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Prepared in association with Teachers College, Columbia University. © 2012 TEFL-C International Ltd. All rights reserved.
0 TheDirectApproach
Unit
2
EXPERIENTIALLEARNINGTHEORY
"WhenIhear,Iforget.WhenIsee,Iremember.WhenIdo,Iunderstand."
–Confucious
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1 TheDirectApproach
EXPERIENTIALLEARNINGTHEORY
Introduction
Theideathatwelearnthroughourexperiencesmayseemselfevident,butexperientiallearningtheory(ELT)wasonlyformallyproposedbyDavidKolbinthelatterhalfofthelastcenturyAlthoughELTisarecentdevelopment,thebasicprinciplesofELTarenotnew.Infact,inearlynineteenthcenturyGermany,someprinciplesofELTwereappliedtoearlychildhoodeducationbyFriedrichFröbel.InItalyattheturnofthetwentiethcentury,MariaMontessorielaboratedonsomeofFröbel’sideas.Thenintheearlytwentiethcentury,AspectsofELTwerefirstappliedtogeneraleducationintheUnitedStatesbythegreatprogressivethinker,JohnDeweyofColumbiaUniversity’sTeachersCollege.Dewey’sworkcametoinfluenceeducationalpracticearoundtheworld.Forexample,hisideaswereadaptedbyChen,HeqinandothersinChina.Otherprominentgeneraleducationtheories,suchasHowardGardner’sMultipleIntelligencesTheory,alsocontainelementsofexperientiallearning,andcontemporaryeducationtheoristsincludingPaoloFreireinBrazilcontinuethestudyofexperientiallearning.Inthisunitwewilldiscoverhowexperientiallearninghasevolvedoverthecenturiesingeneraleducationsettings.Wewillalsoseehowitmotivatesstudentsandhelpsthemtotakechargeoftheirownlearning.
Aswewillseelaterinthisunit,ELTisanon‐reductionistviewofhowhumanslearnratherthanateachingapproach.InthefieldofteachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage(EFL),theconceptofELThasmostfrequentlybeenappliedwithtask‐basedlearning(TBL).TheTBLapproachhasbeenelaboratedandrefinedforclassesaroundtheworld.LargelythroughTBLapproaches,experientiallearninghasbeenappliedtolanguagelearning.OtherlanguagelearningapproachessuchasTheDirectApproach,TheNaturalApproach,andThe
Prepared in association with Teachers College, Columbia University. © 2012 TEFL-C International Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 TheDirectApproach
CommunicativeApproachwillalsobediscussedhereandelaborateduponinotherunitsofthiscourse.Fromapracticalpointofview,wewillalsoexplorehowexperientiallearningandTBLhavebeenredesignedaseffectivetoolsforlanguagelearning.Finally,wewilldiscusshowtoapplythisapproachtolanguageteachingwithyoungEFLlearnersinmind,concludingwithsome“childfriendly”experientiallearningactivities.
TheEvolutionofExperientialLearning
Experientiallearningtiestogetherelementsofprogressivism,theprincipleofcontextuallearning,handsonlearning,andotherreformistideas.TheconceptofexperientiallearningisalsocloselyrelatedtoconstructiveplayapproacheslikethoseofFriedrichFröbelandMariaMontessori.(TheapproachesofFröbelandMontessoriarediscussedingreaterdetailintheunitonEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentTheory.)
JohnDewey
IntheU.S.,experientiallearningwasfirstchampionedbyDr.JohnDeweyatTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversityintheearlytwentiethcentury.ExperienceisthekeytoDewey’sphilosophyofeducation.Hisideashavebroadapplicationstogeneraleducationacrossdisciplinessuchasmathematics,science,andsocialstudies,inadditiontolanguagearts.Deweymadeitclearthatlearnersmustmakeconnectionsbetween
Figure 1: John Dewey
经验学习理论的发展
contextual learning (语境中学习) hands-on learning (动手学习) constructive play (建设性游戏)
杜威 - 将课堂所学和已有知 识联系起来
- 在真实场景中有目的 地教授知识
- 以学生为中心
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3 TheDirectApproach
experiencesintheclassroomandknowledgetheyalreadypossessed.Intermsoflanguagelearning,wenowcallthisprocesslinking.Deweywasconcernedthatinformationwassometimespresentedtostudentswithoutconsideringitspurposeorcontext.Forexample,studentsmightbetoldtheywerelearningagivenfactbecausetheywouldneedtoknowitwhentheygrewup.
Oncethetimecametoapplythatknowledge,however,theymaybeunabletobecauseitwaslearnedinacontextthatwasmarkedlydifferentfromtheoneathand(Dewey,1938).Deweysuggested,forexample,thatstudentsshouldlearnhistoryinawaythathelpedthembetterunderstandthepresent.Healsothoughteducationshouldbestudentcentered—thatstudentsshouldparticipateindirectingandshapingtheireducation.“Learningbydoing”describestheprocessbywhichwecomeintoknowledgeofourselves,oftheworld,andofourspecialtalentsastheyrelatetoourpotentialcontributionstosociety(Barson,1998).Infact,manycontemporaryeducationalphilosophersfromothercultureshaveexpressedsimilarideas.StudentsofJohnDewey,suchastheChineseearlychildhoodeducator,Chen,Heqin,spreadDewey’seducationalphilosophyworldwide.
PaoloFreire
Inotherculturalcontexts,thebasicideasofexperientiallearninghavebeensupportedbyfieldresearch.Forexample,Dewey’seducationalphilosophysharesmanyofthebasicprinciplesofthegreatBrazilianeducatorPauloFreire.LikeFreire, Figure 2: Paolo Freire
弗雷尔 - 反对脱离实际的教学 方法 - 由学生自主选择学习 的任务、话题、词汇
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4 TheDirectApproach
Deweycondemnseducationalmethodsthataimtotransmitinformationorfactsthataredisconnectedfromsomecontextthatwouldotherwisemakethemmeaningfultostudents.Freirefirstfocusedondisadvantagedstudents.Freireworkedwithilliterateruralworkersandimpoverishedurbanchildren,butlaterfine‐tunedhisapproachforalltypesofstudents.Thechoiceoftasks,topics,andevenvocabularyshouldemanatefromthestudentsthemselves,accordingtoFreire.Theselearner‐centeredprinciplesformthefoundationofexperientiallearning.
HowardGardner
Morerecently,wecanpointtoconnectionsbetweenexperientiallearningandHowardGardner’stheoryofMultipleIntelligences,atopicthatiselaboratedingreaterdetailinanotherunitofthiscourse.ThecoreofHowardGardner’stheoryofMultipleIntelligencesisthatintelligenceisnotasinglefactorthatcanbemeasuredbyanIQtest.Experientiallearningactivitiesasdefinedherecanbeexpressionsofavarietyofmentalprocessingcapacitiesamongstudents,includinglinguistic,spatial,musical,logical,kinesthetic,interpersonalandintrapersonalintelligences.
Althoughexperientiallearningactivitiestypicallyhaveastronglyverbal–linguisticfocus,manyexperientialproblemsolvingtasksalsoinvolveotherintelligences,suchaslogicalormathematicalrelationships.Inaddition,learningactivities
加德纳 - 多元智能理论
经验学习涉及多 种智能训练 - 语言智能 - 空间智能 - 音乐智能 - 逻辑数学智能 - 身体动觉智能 - 人际智能 - 自省智能
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5 TheDirectApproach
sometimeshaveastrongphysicalorkinestheticelementduringrole‐playsorsimulations.Interpersonalskillsaretestedingroupwork,whileintrapersonalintelligenceisalsoactivatedwhenstudentsarecalledupontoself‐reflectandgivetheirownopinions.Finally,especiallyamongyounglearners,spatialintelligenceisactivatedduringcoloringanddrawingtasks,andmusicalintelligenceisdevelopedduringsingingormusicappreciationtasks.
DavidA.Kolb
In 1984, Kolb wrote the seminal work defining theprinciples that have become the framework of experientialpedagogies.Kolbbuilthistheoryonsomegreatthinkersfromseveraldisciplines,suchas JohnDeweyfromeducation, JeanPiaget from developmental psychology, Kurt Lewin fromsocialpsychology,andHubertDreyfusfromcognitivescience.ELT defines learning as “the processwherebyKnowledge iscreatedthroughthetransformationofexperience.Knowledgeresults from the combination of grasping and transformingexperience”(Kolb,1984,p.41).
InKolb'smodeltherearetwomodesofgraspingexperience:concreteexperienceandabstractconceptualization.Inaddition,therearetwomodesoftransformingexperiencereflectiveobservationandactiveexperimentation.ForKolb,learningisafluidcyclethatbeginswithconcreteexperiences.Theseexperiencesarethenthebasisforobservationsandreflections.Thesereflectionsareassimilatedintoabstractconcepts.Theseabstractconceptshaveimplicationsforfutureactionintheformofactiveexperimentation.
Anyonewhohastriedtouseasecondlanguagewithnativespeakershashadtheexperienceofnotbeingunderstood.Toillustratetheprocessofexperientiallearning,let’sexamineanEnglishlanguagelearnerwhohasnotbeen
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6 TheDirectApproach
understoodinaconversation.Theconcreteexperienceisnotbeingunderstood.Inthereflectiveobservationstagethelanguagelearnerislikelytoaskquestions:Whywasn’the/sheunderstood?Isthissituationsimilarordifferentfromprevioussituations?Abstractconceptualizationinvolvesusinglogicandideastotrytoanswerthequestionsraisedduringthereflectiveobservationstage.Thisisahypothesisformingprocess.Finally,duringactiveexperimentation,thelanguagelearnerteststhesehypothesizestoseewhatwillallowhim/hertobeunderstood.
TaskBasedLanguageLearning
ExperientiallearningcanbeusedtoteachlanguagesintheformofTaskBasedLearning(TBL).TBLsuggeststhatlanguagelearningcanbedividedintounitscalledtasksratherthantopicsorgrammaticalforms,forexample.ThecentralideaofTBListhatataskisameaningfulandviableunitfordesigningcurriculum.Taskshelpto1)identifylearners’needs,2)definethecontentofacourse,3)organizeopportunitiesforlanguageacquisition(learningactivities),and4)measurestudentprogress.Sometasksmayoverlapwithteachingtechniques(e.g.,arole‐playtask/techniqueoraproblem‐solvingtask/technique).AccordingtoBrown(2001),TBL“viewsthelearningprocessasasetofcommunicativetasksthataredirectlylinkedtothecurriculargoalstheyserve,andthepurposeofwhichextendbeyondthepracticeoflanguageforitsownsake”(p.83).Brownasksteacherstoconsiderimportantquestionssuchas:Dothetasksspecificallycontributetocommunicativegoals?Aretheycarefullydesignedandnotsimplyhaphazardlythrowntogether?
RelatedTheoriesandResearch
Severalofthemajortheoriesofsecondlanguage
基于任务的语言学习
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7 TheDirectApproach
acquisitionandeducationhaveinfluencedTBL.PaoloFreire’sworkprovidesthetheoreticallinkbetweenexperientiallearning,generaleducation,TBL,andlanguagelearning.AnotherrelevantlanguagelearningconceptthatrelatestoexperientiallearningisthescaffoldingmodelofLevVygotskyandothers,where“thedemandonthinkingmadebytheactivity[is]justabovethelevelwhichlearners[can]meetwithouthelp”(Demetrion,1997).AlsorelatedistheNaturalApproachofTracyTerrellandStephenKrashen.AccordingtotheNaturalApproach,tasksshouldgeneratetheirownlanguageandcreateanopportunityforlanguageacquisition.Aslanguageteachers,ifwecantakethefocusawayfromformandstructures,wecandevelopourstudents’abilitytodothingsinEnglish.Thatdoesnotmeanthattherewillbenoattentionpaidtoaccuracy.Instead,workonlanguageisincludedineachtask,andfeedbackandlanguagefocushavetheirplacesinlessonplans.Teachersshouldenrichtheirstudents’languagewhentheyseeitisnecessary,butstudentsshouldbegiventheopportunitytouseEnglishintheclassroomjustastheyusetheirownlanguagesineverydaylife(Krashen&Terrell,1996).(Vygotsky’sscaffoldingtheoryisdiscussedingreaterdetailintheunitonEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentTheoryandTerrell’sandKrashen’sNaturalApproachisdiscussedthoroughlyintheunitbythattitle.)
TBLalsorelatestothestudent‐centeredclassroom,andcollaborativelearning.Inaddition,task‐basedmodelshavebeenpilot‐testedinBangalore,Indiainthe1980’s(Prabhu,1987;Demetrion,1997);andmorerecentlyinHongKong(Carless,2001).RodEllis,JaneWillis,andotheractivistsinthefieldofEnglishlanguageeducationandEFLhavealsowrittenextensivelyaboutthetopicofTBL.Someoftheseconceptsandbodiesofresearchwillbebrieflyexaminedbelow.
相关理论和研究 - 弗雷尔:经验学习、 普通教育、任务教学及语言学习的理论关联 - 维果茨基:建架理论 - 克拉申:自然学习法 、以学生为中心、合作学习
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8 TheDirectApproach
N.S.Prabhu:TBLforChildreninIndia
ATBLcurriculumwithyounglearnersfocuswasusedbyN.S.PrabhuintheBangaloreProjectinIndia(Prabhu,1987).InBangalore,scaffoldingandTBLwereusedwithchildrenwhilestudyingmathematics,geography,orothertypesofproblemsinEnglish.ExperientiallearningintheBangaloreprojecthadageneraleducationfocus,butitalsousedEnglishasthemediumofinstruction.Therefore,languageandcontentbasedinstructionwereconsideredeffectivetoolsforlearning.TheessentialideaofataskinBangalorewasthatstudentsfocusedonthemeaningofthecontentratherthanongrammaticalform.Thelearninggoalsandlanguageoutcomeswerenotspecificallylinkedtolanguageaccuracy(Cameron,2002).Prabhuarguesthat,atleastinthecontextofthisschool‐basedproject,themosteffectiveteachingtookplacethroughactivitiesthatpushedthecognitiveboundariesofthestudents.
Task‐basedteachingisahighlyeffectivewayofteachingstudentstointernalizegrammaticalaccuracybyusinglanguageinareal‐lifesituation,ratherthanbyteachingstudentstofollowconsciousrulesleadingtoexternalizedlanguage(needscitation).InPrabhu’smodel,theinstructoractsasanimportantbridgebetweenthestudents’currentabilityandtheirmasteryofnewknowledge.Throughinductivelearningduringtask‐basedactivities,studentsmakegreatleapsofnewlearning.
RodEllis:TBLandEnglishTeaching
AccordingtoEllis(2003),whenEnglishistaughtinaTBLcontext,studentsareencouragedtotakerisksevenwhentheyarefocusedoncertaingrammaticalforms.Task‐basedteachingallowsforfreerdiscussionamongstudents,especiallysincetheycansometimeschoosetheirowntopics.Theyareencouragedtosolveproblems,createproducts,or
普拉布:针对印度儿童的任务教学 - 语言及内容教学法 为学习有效工具 - 学生关注内容而非 语法形式 - 学习目标和语言学 习结果非仅为语言准确性
埃里斯:任务教学法和英语教学 学生: - 进行自由讨论,自主 选择话题 - 合作学习 - 语言功能的训练 - 以学生为中心 教师: - 以学生需求为主 - 起辅助角色
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9 TheDirectApproach
preparepresentationsbycollaborativelearning.Studentsareencouragedtotaketurnsinanatural,conversationalstyle.Theycanpracticeavarietyoflanguagefunctions,suchasaskingforandreceivinginformationoragreeinganddisagreeing.Studentsarealsoencouragedtonegotiatetheirownmeaningwithplentyofteachersupport,buttheteacherinthismodelrespondstothemessagemorethantothegrammaticalcorrectnessofwhatstudentsexpress.Theemphasisinthiscaseshouldbeonalearner‐centeredclassroom,sotheteachershouldtakeonamoreindirect,lessauthoritarianroleindirectinglearning.
Ellisfurthersuggeststhattheteachermustkeeptheneedsofthestudentsinmindwhendesigningtasks.Eachtaskmustbesufficientlychallengingtokeeptheirinterest.Cleargoals,whethertheyrelatemoretofluencyoraccuracy,shouldframeeachtask‐basedlesson.Eachstudentshouldbeawareofwhythetaskisbeingperformed.Allstudentsshouldparticipatefullyinthetask,andtheyshouldbeencouragedtotakeriskstostretchtheirlanguageability.Thefocusshouldbeprimarilyonmeaningastheyperformatask,butthereshouldalsobeopportunitiestofocusonform.Finally,studentsshouldbeaskedtoevaluatetheirownperformanceandprogresstomakethemmoreaccountablefortheirownlearning.
JaneWillis:TBLOrganization
ManyapproachestousingTBLintheclassroomhavebeenproposed,buttheyallsharecertainfeatures.AccordingtoJaneWillis,task‐basedlessonscanbedividedintopretask,duringtask,andaftertaskstages.Pre‐taskactivitiesincludetheintroductiontoatopicandtask,activationofbackgroundknowledge,andpre‐teachingofkeywordsorphrases.Theduring‐taskactivityusuallyinvolvespairorgroupwork,withtheteacheractingasamonitororafacilitator.Students
威利斯:任务教学课程的组织
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10 TheDirectApproach
preparetoreportbacktotheclass,typicallyaboutwhattheyhavedecidedordiscoveredduringtheirdiscussion.Afterthetask,theresultsareexchanged,discussed,orcomparedinsomeway.Inalanguageclassroom,thereisalsoalanguagefocus,duringwhichstudentscanconcentrateonspecificfeaturesofthewrittentextorarecordingoftheirpresentation.Thentheteachercanpracticeorrecyclenewwordsorphrasesforthegeneralbenefitoftheclass(Willis,1996).Certainobviouslimitationsforveryyounglearnersareapparentinthismodel.Forexample,sustainingtheirattentionacrossthevariousstagesseemsimpractical.Also,organizedgroupdiscussionandwrittenworkarebeyondtheircognitiveanddevelopmentalability.
DavidCarless:TBLwithChildreninHongKong
SpecialneedsandparticularissuesthatariseinteachingEnglishtoyounglearnersmustbetakenintoaccount.Ofparticularinteresttoourdiscussion,TBLwasresearchedqualitativelybyDavidCarlessinthreeEFLclassesinHongKongprimaryschools.Theresearchprojectanalyzedvariousthemesrelevanttotheclassroomimplementationoftask‐basedlearningwithyounglearners.Theseincludetheissueofnoiseandlackofdiscipline,andtheroleofdrawingorcoloringactivities.Foreachoftheseissues,strategiesforclassroompracticewerediscussed.TheresultsofthisresearcharerelevantforteacherscarryingoutactivitiesortaskswithyoungEFLlearnersinothercontexts.
InHongKong,teachersfounditdifficulttokeepyounglearnerson‐taskduringhighlycommunicativetasks.Largeclasssizestendtoworsenproblemsofnoiseanddisorder,asdoclasseswherethereisawiderangeofabilities.Formixed‐abilityclasses,somestudentsmightfinishanactivityrapidly,forexample,sothereisagreatertendencytogetoff‐task.Toavoidthisproblem,itisimportanttohavefollow‐uptasks
卡利斯:针对香港儿童的任务教学
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11 TheDirectApproach
readytokeepthefasterstudentsengagedinlearning.Anotherclassroommanagementtechniqueistogiveclearandcomprehensibledirectionsforthetask.Also,thetaskmustnotbeeithertooeasyortoodifficult,orstudentsbecometooeasilydistractedorfrustrated.Insomeactivitiessuchasdramaorrole‐play,noiseisanaturalby‐productoftheactivityandshouldactuallybeencouraged.Inpractice,though,shoutingor“overlyenthusiasticparticipationbyyoungstudentsmustbetemperedsomewhat.
AnotherthemeoftheHongKongstudyconcernstheuseofdrawing,coloring,orothertasksthatinvolvelimitedtarget‐languageproduction.Acertainamountofdrawingorcoloringisusuallyacceptedasbeneficialinaprimaryschool.Thisisespeciallytrueofveryyounglearnersorpreschoolstudents.Forslightlyolderlearners(inthisstudy,firstgradersagedsixtosevenyearsold),studentswereencouragedtodrawapictureandtowriteacaptionorshorttextrelatedtothepicture.Akeyconsiderationisthattheremustbemoreemphasisonlinguistictasksthanartistictasks.Someoftheartisticactivitiesgotchildreninterestedandenthusiasticaboutatask,buttherewasalmostnoEnglishoutputintheclassesCarlessobserved.IfEnglishisthegoal,thendrawingorcoloringactivities,ortasksthatinvolvemodelingormakingthings,shouldnotconsumemostofthelesson.Instead,thelessonsshouldbestructuredsothattheEnglishpart(eitheroralorwritten)isdoneatthebeginningormidwaythroughtheactivity,andthedrawingorcoloringshouldbecompletedafterwards.
Forveryyounglearners,however,suchanemphasisonlanguageproductionislessrealistic.Oneoptionteachersofveryyounglearnersmightconsider,however,ishavingthechildrenlistentorecordingsoflanguage‐controlledEFLstoriesornurseryrhymeswhiletheyarecoloringordrawing.AnotheroptionistoplayEnglishchildren’ssongsorchants
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12 TheDirectApproach
andencouragethechildrentosingalongastheywork.Selectingandusingappropriatestories,songs,andchantstoteachEnglishtochildrenaretopicstakenupinotherunitsofthiscourse.
Applications
Generaleducationexperientiallearningactivitiesmayormaynothavealanguagefocus.Herewewillconcentrateonactivitiesthatdoinvolvelanguage.ThepossibilityforexperientiallearningandTBLactivitiesarevirtuallyendless,soitisdifficulttoevensortthemoutintodifferentcategoriesortypes.Inthesubsequenttopicsofthiscourse,youwillseenumerousactivitiesthatareexperientialinnature.ForexampleintheunitonTeachingThroughDrama,youwillseehowstudentscanlearnlanguagebyengaginginroleplaysorputtingontheatricalproductions.IntheunitonTeachingEarlyLiteracy,youwillseehowchildrencanpublishtheirownsimplebooks,andsoon.
Justtogiveyouatasteofthewidevarietyofexperientialortaskbasedactivitiesthatarepossible,however,wewillpresentseveralhere.Fornow,wewilldividethemintoactivitiesinwhichchildrenfolloworalorwritteninstructionsinordertocreateorconstructsomethingindividuallyorinpairs,verbaltasksthatrequirelanguageforcompletion,non‐verbaltaskswithalanguage‐basedfollow‐upactivity,andmoreextensiveprojectsthatmayspanseveralclassperiodsandrequirelanguageuseforthecommunicationnecessaryintheprocess.
InstructionFollowingActivities
Intheseactivities,studentsreceiveverbalinstructionsandusehands‐onmaterialstocreatesomething,eitherindependentlyorinpairs.Suchactivitiesfocusonthelisteningorreadingcomprehensionskillswhilenot
教学活动
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13 TheDirectApproach
necessarilyrequiringthestudentstoproducethelanguage.Forthisreason,theyaresimplerandlessstressfulthanexperientialactivitiesthatrequirestudentstospeakorwrite.Wewillbeginwithactivitiesappropriateforlowlanguageabilityveryyounglearnersandprogresstothoseforolder,morefluentchildren.
Pinwheels—Thishands‐onactivitymightbeusedtoreinforceaunitongeometricshapes(adaptedfromNichols,Hocket,Tietjen,&Witherow,2003).Eachstudentisgivenasquareofheavy,brightlycoloredpaper,(paperwithdifferentcolorsonthefrontandbackisideal),twosmallcirclesofcardstock,astickofglue,apushpin,ashortsectionofasmalldiameterdrinkingstraw,andanunsharpenedpencilwitharubbereraserononeend.Thengivethestudentsstep‐by‐stepinstructionstoconstructpinwheelsasshowninFigure8:
1. Foldthesquareandfoldthesquareagain.Makefourtriangles.2. Glueacircleinthemiddleofthesquare.
3. Cutthesquaretothecirclelikethis.Cutthesquaretothecirclehereandhereandhere,too.(Note:Cutalongthefourcreaselinesfromthecornersofthesquaretothecircleofcardstock,butdo
notcutthroughthecircle.)4. Foldatriangleandglueittothecircle.Thenfoldtheother
trianglesandgluethemtothecircle.(Note:Donotformhard
creasesinthefolds.)5. Glueanothercircleonthecircle.(Note:Gluethesecondcircleof
cardstockoverthefirsttohelpsecurethecornersofthe
triangles.)6. Pushthepinthroughthecircles.7. Putthestrawonthepin.
8. Pushthepinintothepencilandplay!(Note:Byfacingthewheelforwardandusingthepenciltopushitthroughtheair,thepinwheelwillturn.)
- 做纸风车
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14 TheDirectApproach
ClassMonster—Thisactivityhelpstoreviewvocabularyrelatedtopartsofthebody,andvalueseachstudent’sparticipation.Theteachertellsthechildrenthattogethertheyaregoingtodrawasillymonster.Childrendrawontheboardaccordingtotheteacher’sinstructions.Theteacher
Figure8:PinwheelConstructionTask
A.) B.)
C.) D.)
E.) F.)
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15 TheDirectApproach
nominatesonechildtodrawahead,thenanotherchildtodrawabodyandconnectittothehead.Thiscontinuesuntilallthemajorfeaturesareincludedandthedrawingiscomplete.Ofcoursebecauseitisamonster,itisnotaproblemforittohavemorethantwoeyes,ears,arms,orlegsorevenmorethanonenose,mouth,orhead,accommodatingaclassofanysize.
SaltDoughSculptures—Usingcolorfulclayorsaltdough,theteachercaninstructstudentstosculptalmostanyconcretenounvocabularyitem.TheinstructionstheteachermightgivecouldbeassimpleasthosegivenintheLetterErectorSetactivityaboveorcouldbemorecomplicated.Forexample:
1. Makeawhitehousewithayellowdoorandablueroof.
2. Makedifferentkindsofflowers,thenaskmewhatthey’recalledinEnglishifyoudon’tknow.
3. Makeyourfavoriteanimal,thenshowittoyourfriendsandseeif
theycantellwhatitis.Incidentally,sincethemakingofsaltdoughrequires
followingarecipe,thisprocess,too,canbecomeanexperientiallanguagelearningexperienceifthestudents’languageproficiencyishighenoughfortheinstructionstobecomprehensible,yetchallenginglinguistically.Otherwise,itmaybenecessaryfortheteachertoprepareorpartiallypreparethesaltdoughinadvance.(Theprocessofcoloringwhitesaltdough,forexample,couldbeleftforthestudentstoparticipateiniftheyarelearningthevocabularyforthecolorsortheconceptofcolorblending.)Therecipeandprocessofmakingsaltdoughcouldbepresentedtothestudentseitherinwrittenororalform.TherecipeandinstructionsformakingsaltdougharegiveninFigure9(Nichols,2002).
- 捏橡皮泥
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16 TheDirectApproach
SaltDoughRecipe
Ingredients Directions
•3cupswheatflour•1cupsalt•2teaspoonsglycerinorcookingoil•fooddyesorpowderedtemperapaints
•water
Thoroughlymixtheflourandsalt.Stirringconstantly,addglycerinorcookingoil,thenwateruntilthedoughreachesthedesiredconsistency.(Ifyoucanfindglycerin,itgivesthedoughamuchmoreclay‐liketexturethanoil.Tryyourlocaldrugstoreorpharmacy.)Addfooddyeortemperapaintpowdertoreachdesiredcolors.Ifthedoughbecomestoomoist,addflour.Iftoohard,addwater.Completedmodelscanbebakedat180ºCorairdrieduntilhardened.
HomemadeIceCream—Sincewe’reonthetopicoffollowingrecipesforexperientiallanguagelearning,hereisarecipebasedactivityinwhichmoreEnglishproficientstudentscanactuallymaketheirownicecream(adaptedfromNichols,Witherow,Cunningham,Moore,&Cerello,2004).Thisrecipeactivityisidealbecauseitdoesnotrequireheatingelements,knives,orotherdangerousimplements.Again,thestudentscouldbegiventhe
instructionseitherorallyorinwrittenform.ThestepsoftheactivityareillustratedinFigure10.Thematerialsrequiredforeachpairorgroupofstudentsareasfollows:
‐ amedium‐sizedmetalcanwithare‐sealablelid
‐ asecondcanthatis5–10cmlargerindiameterthanthefirstcan,alsowithare‐sealablelid(butnotnecessarilymadeofmetal)
‐ aone‐cupmeasuringcup
‐ asmallspoon‐ onecupofmilk
- 家制冰激淋
Figure9:SaltDoughRecipe
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17 TheDirectApproach
‐ onecupofcream‐ halfacupofsugar
‐ vanillaflavoring‐ alotoffinelycrushedorsmall‐cubedice(tryaskingatfastfood
restaurantsordrinkstandsthatusecrushediceoriceinsmall
cubes)‐ aboutonecupofsalt‐ aselectionofchoppedfruits,nuts,and/orcandy
‐ smallservingbowlsandspoons
Iftheactivityisdoneorally,theinstructionsthatmightbegivenbytheteacherareasfollows:
1. Putonecupofmilkinthesmallcan.2. Putonecupofcreaminthesmallcan.
3. Puthalfacupofsugarinthesmallcan.4. Putonespoonofvanillainthesmallcan.5. Putthelidonthesmallcan.
6. Putthelidontight!7. Putthesmallcaninthebigcan.8. Putalittlebitoficebetweenthesmallcanandthebigcan.
9. Nowputalittlebitofsaltontheice.10. Nowputalittlebitmoreicebetweenthesmallcanandthebigcan.11. Nowputalittlebitmoresaltontheice.
12. Putmoreicebetweenthesmallcanandthebigcan.13. Putmoresaltontheice.14. Nowfilltherestofthebigcanwithice.
15. Putmoresaltontheiceandputthelidonthebigcan.16. Putthelidontight!17. Nowrollthecanonthefloor.
18. Rollthecantoyourfriend.19. Haveyourfriendrollitbacktoyou.20. Rollthecanbackandforth,backandforth.
21. Rollthecanbackandforthfortenminutes.22. Nowopenthebigcananddumpoutthemeltedice.
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18 TheDirectApproach
A) B)
C) D)
E) F)
G) H)
I) J)
Figure10:StepsinMakingHomemadeIceCream
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19 TheDirectApproach
23. Takeoutthesmallcanandstirtheicecream.
24. Putthelidbackonthesmallcan;putitontight!25. Putthesmallcanbackinthebigcan.26. Putmoresaltandiceinsidethebigcan.
27. Putthelidbackonthebigcanandrollitbackandforthagain.28. Rollitbackandforthfortenmoreminutes.29. Openthebigcananddumpoutthemeltediceagain.
30. Openthesmallcanandtakeouttheicecream.31. Putyourfavoritefruit,nuts,orcandyontheicecreamandeatit!
TBLwithVerbalTasks
ManyoftheprinciplesofexperientiallearningandTBLasdescribedaboverelatetoeitherolderlearnersormoreproficientEnglishlanguagelearners.ThechallengeistoreinterpretTBLwhenworkingwithyounglearners.Inthiscaseseveralguidelinesshouldbeconsidered.Firstofall,classroomtasksforyoungchildrenshouldhavecoherenceandunityforalllearners.Inotherwords,thetopics,activitiesandoutcomesshouldberelatedandinterconnected.Foryoungchildren,bothmeaningandpurposeforthetasksareveryimportant.Singingasonginclassmightbefun,forexample,buttheremustalsobesomesortofplanned,structuredactivitytofocusonlanguageinordertomakesingingworthwhile.Thetaskforchildrenshouldalsohaveabeginningandanend,sinceasenseofcompletionandaccomplishmentmakeslearningmoremeaningfulforthem.Also,perhapsmostimportantly,thelearnersmustbeactivelyinvolvedinthetaskinorderforittobeeffectiveasateachingtool(Cameron,2001).
Inthissection,wewillfocusonTBLactivitiesinwhichlanguageisrequiredinachievingthetaskitself.Inthesubsequentsection,wewillexploresomeTBLactivitiesinwhichamoreorlessnon‐verbaltaskisfollowedupwitha
有口头交际活动的任务教学
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20 TheDirectApproach
language‐basedactivity.
SentenceBuilding—Thisactivitycanbeeitherspoken(foryounglearners)orwritten(formoreproficientstudents).Itisaveryworthwhilegrouptask,especiallyifitinvolvessinglewordsorlexicalchunks(meaningfulphrases)thatcanberecombinedinavarietyoffunorcreativewaystoproducedescriptionsofclassmates,animals,orfamiliarplaces.Chunksofsentencesarewrittenonlargestripsofpaper.Thenthechildrenworkwithpartnersoringroupstodevisemeaningfulsentences.Ifthechildrenarepreliterate,thisactivitycanalsooftenbedonewithpicturespostedonthewallorwhiteboardrepresentingthekeypartsofsentences
(e.g.,subjects,verbs,adjectives,objects,etc.)(SeeFigure11.)
VerbalHideandSeek—Inthisgamealargepictureofasceneisshown.Forexample,itcouldbeastreetscene,afarmyardscene,orahomescene.Theteacheroroneofthestudentsthen“hides”anobjectwithinthescene.(Theobjectisnotliterallyhiddeninthepicture,buttheplayereitherwritesdownitsimaginarylocationonapieceofpaperor
- 造句
Figure11:SentenceBuildingActivitywithPreliterateChildren
- 故事再现
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21 TheDirectApproach
whispersittotheteacher.)StudentshavetoguessitslocationbyaskingaseriesofquestionssuchasIsitneartheriver?Isitbehindthecow?Itisundertherock?,andsoon.Thefirststudenttocorrectlyguesswheretheimaginaryobjectwashiddengetstohideanotherobjectsomewhereelseinthesceneandplaycontinues(Willis,1996).JumbledStories—Cardswithjumbledsentencesfromafamiliarstory,someofwhicharemissingkeywordsorphrases,arepassedouttogroupstodiscuss,reorder,andpossiblyrewritewiththeirownendings.Avariationonthisistoomitalltheadjectivesordescriptivewordsfromthejumbledsentencesandencouragechildrentoremembertherightwordsorprovidetheirownadjectives.
TBLwithNonVerbalTasks
Herewewillexploreavarietyofmostlynon‐verbaltasksthatarethenturnedintolanguagelearningactivitieswithaverbalfollowupactivity.Again,wewillbeginwiththosetasksthatareappropriateforveryyoung,lowEnglishproficiencystudentsandworkourwayuptothosesuitableforolder,morefluentchildren.
LetterScavengerHunt—Inthisactivity,childrencutoutlettersthatarebeinglearned,thentheteacherhidesthemaroundtheclassroom.Thetaskoftheclassisthensearchfortheletters,andasthestudentsfindaletter,theyannounce,“It’sab.It’sac.”andsoon(Procter&Procter,2005).
Pockets—Firstcolorsandnumbersvocabularyisreviewedinclass.Thenlargeenvelopesrepresentingeighttotenprimarycolorsareplacedonalargerposterboardordisplayboardatthefrontoftheroom.Childrenaretoldtocutoutpicturesfrommagazinescorrespondingtoeachofthecolors.Cooperatively,theyhavetofindfiveormorepicturesforeachofthecolorsandputthemintheappropriateenvelope.Asafollowup,thenumbersofeachcorrectpicturecanbetallied
非口头交际的任务教学活动
- 字母搜寻
- 字母归类袋
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outloudinEnglish.Studentscanalsobecalledontosummarizetheirpictures.Forexample,“It’sanapple.It’sred.”Also,disputesaboutwhichpicturesbelonginwhichenvelopecanbediscussedandclarified,givingmorelanguagepractice.Thisactivitycouldbeadaptedforothervocabularytargets,forexampleshapes.Inthiscase,childrenmightlookforpicturesofthingswithround,square,ortriangularforms.
MakeYourOwnWeatherMobile—Eithercut‐outtemplatesandcardswithtargetvocabularyonthemprovidedbytheteacher,orstudentscangeneratetheirownideasfordecorationandembellishmentoftheirweathermobiles.(SeeFigure12.)Theycanfocusonaparticularregionortypeofclimate,andbeaskedtoexplaintheirmobilesinpairsorgroupsaftertheyhavecompletedtheirprojects.(Note:Thesecrettomakinganymobilebalanceistostartbuildingfromthebottom.Connectthebottommostmobileobjectstoastiffwireorothertypeofcrossmemberwithstrings,thenfindthebalancepointinthatcrossmemberandtieastringtoitthere.Tietheotherendofthatstringtooneendofanothercross
Figure12:WeatherMobile
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memberandanotherobjectattheotherendofthissecondcrossmember.Thenfindthebalancepointofthissecondcrossmember,whichwillbeverymuchoff‐center,tieastringtoitthereandconnectthatstringtooneendofathirdcrossmemberonyourwayup.Continueuntilenoughcrossmembershavebeenaddedtosupportallofthehangingobjectsinthemobile.Also,notethatoftenmorethantwoobjectsorsetsofobjectscanbehungfromthesamecross‐member.)
ProjectWork
Projectworkisanothersubsetofexperientiallearningthathasparticularrelevanceforyounglearners.Likeatask,aprojectisaunitofclassworkwithabeginning,middle,andend.Childrencanfeelasenseofaccomplishmentandraisetheirself‐esteemwhentheyproducesomethingtangibletoshowtotheirclassmates,friends,andfamily.Thereareseveralotherbenefitsofprojectwork,andtheseshouldallbeconsideredwhendesigningprojecttasksforyounglearners(Phillips,Burwood&Dunford,1999).
Insteadoffocusingonlanguageforitsownsake,projectworkconsiderstheoveralldevelopmentofayoungchild,bothinandoutofclass.Projectswithdistincttaskshelptodeveloptheintellectualandreasoningskillsofchildren,alongwiththeirphysicalandmotorskills.Socialskillsarestrengthenedbyworkingtogetherinpairsorgroups,andlearnerindependenceisencouragedwhenindividualdecisionsaremade.Byallowingforchoicesandcreativity,theemotionalandpersonaldevelopmentofeachchildisalsonurtured.Inmixed‐abilityclasses,thisisespeciallycriticalsinceindividualcontributionsfromallkindsoftalentarevaluedinagoodgroupproject.Eachcontributioncanbeassessedseparately,andeachchildcanfeelthatheorsheisimportanttothesuccessfuloutcomeofaproject.
项目活动
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Furthermore,suchprojectsallowformaximumflexibilityinaclassroom.Theycanbeusedtoenrichthecurriculumorusedasstand‐aloneactivitiestodrivetheinstruction(Phillips,Burwood&Dunford,1999).
ProjectsoftenrequiremoresophisticatedusesofEnglish.Theyincludepuzzleswithaproblem‐solvingtask,andmayintegrateotherdisciplinessuchasmathematics,science,socialstudiesorart.Forexample,plasticformssuchasLegosorsimilarmaterialscanbeusedtoconstructageographicshapeorahouseinagivenamountoftime.Aswithexperientiallearningitself,thepossibilitiesforvariouslearningprojectsarealmostendless,butwewillintroduceafewideashere.
TalentShowcase—Thisisastudent‐centeredactivity.Askstudentstochooseproductsfromtheirpastclassactivitiesthattheyaremostproudof.Ideallytheseshouldincludeitemsproducedbychildrenforbulletinboards,murals,collaborativestories,andillustratedstorybooks.Suchproductsareespeciallymeaningfulbecausetheyareproducedwithaspecificaudienceinmind(e.g.,parents,upper‐levelstudents,orthecommunity),andstudentsfocusmoreonboththeformandaccuracyofsomethingmadefordisplaytothepublic(Willis,1996).Theclassthencollaborativelydecideshowtodisplayorotherwisesharetheseproductswithinvitedguests.Appropriatedisplaysaremadeandpresentationsareplanned.Thenthepublic,perhapstheparentsofthechildrenorteachersandstudentsfromotherclasses,areinvitedtocomeseethedisplayandpresentationspreparedbythestudents.
BuildYourOwnVillage—Onehigherordertaskinvolvesworkingingroupstobuildavillageorfarmyardfromeggcartons,sodacans,orotherrecycledmaterials.(SeeFigure13.)Thiscanalsoprovidemanychancesforactivelanguage
- 才艺展示
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production,sincestudentshavetolistentooneanotherandnegotiatethebestwaytobuildtheirproject(Willis,1996).
VideoProduction—Groupsofchildrenareprovidedwithaccesstoavideocameraandareaskedtoprepareavideodocumentaryonasubjectoftheirchoosingtopresenttotheclass.Groupscanbeallowedtochooseanytopictheylikeorcanchoosefromalistofappropriatetopicsselectedbytheirteacher,perhapsrelatedtothethemesthey’vebeenstudyingintheirrecentEnglishclasses.ThechildrenwritetheirownEnglishscriptfortheirdocumentaryandcollaboratetodecidewhatvideofootagetocollectandwheretheyshouldgotocollectit.Attheendoftheproject,groupssharetheirvideodocumentarieswiththeclassandleadclassroomdiscussionsontheirdocumentarytopics.
Conclusions
Letusnowsummarizewhatwehavelearnedaboutexperientiallearningor“learningbydoing.”First,wepresentedthehistoricalevolutionofexperientiallearning.ThenwediscussedhowexperientiallearningrelatestolanguageteachingintheformofTaskBasedLearning(TBL).OurdiscussionofTBLincludedareviewofrelatedtheoriesandresearch.Finally,welookedatafewpractical
- 摄制录像片
Figure14:VideoProductionProject
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26 TheDirectApproach
experientiallearningandTBLactivitiesforteachingEnglishtochildren.
Wesawhowtheconceptofexperientiallearningstartedintheearly1800’swithFriedrichFröbel’sexperientialkindergarten(“child’sgarden”).TheconceptwasfurtherdevelopedinMariaMontessori’sCasadeBambini(Children’sHouse).JohnDeweyofTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversitypopularizedexperientiallearningintheWestandendedupinfluencingthefieldofeducationworldwide.WenotedhowDewey’sstudentssuchasChen,Heqintooktheconceptofexperientiallearningtotheirhomecountriesandadapteditforusethere.Finally,wenotedhowtheconceptofexperientiallearninghascontinuedtoinfluencetheworkandtheoriesofcontemporaryresearcherssuchasPaoloFriereinBrazilandHowardGardneratHarvardUniversity,
Experientiallearningasweknowittodayemergedfromtheprogressivismmovementandincludestheconceptsofhandsonlearning,constructiveplay,learninginauthenticcontexts,learningwithauthenticmaterials,linkingtoexistingknowledge,exposuretobothnaturalenvironmentsandsocialenvironments,studentcenteredcurriculaandactivities,andselfreflectionandselfevaluation.
Intermsoflanguageteaching,experientiallearningnaturallyleadsustoTBL,whichproposesthatlanguage‐learningsyllabimightbestbeorganizedaroundtasksratherthantopicsorgrammaticalforms.ByusingEnglishasthemediumincontentbasedinstructionandrelyingona“NaturalApproach”ofexposuretoroughly‐tunedscaffoldedinput,studentscanlearnthelanguageinductivelyratherthanfocusingonlanguageformorgrammaticalstructures.RodEllismightrefertosuchanapproachasonethatconcentratesonpracticewithvariouslanguagefunctionsasstudentsworkcollaborativelytosolve
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problems,createproducts,orperhapspreparepresentations,progressingnaturallytowardslanguagefluencyandaccuracy.
AlthoughsomeTBLtasksimplicitlyrequirelanguagethroughout,othersinvolvetasksofanon‐verbalnature.JaneWillispointedoutthatsuchnon‐verbaltaskscanstillbeusedinTBL,however,byorganizinglessonsintoalanguagebasedpretaskphase,thenon‐verbalduringtaskphase,andafinallanguagefocusedaftertaskphase.
WealsodiscussedsomespecialissueswhenitcomestoapplyingTBLtoteachingchildren.Amongtheconcernsweneedtoaddressarehowtohandletheresultingnoiseandclassroomdiscipline,usingTBLwithmixedabilityclasses,andhowtostayprimarilyfocusedonlanguagelearningwhenlessonsrevolvearoundnon‐verbaltasks.
Finallyweexploredseveralsubsetsoflanguageteachingexperientialandtask‐basedexercises.Althoughthepossibilitiesforsuchactivitiesarealmostlimitless,wesawsomecomprehensionactivitiesthatsimplyhavechildrenfolloworalorwritteninstructions,tasksthatrequirelanguagethroughout,non‐verbaltaskswithalanguage‐basedfollow‐upactivity,andmoreextensiveprojectsthatrequirelanguageduringtheprocess.
Thetopicofexperientiallearningisacomplexonewithbroadimplicationsforyounglearners.ManycompetingtheoriesofEnglishlanguageeducationresonatewithexperientiallearningandtask‐basedideas.Theexamplesofprojectsandactivitiesforyoungchildrenweprovideherearebynomeanscompleteorexhaustive.Thechallengeforyouasateacheristodevelopyourownsetofworkingtask‐basedactivitiestospiceupyourlessons,motivateyourstudents,andmaketheirlearningmoremeaningfulandmemorable.
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