &

Robert Rhoads eds., 1998). See also Jefffrey P.F. Howard, Academic Service Learning: A


24

Counternormative Pedagogy in Academic Service Learning: A Pedagogy of Action and

Reflection 21 (Jeffrey Howard & Robert Rhoads eds., 1998). See also Mary A. Hepburn

et al., Service Learning in College Political Science: Queries and Commentary, 33:3 PS:

Political Science and Politics 617 618 (2000).

12 Some, such as the refugee resettlement project of Amy S. Patterson, It’s a Small

World: Incorporating Service Learning into International Relations Courses, 33:4 PS:

Political Science and Politics 817 817-822 (2000), have other primary goals, and thus

only peripherally address human rights issues. Others are designed for younger students,

and as such may be difficult to incorporate into a college curriculum. See, e.g. Lynn

Davies, Citizenship Education and Human Rights Education: An International Overview,

The British Council at

http://www.britishcouncil.org/governance/3_International_overview.pdf. See also Nancy

Flowers et al., The Human Rights Education Handbook: Effective Practices for

Learning, Action and Change, University of Minnesota Human Rights Resource Center,

at http://www.hrusa.org/hrmaterials/hreduseries/hrhandboojk1/toc.html (2000). See also

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, The ABC of Human Rights

Education, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, at

http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu6/2/abc.htm (2000). Rare exceptions include Bill

Talbott, Philosophy of Human Rights: Service Learning Profile, Syllabus for Philosophy

338: Philosophy of Human Rights, at

http://faculty.washington.edu/wtalbott/phil338/338syl.htm.


25

13 John Dewey, Experience and Education, Collier Books 1938.

14 Space constraints preclude a lengthy discussion of service learning and other active

learning strategies. See Allen J. Wutzdorff and Dwight E. Giles, Jr., Service Learning in

Higher Education in Service Learning: Ninety-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for

the Study of Education 106-109 (Joan Schine ed., 1997). See also Tony Robinson,

Service Learning as Justice Advocacy: Can Political Scientists Do Politics? 33:3 PS:

Political Science and Politics 605 605-606 (2000) (excellent discussion of the intellectual

roots of service learning). See also Garry Hesser, Faculty Assessment of Student

Learning: Outcomes Attributed to service-Learning and Evidence of Changes in Faculty

Attitudes About Experimental Education, 2 Michigan Journal of Community Service-

Learning 33 33-42 (1995). See also Sam Marullo, Sociology’s Essential Role: Promoting

Imagination: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Sociology 11-25 (James

Ostrow et al. eds., 1996). See also Janet S. Eyler & D.E. Giles, Jr., The Learning in

Service-Learning (1999). See also Janet S. Eyler, What Do We Most Need to Know about

the Impact of Service-Learning on Student Learning? Special Issue: Service Learning

Research The Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning (2000). (extensive

reviews of the relevant findings in the literature). See also Jeffrey Lantis et al., The New

International Studies Classroom: Active Teaching, Active Learning Lynne Reinner

(1999) (for discussion of a wide variety of active learning strategies for teaching other

international relations issues).


26

15 See John Dewey, Experience and Education Collier Books (1938). See also Thomas

H. Batchelder & Susan Root, Effects of an Undergraduate Program to Integrate

Academic Learning and Service: Cognitive, Prosocial Cognitive and Identity Outcomes,

17:4 Journal of Adolescence, 341 341-356 (1994). See also Janet S. Eyler & D.E. Giles,

Jr., Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning? Jossey-Bass (1999).

16 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Focus on

Civics National Assessment of Educational Progress 1998 Report Card for the Nation

U.S. Department of Education (1999) at

http://www.nces.edu.gov/nationsreportcard/civics/civics.asp.

17 Thomas H. Batchelder & Susan Root, Effects of an Undergraduate Program to

Integrate Academic Learning and Service: Cognitive, Prosocial Cognitive and Identity

Outcomes, 17:4 341 341-356 (1994). See also Janet S. Eyler & D.E. Giles, Jr., Where’s

the Learning in Service Learning? Jossey-Bass (1999).

18 Gregory B. Marcus et al., Integrating Community Service and Classroom Instruction

Enhances Learning: Results from an Experiment, 15:4 Educational Evaluation and

Policy Analysis 410 410-419 (1993). See also Judith A. Boss, The Effect of Community

Service Work on the Moral Development of College Ethics Students, 23:2 Journal of

Moral Education 183 183-198 (1994). See also Craig Rimmerman, The New Citizenship:

Unconventional Politics, Activism, and Service Westview Press (1997).


27

19 Richard A. Brody, Secondary Education and Political Attitudes: Examining the Effects

on Political Tolerance of the “We the People…” Curriculum Center for Civic Education

(1994). See also Elizabeth B. Gardner & Corinne M. Baron, Attitudinal and Academic

Effects of Service-Learning in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community –

Based Service Learning 97-109 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999). See

also Judy Primavera, The Unintended Consequences of Volunteerism: Positive Outcomes

for Those Who Serve in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based

Service Learning (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman, 1999). For other findings

supporting service learning’s positive effects on these skills or attributes see Alexander

W. Astin & Linda J. Sax, How Undergraduates are Affected by Service Participation,

39:3 Journal of College Student Development 251 251-263 (1998). See also Janet S.

Eyler & D.E. Giles, Jr., Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning? Jossey-Bass (1999).

See also Janet S. Eyler & B. Halteman, The Impact of a Legislative Internship on

Students’ Political Skill and Sophistication, 9 Teaching Political Science 27-34 (1981).

See also Sam Marullo, Sociology’s Esssential Role: Promoting Critical Analysis in

Service-Learning in Cultivating the Sociological Imagination: Concepts and Models for

Service-Learning in Sociology 11-25 (James Ostrow et al. eds., 1996). See also Maria W.

McKenna & Elaine Rizzo, Student Perceptions of the “Learning” in Service-Learning

Courses in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based Service

Learning 111-123 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999).


28

20 Janet S. Eyler, What Do We Most Need to Know About the Impact of Service-Learning

on Student Learning? Special Issue: Service-Learning Research The Michigan Journal of

Community Service Learning (2000).

21 Gregory B. Marcus et al., Integrating Community service and Classroom Instruction


Policy Analysis 410 410-419 (1993). See also M. Michelle Rowe & Judith G. Chapman,

Faculty and Student Participation and Perceptions of Service-Learning Outcomes in

Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community Based Service Learning 83-96

(Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999). See also Judy Primavera, The

Unintended Consequences of Volunteerism: Positive Outcomes for Those Who Serve in

Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based Service Learning 125-140

(Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999).

22 Gregory B. Marcus et al., Integrating Community service and Classroom Instruction


Policy Analysis 410 410-419 (1993). See also Ed Schwerin, Service Learning and

Empowerment n Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in

Political Science 203-213 (Richard M. Battistoni & William E. Hudson eds., 1997). See

also Janet S. Eyler, What Do We Most Need to Know About the Impact of Service-

Learning on Student Learning? Special Issue: Service-Learning Research The Michigan

Journal of Community Service Learning (2000).


29

23 Benjamin Barber, Afterword in Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and Models for

Service-Learning in Political Science 227-235 (Richard M. Battistoni & William E.

Hudson eds., 1997). See also James J. Youniss et al., What We Know About Engineering

Civic Identity, 40:5 American Behavioral Scientist 620 620-631 (1997). See also Michale

X. Delli Carpini & Scott Keeter, What Should Be Learned Through Service Learning?

33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 635 635-637 (2000).

24 M. Michelle Rowe & Judith G. Chapman, Faculty and Student Participation and

Perceptions of Service-Learning Outcomes in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference:

Community Based Service Learning 83-96 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds.,

1999). See also Tobi Walker, The Service/Politics: Rethinking Service to Teach Political

Enlightenment, 33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 647 647-649 (2000). There may

also be the added benefit of enhancing the community-campus (or “town-gown”)

relationship via positive service learning experiences. See Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo &

Sally Raskoff, Community Service-Learning Promises and Problems, 22 Teaching

Sociology 248 248-254 (1994). Many towns feel that their local college or university is

too isolated and remote from their daily lives, while many campuses find that

relationships with supporting communities are strained at best. Service learning provides

a positive interaction in which both campus and community benefit – a “win-win”

situation. It is a further reminder to students, faculty, administrators, and community

members that a “college is not separate from the community, but a part of it.” See

Gregory B. Markus, Community Service Learning as Practice in the Democratic Political


30

Arts in Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and Models for Service Learning in Political

Science 76 (Richard Battistani & William Hudson eds., 1997).

25 Janet S. Eyler, What Do We Most Need to Know About the Impact of Service-Learning

on Student Learning? Special Issue: Service-Learning Research The Michigan Journal of

Community Service Learning (2000).

26 Gregory B. Marcus et al., Integrating Community Service and Classroom Instruction


Policy Analysis 410 410-419 (1993). See also Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo & Sally

Raskoff, Community Service-Learning Promises and Problems, 22 Teaching Sociology

248 248-254 (1994). See also Susan Hunter & Richard A. Brisbin, Jr., The Impact of

Service Learning on Democratic and Civic Values, 33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics

623 624 (2000).

27 James J. Youniss et al., What We Know About Engendering Civic Identity, 40:5

American Behavioral Scientist 620 620-631 (1997). See also Alexander W. Astin et al.

Long Term Effects of Volunteerism During the Undergraduate Years. 22:2 Review of

Higher Education 187 187-202 (1999). See also David E. Campbell, Social Capital and

Service Learning 33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 641 641-645 (2000). It should

also be noted that community organizations frequently report satisfaction with service

learning programs with which they are affiliated. See e.g. Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo &


31

Sally Raskoff, Community Service-Learning Promises and Problems, 22 Teaching

Sociology 248 248-254 (1994).

28 Benjamin Barber, Afterword in Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and Models for

Service-Learning in Political Science 227-235 (Richard M. Battistoni & William E.

Hudson eds., 1997). See also David E. Campbell, Social Capital and Service Learning

33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 641 641-645 (2000). See also Robert D. Putnam

Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community Simon and Schuster

(2000).

29 Sheilah Mann, What a Survey of College Freshmen Tells Us about Their Interest in

Politics and Political Science, 32:2 PS: Political Science and Politics 263 263-268

(1999).

30 Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo & Sally Raskoff, Community Service-Learning Promises

and Problems, 22 Teaching Sociology 248 248-254 (1994). See also M. Michelle Rowe

& Judith G. Chapman, Faculty and Student Participation and Perceptions of Service-

Learning Outcomes in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community Based

Service Learning 83-96 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999). Some have

found that service learning demonstrates to students how traditional classroom learning

can be relevant to their lives. See Gregory B. Markus, Community Service Learning as

Practice in the Democratic Political Arts in Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and

Models for Service Learning in Political Science 74 (Richard Battustani & William


32

Hudson eds., 1997). See also Elizabeth B. Gardner & Corinne M. Baron, Attitudinal and

Academic Effects of Service-Learning in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference:

Community-Based Service Learning 97-109 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds.,

1999). See also Susan Hunter & Richard A. Brisbin, Jr., The Impact of Service Learning

on Democratic and Civic Values, 33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 623 623-626

(2000). Others find that service learning actually increases students’ sense of self-esteem.

See Judy Primavera, The Unintended Consequences of Volunteerism: Positive Outcomes

for Those Who Serve in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based

Service Learning 125-140 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999). See also M.

Michelle Rowe & Judith G. Chapman, Faculty and Student Participation and

Perceptions of Service-Learning Outcomes in Educating Students to Make-a-Difference:

Community Based Service Learning 83-96 (Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds.,

1999). Either of these findings might explain students’ positive perceptions of service

learning experiences.

31 Glenn Beamer, Service Learning: What’s a Political Scientist Doing in Yonkers? 31:3

PS: Political Science and Politics 557 557-561 (1998). See also Judy Primavera, The

Unintended Consequences of Volunteerism: Positive Outcomes for Those Who Serve in

Education Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based Service Learning 125-140

(Joseph Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999).


33

32 Kerry J. Strand, Sociology and Service-Learning: A Critical Look in Cultivating the

Sociological Imagination: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Sociology 29-37

(James Ostrow et al. eds., 1999).

33 David Cooper, Reading, Writing and Reflection in Academic Service Learning: A

Pedagogy of Action and Reflection 47-56 (Robert Rhoads & Jeffrey Howard eds., 1998).

See also Kathleen Rice & Seth Pollack, Developing a Critical Pedagogy of Service

Learning: Preparing Self-Reflective, Culturally Aware, and Responsive Community

Participants in Integrating Service Learning and Multicultural Education in Colleges

and Universities 115-134 (Carolyn R. O’Grady ed., 2000).

34 Richard P. Lipka, Research and Evaluation in Service Learning: What Do We Need to

Know? in Service Learning: Ninety-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study

of Education. Part I 59 (Joan Schine ed., 1997).

35 Bill Swinford, Civil Rights and Liberties in Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and

Models for Service-Learning in Political Science 143 (Richard M. Battistoni & William

E. Hudson eds., 1997). For examples of studies that have employed journal entries

successfully as both a pedagogical and an evaluative tool see Elizabeth B.Gardner and

Corinne M. Baron, Attitudinal and Academic Effects of Service-Learning in Educating

Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based Service Learning 97-109 (Joseph

Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999). See also Maria W McKenna & Elaine Rizzo,

Student Perceptions of the “Learning” in Service-Learning Courses in Educating


34

Students to Make-a-Difference: Community-Based Service Learning 111-123 (Joseph

Ferrari & Judith G. Chapman eds., 1999).


and Problems, 22 Teaching Sociology 248 248-254 (1994). See also Scott James Myers-

Lipton The Effects of Service Learning on College Students’ Attitudes Toward Civic

Responsibility, International Understanding, and Racial Prejudice (1994) (Unpublished

Ph.D dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder) (on file with author).


and Problems, 22 Teaching Sociology 248 248-254 (1994).

38 Id. at 248-254.

39 Tony Robinson, Service Learning as Justice Advocacy: Can Political Scientists Do

Politics? 33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 605 605-612 (2000).

40 Kerry J. Strand, Sociology and Service-Learning: A Critical Look in Cultivating the

Sociological Imagination: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Sociology 29-37

(James Ostrow et al. eds., 1999).

41 Tobi Walker, The Service/Politics Split: Rethinking Service To Teach Political

Enlightenment 33:3 PS: Political Science and Politics 647 647-649 (2000).


35

42 Sam Marullo, Sociology’s Contribution to the Service Learning Movement in Service

Learning and Undergraduate Sociology: Syllabi and Instructional Material 1-9 (Morton

G. Ender et al. eds., 1996).

43 The issue of whether or not to require all students to participate is a contentious one.

For a brief review of the debate and how recent findings affect it, see Kathleen Maas

Weigert Academic Service Learning: Its Meaning and Relevance in Academic Service

Learning: A Pedagogy of action and Reflection 8 (Jeffrey Howard & Robert Rhoads eds.,

1998). See also Mary A. Hepburn et al., Service Learning in College Political Science:

Queries and Commentary, 33:3 PS Political Science and Politics 617 621 (2000).

44 Richard G. Neimi & Jane Junn, Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn, Yale

University Press 1998.

45 For a review of this literature, see Mark D. McCarthy, One-Time and Short-Term

Service Learning Experiences in Service –Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and

Practices 113-134 (Barbara Jacoby and Assoicates eds., 1996).

46 We relied heavily on discussion and evaluation of the documents currently archived in

Human Rights Watch, A Summary of United Nations Agreements on Human Rights

(2001) at: http://www.hrweb.org/legal/undocs.html. See also Jack Donnelly,

International Human Rights Westview Press (1998).


36

47 Diana Ayton-Shenker, The Challenge of Human Rights and Cultural Diversity United

Nations Department of Public Information (1995). See also Jack Donnelly, International

Human Rights Westview Press (1998). See also Shashi Tharoor, Are Human Rights

Universal? 16 World Policy Journal (2000).

48 Original documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the

Declaration of the Rights of Man, and the United States Constitution served as a useful

jumping-off point for these discussions. See also Human Rights Watch, A Summary of

United Nations Agreements on Human Rights (2001) at:

http://www.hrweb.org/legal/undocs.html.

49 Amnesty International, Rights for All - Human Rights Violations in the USA Amnesty

International USA (1998). See also Mumia Abu-Jamal, Live From Death Row Addison-

Wesley (1995).

50 Amnesty International, Betraying the Young: Human Rights Violations against

Children in the US Justice System. Amnesty International USA (1998)

51 See http://e-volutiondesign.com/masks/masks.html. While not all the artwork remains

on display, a sample of the masks may be viewed at the cited URL. Our initial plan was

to collect the masks, take them with us, and display them, along with the artists’

handwritten descriptions of them in some public exhibit. However, it soon became


37

obvious to both authors that the residents took such pride in their artwork that to take it

away from them would be very upsetting. By simply photographing the masks, we were

able to leave them at the Center for the residents to take home when they were released.

52 Garry Hesser, Faculty Assessment of Student Learning: Outcomes Attributed to

Service-Learning and Evidence of Changes in Faculty Attitudes About Experimental

Education, 2 Michigan Journal of Community Service-Learning 33 33-42 (1995). See

also Janet S. Eyler, What Do We Most Need to Know about the Impact of Service-

Learning on Student Learning? Special Issue: Service Learning Research The Michigan

Journal of Community Service Learning (2000).

53 See http://www-gse.berkeley.edu/RESEARCH/SLC/rande/sslpost.htm.

54 Estimate provided by the Wooster Volunteer Network at the College of Wooster.

55 Anne Nurse & Matthew Krain, Mask-making: A Service Learning Approach to

Teaching the Social Construction of Deviance (2002) (unpublished manuscript, on file

with authors).

Documents

TEACHING HUMAN RIGHTS THROUGH SERVICE …discover.wooster.edu/mkrain/files/2012/12/HRQ-2004.pdfTEACHING HUMAN RIGHTS THROUGH SERVICE LEARNING ... in the development and implementation