Technical Writing

TECHNICAL WRITING is a broad term that encompasses a wide variety of documents in science, engineering, and the skilled trades.

The major types of documents in technical writing can be grouped into four major categories

Reports and communications in day-to-day business

Technical papers, magazine articles, books, and theses for purposes of education, teaching, and the sharing of information and knowledge

Patents Operational manuals, instructions, or procedures

Spectrum of Technical Writings

Attributes of technical Wirtings

It pertains to a technical subject. It has a purpose. It has an objective. It conveys information/facts/data. It is impersonal. It is concise. It is directed. It is performed with a particular style and in a particular

format. It is archival. It cites contributions of others.

Excuses for NOT WRITING Lack of Time. “I did not have time to write a report.” This is

probably the most common reason given by technical people with a dislike for technical writing.

Nobody Reads Reports. Sometimes people have the perception that reports are not read by the addressees, so why write them?

Reduces Job Security. Some people feel that they should keep their jobs because nobody else can do them. They have some skills or knowledge that others do not have.

Trepidation. Some technical people lack confidence in their writing skills and do not opt to write technical documents for fear that they may contain writing errors that cause embarrassment. Some managers also do not know how to review a document

E-mail Is Sufficient. Even though e-mail is a useful tool, e-mail does not replace the need for formal or even informal reports.

Types of Technical Studies for Engineers

Problem Solving Reports and Study

Engineering projects almost always include:1. State the problem (get all details)2. Select one approach to solving the problem3. Search literature and perform preliminary

experiments4. Perform refined experiments5. Analyze data6. Decide if problem is solved or more work is

needed7. Perform more studies8. Analyze data9. Write report

Proposing a Project—The Idea

The idea for a project comes from inspiration, research, observation, somebody’s comment—almost any place.

Technical talks, conferences, and trade shows can produce ideas for projects or studies.

Brainstorming sessions with team members are another way to come up with ideas.

Finally, ideas from projects and products can come from patent searches and thorough research of a subject

The idea can come from exploring the solutions of existing problems ……..?

Project Proposal

The average proposal contains about 30 typed pages, and most have the following format:

1. Identification and significance of problem 2. Background and technical approach 3. Technical objectives 4. Work plan 5. Commercial potential 6. Principal investigator and senior personnel 7. Consultants and subcontractors 8. Equipment, instrumentation, competitors, and facilities 9. Equivalent or overlapping proposal to other federal

agencies 10. Current and pending support of principal investigation and

senior personnel 11. Budget

Writing Strategy for Technical Report Writing

Analysis of Readers

Readership is your intended audience. The intention of your report determines readership. The readership selected determines writing level. The level of writing must be such that it is understood

and is useful to all readers. Selection of a circulation list (your readership) should

respect organization hierarchy; include contributors, sponsors, and potential users of your work/recommendations.

Scope of Writing

Putting limits on what is included in a technical document involves consideration of the following factors:

Number of ideas/experiments/studies/subjects Depth of writing Level of detail

suitable scope statement in an introduction might be like the following:

This report describes the application of the loop abrasion test method to rank the abrasion resistance of six different test steels. They are candidates for P35 first form tools.

Number of Subjects

Most jobs that require written documentation involve multiple tasks.

The tasks that need to be addressed in reports must be identified

For example, a study of a tool failure may involve chemical analysis, surface texture measurements, hardness measurements, and optical microscopy of a metallographic cross section taken from the failed part. If the chemical analysis of the failed part indicates that the tool was made from the wrong steel, a decision needs to be made on whether the failure-analysis report should include the tests that were performed (even if you did not identify the rootcause of the failure)

Depth of Writing and level of details

Decide on the desired depth of technical discussions. How technical should you get?

Are you going to do a literature survey on your subject, discuss previous work, and compare theories in your technical document?

If you have limited knowledge on the subject in your planned document, it is usually advisable not to attempt an in-depth treatment of the subject.

An expert in a particular subject can go into great depth on it. However, the depth of coverage should be directly related to the intended purpose and objective of the document

Too much depth and unnecessary technicalities should be avoided, if at all possible

If it is not necessary, it may bore readers and end up eliciting a negative reader reaction

Propose and Objective

Purpose usually determines strategy. Purpose is more immediate. You want something to happen as the result of your

written document. You may want more funding. You may want to present the status of a project, To present final results, or to introduce a problem or

new design.

Writing to Various Readers

The following list indicates the types of readers likely encountered in a technical writing situation:

Active participants Customers • Peers • Teammates • Immediate supervisorGeneral interest

• Customer management • Potential customers• Your management • Library

Public• Technical journal • Book • Handbook • Trade magazine• Presentation This categorization is based on anticipated interest level. The people involved with the subject of a document will probably

have a high degree of interest.

Readership intention and writing levels for various

documentsDocument Intended

readership Intention Writing level

Daily newspaper Everyone who reads Profit for shareholders High school graduate

Time magazine Adults Profit for corporation College graduate

Civil Engineering magazine

Civil engineers Profit for corporation Civil engineers

Ph.D. thesis College examinations board ( BASR)

Get degree Technical journal

Research proposal Research

Reviewers and fund administrators

funding Technical journal

Technical report, department

Suppliers of funding requesting work Solve problem

Lowest reader level

Resumé Companies with job openings

Get a job Highschool graduate

Field Test report Customer supervisor Answer question Lowest reader level

Bicycle assembly instructions

World wide buyers Get the bike assembled No manual skills

Elements of style

Word Choice The average person born in the United States knows

about 21,000 English (U.S. modified) words It takes about 500 words to fill a single-spaced typed page Technical documents can be less than one page or more

than 100 Most technical journals limit submissions to about ten

pages or 5,000 words 21,000 word repertoire can be broken down by

grammatical function into four categories: Utility words like conjunctions (and, or, but, if, and so forth) Substance words for action (verbs) or subjects (nouns) Descriptive words that modify other words (adverbs, adjectives,

clauses) Contractions for people who do not have time to write out the real

words

Spectra of words

Word Choices for Technical Reports

- etc. et cetera and so forth- Ibid ibidem in the same place (cited previously)- et al. and others- per se by itself- i.e. id est that is-e.g. exempli gratia for example

Technical Presentations Skills for Engineers

Communication technical information to non technical people

Technical Report Writing

By; Engr.Dr. Attaullah Shah

Being engineers, we are Technical Communicator.

Engineering is a people-oriented profession. Engineering verdicts are given more attentions Engineers are exposed to relatively more public dealings. Engineers not only develop technologies; they help

people make use of technology. Engineers must communicate with regulators, funding

agencies, suppliers, clients, customers, the media, and sometimes the general public.

You must communicate your subject-matter expertise.

Engineers communicate their methods, results, conclusions, and recommendations so that information can be understood and used by a variety of people.

Engineers generate raw data and then turn them into information to help people solve problems.

For instance . . . If you are deputed at a site Engineer for a

construction project, you have to deal with a broad spectrum of clients: With structural Engineer about detailed drawings

and clearing ambiguities in the construction drawings

With procurement officer for timely supply of material

With Lab Engineer to timely arrange the tests With sub contractor for timely availability of

human resource. Many more people in the line

For which audience is this table appropriate:supervisor or homeowner?

Phenols and Metals: Summary of Maximum Contaminant

Concentrations and Human Health Criteria (all Units in ug/L)

Chemical

Maximum Safe Concentration

Found in Ground Water

Total Phenols

Metals Beryllium Cadmium Chromium Mercury Nickel Lead Thallium

3,500 0.037 10.000 50.000 0.144 13.400 50.000 13.000

15,000 15.000 770.000 44.000 0.400 18.000 46.000 93.000

Monitoring Well

Ground Water

Service Station

ResidenceA picture might work best for a homeowner.

Data alone are usually not useful.

Information is data made useful for other people.

Information life cycle

Data are what we record, observe, copy.

Information is data that have been synthesized, put in context, and made meaningful.

Knowledge is enough information to allow you or someone else to do something that produces new data or information.

Information Life Cycle

Data

Information

Knowledge

Necessary Skills for Engineers

Manage information Write technical information for many

audiences -- often with conflicting needs Design graphics for technical information Elicit expert information – interview others Present information verbally Work collaboratively -- write

collaboratively!

Engineering documents you may be involved in writing

Progress reviews and reports User manuals -- software and

hardware Training materials Guidelines and reports Safety policies and instructions Technical proposals Technical reportsThe last two types bridge the gap

between the workplace and the academy.

Academic writing

dissertation proposals theses dissertations journal papers

and technical presentations oral presentations posters

as well as proposals and reports.

Audiences Academic audiences

other researchers faculty students supervisor – now only!

Even academic audiences have varying degrees of expertise and knowledge. And everyone is busy and reads fast!

Research Audiences

Experts Executives/Managers Technicians Regulators Funding Agencies General public Combination

Now your audience is “expert,” but later to whom may you have to present results?

Business Audiences Inside the

organization: Management Colleagues Support staff Salespeople Technicians

Outside the organization Customers Regulatory

agencies Financial

institutions Suppliers/

vendors News media

Communicator’s Triangle

Communicator

Audience

Subject

(most difficult)

Multiple Audiences

Different parts of the document are geared toward different audiences Abstract – technical public Introduction – interested public Bulk of paper – researchers and

subject-matter experts

Writing Process and Planning:

You organize for yourself (outlines, etc.), and you organize the document for the reader.

Feel like a tiny child when it comes to writing?

Most people do. Here’s how to help yourself.

First, organize for yourself.

1. Recognize that writing is

problem-solving As a product, writing solves

problems for your audience

As a process, it solves problems for you!

You can use writing to help answer

many critical questions:

What is it you really want to say? What will convince your audience? What data or information do you still

need to collect? When you explain your methodology,

what gaps are still there?

2. Recognize that writing is a process.

Defining objectives Planning Drafting Evaluating Revising

Learn to separate these stages!

You cannot collapse these stages together!

You can’t get it right the first time around!

Manage the writing process.

Start early Manage your time Learn to draft – avoid

need for perfection at this stage

Learn to separate the creative and critical parts of your personality.

Managing the Process of Writing

Defining objectives Planning Drafting Evaluating Revising

Pre-Writing(Outlining)

Peer Review

3. Realize that writing activities are incremental and iterative.

Move back and forth between doing research/engineering work and doing writing.

Writing helps you understand what you really know and what you are still unsure about. Helps you plot direction.

Sequence of Drafting

1. Write draft of Introduction

2. Write draft of Methods

3. Write draft of Literature Review

4. Write draft of Results

5. Write draft of Conclusions

6. Revise Introduction

7. Revise middle three chapters

8. Revise Conclusions

9. Revise Introduction

10. Write Abstract

But I still have a hard time beginning to write!!

Planning your Document: Organizing for Yourself

Most people begin planning their document by creating an outline.

Don’t be trapped by your outline! Any outline evolves constantly until the document is sent or published.

Planning Tools: Many kinds of outlines and lists

Doodles and lists of keywords Topic Outline

Can become headings for your document. Eventually, becomes the Table of Contents.

Sentence Outline (helps connect topics) Helps writers refine ideas and link them

together:“Transistors have been around a long time.”

--eventually that sentence becomes a heading: History of Transistors

Brainstorm Outline: how it works

Draw an oval Write document’s central purpose in center Think of all related ideas, facts,

descriptions Write these in spokes around oval Don’t prioritize or sequence ideas until

later Discard later what you don’t need.

The Elements of a Successful Technical

Proposal

# 1:The title

Choose a title that conveys information about your project.

Avoid acronyms that have negative connotations.

Make it Brief

# 2: The abstract

This is the first (and could be the only) part of the proposal that a busy reviewer will see.

The abstract should be a map of the rest of the proposal.

Write the abstract last to make sure it reflects the final version of the proposal.

# 3: Problem statement Provide a clear

objective statement of the problem.

Describe the factors that have contributed to the problem.

Describe what has and has not worked in the past.

Indicate what needs to be done (by you) now.

# 4: The rationale

Never assume theproposal reviewerknows what you

know.

Convince the reviewer

that the problem isIMPORTANT!

Persuasive rationalesDescribe how the project

will…

Resolve theoretical questions

Develop better theoretical models

Influence public policy Improve

teaching/learning Improve the way people

do their jobs in a particular field

Improve the way people live

#5: Literature reviewDisplay your awareness of the problem or need as well as the contributions that have been made by others—some of whom may be reviewers of your proposal!

Show you understand the problem!

Use the Funding Agencies “Terms” and “Vocabulary” to Describe the Problem.

Provide the most recent data and/or information about the problem.

Describe the gaps and contradictions that currently exist.

Show you know the solution!

Describe a solution to improve the situation. Back up your solution with data if possible. Quote or cite well known authorities on the

topic.

# 6: Project design

Goals, Objectives and Activities Should Always Relate to One Another

Program elements

Goals: Broad Statements of Intent

Objectives: Measurable Outcome Statements

Activities: Implementation Steps

Well written objectives

State Who is Responsible

State What is to be Accomplished.

State When the Objective should be Accomplished

State a Criterion for Success

Well written activities

Focus on How the objective is to be accomplished.

Use “Action” words, e.g., recruit, analyze, evaluate, disseminate

Research methods State your research

questions clearly Choose an appropriate

research design Detail all procedures Control for validity and

reliability Describe limitations Answer reviewers’

questions before they are asked!

# 8: Key personnel

Describe the people that will help to make decisions in how the project is carried out.

Provide a description of their background, training, and expertise.

Highlight everyone’s accomplishments—this is not the time to be modest!

# 9: Facilities & resourcesDescribe where the project will be conducted.

Describe any special equipment or resources you will have access to.

Describe any special capabilities or experiences possessed by your agency to carry out the project.

# 10: BudgetAsk for the funds that you need to be successful, but do not pad your budget.

Be aware that proposal reviewers know how much things cost!

If you ask for too little money to do the work you propose, you will appear naïve and inexperienced.

# 11: Time linesSponsored project activities can take longer than anticipated.

Do not propose to do too much in any given project period.

Develop a time line for the reviewer.

#12: Evaluation

Describe how you will find out if your project is working.

Describe how you will know if you have succeeded when the project is over.

Describe how you will adjust your procedures and timelines to deal with real life events.

Tell the proposal reviewers who will conduct the evaluation and review the information collected.

#13: Dissemination

Inform the proposal reviewers of the dissemination strategies that you will use and the audiences that will receive information on your findings.

Information about your project can be disseminated via articles in peer reviewed journals and presentations at professional conferences.

#14: Continuation funding

Sponsored Projects are of limited duration, e.g., 1 to 3 years

Plan your next project before the current project ends!

#15: Follow through

Keep your program officer in mind: send copies of all publications and media coverage related to your project.

Network with others: Look for ways to collaborate on future projects.