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TERM PAPER

ON 

Submitted to

Khondokar Fida Hasan

Lecturer Dept. of ICT 

Comilla University . Email: k.fidahasan@yahoo.com

Submitted by 

SL.

NO.

NAME ID POSITION 

1. Md. Jahangir 1109044 G. Leader 

2. Md. Ibrahim Khalil 1009026 Member 

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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

May 1, 2012

KHONDOKAR FIDA HASAN 

Lecturer, 

Department of ICT 

Comilla University, Comilla

Subject: Submission of Term Paper Report. 

Dear Sir,

With the kind assistance of Almighty Allah, the most

helpful and merciful help, we been able to complete the

term paper on Street Lamps you have asked to

prepare.We have shown our best effort to finish this termpaper in the given time period. However, we are aware of 

that there may be some mistakes. We hope that you will

consider them.

Sincerely yours,

Md. Jahangir

I.D.1109044 &

Md. Ibrahim KhalilI.D

1009026

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ACKNOWLEDGETMENT

Any work to do and succeed depends on guidance of a

well known person. We are very grateful that ourhonorable course teacher of ICT-109 Electrical Circuit,

KHONDOKAR FIDA HASAN, whose help and guidance

made us complete our goal on time. We are grateful to

him for giving us a chance to show our goal on time. We

want to pay thanks to him for giving us a chance to show

our effort by the media of term paper. We hope we willget similar opportunities in future.

Sincerely yours,

Md. Jahangir

I.D. 1109044

E-mail:mjahangir114@yahoo.com

Md. Ibrahim Khalil

I.D. 1009026

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Table of contents

Serial No. Topic

1. Street lamps

2. History of street lamp

3. Achievement on street lamp

4. Light pollution

5. Security lighting

6. Types of lamps used in street

7. Result

8. Conclusion

9. Bibliography

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Illustrating different graphs, images and

tables which are discussed in later topics:

Figure Topic

01 A street lamp

02 Showing lighting in roadway

03 An example of beacon lamp

04 An incandescent light in vacouver street

05 A low pressure sodium bulb

06 Lighting shown in roadways and

highways

07 A lane light in purpose

08 City street light (high pressure bulb)

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Street lamps

Introduction:

Fig 1: A street lamp

 A street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of 

light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night.

Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, 

or activate automatically in dark  weather. In older lighting this function would have been

 performed with the aid of a solar dial. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which

have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles. 

The primary function of public lighting is its contribution to the

creation of a safe Borough in which people feel confident to travel around, especially during thehours of darkness. The increased safety, greater security and enhancement to the environment

that can be provided by modern public lighting should help to achieve this objective.

The provision of good street lighting can be directly linked to the Council’s 2020 Vision of 

reducing crime and disorder, reducing fear for personal safety, reducing road traffic accidents

and contributing to a safe, high quality living environment.

In contrast to this Vision, the level of funding invested into the service over many years now

means that much work needs to be done in order for the Councils aspirations to be realized.

There has been a general deterioration in the condition of street lighting stock throughout the

United Kingdom. In support of this, a letter from the Head of Roads Policy at the Department of 

Transport, Local Government and the Regions (DTLR) acknowledged that ‘a significant

proportion of street lighting in England is now nearing the end of its design life, and also the

condition of street lighting in some areas is giving more imminent cause for concern, with

lighting columns already showing signs of structural failure’ (2002).

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As a result, the quality of illumination from street lighting stock within Sandwell is currently

below the standard that the Division would wish to achieve. Over half of the Borough’s

streetlights provide only British Standard minimum levels of illumination, and a small proportion

of these fall below the minimum standard.

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The condition of the street lighting stock itself is also currently below our Divisional aspiration.

In real terms, this means that approximately 80% of the Borough’s 29,000 lighting columns are

in need of replacement over the next 25 years. A number are deteriorating to the point where

the ‘risks’ associated with them collapsing have to be managed on a daily basis. Collapses

occurring on the Newton Road and All Saints Way necessitating in the replacement of all

columns along both roads is a recent example of this.

This Street Lighting Improvement Plan has been written as a document with

which to consult on the current service we provide, and will lead to the publication of a Street

Lighting Stock Renewal Plan aimed at returning the Borough’s street lighting provision to an

agreed standard within a decade.

In addition to this ambition, it is recognized that we must continue to maintain

and manage the risks of the current infrastructure to ensure that it remains functional and safe.

In response to this, this Improvement Plan also considers the process to be used in the

forthcoming review of the Street Lighting Maintenance Service.

Literature review:

History of street lamps:

The earliest lamps were used by Greek and Roman civilizations,where light primarily served the purpose of security, both to protect the wanderer from tripping

over something on the path as well as keeping the potential robbers at bay. At that time oil

lamps were used predominantly as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. The

Romans had a word 'laternarius', which was a term for a slave responsible for lighting up the oil

lamps in front of their villas. This task continued to be kept for a special person as far as up to

Middle Ages where the so-called 'link boys' escorted people from one place to another through

the murky winding streets of medieval towns.

Before incandescent lamps, gas lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that

a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps, but later designs employed

ignition devices that would automatically strike the flame when the gas supply was activated.

The earliest of such street lamps were built in the Arab Empire, especially in Córdoba, Spain

(around 1000 A.D.). The first modern street lamps, which used kerosene, were introduced in

Lviv in what was then the Austrian Empire in 1853.

The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the 'Electric

candle', 'Jablotchkoff candle' or 'Yablochkov candle' developed by the Russian Pavel Yablochkov

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in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that both

electrodes were consumed at equal rates. Yablochkov candles were first used to light the

Grands Magasins du Louvre, Paris where 80 were deployed—improvement which was one of 

the reasons why Paris earned its "City of Lights" nickname. Soon after, experimental arrays of 

arc lamps were used to light Holborn Viaduct and the Thames Embankment in London - the first

electric street lighting in Britain. More than 4,000 were in use by 1881, though by then an

improved differential arc lamp had been developed by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens

& Halske. The United States was quick in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were

in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers. 

The first street in the UK to be lit by electric light was Mosley Street, in

Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The street was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on the 3rd

February, 1879. The first in the United States, and second overall, was the Public Square road

system in Cleveland, Ohio, on April 29, 1879.Wabash, Indiana holds the title of being the third

electrically-lit city in the world, which took place on February 2, 1880. Four 3,000 candlepower

Brush arc lamps suspended over the courthouse rendered the town square "as light as midday."Kimberley, South Africa, was the first city in the Southern Hemisphere and in Africa to have

electric street lights - first lit on 1 September 1882 . In Latin America, San Jose, Costa Rica was

the first city, the system was launched on August 9, 1884, with 25 lamps powered by a

hydroelectric plant. Timişoara, in present-day Romania, was the first city in mainland Europe to

have electric public lighting on the 12 of November 1884. 731 lamps were used. In 1888

Tamworth, New South Wales, Australia became the first location in Australia to have electric

street lighting, giving the city the title of "First City of Light".

Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light

which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary citystreets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With

the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of the 19th

century, arc lights passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.

Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-

intensity discharge lamps. They were often operated at high-voltage series circuits. Series

circuits were popular since the higher voltage in these circuits produced more light per watt

consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock

could control all the lights in an entire district.

To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each street

lamp was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series

street lights were equipped with isolation transformers that would allow current to pass across

the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later the film cutout was invented. The film

cutout was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two

wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the current through the string

became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the

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insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law). In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and

power restored to the rest of the district. The street light circuit contained an automatic voltage

regulator, preventing the current from increasing as lamps burned out, preserving the life of the

remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once

again separating the contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain

insulator separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because

the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above

ground/earth.

Achievements on street lamps: 

The key driver to making successful improvements in this service area is

the level of investment being placed into it. As a response to the urgent need for funding for

improvements, the Division has considered a number of options.

In July 2002 a report was presented to the Cabinet Member for SandwellDirect which set out the risks associated with our ageing Street Lighting Infrastructure,

emphasizing the requirement for additional funding to halt and reverse the decline. An option to

fund the service through a Private Finance Initiative (PFI) was examined but considered

inappropriate. Instead, it was decided to seek funds from existing budgets. This policy has

proved successful to date, and as a result the following lighting improvements have taken

place:- 

In 2002/03

• £164,000 was obtained from the Neighbourhood Renewal Fund (NRF) for street

lighting improvements in Oldbury, Smethwick and West Bromwich.

In 2003/04

• £350,000 was obtained from the Local Transport Plan enabling lighting to be

upgraded on the following major routes:-

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1.  The old A41, from the borough boundary at the Hawthorns, through West

Bromwich, Carters Green, Black Lake, Hill Top and Wednesbury to the Borough

boundary at Moxley.

2. The A461 from Burnt Tree Island through Dudley Port to Great Bridge then

along Great Bridge Street and Dudley Street to Carters Green.

• £250,000 from NRF to improve lighting in a high burglary area of Bearwood,

bounded by Bearwood Road, Lightswood Hill, Harborne Road and Abbey Road.

• £70,000 from Centro to provide white light on the islands along the A41, as part of 

the Red Route scheme.

• £40,000 of NRF money to fund lighting improvements in Tipton and Oldbury.

All of these improvements have contributed to the primary aims 1, 2 and 3 and

secondary aims 6, 8 and 11 found on page three of this document.

It has also been possible to reduce energy costs (primary aim 4) by 16% though the tendering for

electricity as a partner of the Black Country Purchasing Consortium. The £90,000 saving has

been invested in lighting maintenance.

A preliminary review of the Street Lighting Service (primary aim 5) has also been undertaken,

and the highlighted efficiency savings and customer care measures identified were approved by

the Cabinet Member for Sandwell Direct in May 2003. The ‘quick win’ actions resulting in these

saving and measures have now been completed. A more detailed review of the Service is due to

commence during 2004.

Service improvements strategy:

As a Division, we recognize the need to review the service to ensure that all

available funding is used to maximum effectiveness. Our Vision for the service is based upon our

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aspiration to provide good quality street lighting that meets the requirements of all who should

benefit from it. In order to realize this vision we have set ourselves two goals:

• To improve Sandwell’s lighting infrastructure over a ten-year period such that zero

columns are beyond their design life, and all areas are lit to appropriate levels.

Success in this goal will rely on our ability to maintain or improve upon the levels of 

current funding. This will require being pro-active in seeking out possible funding streams, and

submitting effective bids.

Added to this, a program of investment must be created that targets funding on a

priority basis, which may be influenced by a number of factors such as stock condition, crime

‘hot spots’, accident ‘hot spots’, or as part the ongoing work to regenerate the Borough and

improve its environment. Our approach to this issue is considered in Appendix One.

• To ensure that the street lighting maintenance operation is as responsive, efficient and

cost effective as possible, and compares favorably with other similar Local Authorities.

As preparation for this, Sandwell is a member of the Association for

Public Service Excellence benchmarking club. Results of our participation in benchmarking

exercises have highlighted the areas where improvement is needed if we are to achieve top

quartile performance. This information will be used to inform the review of the service due to

commence during 2004.

Lighting improvements:

The successful implementation of the lighting renewal program will rely on two primary factors,which are:

(a) Attracting sufficient funds through effective bidding.

(b) Targeting funds to maximum effect.

(a) Attracting funds

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The current policy is to bid for money from Council budgets rather than pursue a

PFI alternative. The current Council budgets that offer potential future funding streams are:

• Local Transport Plan LTP

Money from this source is only available to spend on the principal road network.

• Highways Maintenance Revenue Budget

This already funds the routine street lighting maintenance operation and a small amount of 

money is sometimes available for lighting improvements. Savings in energy costs provides an

additional £90,000 per annum for lighting improvements.

• Neighborhood Renewal Funds

Some availability in areas of high crime and or deprivation.

• Town Team Budgets

• Council Capital Account

• Housing Revenue Account administered by the ALMO

Funding from this source is only available to spend on the 1,900 street lights that are the

responsibility of the Arms Length Management Organization.

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(b) Targeting funds to maximum effect

The criteria used to prioritise areas for improvement are:-

Column ageExisting lighting levels

Crime and disorder factorsLevel of night-time accidents

The current energy profile of the Borough’s lanterns is:

Lamp Type Lamp Wattage Number of La

Low pressure sodium35 4160

55 12822

90 3506

135 2197

180 480

High pressure sodium 70 2573

100 245

150 853

250 1662

Mercury 80 493

125 10

Metal Halide 150 68

PL-L 55 10

British Standard 5489 has three standards of lighting:-

Standard Desirable in these circumstances

High High public/traffic use or high risk of crime

Moderate Moderate public/traffic use or average risk

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of crime

Low Low public/traffic use or low risk of crime

British Standard 5489 has three standards of lighting:-

Standard Desirable in these circumstances

High High public/traffic use or high risk of crime

Moderate Moderate public/traffic use or average risk

of crime

Low Low public/traffic use or low risk of crime

Worked example:

In order to complete the prioritization exercise, it will be necessary to

collect base data. This data will take some time to gather and is planned to be available for use

in years 2-10 of the improvement program. In year 1, it is proposed to prioritize improvements

in identified areas, which include:

On residential estates

(1) Replace 5m swan neck concrete columns that have 80 watt mbfu or 35 watt sox lanterns,

with 6m steel columns and 70w son lanterns.

(2) Upgrade older concrete columns where deterioration is evident by fitting a galvanized steel

sleeve. The lanterns would be replaced with modern units. This would only be used for risk

management purposes and complete replacement remains the preferred option.

On main roads

(3) Replace 10m steel columns more than 30 years old and fitted with 135w sox lanterns with

new 10m steel or aluminum columns and 250w son lanterns.

Worked Example for Hall Green Road, Stone Cross

FactorScore 

Remarks

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Column Age 2 Steel columns 35 year old

Lighting Level 1 Currently moderate but

should be high

Crime 2 5.6%

Night-time accidents 1 6 accidents

Total 6

The benefits of good street lighting have been substantiated throughout this Plan, and

good maintenance of these assets is vital if we are sincere in our goal to reverse the national

trend in overall deterioration.

To ensure that the current maintenance program is delivering an efficient and

effective service a detailed review is planned for 2004/05. Areas for consideration will include: -

(a) Human resources and people management

• Investors in people

• Adequacy of training

• Qualifications

• Health and Safety

(b) Quality Assurance and Stakeholder Consultation

• Stakeholder Consultation

• Quality Systems/Procedures

• Publication of Service Standards/Quality Procedures/ Complaints / Compliments /

Comments Procedures

• Dealing with complaints

(c) Operational Performance

• Average cost of maintaining street lights

• Percentage of street lamps not working as planned

• Percentage of street lamps restored to working condition within 7 working days

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  • Average time to repair lamps

• Percentage of emergency call outs completed in response time

• Percentage of staff absence - frontline employees

• Percentage of staff absence - all employees

Review process:The format of the review process is to be formalised during April 2004. It is

currently planned that the review process will include the following:

• A core group of employees who will steer and monitor the review. The group will meet

regularly at a frequency that reflects the workload. The group will agree the scope of 

the review, including individuals’ roles, responsibilities and workload, in conjunction

with the relevant line manager.

• The group will identify a ‘lead’ officer, and also a contact officer and process co-ordinator

if required.

• The group will include employees and managers involved in the delivery of the service, as

well as an ‘external challenger’ to assist the group in considering issues raised by thereview.

• It is predicted that the core group will contain a black employee, a female employee, and

a frontline employee. Other employees will be invited to become involved in the work

of the group at appropriate points in time.

• An analysis of available benchmarking information related to this service.

• Making contact with Authorities who have been recognised as being in the upper quartile

for performance. A visit to a Local Authority to learn from their best practice may be

undertaken.

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• To engage Union Representatives in communicating what the service needs to achieve in

terms of specific service outcomes, and determining the means by which that

improvement can be delivered through employees.

• The production of a regular report (to the Head of Service / Cabinet Member) that

details progress of the action plans, along with improvement actions that have been

implemented, and the effect on performance outcomes. These reports should also

consider the services capacity to improve in relation to management, resources (human,

financial, equipment etc), processes, and information.

• A presentation of the progress of the plan to the Highways Direct Management Team

and other interested groups.

electricity supply.

2. To repair dangerous defects within one hour (missing doors, exposed electrics etc).

Measurement

Two very similar measurement systems were created to bridge thescotopic and photopic luminous efficiency functions, creating a Unified System of 

Photometry. This new measurement has been well-received because the reliance on V (λ)alone for characterizing night-time light illuminations requires more electric energy. Thecost-savings potential of using a new way to measure mesopic lighting scenarios is

tremendous.

Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP) is a method for predicting

and measuring three different aspects of light pollution: glow, trespass and glare. Using

this method, lighting specifiers can quantify the performance of existing and plannedlighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the

boundaries of a property.

Advantages

Major advantages of street lighting includes: prevention of accidents

and increase in safety. Studies have shown that darkness results in a large number of crashes and fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians; pedestrian fatalities are 3 to

6.75 times more likely in the dark than in daylight. Street lighting has been found to

reduce pedestrian crashes by approximately 50%.

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Furthermore, lighted intersections and highway interchanges tend to

have fewer crashes than unlighted intersections and interchanges.

Towns, cities, and villages use the unique locations provided by light

poles to hang decorative or commemorative banners.

Many communities in the U.S. use light poles as a tool for fund raising

via light pole banner sponsorship programs first designed by a U.S. based light polebanner manufacturer.

Disadvantages

The major criticisms of street lighting are that it can actually cause

accidents if misused, and cause light pollution. 

DangersThere are two optical phenomena that need to be recognized in street light installations.

  The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the

greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a

street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave

the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower,

so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed

gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.

  Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey one. The

contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle.

  Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally electrify

light poles and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact with

the pole.[31] Some cities have employed the Electrified Cover Safeguard(TM) technology

which sounds an alarm and flashes a light, to warn the public, when a pole becomes

dangerously electrified.

There are also physical dangers. Street light stanchions (poles) pose a collision risk to

motorists and pedestrians, particularly those affected by poor eyesight or under the

influence of alcohol. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit

(frangible or collapsible supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking the lowerportions to increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also

occasionally topple street lights.

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Light pollution

In urban areas light pollution can hide the stars and interferewith astronomy and the migration of many bird species. In settings near astronomical

telescopes and observatories, low pressure sodium lamps may be used. These lamps are

advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because lowpressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. Observatories can

filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the

interference from nearby urban lighting. Full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollutionby reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky which also improves the

luminous efficiency of the light.

Purpose

There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiringdifferent types of lights and placement. Misuse of the different types of lights canmake the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety

Security lighting 

Security lighting is similar to high-intensity lighting on a busy major street,with no pools of light and dark, but with the lighted area extending onto people's

property, at least to their front door. This requires a different type of fixture and lens. Theincreased glare experienced by drivers going through the area might be considered a

trade-off for increased security. This is what would normally be used along sidewalks in

dense areas of cities.

Beacon lights :

A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to

navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and

they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main

road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a

dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the

dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the

main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the onlyappropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk

there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by

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placing reflectors at the sides of the road.

Fig 2: An example of beacon lamp 

Roadway lights: 

Fig 3: Showing lighting in roadways

Street lights are not normally intended to illuminate the driving route (headlights arepreferred), but to reveal signs and hazards outside of the headlights' beam Because of the

dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a

particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with

several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in muchinformation quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (A freeway

 junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all

hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting forapproximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasinglighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's

night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve

where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified.

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If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multi-lane traffic), to

avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights it should not be lit intermittently, asthis requires repeated eye readjustment which implies eyestrain and temporary blindness

when entering and leaving light pools. In this case the system is designed to eliminate the

need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at

close regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goesfrom curb to curb.

Street light control systems

A number of street light control systems have beendeveloped to control and reduce energy consumption of a town's public lighting system.

These range from controlling a circuit of street lights and/or individual lights with

specific ballasts and network operating protocols. These may include sending and

receiving instructions via separate data networks, at high frequency over the top of the

low voltage supply or wireless. Various protocols have been developed as well as

compatible hardware for most types of lighting.

Image-based streetlight control

A number of companies are now manufacturing intelligent streetlightsthat adjust light output based on usage and occupancy, i.e. automating classification of 

pedestrian versus cyclist, versus automotive, sensing also velocity of movement andilluminating a certain number of streetlights ahead and fewer behind, depending on

velocity of movement. Also the lights adjust depending on road conditions, e.g. snow

(more reflectance therefore reduced light need).

Maintenance

Street lighting systems require ongoing maintenance, which can beclassified as either reactive or preventative. Reactive maintenance is a direct response to a

lighting failure, such as replacing a discharge lamp after it has failed, or replacing an

entire lighting unit after it has been hit by a vehicle. Preventative maintenance isscheduled replacement of lighting components, for example replacing all of the discharge

lamps in an area of the city when they have reached 85% of their expected life. In the

United Kingdom the Roads Liasion Group has issued a Code of Practice recommending

specific reactive and preventative maintenance procedures.

References

1.  ^ Fielding H. Garrison, History of Medicine:

"The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra, chemistry, and

geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such

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as street lamps, window-panes, firework, stringed instruments, cultivated fruits, 

perfumes, spices, etc..."

2.  ^ Scott, S. P. (1904). History of the Moorish Empire in Europe. Philadelphia and London.:

J. B. Lippincott Company. p. 3 vols.

Artz, F. B. (1980). The Mind of the Middle Ages. Third edition revised . University of Chicago Press. pp. 148 –50..

"References 1001 Inventions". 

3.  ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan". home.frognet.net. Retrieved 16 October 2010.

4.  ^ "Sir Joseph Swan, The Literary & Philosophical Society of Newcastle". rsc.org. 3

February 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2010.

5.  ^ "Cleveland+ Public Art" (brochure). Positively Cleveland. 2008. p. 3. Retrieved 2009-

05-18.

6.  ^ "Brush Arc Lighting". 

7.  ^ "Timeline of Firsts". Retrieved 2010-01-11.

8.  ^ Rohrmoser, Guillermo. "Centenario de la electridicad en Costa Rica".]

9.  ^ "Marvellous Museums Award".  Australian Broadcasting Corporation. ABC Radio

National. 2008-11-23. Retrieved 2009-04-12.

Types of Lamps

Used in Streetlights 

There are several light sources which have been usedin electric street lights. The main types used since the 1940s in the United States havebeen Incandescent, Fluorescent, Low Pressure Sodium and High Intensity Discharge.

Incandescent

Fig 4: An incandescent light in Vancouver street

Incandescent lamps are among the first and least efficient light sources used in street

lighting. Incandescent lighting was a popular option for street lighting until the 1950s,

when other lamps proved to be more efficient and lower maintenance.

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Fluorescent 

Fluorescent lamps gained popularity for street lighting applications in the1950s. The lamps were more efficient than their Incandescent counterparts, and required

less maintainace. The lamps were primarily used in downtown areas and parking lots.

They were good for any place requiring a lot of light over a large area. The popularity of these lamps was relatively short-lived, as more efficient, compact and lower-maintenance

High Intensity Discharge lamp technology was advanced.

Low Pressure Sodium

Low Pressure Sodium (LPS) lamp is by far the most efficient light source used in

street lighting. LPS lamps are used in various parts of the country, including San Diego, CA. The

lamps produce a monochromatic orange-yellow light, from lamps which are long and

Fig 5: A low pressure sodium bulb

skinny. LPS is also a good way to reduce sky glow for stargazers. The light is easily filtered out for

viewing the stars through telescopes. Drawbacks of using LPS lamps include the color rendering.

When the lamp is on, everything around it looks either orange-yellow, black or shades in

between. Also, as the lamp ages, it uses more wattage, which lighting designers need to account

for. That increase in wattage does result in little-no lumen depreciation, meaning it the light

output from the lamp stays fairly constant over it's life.

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High Intensity Discharge Mercury Vapor 

Mercury Vapor was the first widely accepted HID lightingsource. Clear mercury vapor lamps cast a blue-green light, which some say makes people

look like "walking cadavers." Advances in technology have lead to color corrected

mercury vapor lamps, which cast a relatively clean white light. This is done by coatingthe outer glass globe of the lamp with phosphors.

By the late 1950s, mercury lamps were very widely used aroundthe US. The lamps were about as efficient as fluorescents, the fixtures were smaller, and

lasted much longer. The lamps could also operate in extreme cold. One main difficulty

with mercury lamps was "lumen depreciation." Lumen depreciation is a drop in light

output of the lamp over time. In a lot of cases, a mercury lamp will burn for years past it'srated life, but it will burn much dimmer while using the same amount of wattage.

Metal Halide

Metal Halide Lamps are a distant cousin of mercury lights. The basic lamp is the same

as a mercury lamp, but with other metallic elements added. The result is a good quality

white light. Metal halide has not gained wide acceptance as a source of street light. It ismostly found in parking lots and inside commercial and industrial buildings. The light is

more efficient than mercury vapor, but the lamp life is shorter. Another problem incurred

with metal halide is "color shift." The color of the light produced by each lamp variesslightly, which leads to a cluttered effect. There are now lamps on the market that keep

color shift to a minimum, helping to alleviate that problem. Of course, since the Metal

Halide lamps are related to mercury, they too suffer from lumen depreciation, but not as

extreme as MV.

High Pressure Sodium

High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamps are now commonly used around the US

in street lights. The lamps were developed in the early 1970s and are more energy efficient than

mercury and metal halide lamps. The lamps give off an amber color, have virtually no problem

with color shift, and last for long periods of time. The lamps begin to incur problems when they

near the end of their life. Lumen depreciation is a problem with HPS, though still not as severe

as the depreciation seen with Mercury. The lamps begin to "cycle," which means they turn

themselves off and come back on a minute later. This problem has been addressed with the

recent introduction of non-cycling HPS lamps.

Advances in photo controls can also stop cycling: Lighting Systems Technologies, Inc has

information on these. This page is in no way shape or form part of any corporation or

government agency. It is the creation of Jim Terry.

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Green shine New Energy Co., Ltd. specializes in developing and manufacturing

customized solar street lighting and solar street lamps for a wide range of lighting applications.

Our main products are street lamps and other outdoor lights, such as solar street lighting, solar

garden lighting and solar lawn lighting, etc.. They are used in many college campuses and large

corporations. Our experienced engineering team is committed to providing our customers with

high quality solar lighting systems and excellent customer service. Our facilities are

ISO9001:2000 certified, and our products comply with CE and RoHs criteria.

Dual60

Dual60 is featured for having two light fixtures mounted on one pole. Thus it can

illuminate a wider area. It is perfect for roadways with median, large parking lots,streets with wide sidewalk...

Supera60

Supera60 is designed for larger areas like vehicle lanes, driving roads, parking

lots and so on. Its 5 feet long arm enables it to cover a wider area. Theadjustable...

Supera40

Supera40 is designed for larger areas like vehicle lanes, driving roads, parkinglots and so on. Its 5 feet long arm enables it to cover a wider area. The

adjustable...

All-In-One 

The All-In-One series is designed for minimum installation on existing poles.

This solution is the best one, if you have already poles that you want to use

again. 

Brighta30Brighta30 has various options on light power and pole height. Therefore, it is

available for a wide variety of applications, such as narrow pathways, wide vehicle lanes, and so

on.

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Lita15Lita15 has a light adjustable panel bracket which can be fixed at various positions.

Lita15' s bugle light fixture can light up a large round area.

Solar Street Lights

Greenshine solar street lights are well-designed to illuminate large areas with

the highest intensity of light. Greenshine offers a wide variety of solar lighting configurations

and styles.

Solar Roadway Lights

Greenshine solar roadway lights (solar roadway lamps) are good solutions for

roadways that are remotely located, environmentally sensitive and have no access to electricalgrid.

Solar Parking Lot Lights

Greenshine solar parking lot lights (solar parking lot lamp), with higher pole and

two or three panels, are designed to illuminate a large area with the highest intensity of light.

Solar Garden Lights

Greenshine solar garden lights (solar garden lamps) are elegant in design. With

single panel and 15W-60W light power, Greenshine solar garden lights will be great-output but

affordable.

Solar Lawn Lights

Greenshine solar lawn lights (solar lawn lamps) are elegant in design. No line

voltage, trenching, or metering, Greenshine solar lawn lights will be your cost effective and

beautiful decorations.

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Street lights:

Fig 6: Lighting shown in roadways and highways

The Traffic and Electrical Operations Branch is responsible for providing services to

maintain and to add traffic signals, traffic signs and street lighting systems.

Did you know there are about 30,000 street lights, 11,000 lane lights and 7,600

decorative lights in Vancouver?

Roadway lighting creates a safe environment. For vehicles, it helps reduce night time

accidents. Lighting allows proper night time vision to reduce pedestrian and vehicle

accidents, while increasing a sense of personal security. The City follows design criteriafor street lights.

How to report street light problems?

Look for the ID number on the side of the pole facing the street, about 8 feet above

the ground, and give this along with the street name. You can further assist us byknowing what kind of problem is occurring.

  Is the light going on and off? Report this as a ‘cycling’ lamp. 

  Is the light on in full daylight? Report this as a ‘day burner’. 

  Are there many lights in a row out? Report this as ‘multiple outages’. 

  Are there pieces hanging down? Stay clear, and report as ‘loose components.’ 

Decorative lights

Decorative lighting adds to the character of a neighbourhood and is an

important feature in the public streetscape. The City works with partners on this program.

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Lane lights

Fig 7: A lane light in purpose

Lane lights are put in by the City and are funded by property owners. To obtain lane

lights for your neighbourhood, you will need to contact the staff in Local Improvements. 

Street lighting design criteria

The City’s roadway lighting systems are based on the IESNA(Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) RP-8 design guide. The guide sets

lighting and visibility levels and uniformity ratios. At the time of construction, street

lighting meets these standards. If the road is changed, lighting is upgraded to newguidelines whenever possible.

The City also follows the guiding principles of Dark Skies. Lights,referred to as ‘full cut-off fixtures, minimize light pollution and direct light down to

where it is needed. New construction uses only these full cut-off fixtures, with the

exception of decorative lighting. Fixtures that need to be replaced, are replaced with fullcut-off fixtures wherever possible. In areas where pole spacing doesn't allow full cut-off 

fixtures, spacing will be adjusted when the next major construction happens. So-called

‘drop lens fixtures’ will continue to be used until spacing can be adjusted.

Green initiatives

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Fig8: City street light (high pressure bulb)

Most of the City’s street lights are high pressure sodium (HPS) fixtures, offering the best

 balance of cost and performance. We’re now evaluating the use of electronic ballastbased fixtures to significantly reduce energy consumption. The branch is also testing

induction lighting with a longer service life to reduce maintenance costs. LED lights are

being evaluated in several locations.

Results:

There were some aims for development of street lamps. Some of them are

described below:

  Primary Aims

1. To contribute to a safe road network for all road users through the provision of high

quality street lighting that meet BS5489/EN13201 standards.

2. To supplement the nighttime environment, and to contribute to the reduction of road

traffic accidents.

3. To provide high quality lighting that will support crime prevention and reduce anti-social

behavior.

4. To maximize energy efficiency and sustainability.

5. To achieve high standards of performance, efficiency and customer care in service delivery.

  Secondary Aims

6. To make constructive contributions to the nighttime environment to stimulate usage.

7. To maximize the usage of facilities to increase income to the Council.

8. To aesthetically enhance the environment.

9. To develop the Social Inclusion of the general public during a variety of religious festivals.

10. To maximize the contribution of street lighting services towards improving the local

economy.

11. To protect the environment by ensuring that the public lighting is in keeping with and

properly integrated into sensitive locations.

12. To improve the integration, accessibility and use of the public transport system.

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Conclusion:

Street lamp provide lighting for the streets thereby making it easier fornight travelers to find their way , avoid collisions with other travelers and hazardous

conditions that may exist in streets. Lights also help prevent street crime and make iteasier to apprehend street criminals. Lamp posts can serve as a place to tie a horse or lean

against or attach signs to. Sodium and mercury are used in the majority of street lamps

today. In colder climates a special ballast and lamps have to be used. These are known ascold start ballasts. The cost is much greater using fluorescent fixtures than HID fixtures

and the light output is in improved manner. Lamps can be started at a relatively low

voltage, but as they heat up during operation, the internal gas pressure within the arc tuberises, and more and more voltage is required to maintain the arc discharge. 

Bibliography:

  apps1.eere.energy.gov/.../emerging_tech_report_led_streetlighting.p.apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/.../ssl/gateway_sf-

streetlighting.pdffosetonline.org/.../A%20Study%20on%20energy%20efficient%20&... 

  www.lrc.rpi.edu/researchAreas/pdf/GrotonFinalReport.pdfwww.made-in-

china.com/Street _Ligh

  twww.globalmarket.com/ Sodium-vapor lamp

  www.yelp.com/search?find_desc=tiffany+lamps&find_loc...

www.canstockphoto.com/illustration/ street -

lamp.htmlwww.globelws.com/advantage-of-street -solar-led-

lamp.html ww.tradett.com › Products ›  Automobile ›  Auto Electrical System

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/When_did_the_first_electric_light_on_in_dhaka_city_in_bangladesh#ixzz1sx8m2pTW