Temples and Tombs BM s Resource for Educators

7/29/2019 Temples and Tombs BM s Resource for Educators

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Resource for Educators

Temle ad TmbTeae Eta At m Te Bt Mem

American Federation of Arts


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Resource for Educators


Temle ad TmbTeae Eta At m Te Bt Mem


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Temples and Tombs: Treasures o Egyptian Art rom The British Museum is

organized by the American Federation o Arts and The British Museum.

All materials included in this resource may be reproduced or educational

purposes.

The AFA is a nonprot institution that organizes art exhibitions or presen-

tation in museums around the world, publishes exhibition catalogues, and

develops education programs.

2006 American Federation of Arts


212.988.7700

800.232.0270

www.aaweb.org

interim address:

122 East 42nd Street, Suite 1514

New York, NY 10168

ater April 1, 2007:

305 East 47th Street

New York, NY 10017

Please direct questions about this

resource to:

Suzanne Elder Burke

Director o Education

American Federation o Arts

212.988.7700 x26

[email protected]

Exhibition Itinerary to Date

Oklahoma City Museum o Art

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

September 7November 26, 2006

The Cummer Museum o Ar t and Gardens

Jacksonville, Florida

December 22, 2006March 18, 2007

North Carolina Museum o Art

Raleigh, North Carolina

April 15July 8, 2007

Albuquerque Museum o Art and History

Albuquerque, New Mexico

November 16, 2007February 10, 2008

Fresno Metropolitan Museum o Art,

History and Science

Fresno, Caliornia

March 7June 1, 2008

Design/Production: Susan E. Kelly

Front Cover: The Tomb Owners Sister

(p. 34)


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Abot Ths Resorce 4

Ehbto Oerew 5

Acet Egta Hstor 7

Chrooog 12

Ma o Acet Egt 13

Acet Egta Socet 14

Art ad Ctre Acet Egt 15

Heroghs 24

Seected Works o Art wth Dscsso Starters ad Acttes 27

1. SeatedStatueoAnkhwa 28 2.RaisedRelie:Dailylie,Children 30 3.TombStatueoaMan 32 4.TheTombOwnersSister 34 5.PectoralPlaque:AmenemhatIVBeoreAtum 36 6.HeadrestintheShapeoaHare 38 7.HeadromaStatueoThutmosisIII 40 8.DrawingBoard 42 9.BottleintheFormoaBolti-ish 44 10.HeadoAmenhotepIII 46 11.FragmentaryStelawithAkhenaten 48 12.LidotheAnthropoidCoinoanUnidentiiedWoman 50 13.BookotheDead,PapyrusoNestanebetisheru: 52 AdoringRe-Harakhty

14.KneelingFigureoNekhthorheb 54 15.PanelPortraitoaYoungMan 56 16.SematawyHoldingaNaos 58

Gossar 60

Bbograh 63

conTEnTs


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Designed to complement the exhibition Temples and Tombs: Treasures

o Egyptian Art rom The British Museum, this Resource or Educators

provides inormation and ideas to assist you in teaching your studentsabout ancient Egypt and its rich artistic legacy. We recommend that, i

possible, you use this resource in conjunction with a visit to the exhi-

bition. Encourage your students to look closely at the works o art and

to learn about their historical context. The experience o careul look-

ing, combined with thoughtul questioning and access to inormation

about history and culture, creates a rewarding and powerul learning

experience. Please note that those words that appear in boldace can

be ound in the Glossary. The Discussion Starters and Activities can be

adapted to the level o your students.

This Resource or Educators was prepared by Suzanne Elder Burke,

AFA Director o Education, with the assistance o Education Interns

Erica Patino and Bailey Skiles. Some o the text has been excerpted or

adapted rom the exhibition catalogue, Temples and Tombs: Treasures

o Egyptian Art rom The British Museum (New York: American Federa-

tion o Arts in association with University o Washington Press, 2006),

and rom Eternal Egypt: Masterworks o Ancient Art rom The Brit ish

MuseumA Teachers Guide to the Exhibition (New York: American Fed-

eration o Arts, 2001). The quotations at the end o some o the object

descriptions are rom three prominent Egyptologists: Vivian Davies, Keeper

o Egyptian Antiquities, The British Museum; Edna R. Russmann, Guest

Curator o the exhibition and Curator o Egyptian, Classical and Ancient

Middle Eastern Art, The Brooklyn Museum o Art; and Richard Parkin-

son, Assistant Keeper o Egyptian Antiquities, The British Museum. These

quotes have been reprinted with the permission o the Acoustiguide Cor-

poration. The AFA is grateul to the Acoustiguide Corporation or generously

granting permission to include some o their material in this publication.

ABouT This rEsourcE


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ExhiBiTion ovErviEw

This exhibition o approximately eighty-ve magnicent objects selected

rom one o the oremost collections o Egyptian antiquities in the world

spans the ull range o pharaonic historyrom shortly beore the ThirdDynasty, about 2686 B.C., to the Roman occupation o the ourth cen-

tury A.D.covering the our periods into which modern scholars divide

ancient Egyptian history: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom,

and the Late Period. Sculpture, relies, papyri, ostraca, jewelry, cosmetic

objects, and unerary items in a variety o mediaincluding stone, wood,

terra cotta, gold, glass, and papyrusrefect the richness and scope o the

British Museums exceptional collection. Selected by Edna R. Russmann,

Curator o Egyptian, Classical and Ancient Middle Eastern Art at the Brook-

lyn Museum, with Consulting Curator Nigel Strudwick, Assistant Keeper,

Department o Ancient Egypt and Sudan at the British Museum, Temples

and Tombsexplores our themes: the king and the temple; objects rom the

lives o artists and nobles; statues o Egyptians rom temples and tombs;

and the tomb, death, and the aterlie. These divisions o the exhibition

allow or an examination o these masterworks in the context o the Egyp-

tian temporal and cosmic worldview.

THE KinG AnD THE TEMplE

The king was the highest ranking mortal and served as the intermediary

between the divine and human worlds. The temple unctioned as the cen-

tral physical expression o the unique relationship between the king and

the gods. Immediately recognizable by his garments, crown, and the oval

cartouche in which his name was usually inscribed, an Egyptian king was

the individual best able to please the gods. He perormed his role as the

one true priest almost entirely via his images in the templeshe is por-

trayed on temple walls making oerings to the god or goddesses, as small

statues adoring the main divine image in the sanctuary, and as towering

colossi near the main gateways. The kings undertook the building o great

royal tombs, at rst in the orm o pyramids, later tunneled deep into the

clis outside o Luxor. They were believed to join the gods in the aterlie;

near his tomb, each king had his own unerary temple where, by venerat-

ing his images, the Egyptians hoped to encourage him to continue caring

or his people.

OBjECTS ROM THE livES O ARTiSTS AnD nOBlES

The objects used by artists and nobles refect activities such as shing,

hunting, grain harvesting, boat building, dancing, and banquet scenes

rom celebrations. The hieroglyphs on many o the stelae and relies in

the exhibition demonstrate the masterly level o graphic communication

attained by the Egyptians. Statues and paintings o gures portray the


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Egyptians enjoyment o jewelry; their hairstyles, make up, and clothing;

their household urniture; the company they kept, including servants and

amily; and tools symbolizing their proessions, the bases or their positionsin society. Ironically, it is because so many o these objects were buried in

their owners tombs that they and the scenes o lie they depict have been

preserved or our study today.

STATuES O EGypTiAnS ROM TEMplES AnD TOMBS

Private statuary was oten made or placement in tombs and temples; such

statues served important unctions or the Egyptians. The earliest statues

were made or tombs and served as a place or the spirit o the deceased

to reside. While the deceaseds spirit would ideally reside in the mummy,

private statuary ensured that it would always have a home. In the temple,

private statuary represented status, wealth, and an ability to partake o

cult oerings. When examining statues o human orms rom ancient Egypt,

we must take into account that private statuary may have been created to

match an idealized orm rather than the actual appearance o the subject.

THE TOMB, DEATH, AnD THE ATERliE

Seeking to extend lie ater death, the Egyptians made provisions in their

burials or the aterlie, although only the afuent could aord the ull array

o tomb items and rituals intended to protect the body o the deceased and

insure a successul aterlie or the soul. Many o the bowls, palettes, head-

rests, ostracas, and other utilitarian objects in the exhibition are decorated

with protective symbols because they were intended to accompany their

owners to the tomb. The scenes on tomb walls and doors, unerary temples,

and cons invoke unerary deities; shabtigures acted as surrogate labor-

ers or their owners; and generous piles o ood were shown on stelae and

tomb walls to provide sustenance throughout eternity. Also depicted on

tomb walls were celebrations, scenes o oerings being made, and other

activities that the Egyptians wished to have continue in the aterlie.


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AnciEnT EgypTiAn hisTory

Ancient Egyptthe oldest known Ar ican civilization and one o the earli-

est o all culturesfourished or more than three thousand years. Many

important aspects o Egyptian thought and culturemost o the gods, muchroyal symbolism, and the basics o hieroglyphic writingdeveloped beore

Egypt was unied in the First Dynasty, around 3100 B.C. However, the

countrys unication under a strong central government stimulated the

development o culture and the arts, and brought Egypt several periods o

enormous wealth and power.

Most Egyptian art was created or temples or tombs and as such expressed

a religious aith that was charged with magical powers. The Egyptian

kingwho came to be called pharaoh, rom the Egyptianper aa, meaning

palaceplayed a central role in religion, as well as government. Royal

statues o colossal size (see g. 1) symbolized his power to both keep Egypt

strong and uphold the divine order o the universe. Nonroyal people also

commissioned and possessed ne works o art, which reveal an enormous

amount about the lives and belies o the men and women who owned

them.

The Egyptians reerred to themselves as the people o the black land, a

reerence to the rich soil o the Nile Valley (as opposed to the red land

o the desert). The Nile River, the longest river in the world, made agricul-

ture possible in Egypts dry, desert climate. The rivers annual fooding,

caused by heavy monsoon rains upriver in Ethiopia, created arable land

on both riverbanks as receding foodwaters let behind rich deposits o silt

that replenished the topsoil. Moreover, the Nile provided the main artery

o transportation or both goods and people, connecting the population

centers o Egypt to one another. The importance o the Nile in practical and

philosophical terms cannot be overstated. Its yearly, predictable cycles not

only provided the basis or the Egyptians agricultural activityplanting,

growing, and harvestingbut also reinorced their condence in divinely

regulated cycles o lie and death.

Egypts recorded history begins in about 3100 B.C., when writing was

introduced. At about the same time, a single rulerknown by the mythical

name o Menesbrought together Upper Egypt (the land south o Cairo)

and Lower Egypt (the land to Cairos north, including the ertile Nile Delta).

Ancient records list thir ty dynasties, or amilies o pharaohs, in power rom

about 5000 B.C. to A.D. 642. Modern scholars have organized these dynas-

ties into our major periodsthe Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, the

New Kingdom, and the Late Periodseparated by three intermediate peri-

ods when central rule broke down.

F. 1 Head of Amenhotep III (. )


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Over ancient Egypts three-thousand-year history, the core aspects o its

society endured. This was due in part to Egypts secure locationprotected

by orbidding deserts to the west and east, the Mediterranean Sea to thenorth, and the rst Nile cataract, or great waterall, to the south. Egyptians,

however, were ar rom isolated. Egypt enjoyed a central location on trade

routes to and rom western Asia, the Mediterranean region, and central

Arica, bringing the Egyptians into contact with representatives o diverse

cultures. Not surprisingly, their art and culture refect the complex changes

one would expect rom a long-lived civilization in which trade, political

circumstances, and belie systems changed and evolved.

OlD KinGDOM (THiRDSixTH DynASTiES)

By the beginning o the Early Dynastic Period (FirstSecond Dynasties,

ca. 31002686 B.C.), Egyptian religion was well established, as were

the attributes and rituals o kingship and many o the basic conventions

or hieroglyphic writing and two-dimensional imagery. Enormous tombs

reveal an early striving or monumentality. Surviving statues and statue

ragments show that the basic types o seated gures and o male gures

standing with the proper let oot orward had been developed. Follow-

ing the important advances in the Early Dynastic Period, the Old Kingdom

was a period o intense creative activity. Our knowledge o this rst major

period comes mainly rom objects ound in tombs, both royal and nonroyal.

The Egyptians believed that proper burial was the pathway to eternal lie,

and they built elaborate tombs to protect the mummied body or eternity.

The representations o the deceased, both in tomb statues and in relies

and paintings, were intended to house the spirit and receive oerings o

ood, clothing, and other practical necessities or use in the aterlie. A

slender nude body, large head, and staring eyes are oten characteristic o

gurative art during the latter years o the Old Kingdom (see g. 2). Previ-

ously, gures had been depicted clothed and with more natural propor-

tions. This new style o representation indicated an increased emphasis on

the aterliean attitude that survived the decline o the Old Kingdom into

the politically ragmented, socially destabilized time known as the First

Intermediate Period.

MiDDlE KinGDOM (ElEvEnTHTHiRTEEnTH DynASTiES)

Nearly two hundred years ater the collapse o the Old Kingdom and the

ensuing economic and social turmoil, an Eleventh Dynasty king, Mentuho-

tep II (ca. 20552004 B.C.), reunied Egypt, initiating the Middle Kingdom.

While later Middle Kingdom kings continued to honor their great predeces-

sor, Mentuhotep, concepts o the kingship were changing.

F. 2 Nude Figure of the

Seal Bearer Tjetji

pbabl m Akmm, emete el-

haa. old Kdm, st Dat

(a. 232121 B.c.). wd, tae at,

lad ee. het 29 e. Aqed

19 (EA 299)


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Charged with ensuring order among all the inhabitants o the universe

and linking the mortal and divine worlds, the Egyptian king was the most

powerul person in Egypt. In the later Middle Kingdom, this responsibilityhad come to be seen as a tremendous burden. Whereas earlier images o

kings had appeared smiling and youthul, in the Colossal Head o Amen-

emhat III(g. 3), the somber tension o the Twelth Dynasty king Amen-

emhat III (ca. 18541808 B.C.) is harsher, even brutal. Thus, this statue is

not only a portrait o Amenemhat III the individual but also a refection o

a changed attitude toward kingship and o the somber outlook o a culture

that seems to have lost aith in the goodness o people.

Several generations ater the reign o Amenemhat III, the Middle Kingdom

disintegrated under a series o weak Thirteenth Dynasty kings, and Egypt

came under the control o Middle Eastern rulers who established a strong-

hold in the Nile Delta.

nEW KinGDOM (EiGHTEEnTHTWEnTiETH DynASTiES)

The next unication o Egypt was achieved by the Eighteenth Dynasty

pharaoh Ahmose (ca. 15501525 B.C.), who ushered in the New Kingdom.

Ahmoses successors, especially the conqueror Thutmosis III (14791425

B.C.), built a vast and powerul empire. Thutmosiss great grandson, Amen-

hotep III (13901352 B.C.), ruled over the greatest empire the world had

ever known.

For at least two thousand years, the Egyptians had worshiped numerous

deities. Amenhotep IIIs son, Akhenaten (13521336 B.C.), rejected these

traditional gods or the exclusive worship o the sun, which was cal led the

Aten. Some scholars have suggested that this radical new religionwhich

recognized only three divine beings, the Aten, Akhenaten himsel, and his

queen, Neertitiwas an early orm o monotheism.

The Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties, oten called the Ramesside

Period, was dominated by Ramesses II (ca. 12791213 B.C.), known in

history as Ramesses the Great. His statues and structures are notable or

their numerous quantity and huge size, yet despite this prolieration, no

coherent style or specic representation o his eatures ever developed.

Ramessess long reign, military prowess, and impressive building program

were legendary among his successors, many o whom also called them-

selves Ramesses and sought to emulate his monuments and representa-

tions. The statue Sety II Seated, Holding an Emblem o Amun-Re (g. 4)

depicts one o Ramesses successors; this is one o the most complete sculp-

tures rom ancient Egypt.

F. 3 Colossal Head of Amenemhat III

Fm Bbat, temle Batet, etae t

geat hall. Mddle Kdm, Telt Dat,

e Ameemat iii (a. 110 B.c.).gate. het 30 e. gt te Et

Elat Fd, 19 (EA 103)

F. Sety II Seated, Holding an Emblem

of Amun-Re

Fm Tebe, Kaak Temle. ne Kdm,

neteet Dat, e set ii (a.

1200119 B.c. ). sadte. het M

e. Aqed 123 t te ae

te t salt cllet (EA 2)


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10

THiRD inTERMEDiATE pERiOD (TWEnTy-iRST

TWEnTy-iTH DynASTiES) AnD lATE pERiOD

(TWEnTy-SixTHTHiRTiETH DynASTiES)During much o the Third Intermediate Period, Egypt was ruled by men o

oreign birth or descent and was sometimes divided among rivals or the

throne. Centralized rule was restored during the Late Period, but Egypt

would never again be the dominant international power it had been.

Throughout this period, however, Egyptian art remained vital, and metal

statuaryincluding gold, silver, copper, tin, and bronzereached a pin-

nacle o splendor.Divine Consort or Queen (g. 5), sumptuously inlaid with

gold and silver, shows the technique o combining dierent metals to cre-

ate rich color contrasts. The consorts gure, with its high narrow waist,

rom which a long continuous line joins the hips to the low-slung curve

o the thighs, is der ived rom emale statues o the Middle Kingdom.

During the Third Intermediate Period, artists oten imitated the styles o

earlier periods. This practice, called archaism, can be detected in all but

the earliest periods o Egyptian art, but it reached its peak at this time.

SECOnD pERSiAn OCCupATiOn AnD

GRECO-ROMAn pERiOD

The great conqueror Alexander the Great took Egypt in 332 B.C. but

soon headed east, leaving his general, Ptolemy, in charge. The Ptolemaic

Dynasty ruled or three hundred years until the notorious Cleopatra VII was

deeated by the Romans. Throughout this period, most aspects o Egyptian

religion and culture remained intact.

For thousands o years, the Egyptians had believed that preserving the

body, which they did through mummication, was essential to the eternal

survival o the spirit. In the Ptolemaic period, mummication continued to

be practiced and traditional unerary symbols were still placed on the co-

n, but the representation o the deceased oten showed him or her with

Greco-Roman hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry. The individual represented

in the Panel Portrait o a Young Man (g. 6) is shown wearing Roman

ashions, and his eatures are painted in the Greco-Roman portrait tradi-

tion. From the three-quarter view o his ace to the subtle shadowing, this

image diers greatly rom traditional Egyptian art. Nonetheless, panels o

this kind were made to be attached over the ace o the mummy.

F. Divine Consort or Queen

pbabl m te Teba Aea. Late Td

itemedate ped, Tet-t Dat

(a. 1 B.c.). Bze, ld ad le

la. het K e. Aqed 1919

(EA 3)


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Like the mummy panel in Greco-Roman style, the traditions developed

under the thousands o years o pharaonic rule slowly gave way to Greek,

Roman, and Christian intellectual and artistic infuences. The Arabs con-quest o Egypt in A.D. 641 brought Islam and the Arabic language to Egypt,

beginning a new era in its history and culture.

F. Panel Portrait of a Young Man

(. )


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12

Predynastic Period ca. 50003100 B.C.

Early Dynastic Period ca. 31002686 B.C.

(First and Second Dynasties)

Old Kingdom ca. 26862181 B.C.

(Third to Sixth Dynasties)

First Intermediate Period ca. 21812040 B.C.

(Seventh to Tenth Dynasties)

Middle Kingdom ca. 20401650 B.C.

(Eleventh to Thirteenth Dynasties)

Second Intermediate Period ca. 17501550 B.C.

(Fourteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties)

New Kingdom ca. 15501069 B.C.

(Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties)

Third Intermediate Period ca. 1069656 B.C.

(Twenty-rst to Twenty-th Dynasties)

Late Period 664343 B.C.

(Twenty-sixth to Thirtieth Dynasties)

Second Persian Occupation 343332 B.C.

Greco-Roman Period 332 B.C.A.D. 642

Note: While the delineation o periods is standard in the study o ancient

Egyptian history, the dating o objects, events, and periods may dier by

up to ty years in various resources.

chronoLogy


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13MAp oF AnciEnT EgypT

LOWER NUBIA

SOUTHERN BORDER

OF ANCIENT EGYPT

Gebel Silsileh

Edfu

Thebes

Hierakonpolis

Armant

E G Y P T

S UDAN

UPPER NUBIA

KUSH

Qasr Ibrim

Abu Simbel

Buhen

Amara

Soleb

Sesebi

Kerma

Kawa

Gebel Barkal

Mero

Koptos

Dendera

Naga el Der

Amarna

MostageddaAsyut

El HawawishMatmar

AkhmimUPPER EGYPT

Ashmunein (Hermopolis)

Deshasheh

Herakleopolis

TebtunisFAYUM

Saqqara

Abusir

Athribis

Kom Abu Billo (Terenuthis)

Sais

Alexandria

Giza

Tell el BalamunTanis

Bubastis

Tell el Daba (Avaris)

Tell el Maskhuta (Pithom)

CAIROHeliopolis

Memphis

Dahshur

Medum

Er Rubayyat

HawaraSedment

LOWER EGYPT

Abydos

Diospolis Parva

Faras

AswanElephantine Island

Philae

Medamud

Nil

eR

iver

SINAI

PENINSULA

D E L T A

Nil

eRiv

er

Me d i t e r ra n e a n Se a

Red

Sea

Ba

hr

Yu

ssef

0 50 100 200 300 400 Kilometres

0 50 100 200 300 Miles


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1 AnciEnT EgypTiAn sociETy

Ancient Egypt had a strictly organized, hierarchical society, with the king

the divine rulerat its pinnacle. Early in pharaonic history, all high oces

were held by members o the royal amily. Later, these positions becamehereditary posts among the upper class. Scribes were also infuential in the

Egyptian state as the population was largely illiterate; yet literacy was the

oremost requirement or holding high oce, including kingship. Images o

ocials indicate the persons rank through hairstyle, dress, and personal

implements such as staves, scepters, and jewelry. Honoric and ocial

titles also demonstrated a persons importance: they always preceded an

oce-holders name and oten were much longer than the name itsel.

Most Egyptians worked in agriculture, and people were typically paid in

ood and material goods. Landowners and production centers paid taxes to

the state. Additionally, all men worked periodically or the state on royal

building projects, irrigation projects, or on expeditions into the mountains

to nd stone. Cratsmen and slaves made up only a small percentage o the

population. (The Egyptians understanding o slavery is similar to the con-

temporary concept o people who can be bought, sold, and bound to work

without possibility o leaving. In Egypt, however, slaves had some legal

rights, namely, they could own land and marry as they wished.)

Women were subordinate to men and excluded rom high government

positions, with some very notable exceptions. Several queens ruled Egypt,

sometimes ruling or kings too young to assume the throne; among these

regents, Queen Hatshepsut remains the most amous. Outside o such

instances, womens most prominent public roles were in religious service.

For example, women served as priestesses oHathor and other, usually

emale, goddesses. In periods when the priesthood was exclusively male,

women played instruments in the temples and, at certain points in Thebes,

held the religious oces o gods wie oAmun or divine adoratrice.

Nonetheless, the primary role o a woman was a domestic one. Despite

their subordinate social standing, however, in strictly legal terms women

were essentially equal to men. Women were responsible or their own

actions, could own land and dispose o it reely, enter into contracts, and

sit on juries. Such rights indicate that women in ancient Egypt had a much

better position than the women in most ancient cultures.


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1ArT AnD cuLTurE in AnciEnT EgypT

Egyptians created art or religious and magical purposes. In act, they had

no separate word or art, viewing it instead as one element in a sophis-

ticated system o religious rites and practices. The objects they createdreveal their belies about the world and their attempts to understand it.

The Egyptians believed that an image o someone or something could be

real. For example, tomb and temple statues were not simply representa-

tions but physical representatives and repositories or the spirits o the

deceased. Intended to live orever, statues were made o durable materi-

als such as stone, wood, or metal. Their eatures were idealized according

to standards o beauty, decorum, ethics, and behaviorso much so that in

many cases representations o an individual might be recognized only by

inscriptions. Hieroglyphic writing was thereore integral to ar t, andsince

it was a system o pictorial signswriting was itsel a work o art.

MAjOR THEMES in EGypTiAn ART

cle Le

Like many other cultures, the Egyptians created myths about the origins o

the universe. The Egyptians myth held that at the moment o creation, a

mound o earth rose out o an innite, watery darkness called Nunmuch

in the same way that the earth seems to rise out o the receding foodwa-

ters o the Nile at the end o its annual food. On this mound o earth, the

creator ashioned the universe, beginning with our deities: the earth god,Geb; his sister, the sky goddess, Nut; Shu, lord o the air; and Tenut, god-

dess o moisture. To create order and maintain it against chaos, the creator

also made the goddess Maat. Each year, when the Nile fooded and pro-

vided new vegetation and lie, it was a reenactment o the creation myth.

Annual cycles o planting and harvest and daily cycles o the suns rising

and setting were also seen as cycles o birth, death, and rebirth.

Te rle te gd

The Egyptians believed that the gods controlled all events in the universe.

They personied abstract concepts such as truth and justice, and they alsoembodied natural phenomena. The timely fooding o the Nile, or example,

was not seen as the result o heavy rains upstreamas modern science

would explain itbut as an indication o the gods pleasure or displeasure

with the king and the people. Much o the Egyptians religious lie was

devoted to elaborate ceremonies intended to gain the avor and approval o

the gods. Moreover, many customs in Egyptian societydeerence to supe-

riors, support or aged parents, and allegiance to the thronewere meant

to keep order and appease the deities who oversaw such things.


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1

No single physical orm could ully represent a gods awesome and multiple

powers. Egyptians imagined their deities in many dierent ormsoten as

animals or combinations o humans and animals. Some gods were repre-sented by more than one animal, and some animals represented more than

one god. For example, Thoth, god o writing, was oten represented as an

ibis (a kind o wading bird with a slender, curved bil l) or as an ibis-headed

human. At other times, Thoth was depicted as a baboon, an animal known

or cleverness with its hands.

The association o animals with gods was natural or the Egyptians, who

lived closely with the animal lie in their environment. They must have

appreciated these creatures superhuman abilities, or example, fight,

acute smell, and night vision. Thus animal and animal-headed images o

the gods were not attempts to represent their physical appearance, but

rather to provide symbolic images o their powers. Other divine attributes

were conveyed through the headdresses the deities wore and the objects

they held, such as the ankh, the hieroglyphic sign or lie. Osiris, the

king o the underworld, held the crook and failthe emblems o Egyptian

kings.

Le Ate Deat

The Egyptians believed in an aterlie and lled their tombs with objects

intended to ensure the saety, well-being, and happiness o the deceased.

They did not view the aterlie as a distant paradise but rather as a con-

tinuation o their lie on earth.

The tomb itsel served as the spirits eternal home, where it could receive

the oerings and prayers necessary or sustaining lie throughout time.

The painting and relies decorating tomb walls usually depicted idealized

versions o everyday happenings, enabling the tomb owner to dwell or-

ever in a amiliar environment. Some tomb scenes representing recurring

phenomena such as annual rituals or the seasonal harvesting o grain had

a deeper signicance. The Egyptians believed that by associating them-

selves with such cyclical events, they would increase their own chances o

experiencing the cycle o birth, death, and rebirth.

A secure aterlie required a proper burial. Ater death, the body underwent

mummication. This process could take as long as seventy days, with each

stage overseen by special priests. First the internal organs were removed

and stored. The heart, believed to be the seat o understanding, was usu-

ally let in place. The brain, however, was not thought to be an important

organ and was simply thrown away. Next, the body was covered with


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1

natural salt and placed on a slanted table. The ats and liquids drained out

and were collected in a container to be buried in or near the tomb. Ater

orty days, the dried body was repacked with linen, sawdust, and evendried lichen. Incisions were then closed and covered with a protective

amulet representing the wedjateye oHorus. The body was massaged

with lotions and perume, treated with ointment, and covered in resin, a

sticky gum rom plants. Wrapping the mummy took teen days because

the bandages had to be very tight in order to maintain the shape o the

body. Lastly, a unerary mask was tted over the head and shoulders to

identiy the wrapped mummy to the kaand the ba.

The Egyptians believed human beings to be composed o three major ele-

ments: the physical body, the ka, and the ba. The ka was the lie orce,

which separated rom the body at death to return to its source, the creator.

The deceaseds goal was to rejoin with the ka each day in order to live

again. Food and drink had sustained the ka during a persons lie, and

the same needs were attended to in death. In addition to actual oer-

ings o ood, people equipped tombs with representations and models o

ood, ood production, and dining. The ba can be understood as a persons

souleverything that makes a person an individual except or the body.

Represented as a bird with a human head, the ba linked lie on earth with

the aterworld. Each night it received the power o rebirth by reuniting

with the mummy, where it met up with the ka.

Many symbols o protection surrounded the mummy, including representa-

tions o deities, amulets such as scarabs, and magic spells. To help guide

the ba in its nightly journey to rebirth, people inscribed tomb walls with

rituals and magic spells. In the New Kingdom, people also wrote such spells

on papyrus scrolls and buried them along with the deceased; these scrolls

are known as the Book of the Dead.

Only those people who had lived righteous lives could look orward to the

promise o an a terlie. The ateul determination was made by Osiris, the

god o the underworld, who tested ones lie by weighing the deceased

persons heart against a eather, representing Maat. To ail this test was

considered to die a second time, as the deceased would thus be denied

the cycle o rebirth. I the test was passed, the deceased was declared

true o voice. Throughout the three thousand years o pharaonic rule this

concept o an aterlie survived.

Te rle te K

Egyptian kings were charged with maintaining universal order; it was

believed that the king received divine powers in order to ulll this duty.


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1

The divine nature o the kingknown as the son o Re and living embodi-

ment o Horusallowed him to serve as the mediator between the gods

and humankind. However, the ancient Egyptians did not see their rulers asully godlike, and only in exceptional cases were pharaohs worshiped as

gods in their own l ietimes. At death, the king became one with Osir is; on

earth, the kings divine powers were passed on to the next ruler.

It was every kings duty to build temples and maintain the gods cults.

In actuality, priests perormed most cult practices, but these were always

done in the name o the king. Similarly, relies in the inner chambers o

temples only showed the king communicating with the gods. The Egyp-

tians believed these images continued to perorm the religious rites, even

when no person was actually present.

In Egyptian art, kings were generally portrayed as perect human beings.

Even when idealized, however, the kings ace was usually characterized

so as to allow his subjects to recognize him even i they could not read

his name. Specic inscriptions and regalia identied the kings in art: the

royal kilt, with an ornamental bulls tail symbolizing superhuman power;

a group o traditional crowns with the sacred uraeus at the orehead; the

rectangular alse beard; the crook and fail, representing the kings role

as the shepherd o his people and held by the king across his chest; and

the cartouches encircling the kings two most important royal nameshis

throne name and his birth name, which identied him as son o Re, the

sun god.

SyMBOlS O uppER AnD lOWER EGypT

Crown o Upper Egypt

(White Crown)

Double Crown

(Crown o Upper and Lower Egypt)

Crown o Lower Egypt

(Red Crown)


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Vulture

(Upper Egypt)

Lotus

(Upper Egypt)

Papyrus

(Lower Egypt)

Cobra

(Lower Egypt)

HiEROGlypHS uSED OR ROyAl iDEnTiiCATiOn

This sign, called a cartouche since the lateeighteenth century, is an elongated version o

the shen rope within which the kings birth

and throne names were written.

He o the Sedge and the Bee is a royal title

meaning the king o Upper (the sedge plant) and

Lower (the bee) Egypt.

Son [the duck] o Re [the solar disk] is another

title o the king.

The perect god is the neersign, a stylized

image o the heart and windpipe, with the word

god, which is the emblem o divinity, a cloth

wound on a pole.


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20

ARTiSTS , MATERi Al S, An D ORM in THE AR T O

AnCi EnT EGyp T

Att

In ancient Egypt, painters and sculptors were considered cratsmenindis-

tinct as a group rom urniture makers and potters. On rare occasions, indi-

vidual designers o tomb relies were depicted and their names mentioned;

there are also inscriptions in which certain named artists claim to have

been special avorites o the king. As a rule, however, artists worked in

teams, under the supervision o an administrator who was not an artist.

Cratsmen and artists were dependent upon an institution, such as a royal

household, a temple, or the household o a dignitary or assignments and

supplies.

As with Egyptian society itsel, artist ic workshops were structured hierar-

chically. A relie decoration or a tomb, or example, probably began with

a general layout and outlines o the gures drawn by a designer or drats-

man. Next, relie sculptors carved the gures, and, nally, painters col-

ored the relies. In each group, a master, or several masters, instructed and

corrected the artists under them, perhaps drawing or carving important

gures or parts o scenes themselves. In general, relies, sculptures, and

paintings rom ancient Egypt should be thought o as the product o a par-

ticular workshop, rather than o a particular artist.

Mateal ad Teqe

Egypts dry climate has al lowed many perishable materialswood, leather,

linen, and papyrusto survive in much greater quantities than in other

ancient cultures. Even oerings o ood ound in tombs have survived to

the present day.

Stone

The hardness and durability o stone make it an ideal material or struc-

tures and objects meant to last or eternity. Temples and tombs were there-

ore made o stone, while dwellings or the living, both kings and averageEgyptians, were built o mud bricks. Limestone and sandstone were plenti-

ul along the Nile Valley, as were basalt, granite, greywacke, and gneiss

in other parts o the country. Egyptian sculptors tools evolved rom fint to

copper to bronze to iron. For the hardest stones, such as granite or diorite,

artisans used stone hammers to work the stone into its nal orm, shaping

and smoothing it with hard rubbing stones and ne sand pastes.

Stone is a hard but brittle medium. This accounts or the many Egyptian

sculptures missing noses, ngers, beards, and other small, projecting


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21

parts that would have broken o easily i a statue ell or was vandalized.

Furthermore, ancient Egyptians believed that a statue contained the spirit

o a person, and it may be that the eatures o some statues were broken orsmashed to kill the gure or destroy its senses.

For three-dimensional sculpture in stone, artists started with a block upon

which they drew guidelines on all sides. They then carved until a gure

emerged and redrew the guidelines rom stage to stage. In most cases

though, the block remains in some orm: artists did not carve out space

between the arms and torso or between the legs o standing gures; seated

gures adapted to the rectangular shape o the blocklike seat; the backs o

standing gures remain attached to an upright slab, termed a back pillar

by Egyptologists.

The Egyptians employed two types o relie carving: raised and sunk. In

raised relie, also called bas relie, the space around the gures is lowered.

In sunk relie, only the outlines o the gures are recessed. In either type

o relie, the depth o carving is usually less than one inch, and artists

achieved detailed modeling inside the gures by carving slight dierences

in depth. In scenes where gures overlap, both types o carving were com-

bined.

Wood

Few large trees grow in Egypts arid climate. Thus artists used the trunks

and branches o trees to make small statues, and or larger gures and

wooden cons, carvers had to peg pieces o wood together. To cut away

and shape the wood, the artists used tools o fint, copper, and bronze.

Egyptians imported cedar, ebony, and other hard woods or the largest

wooden constructions, such as ships and architectural structures, and also

or ne statues, urniture, and cons. The most beautiul statues and nest

urniture were oten inlaid with precious metals and ivory.

Stances o Egyptian wooden statues tend to seem livelier than those in

stone because they are ree o the back pillar and the solid area between

the limbs that is required to support the gure in a stone sculpture. Some

poses, such as that o an ocial holding his long sta, were impractical to

reproduce in stone and were, instead, oten executed in wood.

Metalworking

The Egyptians prized gold or its beauty and its symbolic relation to the

sun. Furthermore, gold does not tarnish, and it was thus seen as a meta-

phor or eternal lie. Some gold was mined in the Egyptian deserts, but

most metal, including gold, silver, copper, and tin, was imported.


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Metalworkers are known to have cast solid or hollow gures using the

lost-wax method. In solid bronze casting, wax gurescomplete with the

nal details o the sculptureare covered in a thin layer o clay. The orm isred, which causes the wax to melt away and the clay to turn to terra cotta.

Finally, molten metal is poured into the space where the wax was. When

it has completely cooled, the terra cotta is broken away. In another, more

complicated procedure called hollow casting, the wax model is ormed

around an anchored clay core. This core remains as the inside o the metal

statuette. In either technique, the surace o the metal can be burnished

and detail added with pointed tools.

In addition to cast gures, metalworkers abricated items, including jew-

elry, rom sheet metal and also produced weaponry. Jewelers in the royal

workshops excelled in making gold cloisonn-inlay adornments such as

pectorals, broad collar necklaces, bracelets, and diadems. Semi-precious

stones or pieces o colored glass were set in cells, called cloisons, ormed o

thin gold strips. Bronze was used, among other materials, or tools, weap-

ons, and armor rom the Middle Kingdom onward. Beore that time, and on

occasion even during the Middle Kingdom, copper was the most common

metal or tools and weapons.

Painting

Egyptian ar tists usually decorated houses with striped decorations; palace

ceilings, foors, and walls received elaborate painted designs and repre-

sentations. Artists also painted the walls o temples and tombs, wooden

and stone statues, and the suraces o cons, boxes, and urniture. Painted

scenes and symbols o events in the aterlie were integral parts o uner-

ary papyrus scrolls.

The Egyptians used reeds with pointed or rayed ends as brushes and

pens. Pigments were made rom various natural substances. Red and yel-

low generally came rom ocher, a kind o iron ore ound in abundance in

the desert. White was oten made rom gypsum, black rom soot or manga-

nese. Blue was mostly an art icial pigment known as Egyptian blue. This

was made by heating a mixture o ground desert sand, natural salt, and a

copper compound such as malachite. The resulting substance, called rit,

was also used to create beads, small vessels, and gures. Yellow added to

the blue rit produced green. To make paint, these substances were ground

into powders and mixed with water to which a binder, such as a vegetable

gum, was added to make the paint adhere to the surace.


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Colors had more than aesthetic appeal or the Egyptians; they also had

symbolic meaning. Blue and green were associated with water, the Nile,

and vegetation. Yellow and gold stood or the sun and the sun god. Redrepresented the sun and resurrection. White was the color o Osiris, god

o the underworld. Black represented the earth o Egypt and thus growth.

Gender was also indicated by color; by convention, men were depicted

with reddish-brown skin and women with tannish-yellow skin.

Composition and Conventions

Egyptian artwhether colossal statues or gures in hieroglyphic script

maintained a remarkable order and uniormity. Egyptian artists began

their work with basic structural elements: the cube and the horizontal and

vertical axes. When preparing to carve a statue or decorate a wall, they

rst drew horizontal and vertical guidelines on the surace so that the

proportions o the gures would correspond to the established canon. They

arranged their gures in horizontal rows, called registers, and used clear

outlines, simplied shapes, and fat areas o color.

Egyptian artists developed ideal orms that became the standard way

o expressing certain meanings. The major gure o a composition, or

instance, was usually larger than the secondary ones, and its poses (stand-

ing, walking, sitting, or kneeling) were the most stylized. Even or the sec-

ondary gures, a limited number o arm and hand gestures were used to

explain what the gure was doing. To show distance, artists overlapped

one gure with another or placed more distant gures above those in the

oreground o the composition. Groups o servants, attendants, and animals

were oten shown overlapping, sometimes in rhythmic patterns. Important

gures, however, stood alone; overlapping would make them seem less

than complete.

Artists depicted gures, objects, and landscapes rom multiple points o

view in order to convey the most complete inormation. For example, in

tomb paintings o gardens with poolsa avorite aterlie scene symboliz-

ing rebirththe pool is viewed rom above so that its exact shape is clearly

visible. Trees and fowers surrounding the pool, however, are shown in

prole, as are the patterns o the pools ripples. Animals such as ducks or

sh swimming in the water would also have been shown in prole.


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2

Writing and art developed in Egypt at about the same time and were insep-

arable. As scribes were nalizing the standards and signs o hieroglyphic

writing, artists were creating conventions or representation o gures andobjects in sculpture, painting, and relie. In act, the same word, sekh, is

used or writing, drawing, and painting, and many painters and sculptors

were also trained as scr ibes. Images that conormed to artistic conventions

are oten larger versions o the images in hieroglyphs; or example, the

common image o a seated man is the same as the ideogram, or picture-

word, or man.

In Egyptian hieroglyphs, some objects can be represented simply with pic-

tures. Abstract concepts like justice, understanding, lie, and power had to

be signied using the rebus method, by which a sign is used to indicate the

sounds o the word the writer wishes to convey. To aid reading, a symbol

meant to be taken literally as the image represented is ollowed by a single

stroke.

Egyptians used twenty-our hieroglyphs to represent single sounds,

a system similar to our alphabet. Because the language had no written

vowelsand thus all signs represented consonantsEnglish spellings o

names oten vary rom source to source. Also, some words share the same

consonants, leaving the true meaning o the words ambiguous to modern

scholars.

In order to write well, Egyptian scribes needed to know some seven hun-

dred hieroglyphs and to be able to draw them clearly. Thus scribal training

typically included the repetitive copying o standard hieroglyphs. In docu-

ments on papyrus, which are usually written in cursive script, the scribe

would write rom right to let. Hieroglyphs, however, could be combined in

a variety o ways; they could be read rom let to right or the reverse. The

aces o the human or animal gures in the hieroglyphs indicate the proper

direction rom which to begin reading: or example, i a bird aces right, the

text is read rom right to let. Hieroglyphs also could be arranged horizon-

tally or vertically, allowing scribes to combine inscriptions and gures in a

great number o ways.

The word hieroglyph in Greek means sacred sign. The Greeks saw these

writings in Egyptian temples and so gave them this name. The handwrit-

ten version o hieroglyphs was, in Greek times, used primar ily by priests.

The Greeks called this hieratic or priestly script, although it was the every-

day manner o writing during most o Egyptian history.

hiErogLyphs


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2

The ollowing hieroglyphs represent some o the most requently used.

The kheperrepresents the sacred scarab beetle,which is associated with the rising sun and

symbolizes rebirth.

The shen is a circle o rope knotted with the ends

tied o, and it symbolizes eternity and protection.

The ankh means lie and to l ive. It is held by

deities who requently oer it to the king.

Given lie is represented by a conical loa o

bread, which means to give or given, and by

the ankh.

Djet, the Egyptian word or eternity, is written with

three signs: a cobra, a round loa o bread, and afat piece o land.

This combination o symbols means given lie

orever. Note how hieroglyphic signs are always

arranged to ll a square or rectangle in a balanced

way.

The sign or stability, the djedmay represent a

tree with the branches cut back or a backbone,

possibly o the god Osiris.

The sa sign, which represents a lie preserver

made o bent papyrus stalks, is used to write

protection.


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2

A symbol o power, the wasscepter has a orked

base and a crooked handle in the shape o an

animals head.

A human eye and eyebrow with alcon markings

beneath, this image represents one o the eyes

o the alcon-god Horus. In various myths, one

eye is injured or stolen, but it is always healed

or returned. The wedjateye, oten worn as an

amulet, symbolizes healing and protection.

The ka, the lie orce o an individual, is

represented by two extended arms seen

rom above.

Tyet, the knot o the goddess Isis, resembling the

knot in a sash o a robe, is a symbol o protection.

The hetep sign represents a pointed loa o bread

centered on a reed mat. The general meaning is

oering.


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seleted wk At t

D state ad AtteThis section provides background inormation on seventeen selected

images rom Temples and Tombs: Treasures o Egyptian Art rom The Brit-

ish Museum. These represent a range o chronological periods, types o

objects, and materials used by the ancient Egyptians. Digital reproductions

o the images can be ound on the CD at the back o this resource.

Each object also has a set o questions or Discussion Starters. You may wish

to begin with open-ended questions such as the ollowing: What do you

see? What do you think the object is made o? Can you describe the imagesor decoration on the object? What colors do you see? Ask your students to

note the size o the object (some o the objects are surprisingly small, oth-

ers surprisingly large). As in any discussion, students opinions may dier;

ask them to explain their answers and back them up with direct observa-

tions. Comparing answers and noting dierences in perspective can be a

ruitul avenue or discussion.

Following the Discussion Starters are suggested classroom activities that

relate to the object. The Activities are designed to utilize a range o student

skills: some are language based, others are linked to mathematical skills

or art projects. All the Activities can be adapted or use with students o

any age.


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2

Dscsso Starters

1. HowdoweknowwhoAnkhwawas

andwhathedidromthissculpture?2. Thinkoimagesopeopleyouhave

seenwhetherromotherhistoricaltimes,

suchascolonialAmerica,orthepresent.

a. Whatvisualcluessuchasclothing,

hairstyles,medium,theactivityo

subjectstellyouabouttheperiod

inwhichanimagewasmadeorthe

perioditrepresents?

b.Whatelementsdoyouseeinthe

statueoAnkhwathathelpyou

determinewhenitwasmade?

3. Egyptianartistsotencarvedtheir

sculpturesromasinglepieceostone.

Canyoutellithisstatuewasmadethat

way?

a. Thissculptureismadeogranite,

averyhardstone.Whyisgranitea

goodchoiceortombstatues?

b. Doyouthinkthereisarelationship

betweenthematerialusedtocarve

thestoneandthestyleothe

statue?

Actt: Drawg ad

idetg Toos

Procedure:

1. Ankhwaisholdinganadze,atoolhewouldhaveusedinhisworkasaship

builderandcarpenter.Askstudentsto

thinkothetoolstheirparentsorother

adultsuseintheirjobsanddrawthose

tools.(Today,manypeopleuseonly

electronictoolssuchascomputers,

telephones,andaxmachinesintheirjob.)

Canthesetoolsbeusedormorethan

oneproession?

2. Haveotherstudentsintheclassguess

whateachimplementortoolwouldbe

usedor.Makealistothetoolsasthey

areidentiedbytheclass.

1. seated state Aka

Fm saqqaa

old Kdm, Td Dat (a. 2213 B.c. )

gate

het 2Me

Aqed 13 at te ale te salt cllet (EA 11)

This statue is a key piece in the understanding o Egyptian art history.

It dates rom a period when Egyptian sculpture was beginning to attain

its classical orm. The sculpture provides many clues about its subject, a

shipwright named Ankhwa, and about the art istic conventions o its early

date. The inscription in raised hieroglyphs on Ankhwas lap identies him

and his trade. Another title in the inscription ranks Ankhwa among theew men who, though not directly related to the king, were nevertheless

associated with the court. The statue conrms Ankhwas avored status, or

its quality and materialgranite, which was quarried at the kings plea-

sureattest to its manuacture in a royal workshop.

Ankhwa sits on a stool with inverted U-shaped supports. This type o

household urniture was included in inventory lists o necessities or the

aterlie depicted in relies and paintings on tomb walls. Shortly ater the

Third Dynasty, seated gures were shown seated on simple blocks, rather

than stools like these. Another clue to the statues date is the position oAnkhwas arms. He raises his let arm and grasps an adze, a woodworking

tool indicative o his trade. Later seated gures usually rested both hands on

the lap. The statues stocky posture and sloping shoulders are some o the

stylistic traits that also date this statue to the Third Dynasty. In sculpture

o the Fourth Dynasty and later, the subject s pose becomes more angular

and the proportions more elongated. Ankhwas wavy coiure, which may

in act represent a wig, is known rom relies rom the same period, as well

as rom another Third Dynasty statue now in the collection o the Louvre

Museum in Paris.

Sculptures made out o hard stone are miracles o achievement, because

the Egyptians only had very primitive tools to work these stones with.

The kinds o metal tools that would cut hard stone had not been invented.

The Egyptians only had drills and pounders to work on these stones.

And when you think o the results, it is really quite extraordinary. Even

rom the earliest period they had mastered the technique, right rom

the beginning o the dynastic period through to the end. Its one o the

great achievements o ancient Egypt, the working o hard stone sculp-

ture. (Vivian Davies)


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Dscsso Starters

1.Manyothesescenesshowpeople

harvestingandgatheringood.Canyoundtheshermen?Workersharvesting

andtransportinggrain?

2.Whatobjectsinthemiddleregister

mighthaveledscholarstothinkthatthe

scenerepresentsaharvestestivalor

religiousceremony?

3.Whydoyouthinkthisrelieisdivided

intothreeregisters?Whatroledothe

hieroglyphsplayinthesescenes?

4.Whatdoyouthinkthegroupoboys

inthemiddleregisteraredoing?Dothey

appeartobemovingorstandingstill?

Howdotheirposesletyouknowthatthey

aremeanttobeseenasagroup?

Actt: imagg yo Are a

Acet Egta prearg or

the Atere

Procedure:

1.Askstudentswhatbelongings,special

people,andoodtheywouldwanttohave

withthemorever.Whatactivitieswould

theyliketocontinueintoeternity?

2.Haveeachstudentwriteordrawan

inventorylistothenecessitiesandpersonalitemstheywouldhaveburied

intheirtombs.

3.Asktheclassasawholeoringroups

toworkonmural-sizepaintingsoscenes

depictingtheactivitiesandobjects

mentioned.Whentheprojectisnished,

haveaclassdiscussioncomparingyour

muralssubjectmatterandstyletoRaised

Relie:DailyLie,Children.

Actt: istratg

Cotemorar Da le

Procedure:

1.Askstudentstonamesomeotheir

typicalactivities.Haveeachstudent

chooseanactivitytodepict.

2.Usingahorizontalormatasinthis

relie,askstudentstodrawanillustration

otheactivity.

3.Havestudentsadddialoguetotheir

drawings.

2. raed rele: Dal Le, clde

Fm gza (?)

old Kdm, Ft Dat (a. 2923 B.c.)

Lmete

20 3 e

Aqed 19, aed a te reeed gelle cete

(EA 99)

This ragment o a tomb relie shows several scenes o everyday lie. Egyp-

tians lled their tombs with scenes like this one to help the deceased in

the aterlie. They believed that these representations would help the tomb

owner live on orever in a amiliar environment. The upper register o the

relie illustrates three stages in boat building: cutting down a tree (right),transporting a log (center), and sawing planks and scraping the deck with

an adze (let). At the bottom o the relie, three scenes depict ood being

stocked or the tomb. At the ar right, our sailors catch sh in a net; next a

trio o workers cut grain; on the let, two men lead a pair o donkeys laden

with huge bags o grain. All three vignettes were commonly ound in Old

Kingdom tombs.

The action represented in the central register is more dicult to explain.

Some scholars have identied the two women at the let, with hands raised

to their mouths, as dancers or singers. The scene at the right shows a boystruggling to escape rom an enclosure. Another boy lies on his back, trying

to prevent the rst boy rom leaving. A boy outside the enclosure saysin

hieroglyphs above the sceneYou must fee rom it [the enclosure] alone.

The group at the center depicts a group o red-bodied, nude boys, each

holding a shea o grain and wearing the braided sidelock that signies

youth. They are running or dancing around a white gure, perhaps a statue,

wearing a loincloth and what seems to be a mask. The gure holds a olded

cloth and a scepter or a baton that ends in the shape o a human hand. The

hieroglyph above the group seems to read, Dance o the Youths.

Because the boys [in image no. 2] are carrying grain, some scholars

have suggested that this is some kind o a harvest ritual, practiced

when the grain was harvested to ensure ertility or the coming grow-

ing season. Since most o the participants here are young boys, others

have suggested that this is some kind o initiation ritual where the boys

would pass to manhood. (Edna R. Russmann)


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Dscsso Starters

1.WhatmaterialwasusedortheTomb

StatueoaMan?Howdoyouthinkthechoiceomaterialaectedtheartists

workandtheappearanceothenal

piece?(Considertheeasewithwhich

thematerialcanbecarvedandtheease

withwhichpiecesowoodcanbejoined

together,aswellastheexpenseo

material,weight,andstructure.)How

wouldthesculpturebedierentiitwere

carvedinstone?Wouldyourperceptions

othesculpturechangeiitweremade

ostone?

2.Themanisdepictedwearingalong

kilt,thesignicanceowhichhasbeen

interpretedinmanyways.Todaywhat

clothingoruniormscarryspecial

signicance,i.e.,judicialrobe,graduation

gown,sportsuniorm?Whatwordsor

idealsdoyouassociatewitheachclothing

item?Ithesesamearticlesoclothing

wereshowntostudentsinanotherculture,

doyouthinktheywouldcarrythesame

associations?

Actt: Datg Artwork

throgh Art Hstorca ad

Scetfc Methods

Procedure:

1.ReertotheTombStatueoaMan.

Explainthatthepracticeoplacingsmall

woodenstatuesinthetombbeganinthe

OldKingdomandcontinuedwellintothe

MiddleKingdom.Askstudentswhat

attributes(i.e.,hairstyle,clothing,

representationothebody)helpscholars

datethisworkmorespecicallytothe

TwelthDynasty?

2.Askstudentswhatothermethods

scholarsmightusetodateawork,i.e.,

comparisontootherdatedworks,

scientictesting.

3.Optionalscienceormathematics

discussion:explaintheprocesso

radiocarbon/carbon-14dating:

a.Alllivingmaterials(suchaswood)

aremademostlyocarbonand

continuetomaintaintheircarbon

levelswhiletheyarestillliving.

Oncetheydie,theystopusing

carbonandthecarbonbeginsto

decay.Every5,568years,halo

thecarbon-14remaininginadead

3. Tmb state a Ma

Fm el-Bee, babl te tmb ga

Mddle Kdm, Telt Dat (a. 191 B.c.)

wd, tae at

het 13Le

Aqed 199 (EA 301)

This wooden statuette is believed to come rom the tomb o Gua, a phy-

sician. The custom o placing small wooden statues in the subterranean

part o a tomb, which began in the late Old Kingdom, continued well into

the Middle Kingdom in some parts o Egypt. Statues o this type have also

been ound inside cons; these do not always bear the name o the person

represented as the close proximity o the statue to the mummy presum-ably made such inscriptions unnecessary. As was oten the case, even on

wooden statues as small as this one, the arms, ronts o the eet, and base

were made separately.

Elegantly made and deceptively doll-like, this small gure exemplies

several Twelth Dynasty developments in the representation o the male

gure. His short curly hairdo was particularly popular during the Eleventh

and early Twelth Dynasties, or both men and women. His long kiltin

the Old Kingdom always a sign o middle or old agemay also be meant to

indicate maturity here, despite the youthul hairstyle and body. Alterna-tively, it may be a sign o his proession as a physician, or it may refect the

tendency o Middle Kingdom male clothing to cover more o the body.


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33

organismdisappears;thisiscalle

ahal-lie.Forinstance,ater5,568years,50percentothe

originalcarbon-14remainsinthe

organism;ateranother5,568

years,only25percent(halo

50percent)otheoriginalcarbon

14remains.Aterathird5,568

years,only12.5percent(halo

25percent)otheoriginalcarbon

14remains.

b.Askstudentsiradiocarbondating

couldbeusedtodatethe Tomb

StatueoaMan.Coulditbeused

todateastonestatue?Why?

Havestudentscalculatethepercentage

ocarbon-14remainingintheTomb

StatueoaMan.Usingtheoldestdate

(1985B.C.),thisstatueisapproximatel

3,990yearsold:3,390/5,568=.72=

72percentothersthalocarbon-14

hasdisappeared,andthus28percent

(10072percent)othersthalremains

Theamountooriginalcarbon-14

remaining=amountremainingromthe

rsthal(.50x.28)+secondhal(.50)

=64percent.


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3

Dscsso Starters

1.Thisgureisagoodexampleothe

waytwo-dimensionalrepresentationsollowedartisticconventions.Whatisthe

relationshipothetorsoandheadothe

guretohereet?Howisthisdierent

romwhatyouwouldtypicallyseein

imagesromotherculturesorromlater

times?

2.Intheoriginalwallpainting,thetomb

ownerssisterstoodamongothergures

ovaryingsize.Whydidtheartistalterthe

scaleothegures?Whatdoesthescale

othegurestellusabouttheirsocialor

amilialstatusinthegroup?Wasthetomb

ownerssisterthemostprominentperson

intheoriginalcomposition?Inot,who

was?Whataretheeectsoviewing

thepresent,partialworkversusseeing

thetombownerssisteraspartoa

largercompletecomposition?Doesher

prominencechange?

Actt: Drawg a Se-

portrat

Procedure:

1.LookattheimageoTheTomb

OwnersSisterandPectoralPlaque:

AmenemhatIVBeoreAtum (imageno.5).

StudythewayEgyptianartistsuseddierentpointsoviewtoshowthebody

ascompletelyaspossible.

2.Havestudentsdrawsel-portraitsin

thestyleusedinthisrelie.Remindthem

toincludetheollowingelements:

a.thehead,hips,arms,legs,andeet

inprole

b. theeye,shoulders,andchestrom

theront

c. menposedwiththeletoot

orward,womenwiththeireet

together

d. awig,jewelry,costume,andsomethingmagicalandprotective

. Te Tmb oe ste

Fm el-Bee, tmb Djette

Mddle Kdm, Telt Dat (a. 11 B.c.)

Lmete, ated

2 13 e

gt te Et Elat Fd, 19 (EA 110)

The sister o the tomb owner, whose name is lost, was once part o a larger

wall painting. She originally stood at the head o a row o ten emale g-

ures, acing women on a smaller scale. The gure in ront o her held a

fy whisk, seen at the lower right edge. The nine women who once stood

behind her were other emale relatives o the tomb owner, Djehutyhotep.

In back o them stood the slightly larger gure o his wie. Finally, therestood Djehutyhotep himsel, on a much larger scale, literally overseeing

them all.

Egyptian artists used di erent points o view to show each part o the body

in its most complete orm. Shoulders are seen rom the ront; torso and hips

are in three-quarter view so the legs and arms can be seen in prole. The

head is also shown in prole to display the back and the ront at the same

time, but the eye is drawn as i seen rom the ront, looking directly at the

viewer.


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3

Actt: Eamg the

Sgfcace o Scae

Procedure:

1. ExplainthatTheTombOwners

Sisterwasoncepartoalarger

composition.

2. Readthedescriptionprovidedothe

originalcomposition.

3. Havestudentsusestickguresto

diagramthecomposition.Makecertain

thattheyvarythescaleothegures

accordingtothedescriptionothe

composition.Studentsmayalsowish

tolabelthegures.

4. Discussthesignicanceoscale.

Whatdoesscalerepresent?Who

arethemostimportantguresinthis

painting?Howdoweknowthis?

5. Discusshowscaleisusedtodayto

suggestimportanceinsuchthingsas

billboards,ull-pageads,ront-page

headlines/photos.Itmaybehelpulto

bringinmagazinesornewspapersor

studentstolookthroughorexamples.


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3

Dscsso Starters

1.Asstudentslookattheimageothis

work,pointoutthattheplaqueisonly1inchestall.Itmaybebenecialto

havestudentsdrawa1-inchsquareto

reinorcethisact.Iyouareabletovisit

theexhibition,comparethewaythe

reproductionothisimagelookswith

howitlooksdisplayedinthegallery.

2.Whichoneotheseguresismaking

theoeringtotheother?Whatelements

othisobjecthelpyouguesswhichgure

isthegod?

Actt: uderstadg the

Roes o leaders

Procedure:

1.E xplaintostudentsthatEgyptiankings

wereconsideredthesoleintermediary

betweenthedivineandhumanworlds;

initssimplestorm,thekingprovides

thegodswiththesustenanceandhomes

onearththeyneed,andthegodsmaintain

thecosmicorderandsecurity

oEgypt.

2.ReertothePectoralPlaque:Amenem-

hatIVBeoreAtum. Howistheintermedi-

aryroleothekingdepictedbytheartist?

Whatisthekingdoinginthisscene?

3.Askstudentstothinkotherolesand

responsibilitiesomodernleaders.List

studentresponsesanddiscusswhatroles

orresponsibilitiesstudentsthinkaremost

important.

4.Haveeachstudentdrawanimagethat

representstheroleorresponsibilitythat

he/shebelievesismostimportantora

modernleader.

. petal plaqe: Ameemat iv Bee Atm

peae k

Mddle Kdm, Telt Dat, e Ameemat iv

(a. 10199 B.c. )

gld

1 1 e

Dated b te Bmam Jeelle ad slemt Aat,

1929 (EA 919)

Jewelry rom the Middle Kingdom, such as this plaque, used natural mate-

rials that oten had symbolic qualities. For example, turquoise imitated the

lie-giving waters o the Nile River. By virtue o its color, gold resembled

the sun, an entity with inherent lie-enhancing qualities. A characteristicorm o Egyptian jewelry, this plaque depicts Amenemhat IV o the Twelth

Dynasty oering ointment to Atum, a powerul god associated with the

setting sun. Hieroglyphs identiy the king, the god, and the oering. Three

pins on the back o this tiny scene suggest that it was part o a larger

ensemble.

You can see the cartouche o Amenemhat IV at the upper right. Immediately

to the let o the oval appears the hieroglyph neer, an image o the heart

and windpipe, meaning perect, beautiul, and to the let o that, the

word god, the emblem o divinity, which looks like a fag. Together, thetwo mean the perect god (see Hieroglyphs Used or Royal Identication,

page 19).

Jewelry was as much a status symbol to the Egyptians as it is to us

today. But the Egypt ians also valued their jewelry or its symbolic and

protective quali ties . For example, gold and silver were linked to the

gods and they associated one, in a sort o indirect way, with the gods.

This representation o the king pleasing the god [image no. 5] was a

protective symbol to ensure that this relationship between the king and

the god would continue orever. (Edna R. Russmann)


39/72

3


40/72

3

Dscsso Starters

1.Whatpartothehareisusedto

supportthesleepershead?Howdoyouthinkitwouldeeltosleepona

woodenheadrest?

2.TheEgyptiansassociatedhares

withtheperilsothedesert,butthey

alsoappreciatedtheanimalsspecial

characteristicsandabilities.Whatare

someotheranimalsthathavedesirable

properties?Whatanimalscouldbe

usedassymbolsoprotection?Why?

Actt: imagg How

a Acet Egta Mght

Eerece CotemorarSocet

Procedure:

1.Asaclass,reviewwhatyouhave

learnedaboutEgyptiansociety,religious

belies,anddailylie.

2.Askeachstudenttowriteanessay

romtheperspectiveoanancient

Egyptianwhondshimselorherselin

present-dayAmerica.Whataresomeo

thedierences(s)hemightnoticeromthe

timeandplaceinwhich(s)helived?What

objectsoraspectsoliemight(s)he

miss?Why?WhatobjectsoraspectsocontemporaryAmericanliemight(s)he

preertotheancientEgyptianones?Why?

3.Havestudentspresenttheiressays

totheclass.Inecessary,havethemdo

additionalresearchinordertoocusthe

essaysonaparticularaspectoliesuch

asburialpracticesorgovernment,using

theBibliographyonpage63.

. headet te sae a hae

peae k

ne Kdm (a. 10109 B.c.)

Tamak d

het Me

Aqed 1, aed a s E. A. w. Bde

(EA 203)

Egyptian homes probably had little urniture. People used long, mud-brick

soas covered with pillows, and they had jar stands, stools, and dierent

kinds o chairs. An Egyptian would also have possessed a wooden bed-

rame and a headrest, which would have been cooler than a pillow in the

hot climate. Some headrests were decorated with the name and title o theowner, and perhaps a prayer or a good nights rest. Because it supported

the head when it was most at risk rom the powers o darkness, the head-

rest was also intended or magical protection. Those made or tombs might

include chapters rom theBook o the Dead, such as a spell that promises,

Your head shall not be taken away rom you orever.

A desert hare is like a rabbit but has longer ears and larger hind eet. The

meaning o the hare in this headrest is not certain. As a desert creature, the

hare was considered potentially dangerous, but it was also associated with

positive things like alertness, speed, and ertility. As a hieroglyph, the haremeans to be or to exist, so the hare may have been thought to protect

the users lie. The Egyptians may have believed that the hare slept with

its eyes open, a trait that would be especially appropriate or a headrest

animal. This hares eyes, however, appear to be almost closed.


41/72

39

Actt: Desgg a

Headrest

Procedure:

1.ReertoHeadrestintheShape

oaHare.Askstudentstodescribe

theobject.Whateaturesoahare

didtheartistchoosetoinclude,

exclude,orexaggerate?Isthisarealisti

representationoahare?Howhasthe

artistmodiedtheanimalsormto

createaunctionalheadrest?

2.Havestudentsdesigntheirown

headrestsusingtheormoananimal.

Encouragethemtoconsiderwhat

eaturesotheanimalcouldbeutilizedo

exaggeratedtomaketheheadrestmore

unctionalinitsdesign.Havestudents

sharetheirdesigns.Askthemtoexplain

theirchoiceoanimal.


42/72

0

Dscsso Starters

1.Thisguideincludesrepresentationso

theheadsandacesovedierentkings,executedindierentstylesandmaterials.

ThissculptureshowsThutmosisIII

wearingtheconicalcrownoUpper

Egypt(theWhiteCrown).Howdoesthis

representationoThutmosisIIIcompare

withthestatueKneelingFigureo

Nekhthorheb(imageno.14)?What

dierencesdoyounoticebetweenthe

acialeaturesothestatues?What

eelingormooddoesthisstatueseem

toconvey?

2.Thisstatuewasmadeoraestival

celebratingthekingsrenewedpowers.

Whywouldthekingortheartisthave

chosengraywackeorthisstatue?(Think

aboutitsassociationwithnature,growing

plants,theNile.)Howdoesthecoloro

thestoneaectyourreactiontothe

statue?

Actt: Makg a Caedar

Procedure:

1.D iscusswithstudentstheactthat

thestatueoThutmosisIIIwascreated

orhissedestival,aestivalorebirth.

Discussthesignicanceothechoice

ostone,greywacke.

2.Havestudentsworkinsmallgroupsto

conductresearchintotheannualfooding

otheNileandthewaysinwhichactivities

suchasharvesting,building,andestivals

wereconnectedtothetimingothefoods.

3.Havestudentscreateanillustrated

calendarthatshowsthemainactivities

andeventsrelatedtotheNilethat

occurredduringatypicalyearinancient

Egypt.

. head m a state Ttm iii

pbabl m Kaak

ne Kdm, Eteet Dat, e Ttm iii

(a. 1912 B.c.)

gaake

het 1 e

Aqed 1, aed m selma ha (EA 9)

At the beginning o his rule (soon ater the death o his aunt and step-

mother, Queen Hatshepsut), Thutmosis III commissioned a estival hall or

the celebration o his sedestival, or royal rejuvenation. This jubilee es-

tival, typically celebrated in principle every thirty years o a kings reign,

was meant to rejuvenate the kingto make him able to rule as a youngperson again.

This sculpture was probably one o those intended to represent the pha-

raoh in that hall. Symbolic o rebirth, the green color o the stone used

or this portrait, a stone called graywacke, was appropriate or sculptures

intended or a estival celebrating the kings own renewal. For more than

a century, however, scholars deliberated over whether this head repre-

sented Thutmosis III or Hatshepsut. The eatures o both rulers were oten

rendered with conusing similarity: large, almond-shaped eyes, prominent

cosmetic lines, elegantly arching brows, slightly aquiline nose, and gentlycurved mouth, as seen in this piece.

Does this piece [image no. 7] represent Queen Hatshepsut, who was

king o Egypt in the middle o the 18th dynasty, or her nephew and co-

regent, Thutmosis III? Recent research has shed decisive new light on

the subject. Its now generally agreed by Egyptologists that this head

represents Thutmosis III. We can tell this because o the details o the

acial portraiture, the shape o the eyebrows, the shape o the nose, in

the shape o the lips. Also the wonderul polished green graywacke. We

now know this was a stone especially avored by Thutmosis III. (Vivian

Davies)


43/72

1


44/72

2

Dscsso Starters

1. Egyptianartollowedverystrict

guidelinesoormandproportions.Inwhatwayswouldagridliketheoneshown

herehavebeenuseultoartistsasthey

plannedtheirwork?Havestudents

imaginethattheyareartistsworkingon

alarge-scalemonumentoratemple.I

theycouldnotstepbacktolookattheir

workastheyprogressed,howwouldthey

useagridtomakesuretheywerestaying

withintheguidelinesothetraditional

Egyptiandrawingsystem?

2. Whichothedrawingsoanarmdo

youthinkwasmadebythemostpracticed

artist?Havestudentsdescribethe

qualitiesothearmandhandthatled

themtotheirconclusion.

3. Seatedguresdrawnonagridwere

meanttotakeupourteensquaresrom

thebaselinetothehairline(asopposedto

thetopothehead,becausepeoplewere

otendepictedwearingheaddresseso

dierentheights).Didtheartistwhodrew

ThutmosisIIIonthisdrawingboardstay

withinthisguideline?Basedonthis

drawing,onwhichlinewasthenose

supposedtobedrawn?Theknees?

Actt: Drawg the HmaBod usg Acet Egta

proortos

Procedure:

1. ExplaintostudentsthattheEgyptians

usedthehumanbodyintheollowingways

asastandardormeasurements:

a. Theproportionsothehumangure

wererelatedtothewidthothe

palmothehand.

b. Theentiregure,romeetto

hairline,waseighteenpalmshigh.

c. Theacewastwopalmshigh.

d. Shouldersweresetatsixteenpalmsromthebaseothegure.

e. Elbowsweresetattwelvepalms

romthebase.

. Kneesweresetatsixpalmsrom

thebase.

2. ReviewthegridsystemontheDrawing

Board.Havestudentsdrawasimilargrid

onapieceopaper.

3. Havestudentsdrawstandinggures

usingEgyptianartisticstandards.

. Da Bad

peae k

ne Kdm, Eteet Dat (a. 1 B.c.)

wd, late, k

1K X 21 e

Aqed 13 at te ale te salt cllet (EA 01)

Originally a square grid ruled in red covered the thin layer o plaster on

one side o this drawing board. The grid is still visible on the let hal o

the inscribed surace, where a seated gure o a kingidentied by the

cartouches as Thutmosis IIIappears. On the right side, where the grid has

been erased, a dierent artist (and perhaps several dierent artists) prac-

ticed drawing: a quail-chick hieroglyph; seven awkwardly drawn versionso a orearm with outstretched hand, also a hieroglyph; and a small sketch

identiable as a loa o bread.

Artists used squared grids as a tool to aid them in obtaining acceptably

proportioned gures. This system o drawing was developed in the late

Eleventh or early Twelth Dynasties rom a series o guidelines used by

artists in the later Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. Standing

gures were comprised o eighteen grid squares between the soles o the

eet and the hairline, with the knees, buttocks, junction o neck and shoul-

ders, and bottom o the nose drawn at designated horizontal lines on thegrid. Seated gures adhered to the same system but took up only ourteen

squares rom the bottom o the eet to hairline. The high quality o the

drawing o Thutmosis on this board suggests that it was made by a master

dratsman, possibly as a model or producing large-scale images o the

king on temple or tomb-chapel walls.

Writing boards were used like blackboards. They provided a surace

that could be cleaned or replaced very easily, and so they were usu-

ally used or practice in writing or drawing by apprentices. This board

[image no. 8] is covered with a layer o gesso plasteryou can see

where some ragments have aked o. Clearly this board has beendrawn by several dierent people o varying degrees o competence. It

reminds you o all the people who must have been trained to make the

monuments, and how much some o them must have suered beore

they came up to standard, and how very little natural talent some o

them had. (Richard Parkinson)


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3

Cass Actt: usg a Grd to

Make a Mra

Procedure:

1. Maketheollowingpreparations

beorebeginningthisactivity:

a. Chooseanimageromamagazin

ornewspaper(aworkoartwith

stronglinesalsoworkswell).

b. Copytheimageinblackand

white;youmayneedtoenlargeit.

c. Drawaone-by-one-inchgridover

theimage(makethesamenumbe

ogridsquaresasthereare

students).

d. Rowsosquaresshouldbenumbered;columnsshouldbe

lettered(sothattheuppermost

rowismadeosquaresA1,B1,

C1,etc.).Writethecolumnletter

andrownumberonthebacko

eachsquare.

e. Cutthesquaresapart.

2. Giveeachstudentasquare;mixthem

upsostudentsdonotknowtheorder.

3. Havestudentsmarktheirone-inch

piecewithaour-squaregrid(linesat

inch).

4. Havestudentsdrawaour-by-our-

inchsquareonaseparatepieceopape

andcutitout.Havestudentsmarkthe

squareintoourequalparts.

5. Askstudentstotranserthedrawing

romthesmallersquaretothelarger

square.Havethemuseheavyblacklines

oroutlinesandllinthespacesor

recreatepatternswithcolorsotheir

choice.

6. Whenstudentsarenished,discuss

thebenetsousingagridsystemin

relationtotheirindividualdrawings.

7. Usingthegridlocationsontheback

otheone-inchsquares,puttheour-inc

squarestogethertorecreatetheorigina

image.

8. Discussthebenetsandchallenges

ousingagridsystem.Canstudents

identiytheoriginalimage?Howwelldo

theblacklinesmatchup?


46/72

Dscsso Starters

1.LookattheBottleintheFormoa

Bolti-fsh.Howdidtheartistutilizecolorandpatternstomakethisobjectespecially

lielike?

2.Theboltiwasasymbolorebirth

andregenerationbecausethemother

sheltersheryounginhermouth.Why

wouldsuchanactionsymbolizerebirth

andregeneration?Considerwhat

studentshavelearnedaboutreligious

beliesandunerarypracticesinancient

Egypt;discusstheimportanceorebirth

andregenerationinancientEgypt.

3.InancientEgypt,glasswasaslightly

lessexpensivealternativetosemi-preciousstones.Whatdoesthissuggestabout

glassatthattime?Whatwouldithave

beenusedor?Whatisglassusedor

today?Whichdoyouthinkisamore

versatilemedium,glassorsemi-precious

stones?Whataresemi-preciousstones

usedortoday?Doyouthinkglasswasas

commoninancientEgyptasitistoday?

Actt: Researchg Smbos

o Rebrth ad Regeerato

Procedure:

1.E xplainthattheEgyptiansviewedtheboltiasasymbolorebirthand

regeneration.

2.Askstudentstobrainstormorresearch

symbolsusedbyothercultures,bothpast

andpresent,tosymbolizethethemes

orebirthandregeneration.Consider

symbols

Documents

Temples and Tombs BM s Resource for Educators