Technology absorption: an overview

Sanjaya Lall Professor of Development Economics

Oxford University, UK

What is technology absorption?

Most technology in ‘latecomers’ comes from abroad, in mixture of two forms:

Embodied: in capital goods, patents, blueprints, designs, models and so onTacit: knowledge that can be ‘transferred’ only by close interaction and learning by new user

Using technology efficiently thus needs conscious effort by the enterprise & also the ‘system’ in which it works (suppliers, customers, technology support, training institutions and so on)

Technology flows take many forms

Non-contractual: Public knowledge, fairs, conferences, migration, export activity and informal networksContractual:

FDI related: (internalized) transfers within multinationals or joint ventures with MNCs Arm’s length: equipment imports, turnkey projects, licensing, subcontracting, franchising and other contracts

Role of internalized technology flows is growing…

Innovation is highly concentrated, by region, country and enterprise

MNCs lead in innovation: most R&D is performed by large firms and most innovative firms are globalized

MNCs dominate technology flows in all forms, but form depends on nature of technology: newest and most valuable technology is internalized, others licensed

Concentration of R&D by region

Regional Shares of R&D Expenditure (1997)

Latin America and the Caribbean

Industrialised

East AsiaSouth AsiaMENAEastern Europe and Central Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa

US: 41%Japan: 24%

EU big 3: 20%

Concentration of R&D in US by firm (2001)

0

10

20

30

4050

60

70

80

Total Manufacturing Total Manufacturing

>25,000 employees >5,000 employees

Share of leading R&D performing US firms in number of firms and R&D

% Numbers % R&D

Only 68 manufacturing firms out of 16.8 thousand with R&D (0.4%) account for 49% of total enterprise R&D spending in the US.

Only 329 manufacturing firms (2%) account for 71% of R&D.

The level of concentration has been stable or rising over time – despite the rise of technology-based SMEs

Role of MNCs in global economy is growing steadily

FDI is growing faster than other economic aggregates: national investment, GDP or exports MNCs control about 2/3 of world trade. About 30-40% of this trade is within MNCs, and their role is particularly large in high-tech manufacturingMNC export activity is taking new forms: ‘global production networks’, with very fine vertical specialization by function/component between countries Local companies are also involved in global production networks, but only if they have very high levels of technological capabilities – and form strong ties with MNCs to access and absorb their technological know-how and management skills

MNCs are globalizing innovation: Share of foreign affiliates in national R&D, 2001

Figure HHH: Shares of manufacturing R&D by foreign affiliates, 2001

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hung

ary

Irelan

d

Portu

gal

Spain

Swed

en

Cana

da

Nethe

rland

s UK

Germ

any

Fran

ce

Polan

d

USA

Finlan

d

Czec

h Rep

Turke

y

Japa

n

Source: OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2003.

‘Triad’ MNCs spend large sums in R&D in each others’ economies

Flows of R&D in the Triad, 2000 (millions of PPP dollars)

USABERD: 199,539

USABERD: 199,539

EU BERD: 113,288

EU BERD: 113,288

Japan BERD: 100,777

Japan BERD: 100,777

Source: OECD data

12,344

16,366 436

1,595

1,433

1,317

US MNC R&D in developing & transition economies (current $ million)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All developing

LAC

S & SE Asia

CEE

What this means for developing & transition economies…

FDI is the most efficient way to access foreign technology if countries want ...

New, fast-changing proprietary technologies not available at arm’s length

Rapid access to new technology and subsequent upgrading, without local effort

Non-core components of operation (i.e. management, marketing, finance etc)

Access to MNC foreign markets, particularly to global production networks

For local firms…

Licensing or joint ventures are desirable if: Local firms are strong in base technologies but need particular new components of technology

They specialize in activities with stable technologies, where state-of-art technologies are available at arm’s length

They can export through foreign buyers (low technology products), sell undifferentiated products directly or have established brands

They subcontract to MNCs (OEM) or supply local components

Attracting FDI, particularly export-oriented production networks…

FDI location: ‘Traditional’ factors...

Some remain relevantStable, transparent and welcoming policies

Good macroeconomic management

Large and/or fast growing markets

Primary resources

Cheap and trainable labour

But others are becoming less important Cheap unskilled labour

Protected markets

‘New’ factors in FDI location...

Human capital: new skills, flexible practices, training provisions, ease of expatriate entry

Technology systems: MSTQ & R&D strongly linked to and supportive of enterprises

Strong supplier and service network

Modern ICT infrastructure and logistics

Low ‘transaction costs’ (entry, exit, expansion, taxation, customs, employment)

Strong legal systems and property rights

Openness to cross-border mergers & acquisitions

Effective FDI promotion, targeting and coordination with supply side policies

Rooting MNCs locally…

Attracting FDI is not enough: globalized production is (by definition) mobile

Retaining MNCs, esp. in export-oriented activities, needs

Constantly rising skill levels

Tighter links to more efficient suppliers

Greater depth of technological activity, in-house and with local knowledge institutions

How to promote supplier linkages with MNCs?

Local content rules often inefficient – and now forbidden by WTO rules

Fiscal incentives are costly but can only play an initial stimulating role

What works best:Improving supplier capabilities, directly and with MNC assistance

‘Matchmaking’, information dissemination

Cluster development strategies

For example, in Malaysia…The Small and Medium Industries Corporation has a Global Supplier Programme to strengthen SMEs not only to become suppliers to MNCs, but also to become global suppliers. This programme provides training in critical skills and incentives to MNCs to ‘adopt’ local suppliers and to help them upgrade skills and technology. Eng Teknologi Holdings Berhad (ENGTEK) has benefited from both programmes. Starting as a supplier of components to the local hard disk drive and semiconductor MNCs, it is now a multinational, with nine companies in four other East Asian countries. ENGTEK has entered into partnerships with several electronics MNCs operating in Penang, which provide it with technical and financial assistance, helping it develop design as well as manufacturing expertise and providing it entry into their global value chains. MNCs also actively create linkages. Intel Malaysia uses its ‘SMART’ programme for local supplier development. SMART has five steps: select promising suppliers on the basis of systematic analysis; provide initial training; allocate business according to capabilities; raise capabilities by technical assistance and training; and help suppliers diversify and develop into global suppliers. Government tax incentives and financial support (worth about $50m a year) have helped this initiative.

Ireland is best practice in ‘using’ FDI to develop hi-tech industry

Targeted inward investment strategy: The Industrial Development Authority (IDA) launched industry and company targeting strategy. Sector/industry specialists were used to develop industry-based strategy and meet potential investors. US electronics and pharmaceutical industries targeted in the 1970s, software and international services in the 1980s/1990s; IT, multi-media and e-business in the 2000s. Objective shifted from job creation to promotion of linkages with local firms and attraction of headquarters and R&D National Linkage Programme fosters links between investors and local firms. It covers market research, matchmaking, monitoring and troubleshooting, business development by arm of IDA set up specifically to promote indigenous firms.Aftercare and plant upgrading, concentrated on about 50 key companies in five target industries. IDA targets companies that have a high potential for new investment, or that can leverage investment from other companies. Links are forged with the management to improve plant competitiveness by making sure that the local management is fully informed of Ireland’s advantages. Skills development, which involved the expansion of education so that over 40%of school leavers go on to third-level education (set to rise to 50%). IT and science subjects have been prioritized as part of a proactive strategy anticipating future needs. Computer provision and training in schools have increased dramatically; IDA officers visited every school and written to every parent. Technology policy, including 2000 Technology Foresight Fund with a $1bn plan to boost R&D in information technology and biotechnology. Telecommunications deregulation and a $65bn National Development Plan, with a focus on e-business and infrastructure, also support technology activities.Low corporate tax has been a central to Ireland’s attractiveness for FDI . Corporate tax is currently set at 10% and many exemptions are available.

Creating a technology culture in industry (difficult but necessary)

Raise awareness of need for in-house technological activity and R&D

‘Technology foresight’ exercises

Benchmarking and technology audits

R&D incentives: most countries make R&D tax-deductible expense, many offer extra incentives. Effects mixed, but tax credits linked to incremental R&D seem best

Strengthening the technology infrastructure

Metrology, standards, testing, qualityQuality standards vital (e.g. ISO 9000)

Good standards institutions can help to diffuse technology and quality awareness

Advanced standards institutions are withdrawing from testing into basic standard setting and research. They are helping create private service providers.

Metrology (measurement/calibration) is central to quality certification; international accreditation is vital to competitiveness

Local metrology capability reduces cost and raises response speed

Secondary metrology can be carried out by private laboratories, primary metrology has to be done in public institutions

Role for government in providing the public goods and creating private markets

Research & development institutions

Most public R&D/universities are delinked from enterprises: different ‘culture’, no incentives and wrong skills

But they are an important resource for accessing, adapting, diffusing, creating technology – and for ‘rooting’ MNCs

Valuable for hi-tech start-ups and SMEs

Vital source of creating R&D skills for industry and breaking ground in generic new technologies

How can knowledge institutions be made more relevant?

Privatization of public laboratories

Hard budgets, management change

Intensive training of staff and incentives to reach out to industry

Funded schemes for joint R&D with industry, exchange of R&D personnel

Matchmakers to create links with firms, raise their awareness of capabilities and potential

Conclusions

Technology absorption needs stable and conducive policy framework Technology access is increasingly linked to FDI – but attracting, rooting and extracting benefits from FDI needs dynamic local firms & institutions Building local capabilities is basic to effective technology absorption: and this needs strong policy support