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Temperate Grasslands
• Prairies, (N. Am. [Great Plains, Palouse, California])
• Steppes (Russia - Ukraine [Hungary-Rumania])
• Pampas (Argentina - Uruguay)• Veldt (S. Africa); NZ tussock
grasslands
Temperate grasslands
• Prairies and steppes have continental climates characterised by large annual range of temperature, cool - cold winters, with most of precipitation as snow, and hot, commonly droughty summers because of high evapotranspiration rates.
Temperature regimes(Great Plains stations)
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Calgary
Cheyenne
Omaha
Chicago
Abilene
Tem
pera
ture
(°C
)
Precipitation regimes(west- east transect)
J F M A M JJ A S O
N D
Cheyenne
Omaha
Chicago
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Cheyenne
Omaha
Chicago
The prairie-forest boundary
Budyko suggested that the forest -
grassland boundary in the
midwest corresponds with a
dryness ratio* of 1.1 -1.2 (=dotted
line)
Budyko dryness ratio values, N. America
Hare (1980) Atmos.-Ocean 18, 127-153.
Soils
• Loessic parent material - derived from aeolian reworking of glacial and fluvioglacial deposits in northern North America and Europe during late glacial periods.
• Limited areas of glacial, fluvioglacial, and alluvial deposits
Soil genesis• In humid areas on forest margins
BRUNIZEMS are the dominant soil type. Characterized by moderately acid A horizon (pH 5-6).
• In tall-grass prairies CHERNOZEMS (MOLLISOLS) are dominant. A horizon has pH of about 6-7. Dominant processes are melanization and calcification. Rodent (esp. gopher) and insect activity may recycle >100 ton/ha/of soil per year to surface.
Soil catena in dry prairies
12
3
Solonetzic solod profile
2. Solonetz3. Solod
textural B; Na+ saturation of B and C horizons
1. Chernozem
depression
Na, Mg, etc
Some common grass species
1. Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem)2. Bouteloua curtipendula (sideoats grama)3. Schizachyrium scoparius (little bluestem)4. Koeleria macrantha (?)5. Bouteloua gracilis (blue grama)
1 2 3 4
5
C4 grasses:a) less tolerant of low temperatures (e.g. flowering inhibited by night T <13°C) b) more tolerant of moisture deficits
Polar and tropical source areas for prairie grasses
Note: no pre-Miocene grass fossils known from plains area. Conclusion: Prairies developed in lee of rising Cordillera in mid-Tertiary.
C3Agropyron, ElymusKoeleria, Poa, Stipa
+ sedges
Bouteloua, BuchloeAndropogon
C4
Prairie forbs• Streletsk reports 180 spp of flowering
plants from the Ukrainian steppes (only 20 of which are grasses).
• In the tall-grass prairies of North America >70 spp may be in flower at once.
• Forbs have variable drought tolerances and phenologies.
• Flowering times range from March (e.g. Tulipa/Hyacintha in steppes) - Sept/Oct (e.g. Delphinium spp.).
Some N. American prairie forbs
1 2 3
4 5
1. Amorpha canescens2. Asclepias tuberosa3. Helenium autumnale4. Verbena stricta 5. Aster laevis
Annual production
of plant biomass in
prairie grasslands
note: 60-80% below-
ground
100
0 k
cal m
-2 a
-1
Consumption:
relatively small intake by shoot grazers vs. root
suckers(predominantly
nematodes)BUT is this a product of historical factors?
100
0 k
cal m
-2 a
-1
Rapid decline in grazer
populations in last 200 years as a result of
habitat destruction
and hunting.
1900Buffalo - almost extinct;Gophers - 98% decline
Buffalo grazing: Manitoba
“In vallies and humid situations, the grass grows to a great height, which fattens our horses in a short time, but the buffalo usually makes choice of the hilly, dry ground to feed on, the blades of grass on which are small, short and tender. When a numerous herd of these animals stay any length of time in one place, the ground is absolutely barren there for the remainder of the season…”
Umfreville (1790)
Buffalo grazing: North Dakota
“This afternoon I rode a few miles up Park river. The few spots of wood along it have been ravaged by buffaloes; none but the large trees are standing . . . The small wood and brush are entirely destroyed, and even the grass is not permitted to grow. The bare ground is more trampled by these cattle than the gate of a farmyard . . .”
Alexander Henry (1801)
Was there a grazing sequence?
Antelope reported to follow buffalo; they appear to prefer heavily-grazed land with dense populations of forbs.Antilocapra americana
Colonization of old coyote burrows by gophers - effects of
“dogtown” on neighbouring vegetation
Eastern Colorado prairies: burrow entrances shown by arrows
~10 mpre- post-
Carnivores
Burrowing owl Kit fox Badger
Photo credits: Greg Lasley, Bill Standley
(all hole ‘nesters’)
+ swift fox, coyote, wolf, bears
Pre-Pleistocene fauna• Selection of prairie flora for tolerance of
heavy grazing a product of radiation of diverse herbivore assemblage in Mio-Pliocene.
• In the Pliocene the N. American plains were home to 7 genera of horses, 12 genera of antelopes; camelids, peccaries, tapirs and rhinoceroses (plus a diverse group of carnivores)
• Think of a Nebraskan ‘Serengeti’.
Fire on the prairies
Are the tall-grass prairies a climatic climax, or is fire the predominant generative and maintaining factor?
The argument in favour of fire:
“I grew up in the timbered upland peninsula formed by the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. The prairie began a few miles to the north and extended far into Iowa. The broad rolling uplands were prairie, whatever their age and origin, the stream-cut slopes were timbered….. From grandparents I heard of the early days when people dared not build their houses beyond the shelter of the wooded slopes, until the plough stopped the autumnal prairie fires. In later field work in Illinois, in the Ozarks, in Kentucky, I met parallel conditions of vegetation limits coincident with breaks in relief. I gave up the search for climatic explanation of the humid prairies.”
Carl Sauer, 1969. Agricultural Origins and Dispersals.
A prairie landscape in Illinois,showing the restriction of woodland
to moister (and more fire-proof) valley bottoms
Prairie fires: Texas“the Indians of the interior have another intolerable method, . . . which is to fire the plains and forests . . . both to drive the mosquitoes away and at the same time drive lizards and like things from the earth to eat. They also kill deer by encircling fires; deprived of pasturage, the animals are forced to seek it where the Indians may trap them”.
Cabeza de Vaca, A.N. Relación (1542)Shipwrecked by a hurricane on the coast of Texas with his crew in 1527; Cabeza de Vaca lived with the Indians in Texas from 1528-1535.
Prairie fires: the Dakotas
“the Plains are on fire in view of the fort on both sides of the river, it is said to be common for the Indians to burn the Plains near their Villages every Spring for the benefit of their horses and to induce the Buffalow to come near them”.
Lewis and Clark’s Journals - describing their winter quarters in North Dakota in 1805.
Prairie fires: Oklahoma
[Oct. 24, 1849] “ yesterday we could see the smoke of the Prairie burning in every direction but today it got close to us. It was the work of the Osages”
Woodhouse, S.W. Journals (1992)
[Oct 31, 1832] “It was the time when hunting parties of Indians set fire to the prairies; the herbage . . . was in that parched state, favorable to combustion . . .”
Irving, W.A. A Tour on the Prairies (1835)
Fire season
Spring Late-summer
Flame height (L, m) 1.9±0.4 0.7±0.1
Intensity (I; kW/m)1 1260±520 120±20
Litter consumption (%)
100 91±2
II= 259.83L2.174
Data: Copeland et al., 2002. Restoration Ecology, 10,31-323
Fire and prairie restoration
Fire and prairie restoration
Data: Copeland et al., 2002. Restoration Ecology, 10, 31-323
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1996 1998 1996 1998
Spring burn Late summer burn
Subdominant species richness
Native plant species
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1996 1998 1996 1998
Spring burn Late summer burn
Subdominant species richness
All plant species
Fire and prairie restoration
Data: Copeland et al., 2002. Restoration Ecology, 10, 31-323
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1996 1998 1996 1998Spring burn Late summer burn
Subdominant species richness
Late
Mid
Early
Flowering times
Prairies in the late QuaternaryPollenViewer
Where were the “prairies” at LGM?Most LGM pollen assemblages in southern Great Plains have no modern analogues,
butNeb/Kansas ~ open subalpine forest/parkland?
C.Texas ~ sagebrush steppe?northern Mexico-NM ~ juniper/pinyon woodland?
*see “Poaceae” and “prairie forbs”