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Tense Aspect and Mood in Idi: some preliminary thoughts Rebecca Defina, Kate Lynn Lindsey and Laura Zester
a final project for the Field Methods course taught by Nicholas Evans and Wasang Baiio at the LSA 2011 in Boulder, Colorado
4th August, 2011
In this report we will describe the different tense, aspect and mood categories that we have
evidence for distinguishing based on different forms of the Idi verb. We will describe what we
can about the forms and semantics of each category. It should be noted that this is a very
preliminary report. The names and semantic properties of each category are intended to be
indicative only. We will describe the properties of each category that we have evidence for and
the properties that we suspect, as well. We also do not yet have a full inventory of all verb forms
for each category and so our analysis and generalisations of the formal properties are also very
preliminary. In particular we have focused on transitive verbs and know fairly little about the
forms of intransitive and ditransitive verbs, except that they vary somewhat from the transitive
forms. We hope that this initial investigation will be of assistance for further investigation of the
language.
Idi is a language spoken by less than 1000 speakers in southern Papua New Guinea. It belongs
to the Pahoturi family of the South-Central Papuan languages. Until July of 2011, the Idi
language was unwritten and undocumented. To the south of where Idi is spoken is the Agöb
language and to the west lies the Nen language, a member of the Morehead-Maro family. Idi
speakers are multilingual and may speak Tok Pisin, a creole spoken throughout Papua New
Guinea and the most widely used language in the country, English, which is taught in schools,
and/or other local Papuan languages.
All the data, examples, and analyses below were collected as part of a Field Methods course
taught by Nicholas Evans and Wasang Baiio at the 2011 LSA Linguistics Summer Institute at
the University of Colorado in Boulder. The data were collected through a combination of
structured questioning and working with recorded texts.
The list of TAM categories that we have found to be distinguished in Idi are:
Tense
1.1 Remote past
1.2 Simple Past
1.3 Immediate past
1.4 Future
Aspect
2.1 Past continuous/progressive/imperfect(ive)/pluractional
2.2 Present progressive/imperfect
2.3 Habitual
2.4 Past Habitual
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Mood
3.1 Imperative
Adverbs
gɭ and ŋasi are adverbs that modify the certainty or possibility of the event (I don‟t think we have
sufficient evidence to suggest different verb categories for these)
Infinite verbs
Infinite verbs in minor clauses can take non-core case suffixes to modify their aspect (and
maybe mood). The allative case gives a purposive reading. The locative case gives a
progressive interpretation. The ablative gives a perfective reading. These interpretations are all
logical assuming a space to time metaphorical mapping and their spatial uses with nouns.
Key to Abbreviations
1 „1st person‟,
2 „2nd person‟,
3 „3rd person‟,
X>Y „X actor on Y patient‟,
A „Actor‟,
DIR „direct case‟,
DU „dual‟,
EXC „exclusive‟,
IPST „immediate past‟,
IN „inanimate‟,
INC „inclusive‟,
NPL, „nonplural, either
singular or dual‟,
NPST „Nonpast‟,
NSG „nonsingular, either
dual or plural‟,
P „patient‟,
PST „past‟,
PL „plural‟,
SG „singular‟
1 Tense
1.1 Remote Past
In one of the texts that Wasang told us, the Willie Wagtail story, we encountered a contrast
between gwaŋgǝsǝn „this happened a long time ago‟ and waŋgǝsǝn „this happened‟. Wasang
said that the first form referred to something that happened a very long time ago whereas the
second referred to something that happened in the past but not as far back.
We tried to elicit more forms in this remote past category but only got forms in the simple past. It
looks like there is a distinction here and that the remote past is signalled by a g- prefix but it may
only be used in quite restricted contexts, for instance setting the initial time of a narrative.
1.2 Simple Past
This tense is used for events that occurred prior to today.
1. Yebi ye-spl-ea.
1.INC.PL.A PST.IN.DU-throw-1.INC.PL>IN.DU
„We threw those two things‟
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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2. Diben-a be-nɖǝg-ǝn qǝbiyege.
snake-DIR PST.3SG.P-bite-PST.3SG>SG Papuan.black.snake
„A snake bit him, a Papuan black snake.‟ (Willie wagtail story)
The forms of the verb are derived as follows:
Prefixes
Transitive Verbs with Human2 Objects
be- „3rd person singular object‟ ga- „1st or 2nd person singular object‟
ja- „nonsingular object‟
Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects
ye- „singular/dual object‟ je- „1st singular subject > singular object‟ ge- „plural object‟ Table 1 Past Prefixes
Object Human Objects Inanimate Objects
1 sg ga- ye-
1 exc du ja- ye-
1 excpl ge-
1 inc du ye-
1 incpl ge-
2 sg ga- ye-/ je-(1 sg subject)
2 du ja- ye-
2 pl ge-
3 sg be- ye-/je-(1 sg subject)
3 du ja- ye-
3 pl ge-
2Note that we have found different forms of the verb with human and inanimate objects. We do
not have enough evidence to say how nonhuman animates pattern. In fact when we tried to
probe this on the 2nd of August we got the same prefixes with human, nonhuman and inanimate
objects. This distinction definitely requires further investigation.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Suffixes
Transitive Verbs with Human Objects
-ən „1st or 3rd singular > singular or dual‟
-egən „1st or 3rd singular > plural‟
-e „2nd person singular > singular or dual
-ega „2nd person singular > plural‟
-a „1st or 2nd person nonsingular subject3‟
-o „3rd person nonsingular subject‟
Table 2 simple past suffixes – human objects
subject ↓and human object→
1 sg 1 exc du
1 exc pl
1 inc du
1 incpl 2 sg/du 2 pl 3 sg/du 3 pl
1 sg -ən
-egən -ən
-egən
1 inc/exc du/pl
-a
2 sg -e -ega -e -ega -e -ega
2 du/pl -a
3 sg -ən
-egən -ən -egən -ən
-egən -ən
-egən
3 du/pl -o
3It is interesting to note that so far the 1st exclusive, inclusive and 2nd person dual and plural
forms all pattern together.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects4
- n „1st and 3rd person singular > singular or dual‟
-ea1 „Any 2nd person, 1st inclusive (maybe also exclusive) > singular or dual‟
-eo „3rd nonsingular > singular or dual‟
-ima „1st nonsingular > nonsingular and 2nd nonsingular > plural‟
-imo „3rd person nonsingular > nonsingular‟
-en „1st singular > plural and 3rd singular > nonsingular‟
Note that this form changes the syllabification of the root so -spl- becomes -
spəlen rather than –splen
-ea2 „2nd singular > nonsingular‟
Note that this form changes the syllabification of the root so -spl- becomes -
spəlea rather than -splea
Table 3 simple past suffixes – inanimate objects
subject ↓and inanimate object →
3 sg 3 du 3 pl
1 sg - n -en
1 exc du/pl ? ? ?
1 inc du/pl -ea1 -ea1/-ima -ima
2 sg -ea1/ea2
-ea2
2 du/pl -ima
3 sg - n - n/-en -en
3 du/pl -eo
-eo/-imo -imo
1.3 Immediate Past
This tense refers to events that occurred earlier today.
3. Ŋən obom na-ko-n5 sisiri egtende.
1SG.A 3SG.P IPST.SG.P-cut-IPST.1SG>3SG now/today morning „I cut him this morning.‟
4Note that with inanimate objects we found that (with the exception of 1st person subject)
whenever the object was dual it could take either the corresponding singular or plural form. 5Note this could be a case of V+ǝn going to on or perhaps the ǝ is added in our other examples.
Because Cn appears to be an acceptable cluster we‟ll assume schwa deletion following a vowel
until we have conclusive evidence in either direction.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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4. Yebi ne-spl-ala.
1.INC.PL.A IPST.IN.SG-throw-1.INC.DU>SG
„We threw it (earlier today)‟
The forms of the verb are derived as follows.
Prefixes Transitive Verbs with Human Objects
na- „singular object‟ ña- „dual or plural object‟
Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects
ne- „1st person inclusive dual > singular‟6
Suffixes Transitive Verbs with Human Objects
-ǝn „1st and 3rd person singular > singular and dual‟ -ǝgen „1st and 3rd person singular > plural‟ -la „nonsingular 1st person and all 2nd person subject, except singular > plural‟ -egele „2nd singular > plural‟ -lo „3rd person nonsingular subject‟
Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects
-ala „1st person inclusive dual > singular‟4
Table 4: Prefixes and suffixes for the immediate past, transitive verb with human objects
Subject
1 sg 1 exc/inc
du/pl
2 sg 2 du/pl 3 sg 3 du/pl
Prefix na- ña- na- ña- na- ña-
Suffix Object 1 sg -la -ǝn -lo
1 exc du
1 exc pl -egele -la -ǝgen
1 inc du -la -ǝn
1 inc pl -egele -la -ǝgen
2 sg/du -ǝn -la -ǝn
2 pl -ǝgen -ǝgen
3 sg/du -ǝn -la -ǝn
3 pl -ǝgen -egele -la -ǝgen
6 We only have this one form with an inanimate object nesplala „You and I threw it.‟ This
indicates that there is also a separate inanimate affix series, but it requires more research.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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1.4 Nonpast
This tense is normally used to refer to events that are yet to take place. It often (but not
necessarily) occurs with the adverb gɭ. The addition of gɭ indicates less certainty about the future
occurrence of the event (example 5).
5. a. Yebi be-spl-a.
1.INC.PL.A NPST.1>IN-throw-NPST.1.NSG>IN.SG
„Shall we throw it now?‟ (questioning only the time of the throw not whether or not we
will throw it)
b. Yebi gɭ be-spl-a. 1.INC.PL.A might NPST.1>IN-throw-NPST.1.NSG>IN.SG „Shall we throw it?‟ (questioning whether or not we will throw it)
6. Dəkta gɭ obom bea-ko-n.
doctor might 3DU.P NPST.NSG.P-cut-NPST.3SG>3NPL
„The doctor intends to cut them (two).‟
We have called it a nonpast tense rather than a future because we have recently seen that it
can also be used to refer to events that are currently occurring (particularly with inanimate
objects) (example 7). As well as simply describing current events it can be interpreted as a
question “Shall we do X now?” (example 8). More work is needed to determine the real
semantic range of this category.
7. a. Benene be-spl-én.
yours NPAST.IN.SG.P-throw-NPAST.3SG>IN.SG
„S/he will throw yours.‟
b. Bo be-spl-én.
3SG NPAST.IN.SG.P-throw-NPAST.3SG>IN.SG
„He throws it (now).‟
8. a. Bi be-spl-a.
1PL NPST.3SG.P-throw-NPAST.1PL>IN.SG
„We throw it now.‟
b. Bi be-spl-a. 1PL NPST.3SG.P-throw-NPAST.1PL>IN.SG „Shall we throw it now?‟
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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The forms of the verb are derived as follows. Prefixes
Transitive Verbs with Human Objects ba- „3rd person and 2nd nonsingular > 1st singular or 2nd person singular > 1st‟
bea- „nonsingular object, except 3rd person on 2nd‟
bV7- „3rd person singular object, except when subject is 2nd singular‟
na- „3rd person > 2nd person singular or 2nd person singular > 1st person singular‟
a- „3rd person > 2nd person nonsingular‟
no- „2nd person singular > 3rd person singular‟
Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects8
be- „1st or 3rd person subject‟
ne- „2nd person subject‟
Table 5: Prefixes for the nonpast, transitive verb with human objects
Object
→
Subject
↓
1s 1exc du/pl 1 inc du/pl 2s 2du/pl 3sg 3du/pl
1sg ba- bea- bV- bea-
1 exc du/pl
1 inc
du/pl
2sg/du/pl ba- bea-
3sg/du/pl bea- na- a-
Suffixes Transitive Verbs with Human Objects9
-o „1st and 2nd person singular > nonplural‟
-ge „1st person singular > plural‟
-ye „1st person (inclusive & exclusive) plural subject‟
-yo „2nd person nonsingular subject or 3rd person nonsingular > singular‟
-on „3rd person singular > nonplural or 3rd person nonsingular > dual‟
-gen „3rd person > plural‟
7in which V harmonizes to match the first vowel in the root 8Note that we don‟t have all the forms in this paradigm, in particular we are missing 2nd and 3rd
nonsingular subjects, but the pattern so far looks like this. See the Appendix for a full paradigm. 9 Note that we are missing the 2sg subject forms
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects
-ø „1st and 2nd person singular > singular‟
-e „1st and 2nd person singular > plural‟
-a „1st inclusive dual10 > singular‟
-ema „1st inclusive plural > plural‟
-én „3rd singular subject‟
Table 6: Suffixes for the nonpast, transitive verb with human objects
Object
→
Subject
↓
1s 1exc
du
1exc
pl
1 inc
du
1 inc
pl
2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3 pl
1sg -o -ge -o -ge
1 exc
du
-ye
1exc pl
1 inc
du
-ye
1 inc pl
2sg -? -?
2du -yo -yo
2pl
3sg -on -gen
-on -gen -on -gen -on -gen
3du -yo -on -yo -on -yo -on
Note that we have some examples in this tense that show that the human object affix series is used both with pronominal objects and full noun phrases (example 9).
9. a. Dəkta gɭ obom bo-ko-on. doctor might 3SG NPST.3SG.P-cut-NPST.3SG>SG/DU „The doctor will cut him.‟
b. Dəkta gɭ ʈiʈim-a bo-ko-on. doctor might girl-DIR NPST.3SG.P-cut-NPST.3SG>SG/DU
„The doctor will cut the girl.‟
10Note that it is very likely that the same form is used with the inclusive plural and the 1st person
exclusives as well but we don‟t have the examples to show it.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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2 Aspect
2.1 Past Progressive The past progressive form describes events that began some time in the past, continued over an extended period and then stopped.
10. Ŋən obom be-ko-n dən tetem.
1SG.A 3SG.P PST.3SG.P-cut-PST.1SG>3SG PROG yesterday „I was cutting him yesterday (process) for a long time.‟
11. Ged-e gopənan dən
child-DIR turned.PST PROG „The baby was continuously turning over.‟
12. Be bom ga-nɖǝg-ǝnd de.
2SG.A 1SG.P PST.1SG.P-bite.PST.PROG.? PROG
„You were biting me.‟
13. Ŋən bobom ga-nɖǝg-ǝnd dən.
1SG.A 2SG.P PST.2SG.P-bite-PST.PROG.? PROG
„I was biting you.‟
14. Bo obom be11-nɖǝg-ǝnd do.
3PL.A 3SG.P PST.3SG.P-bite-PST.PROG.? PROG „They were biting/gossiping about him.‟
15. Ŋən rogara zinbi bea-spəl-mən dən.
1SG.A thing one throw.PST. PROG
„I was throwing one thing.‟
We speculate that the forms of the verb are derived as follows: The main verb is inflected with the affixes described below. The prefixes behave quite similarly to the normal past, while the suffixes are moved to an auxiliary (de) that follows the verb. The suffix that we find on the verb appears to be a constant morpheme which signifies the progressive. The transformation from past to past progressive can be seen in Table 7, where red signifies the past prefix, blue signifies the root, green signifies the past suffix and black denotes the progressive morpheme.
11Note that this „be‟ has also been transcribed as „ba‟. The „be‟ follows the paradigm so we have
put it here as „be‟ but it is possible that there is also a different „ba‟ form.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Table 7: Morphological transformation of the verb from Past to Past-Progressive
Translation Past Past-Progressive Translation
„you bit me‟ a. be bom ganɖǝge g. be bom ganɖǝgǝnd de „you were biting me‟
„you (DU/PL) bit me‟
b. be (komblebe/ʈaebibi) bom ganɖǝga
h. be (komblebe/ʈaebibi) bom ganɖǝgǝnd da
„you (DU/PL) were biting me‟
„I bit you‟ c. ŋən babom ganɖǝgən i. ŋən babom ganɖǝgǝnd dən „I was biting you‟
„I bit you (two)‟
d. ŋən bibim komblebe janɖǝgən
j. ŋən bibim komblebe janɖǝgǝnd dən „I was biting you (two)‟
„I bit you (pl)‟ e. ŋən bibim ʈaebibi janɖǝgegən
k. ŋən bibim ʈaebibi janɖǝgǝnd gən „I was biting you (pl)‟
„they (all) bit him‟
f. bo ʈaebibi obom benɖǝgo
l. bo ʈaebibi obom benɖǝgǝnd do „they (all) were biting him‟
Having elicited the above verb forms, we predict the following verb pattern for the past progressive, detailed below. There are a few irregularities that illuminate the absolute necessity for future research into the exact morphology of this form. In sentences 10, 11 and 15, the progressive morpheme is transcribed as -n, -an and -ən. This could be a problem in transcription, where the final -d, predicted in our pattern is in fact part of the initial d- in the auxiliary. Sentence l. in Table 7 may be a counterexample to this phenomena, and suggest that the absence of -d in sentences 10, 11, and 15 was an error. An alternate explanation would suggest a variation in progressive morphemes according to verb. We find another irregularity in sentence l. in Table 7 with „gən‟, as the initial d- has disappeared. Further research is necessary to determine whether the „d-‟ is an underlying auxiliary, or simply a place holder when no other consonant is present. Prefixes
Transitive Verbs with Human Objects see 1.2 Simple Past and Table 1
Transitive Verbs with Inanimate Objects
bea- first person singular and dual exclusive and 3rd person singular ga- ge-
Suffixes with auxiliary de
Transitive Verbs with Human Objects dən „1st or 3rd singular > singular or dual‟ gən „1st or 3rd singular > plural‟ de „2nd person singular > singular or dual ga „2nd person singular > plural‟ da „1st or 2nd person nonsingular subject ‟ do „3rd person nonsingular subject‟
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Table 8 past progressive suffixes – human objects
subject ↓and human object→
1 sg 1 exc du
1 exc pl
1 inc du
1 incpl 2 sg/du 2 pl 3 sg/du 3 pl
1 sg dən gən dən gən
1 inc/exc du/pl
da
2 sg de ga de ga
2 du/pl da da
3 sg dən gən dən gən dən gən dən gən
3 du/pl do
2.2 Present progressive The Present progressive (or imperfective) describes actions which are in the process of happening, happen over a longer period of time or happen repeatedly in the present.
16. Nik bom sisiri koko nala.
Nick 1S. now cut.INF PRES.PROG „Nick is cutting me.‟
17. Bo oboobo ɖənɖəg wala.
3S.A REFL bite.INF PRES.PROG „S/he is biting herself (repeatedly).‟
However, during elicitation we have encountered the “problem” that whenever intending to elicit the present tense of verbs we received (what we called) the progressive form. That means we are not exactly sure about in which situations this form is used or how the present tense is distinguished from it. This aspect is formed as follows: The infinite form of the verb is followed by the inflected form of the auxiliary nala/y ra. As seen sentence 17, the auxiliary may change forms in other contexts, such as the reflexive. We elicited the present progressive aspect with the verb ɖənɖəg „to bite‟, which precedes the auxiliaries. The forms of the auxiliary for the present progressive are summarized in table 9 below.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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Table 9: Present progressive forms of the auxiliary nala/y ra subject ↓and human object→ 1s
1 exc du 1 exc pl
1 inc du
1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
1s nala era eregin y ra era regin
1 exc du nalala erala erala y rala erala erala
1 exc pl nalala erala erala y rala erala erala
1 inc du y rala erala erala
1 inc pl y rala erala erala
2s nalele erele eragea yerele erele eragea
2du nalala erala erala yerala erala erala
2pl nalala erala erala yerala erala yerala12
3sg nala era eregin era eregin nala era eregin y ra era regin
3du nalalo eralo eralo eralo eralo nalalo eralo eralo yeralo eralo eralo
3pl nalalo eralo eralo eralo eralo nalalo eralo eralo yeralo eralo eralo
2.3 Habitual The habitual aspect is used to describe events that happen on a regular basis such as habits or customs.
18. Ŋən etre wataŋ dand yebdo bleme.
I yams eat AUX day plenty „I eat yams every day.‟
19. Be etre watne naŋama yebdo bleme.
You yams eat AUX day plenty
„You eat yams every day.‟
The form seems to be constructed by combining the singular or plural action form of the
infinitive with the present forms of the auxiliaries naŋam or da.
[Table of forms will follow] 2.4 Past Habitual This form describes events that happened on a regular basis in the past. We haven‟t been able to elicit enough forms to make out a pattern but from the information we have got the past habitual aspect seems to be formed with the past progressive and the particles “gdiʈe” and “bleme” meaning „used to‟ and „always‟.
20. Bo gdiʈe bleme etre watme bi dand. 3S used.to always yam eat.PL ? PST.PROG. „He used to always eat yams.‟
12
We would predict this form to be erala. This may have been a mistake in elicitation.
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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21. Be gdiʈe bleme etre watme bi dagmu. 2PL.incl used.to always yam eat.PL ? PST.PROG.
„We used to always eat yams.‟
22. Be idi gdiʈe bleme wata gǝtneŋdie 2S what used.to always eat PST.PROG. „What have you been used to eating always?‟
[Table of forms will follow]
3 Mood 3.1 Imperative [We will describe what we know about its uses and how it‟s often rude and the alternatives for it.] [We will describe its forms.] [A paradigm of the imperative can be found in the appendices.] 3.2 Adverbs gɭ and ŋasi [any others?]
4 Auxiliaries 4.1 yera
subject Present
1s ŋən yara
1 exc du bi yerale
1 exc pl bi yerela
1 inc du yəbi yerale
1 inc pl yəbi yerela
2s be yerele
2du be yerela
2pl be yerela
3sg bo yara
3du bo yaralo
3pl bo yera
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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4.2 wala
subject Present Past
1s ŋən wala wagən
1 exc du bi waŋama/walala gwaga
1 exc pl bi waŋama gwagma
1 inc du yəbi waŋama/walala gwaga
1 inc pl yəbi waŋama gwagma
2s be walale gwege
2du be walala gwaga
2pl be waŋama gwagma
3sg bo wala gwaggen
3du bo walalo gwago
3pl bo waŋamo/waŋe gwagmo
4.3 naŋam
subject Present Past
1s ŋən naŋam
1 exc du bi naŋame
1 exc pl bi
1 inc du yəbi
1 inc pl yəbi
2s be naŋama gətneŋdie
2du be naŋame
2pl be
3sg bo naŋam gətneŋin
3du bo naŋamo
3pl bo naŋamo
5 Minor clauses: infinite verbs and nominal case
[We will give some examples to show how these work and mention the metaphorical mapping here.]
6 Summary and comments for future work [There is much to write here, and it will be sent in the next draft.]
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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7. Appendices
Contents 1. Simple Past tense paradigm of ‘to bite’ ................................................................................................................................................................... 17
2. Simple Past tense paradigm of ‘to throw’ ............................................................................................................................................................... 18
3. Immediate Past paradigm of ‘to bite’ ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19
4. Past Progressive paradigm of ‘to bite’ ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20
5. Nonpast paradigm of ‘to bite’ .................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
6. Nonpast paradigm of ‘to cut/operate’ ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21
7. Present progressive paradigm of ‘to bite’ ............................................................................................................................................................... 22
8. Imperative paradigm of ‘to cut/operate’ ................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
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1. Simple Past tense paradigm of ‘to bite’ TO BITE Object 1s 1 exc du 1 exc pl 1 inc du 1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
Subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babom bibim bibim obom ubim ubim
1s ŋən ganɖǝgǝn janɖǝgǝn janɖǝgegǝn benɖǝgǝn janɖǝgǝn janɖǝgegǝn
1 exc du bi ganɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga benɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga
1 exc pl bi ganɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga benɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga
1 inc du yəbi benɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga
1 inc pl yəbi benɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga
2s be ganɖǝge janɖǝga1 janɖǝgega benɖǝga
2 janɖǝga
3 janɖǝgega
2du be ganɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga benɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga
2pl be ganɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga benɖǝga janɖǝga janɖǝga
3sg bo ganɖǝgǝn janɖǝgǝn janɖǝgǝn4 janɖǝgǝn janɖǝgegǝn ganɖǝgǝn janɖǝgǝn janɖǝgegǝn benɖǝgǝn janɖǝgǝn janɖǝgegǝn
3du bo ganɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo ganɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo benɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo
3pl bo ganɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo ganɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo benɖǝgo janɖǝgo janɖǝgo
*can be followed by titim
1 Pattern would predict janɖəge
2 Pattern would predict benɖəge
3 Pattern would predict janɖəge
4 Pattern would predict janɖəgegən
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
18
2. Simple Past tense paradigm of ‘to throw’ TO THROW Object 3sg 3du 3pl
Subject one thing two things
many things
1s ŋən ye pl n je pl n ge pəlen
1 exc du bi
1 exc pl bi
1 inc du yəbi yesplea ye plea/ge pəlima ge pəlima
1 inc pl yəbi yesplea ye plea/ge pəlima ge pəlima
2s be yesplea ye plea/ge pəlea ge pəlea
2du be
2pl be yesplea ye plea/ge pəlea ge pəlima
3sg bo ye pl n ye pl n/ge pəlen ge pəlen
3du bo yespleo ye pleo/ge pəlimo ge pəlimo
3pl bo yespleo ye pleo/ge pəlimo ge pəlimo
3 pauc bo
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
19
3. Immediate Past Paradigm of ‘to bite’ TO BITE object 1s 1 exc du 1 exc pl 1 inc du 1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babum bibim bibim obom ubim ubim
1s ŋən nanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgegǝn nanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgegǝn
1 exc du bi nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla
1 exc pl bi nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla
1 inc du yəbi nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla
1 inc pl yəbi nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla
2s be nanɖǝgle ñanɖǝgle ñanɖǝgegele nanɖǝgle ñanɖǝgle ñanɖǝgegele
2du be nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla
2pl be nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla nanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla ñanɖǝgla
3sg bo nanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgegǝn ñanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgegǝn nanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgegǝn nanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgǝn ñanɖǝgegǝn
3du bo nanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo nanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo nanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo
3pl bo nanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo nanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo nanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo ñanɖǝglo
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
20
4. Past Progressive Paradigm of ‘to bite’ TO BITE Object 1s 1 exc du 1 exc pl 1 inc du 1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
Subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babom bibim bibim obom ubim ubim
1s ŋən ganɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgənd gǝn
banɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgənd dən
janɖǝgənd gǝn
1 exc du bi
ganɖəgənd da
janɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgend da
banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd da
1 exc pl bi ganɖəgənd da
janɖəgənd da
janɖəgənd da
banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd da
1 inc du yəbi banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd da
1 inc pl yəbi banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd da
2s be ganɖǝgǝnd de
janɖǝgǝnd de
janɖǝgənd ga
banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd ga
2du be ganɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgǝnd da
banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd da
2pl be ganɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgǝnd da
banɖǝgǝnd da
janɖǝgənd da
janɖǝgənd da
3sg bo ganɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgənd gǝn
janɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgənd gǝn
ganɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgənd gǝn
banɖǝgǝnd dən
janɖǝgənd dən
janɖǝgənd gǝn
3du bo ganɖəgənd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
ganɖəgənd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
banɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgənd do
janɖǝgənd do
3pl bo ganɖəgənd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
ganɖəgənd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgǝnd do
banɖǝgǝnd do
janɖǝgənd do
janɖǝgənd do
*highlighted cells have been produced according to the pattern, not elicitation.
5. Nonpast paradigm of ‘to bite’
TO BITE Object 1s 1 exc du 1 exc pl
1 inc du 1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
Subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babom bibim bibim obom ubim ubim
1s ŋən gɭ banɖəgo gɭ bənɖəgo gɭ beanɖəgege
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
21
6. Nonpast paradigm of ‘to cut/operate’ TO CUT (operate) Object 1s
1 exc du 1 exc pl
1 inc du 1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl men
Subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babom bibim bibim obom obim obim la
1s ŋən bako beako beakoge boko beako beakoge
1 exc du bi bakoye beakoye beakoye bokoye beakoye beakoye
1 exc pl bi bokoye beakoye beakoye bokoye beakoye beakoye
1 inc du yəbi
1 inc pl yəbi
2s be nako noko
2du be
2pl be bakoyo beakoyo bokoyo beakoyo beakoyo
3sg bo bakon beakon beakogen beakogen nakon ñakon ñakogen bokon beakon beakogen bokonen
3du bo
3pl bo bakoyo beakon beakogen beakogen nakoyo ñakon ñakogen bokoyo beakon beakogen bokonen
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
22
7. Present progressive paradigm of ‘to bite’ TO BITE Object 1s
1 exc du 1 exc pl
1 inc du 1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
Subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babom bibim bibim obom ubim ubim
1s ŋən ɖənɖəg nala
ɖənɖəg ñe a
ɖənɖəg ñe egin
ɖənɖəg y a
ɖənɖəg ñe a
ɖənɖəg ñ egin
1 exc du bi
ɖənɖəg nalala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg y ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
1 exc pl bi
ɖənɖəg nalala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg y ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
1 inc du yəbi
ɖənɖəg y ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
1 inc pl yəbi ɖənɖəg y ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
2s be ɖənɖəg nalele
ɖənɖəg ñe ele
ɖənɖəg ñe agea
ɖənɖəg yerele
ɖənɖəg ñe ele
ɖənɖəg ñe agea
2du be ɖənɖəg nalala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg yerala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
2pl be ɖənɖəg nalala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg yerala
ɖənɖəg ñe ala
ɖənɖəg yerala
3sg bo ɖənɖəg nala
ɖənɖəg ñe a
ɖənɖəg ñe egin
ɖənɖəg ñe a
ɖənɖəg ñe egin
ɖənɖəg nala
ɖənɖəg ñe a
ɖənɖəg ñe egin
ɖənɖəg y a
ɖənɖəg ñe a
ɖənɖəg ñ egin
3du bo ɖənɖəg nalalo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg nalalo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg yeralo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
3pl bo ɖənɖəg nalalo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg nalalo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg yeralo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
ɖənɖəg ñe alo
Defina, Lindsey, Zester Tense, Aspect, Mood of Idi
23
8. Imperative paradigm of ‘to cut/operate’ TO CUT (operate Object 1s
1 exc du 1 exc pl
1 inc du
1 inc pl 2s 2du 2pl 3sg 3du 3pl
Subject bom bim bim yəbim yəbim babom bibim bibim obom ubim ubim
2s be nako ñakoge ñakoge noko ñako ñakoge/nokone
2du be
2pl be nakon ñakon ñakon nokon ñakon ñakon