Thaddeus M. Maharaj: The Theology of False Prophecy … · Thaddeus M. Maharaj: The Theology of False Prophecy in the Old Testament Sometimes from our perspective today, having a

Thaddeus M. Maharaj: The Theology of False Prophecy in the Old Testament

Sometimes from our perspective today, having a completed canon of scripture and

looking back, it may strike us as strange that there were false prophets in Israel or that it was

a point of concern on how to discern them. Looking back on the prophets, they seem to be

larger than life, imposing figures endowed with extraordinary powers of prediction and

miracle working. We do not as readily understand why their contemporaries did not pay

attention, or wonder why they ever disobeyed or disbelieved for a counterfeit. However, the

blindness of people then surprises us, but our own is often just as great, and although the

obstacles to belief today may be different, it is the same quality in us that makes them

obstacles. It appears that God’s revelation does not carry conviction apart from moral

qualities in the mind as there will always be some ground on which the evidence may be

evaded.1

This article will explore some of the ANE context of prophecy and the etymology of

certain word groups surrounding it, looking at the roles they described. Next, the traditions

of prophetism and some of the distinguishing marks of a prophet will be considered. The

marks of a true and false prophet will then be explored, looking at where the locus of

authenticity lays. Various means and criteria of legitimation for a prophet’s message will be

observed along with the difficulties they present. Lastly, the debate within scholarship on

this topic will be briefly considered before moving to final conclusions.

1 Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 287-289.


Prophecy in the Ancient Near Eastern Context

Prophecy was not something unique to Israel and there were several forms in the

Ancient Near East (ANE) which affected the context of OT

prophecy. These could take the form of soul possession—where

the god took over the psyche of the medium—or ‘soul

migration,’—a sort of outer body experience.2 Novitiates in

divination spent many years learning their trade; including

many forms of divination from memorizing incantations, to

how to interpret the flights of birds, hepatoscopy, exispicy, the

lay of arrows or stones cast out of a container, astrology,

lecanomancy, libanomancy and the significance of dreams and

signs (see footnotes for definitions of these terms).3 At Mari in

the middle Euphrates valley, twenty-eight letters from the third millennium to 1762 BCE

were found mentioning a prophet called ‘apilu’ of the gods Adad or Dagon. Egypt also had

many prophet/priests and the oldest reference to prophets in Canaan is from about 1100

BCE.

Such texts show that the context in which Israel emerged was one where diverse

persons claimed to know the divine will of the gods, but Israel’s prophets differed in that

they proclaimed monotheism and a morality that was issued from the very nature of God.4

The ancient religions of surrounding nations were bent on influencing the will of the gods

and their prophets may call frantically upon them, fasting or even cutting themselves (1 Kgs

18:28) to try to manipulate them and evoke divine pity. Sacrifices were understood as a

means to please the gods. By contrast, the OT prophets, with the exceptions of Elijah and

perhaps Elisha, are rarely involved in sacrificial worship.5 The concern of OT prophets was

rather to proclaim the will of God rather than manipulate it.

Word Groups Related to Prophecy

There are certain word groups associated with prophetism in the OT. Balaam was a

diviner (Heb. ָקַסם [qasam], Josh. 13:22), and though he functioned as a prophet in the end by

speaking the words God put in his mouth (Num. 22:35, 38; 23:5, 16, 26), this was a

supernatural change from his usual methods which were probably similar to the diviners the

Philistines used in 1 Samuel 6:2f. Israel’s false prophets were sometimes classified as

2 Redditt, Introduction to the Prophets, 1-2. 3 Orlinksy, Oriens Antiquus, 164. Interpretation of the formation of livers (hepatoscopy), entrails (extispicy), smoke

or liquid emanating from a container (lecanomancy and libanomancy). 4 Redditt, Introduction to the Prophets, 2-4. See also Davies, The Old Testament World, 167. For more in depth

discussion of ANE context of prophecy, see Day, Prophecy and Prophets in Ancient Israel, 3-56. 5 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 29-30.


“diviners” (Jer. 27:9; 29:8; Ezk. 13:6-9, 23; Mic. 3:6f; Zec. 10:2) who prophesied lies in God’s

name (Jer. 29:8f) and gave messages the inquirer wanted to hear (Jer. 28:9; Ezk. 13:9f) using

magical methods. Other related word groups include “astrologers” (ָאַשף [ashaph], Dan. 2:27;

4:7; 5:7, 11), “soothsayers” (ָעַנן [anan], Isa. 2:6; Mic. 5:12), and sorcerers (ָכַשף [kashaph], Ex.

7:11; 22:18; Deut. 18:10; Dan. 2:2; Isa. 47:9, 12; 2 Chr. 33:6; Mic. 5:12; Mal. 3:5).6

Main Word Groups

However, there are three main words used

by the OT to designate Israel’s prophets. The

Hebrew ֹרֶאה “ro’eh” derives from a verb

meaning “to see” and is generally translated

“seer” or “diviner.” It describes one who could

discover hidden things.7 The other term, ֹחֶזה

[hozeh] similarly derives from a word meaning

“to see” and is usually used in connection to things a prophet saw, including visions, audible

messages or in reference to an entire revelation received (cf. Ezek. 13:16, 23; Num. 24:4;

Amos 7:1-9).8 Peter Southwell comments:

“A general conclusion from all this would be that a seer was by and large someone to

whom people would go. He would be available at certain times and places for exercising

his divine gifts in God’s name. He was not, other than in exceptional circumstances,

someone who on his own initiative went to the people with messages from God. He was

more like a resident chaplain than a roving evangelist, and was called out only rarely

for specific functions.”9

There is no distinguishable difference between the words hozeh and ro’eh, both

translated “seer” in the OT. In 1 Samuel 9:9, it states that ָנִביא—nabi’ (prophet)—was

formerly called ro’eh—so it seems that the two were understood as exercising a common

function of seeing and apprehending what was not accessible to others, and speaking forth

what was seen.10 It may also be suggested that the term “man of God” was common in the

6 Smith, Prophet, 988. 7 Redditt, Introduction to the Prophets, 4-5. For example, Samuel in 1 Samuel 9-10, is described as a ro’eh and he

sees that Saul is coming and that the lost donkeys had already returned home. The means of divination included

interpretation of dreams (Jer. 23:25-32, Dan. 2, 4, Joel 2:28), casting lots (Jonah 1:7), inspecting livers (Ezek. 21:21

– a common practice in the ancient Middle East), necromancy (1 Sm. 28:8-25 – though condemned in the OT) and

reading the stars (Ezek. 32:7, Joel 2:10). 8 Redditt, Introduction to the Prophets, 5. It is used in reference to the entire revelation the prophet received in the

openings of Isaiah, Amos, Micah and Habakkuk. 9 Southwell, Prophecy, 24. 10 Napier, Prophets in Perspective, 17-19. Also see Southwell, Prophecy, 21-36 for a more in depth discussion of

prophets in ancient Israel. The Septuagint translation seems to presuppose a slightly different text which conveys

that the term “seer” was simply a common popular name for a prophet in the past. See also Napier, Prophets in


period between the “seers” and the era of the preaching prophets, before the change of

nomenclature referred to in 1 Samuel 9:9 had fully taken place.11 The prophetic movement

began with Samuel who was the last of the judges who wore both the hats of judge and seer.12

The Meaning of Nabi’

Determining the original meaning of the

root for the main term used in the OT (nabi’) is a

bit difficult.13 The word is used more than three

hundred times in the OT pertaining to a wide

variety of characters.14 There are some who

recognize its root meaning as “bubble, boil or

seethe,”—indicating ecstatic frenzy.15 However,

it is a good guess that the lost Hebrew root may

be related to an Acadian and Arabic cognate

word meaning “to call” or “announce.”16

Etymology alone cannot resolve this though, partially because of the differences of

interpretation on either side, but also because there is much more we can learn from a study

of the prophets in the OT that illuminates the semantic range of nabi’.17 For example, when

Moses refused to speak to Pharaoh, God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ nabi’ (Ex. 6:28-7:2).

Moses is also called a nabi’ because God spoke through him. So, a nabi’, when used of a

prophet of God, is a messenger who speaks the words that God puts in their mouth (Deut.

18:18-22). They often used the common introductory phrase, “Thus says the Lord” (Jgs. 6:8;

1 Kgs. 11:29-31; 20:13; 2 Kgs. 20:1; 2 Chr. 12:5; 21:12; 34:23; 2 Sam. 24:11f.) for their

message. God is said to have spoken his word to most of the prophets, but some had dreams

Perspective, 15. Furthermore, Redditt suggests that perhaps ro’eh may have come to take on a negative connotation,

so nabi’ became preferred. However, even nabi’ can be applied to a false prophet (1 Kgs 22:22). For more, see also

Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, 98-128. 11 Southwell, Prophecy, 24. “The phrase is used especially of Elijah and Elisha at precisely that stage, and Elijah is a

classic example of a seer who began to exercise the ministry of a prophet.” 12 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 10. 13 Napier, Prophets in Perspective, 15-16. See also Merrill, Everlasting Dominion, 86-87. 14 Napier, Prophets in Perspective, 14-15. The term is used of Aaron (Ex. 7:1), to Elijah (1 Kg. 17-19, 21), to true

and false prophets (1 Kg 22), primitive prophets (1 Sam. 10) to more sophisticated (Isaiah), highly visionary (Ezek.

1-2) and concretely ethical (Amos, Nathan, etc.). 15 Southwell, Peter. Prophecy. London. Hodder and Stoughton: 1982., 21. 16 According to Smith, Prophet, 987; various other theories have been proposed including connecting it with naba’

(bubble forth), a passive participle of a word meaning ‘enter’—describing one who was entered by a spirit, an

Arabic root meaning ‘announce,’ an Akkadian root meaning ‘speaking or proclaiming’ or a passive interpretation

‘the one who is called by God.” See also discussion by Johnson. The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel, 24f. 17 Southwell, Prophecy, 21.


and visions (cf. Num. 12:6; Deut. 13:1-5 [MT 2-6]; Ezek. 1; Jer. 23:25: Dan. 7:1f.) and some

used drama to make their message understood.18

Two Traditions

There were two major prophetic traditions; the Ephraimite and Judean Traditions.

The Ephraimite theological tradition considered Mosaic prophets more accurate that others

(cf. Num. 12:6-8).19 The prophets related to the Ephraimite tradition used stereotypical

speech patterns, using a distinctive vocabulary and exhibited certain standard patterns of

behaviour which were modelled on the Mosaic prophet. The Ephraimite prophets were

earlier in the history—such as Abraham, Moses and Samuel—and had cultic functions that

weren’t clearly distinguished from their prophetic functions. However, after the rise of the

monarchy, they began to function on the periphery of society and came to a close at the fall

of Jerusalem. After the exile, a different form of prophecy emerged than what had existed in

the pre-exilic period.20

Marks of a Prophet

Prophets were like foreign ambassadors, or to use insurance terminology, people

with ‘power of agency,’—prophets are

simply messengers. “The power they

exert always stands behind them; it is

never their own. So it is with the prophet.

By his word people become ill or are

healed, live or die; whole nations rise or

fall. Yet behind each momentous word

stands Yahweh. The prophet is simply

the messenger, nothing more.”21

Lundbom notes that, “In Israel, the real

prophet was typically called to critique

kings and governmental policy, which led, as one might expect, to frequent tensions between

the prophet and the royal house.”22 According to Lundbom, some of the marks in the OT that

18 Smith, Prophet, 988. Also, Lester L. Grabbe defines a prophet generally as, “a mediator who claims to receive

messages directly from a divinity, by various means, and communicates those messages to recipients.” 19 Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 163-165, 250. For a fuller discussion of the distinctive features of

prophets from the Ephraimite Tradition and Judean Tradition see chapters 4 and 5 in Wilson, Prophecy and Society

in Ancient Israel. 20 Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 251-252. 21 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 20. Lundbom goes on to say, “[Prophets] have the capacity to perceive things

ordinary people cannot perceive. They see that the times are out of joint, that human life before God is far from what

it should be, that judgment is forthcoming, and that after judgment they are the first to anticipate Yahweh’s

salvation.” 22 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 10.


a person was a true prophet of Yahweh were that they had received a divine call, spoke the

divine word, were possessed with divine vision, were able to perform mighty works, were

filled with the divine spirit and was someone who prayed. However, not every prophet

possessed the whole range of marks or prophetic gifts, but these were generally what was

seen to distinguish and define them.23 Deuteronomy gives two major criteria for judging if a

prophet is legitimate. The first is if the prophet speaks in the name of YHWH (Deut 18:20).

In their context, there were many other gods of other nations, but for Israel, only YHWH

mattered. So only the prophet who spoke in the name of YHWH was to be heeded. Secondly

is whether their predictions come true.24

False Prophets in the OT

A.B. Davidson defines a false prophet as a

“Spokesman, herald, or messenger falsely speaking for, or

on behalf of, someone else. The false prophet was often

motivated not by loyalty to God, but by a desire for

popularity.”25 The message of the false prophet was

usually spurred by self-interest and given to please the

people. It was not necessarily his intention to speak

falsely, yet when spoken with wrong motivation, his

message was often in error. This sometimes means that

even a true prophet could become false and occasionally a

false prophet could be used of God for the right purpose.26

1 Kings 22:19-23 is a most perplexing text in this regard,

as it seems to portray YHWH as leading prophets astray.

Ahab’s prophets give a favorable word to the kings about

going to war, however Micaiah instead predicts the downfall of Ahab. God is seen to hold a

council about how to defeat Ahab, and there a spirit volunteers to be a ‘lying spirit’ in the

mouth of all of Ahab’s prophets (v. 22).27 So this brings up some questions about where the

locus of authenticity lies.

23 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 7-31. 24 Redditt, Introduction to the Prophets, 6. See also Deere, “Deuteronomy,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary,

297. 25 Elwell, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, 1780. 26 Elwell, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, 1780. For example, Moses acted as a false prophet by striking the rock

twice at the waters of Meribah (Nm 20:11, 12), while Balaam, a non-Israelite—whom God entrusted with a vision—

found himself in the difficult position of having to please Balak, who had hired him, and the God of Israel, who

spoke to him (Nm 22, 23). 27 Redditt, Introduction to the Prophets,8-9. However, even here there is a last twist, since it was Jehoshaphat who

was killed in battle and not Ahab. This text warrants further exploration, which for the sake of time will not be

explored here.


Locus of Authenticity for the Prophet

Lundbom notes that the locus of authenticity was not in the prophet’s being, instead,

he was true by virtue of an authentic act, and each word or deed had to be judged true or

false based on its divine inspiration or lack thereof. So, it is perhaps no accident that the term

‘false prophet’ does not occur in the Hebrew Bible—only in the LXX. Instead, it is said that

the prophet speaks ‘falsely’ but never that a prophet is fundamentally defined as a false

prophet. It was focused more on the act of false prophesy than the person.28 Furthermore, in

the OT context, the prophetic message is attached to a context at a particular time and place.

Although the same message can be authentic at more than one occasion, situation or

audience—each proclamation must be judged as true or false in a specific context—they

don’t automatically translate into immutable truths which are applicable to every situation

at any time. The authentic message of the past can become inauthentic at a later time, like

for example, what happened with Isaiah’s dynamic message about the inviolability of

Jerusalem in 2 Kings 19:32-24. It was true then for that context, but by the time of Jeremiah,

it had now expired because Yahweh had something else to say—that the temple would be

destroyed (Jer. 7:1-15).29 However, even with this consideration, there are still individuals

in the OT who seem to be regarded as ‘false prophets.’

Classes of ‘False Prophets’

Davidson identifies two basic classes of ‘false

prophets’—namely, those who were not prophets of YHWH,

but rather prophets of Baal or other pagan gods, and

secondly, those who were prophets of YHWH and though

their objective religious opinions may have agreed, gave

erroneous words.30 Three of the factors he identifies which

influence the corruption of true prophecy are: a.) prophetic

ecstasy—which confused the clearness of revelation—b.)

the nature of prophetic inspiration as a subjective

illumination and c.) the tendency for prophecy to become a

profession with the lure of monetary gain.31 However, the

process of legitimizing or exposing a false prophet or

prophecy was not as simple as one maybe would expect.

28 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 140. See also Davidson, “The False Prophets.” in The Expositor, 1-17. 29 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 142-143. 30 Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 296-298. 31 Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 299-300. See also Johnson, The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel, 30. For

further reading see also Overholt, Thomas W. The Threat of Falsehood: A Study in the Theology of the Book of

Jeremiah. Studies in Biblical Theology, n.s., 16. Naperville, IL: Alec R. Allenson, 1970.


Prophetic Legitimation

In terms of legitimation, visions or miracles sometimes were given as a divine support

of the prophet’s message (for example Isaiah 7:14).32 The miraculous confirmations of Moses

over Korah (Num. 16) and Elijah over the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18) illustrate this point.33

However, this was not always the case. The miracle does not necessarily automatically

authenticate the prophet. In Deuteronomy 13, it says the false prophet may work a miracle,

but here it serves to test if the people’s heart truly loves YHWH. “The true prophet is the one

who speaks for Yahweh and leads people in Yahweh’s way. One should note, however, that the

test is put negatively. Its stated aim is not to authenticate the true prophet, but to discredit the

false one. Israel’s problem was with inauthentic prophets.”34 The passage withdraws attention

from external signs and concentrates it on the true test which was the first article of Israel’s

faith—that YHWH alone was God of Israel. Add to this the fact that from Amos downwards,

miracles play little role in the history of prophecy.35 Lundbom notes that “Only three Hebrew

prophets—four if we include Aaron (cf. Exod. 7:1)—were so gifted” to perform mighty works.36

It would seem that miracle working, though a part of OT prophetism, does not play as big a

role in its legitimation as some might speculate.

Tests of Prophecy

Elwell and Beitzel note that God often tests his people with adversity in order to

establish their hearts (Deut. 8:2-3), and their

privilege of hearing the Word of God through the

prophets was not exempt to testing (Deut. 13:3-4) in

order to see if they truly loved His truth. So, the

major test of prophecy was doctrinal—the false

prophet tries to draw away the people from the One

True God—and so, even if his message was

supported by signs and wonders, it was to be

refused because it contradicted the revelation of the

Lord at the exodus (Deut. 13:5, 10). The next test

was more practical, and required patience. God’s word always comes to pass (Deut. 18:21-

22)—should there be any doubt about whether a prophetic word was true, the people were

to wait for a confirmatory turn of events.

32 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 145. 33 Geisler, Miracles and the Modern Mind, 95. 34 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 145-146. See also Merrill, Everlasting Dominion, 88-89. 35 Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 293; see also Day, Prophecy and Prophets in Ancient Israel, 392-393. 36 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 24.


The last test was moral—false prophets will be found out as men of unholy life (Jer.

23:11, 13, 14) who do not rebuke the people morally but rather encourage men in their sins

(Jer. 23:16-17, 21-22).37 The Bible describes false prophets

as adulterous (Jer. 23:14), treacherous (Zeph. 3:4),

working for money (Mic. 3:11), drunkards (Isa. 28:7),

wicked (Jer. 23:11), liars (Jer. 14:14, 23:14) and associated

with divination and witchcraft (Jer. 14:14; Ezek. 22:28;

Acts 13:6).38 So clearly the moral integrity of a true

prophet was important. An evil mind and immoral

behaviour could not be integrated with a sound message,

since the true prophet was raised up to restore people to

Yahweh, making them faithful to the covenant and to obey

His commands. This is why Israel’s prophets criticize other

prophets most harshly, since if they fail in these things

themselves, they are part of the problem, not the

solution.39

Criteria of Fulfillment

Deuteronomy 18:20-22 lays out the criterion of fulfilment of YHWH’s word and

assumes Deuteronomy 13:1-5 as the test of authenticity. The words “you need not be afraid

of him” imply that the test pertains to prophecies of judgment—however Jeremiah expands

this to include prophecies of peace as well in Jeremiah 28:9.40 However, the question of how

long one should wait for a prophecy to be fulfilled inevitably comes to mind. Ezekiel tried to

answer this worry in Ezekiel 12:21-28. However, there are some prophecies like Isaiah 7:14,

which were given messianic interpretation of fulfilment hundreds of years later.

It seems that most often, prophesies of peace and salvation were allowed to go

unfulfilled for some time and prophesies of a hopeful nature were retained in scripture

despite them not being immediately fulfilled. Furthermore, the NT church realized that some

prophesies in scripture were being fulfilled in their time after a long period of waiting.41 For

prophecies of judgment though, it seems like they may also not be fulfilled if repentance

happens. We see examples of this in Jonah’s prophecy of judgment on Ninevah and Micah’s

judgment on Jerusalem. However, both of these withholdings of judgment may be considered

only temporary, since both Ninevah and Jerusalem eventually were destroyed in judgment

37 Elwell, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, 1782. See also Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, 32. 38 Werse, “False Prophecy,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, no pages—LOGOS resource. 39 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 152-153. See also for more discussion of the morality of false prophets

Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 305-308. 40 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 149-150. See also Crenshaw, Prophetic Conflict, 53. 41 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 151.


at a later time. “According to this view, Yahweh’s word, once spoken, will sooner or later

come to pass. If there is a cancellation, for example, because of repentance, it may be only

temporary.”42

However, the criterion of fulfillment provides little

help in the meantime as the people wait. We see an

example of this in the confrontation between Hananiah

and Jeremiah in Jeremiah 28. At first, Jeremiah is unsure

of the truth of Hananiah’s favorable prophecy and reacts

positively (28:6). However, later when he receives a

specific vision from the Lord contradicting Hananiah’s

prophecy, then he accuses Hananiah of prophesying

falsely (28:15). So in this case, it seems that to detect a

false prophet before awaiting fulfillment of the prophecy

requires another, true prophet.43 However, this was not always a readily available solution

to say the least.

Two Ways to Solve the Problem of Recognizing False Prophecy

The Rabbis and Sectarians solved this problem of recognizing false prophets in two

different ways. For the Rabbis, they treated prophets as sages, and the criterion for

determining if a prophet’s words were true was whether if they concurred with halakhah—

which is the totality of laws and ordinances which regulate religious observances, daily life

and conduct of the Jewish people.44 In the Mishnah (Sanhedrin 11:5), Hananiah is identified

as one of the two types of false prophet, and it is further explained in the Talmud (Sanhedrin

11:7; b. Sanhedrin 90a) that he didn’t invent his prophecy but rather extrapolated it

incorrectly. Several Rabbis put forward various theories including that he was a plagiarist

misunderstanding Jeremiah’s true prophecy, or that the sign given to a prophet from

Deuteronomy 13 is not necessarily in the present but could relate to past deeds, so the

prophet uses his past credibility to deliver a present false message. Therefore, for the Rabbis,

to know if the prophet’s message is true or not lies in the content of the prophecy tested

against the law.45

42 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophet, 151-152. 43 Shemesh, Halakha in the Making, 49-50. 44 Shemesh, Halakha in the Making, 50-51. Halakhah definition from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online:

http://www.britannica.com/topic/Halakhah, “Quite distinct from the Law of the Pentateuch (the first five books of

the Bible), Halakhah purports to preserve and represent oral traditions stemming from the revelation on Mount Sinai

or evolved on the basis of it. The legalistic nature of Halakhah also sets it apart from those parts of rabbinic, or

Talmudic,literature that include history, fables, and ethical teachings (Haggadah).” 45 Shemesh, Halakha in the Making, 50-52.

http://www.britannica.com/topic/Halakhah

http://www.britannica.com/art/literature


The sectarian method of the Qumranites was quite different from the Rabbis, as seen

in 4Q375 (apocrMoses). There when faced with the dilemma of discerning a false prophecy,

it is prescribed that the two parties are to go before the priest who performs the sacrifice in

order to enter the Holy of Holies, where

the hidden things will be revealed to him.

This ritual seems to interpret

Deuteronomy 17:10 as taking ‘that place’

to mean the heart of the sanctuary. So, the

Qumranites take the opposite track to the

Rabbis—a false prophet is determined

through divine revelation. For the Rabbis the false prophet was determined in court, and for

the Qumranites, it was the Temple—it was divine decision rather than human. It must be

noted though, the different time frames these groups existed in. The Rabbis were from a time

that believed prophecy had already ceased for many years and the Qumranites were

anticipating the resumption of prophecy in their present.46

The Prophetic Call

Another important factor of the prophet’s legitimacy is the prophetic call. No two calls

are alike and similarly, the responses to the call also vary, with some who accept it willingly

and others who give resistance which YHWH overcomes.47 “Even reluctant prophets knew

that in the end they must obey the divine call. Moses knew it, and so did Jeremiah. Jonah, the

most reluctant prophet of all, obeyed in the end, and went to speak Yahweh’s word to the people

of Nineveh.”48 It also seemed to be a very private affair which was only made public later or

upon being driven to legitimate their ministry. All the prophets seem to think of themselves

as sent by YHWH, and so their message originates in God and not themselves.

Jeremiah’s credentials as a prophet of YHWH is presented in his call narrative in the

book.49 He at first objects to the call, but in the end is depicted as having no say in the matter

as God is responsible for both the speaker and the message.50 “The denial both of personal

desire and of responsibility for the message affirms that the prophet had no personal benefit

46 Shemesh, Halakha in the Making, 53-55. 47 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 16. See also Berquist, Prophetic Legitimation in Jeremiah, 136. Similarly,

Jonah didn’t get to prophesy the message he wanted to. 48 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 18. 49 There is a close similarity between Jeremiah and Deuteronomy, and some scholars believe that Jeremiah may

have even had a close part in the final production of Deuteronomy. See Hyatt, Jeremiah and Deuteronomy, 156-164. 50 Berquist, Prophetic Legitimation in Jeremiah, 130. The call narrative form as a means of legitimation “may have

originated in the setting of ambassadors presenting their credentials before their audience, telling how the

ambassador was commissioned to present this particular message.”; See also N. Habel, The Form and Significance

of the Call Narratives., ZAW 77 (1965), 322.


from the message. The motive is purely the service of Yahweh, rather than any personal gain.”51

In fact, the initiative for the call is so much so from YHWH that it is not Jeremiah’s search for

a message, but rather it comes before even his own birth—all responsibility falls on YHWH.52

To add to this, Jeremiah is instructed to remain celibate his whole life and could not attend

weddings or funerals as a sign that there will be no happiness in Israel. The false prophets’

messages were to their benefit, however, when the message given is at great cost to the

prophet himself, his motives are less questionable. This type of personal sacrifice which

serves to help legitimate a prophet is not uncommon (Isa. 8:1-4; Jer. 33; Ezek. 4-5; Hos. 1-

3).53

Ecstatic Experience—dem prophets be cray cray!

Another element which has to be mentioned is that of the question of ecstatic

experience by prophets in the OT and ANE. “Excitation was, however, no essential element in

true prophecy. It was not mentioned in

connection either with Moses or Samuel…

so common a phenomenon as ecstasy could

be no test of true prophecy.”54 This mark is

actually down played in the OT, probably

due to the widespread phenomenon of

ecstatic prophecy in surrounding pagan

cultures. Prophets showing hyper

spirituality were often discredited.55 Peter

Southwell comments,

“The use of the term ecstasy is common in literature about the prophets, but is

misleading. Nowadays it carries connotations of exquisite pleasure, and in origin it

conveyed the sense that the subject was, quite literally, beside himself, out of his mind,

or had taken leave of his senses. Neither of these ideas is explicitly conveyed by the

biblical texts, and it is best to avoid too precise psychological terms at a distance of so

many centuries, and with so little evidence to go on.”56

51 Berquist, Prophetic Legitimation in Jeremiah, 131. 52 Berquist, Prophetic Legitimation in Jeremiah, 131-133. 53 Berquist, Prophetic Legitimation in Jeremiah, 134. 54 Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 291-292. 55 Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 26. “Micah claimed that insensitive people in his audience would rather sit and

listen to ‘windy’ preachers, who push ‘liquid spirits’ on people, than to his cry against social injustice (Mic. 2:11).

Jeremiah played on the double meaning of ‘spirit,’ saying that some prophets he knows will become what they

already are: ‘bags of wind.’” For further reading see also Lindblom, J. Prophecy in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia:

Fortress Press, 1965. 56 Southwell, Prophecy, 25.


Some scholars argue that only false prophets described in the prophetic literature in

Israel were ecstatics.57 However, this view

overlooks that there is no good biblical evidence

that all the ‘false prophets’ were ecstatics and

underestimates the real problems in discerning

prophets in Israel. Others such as Gunkel

suggested that the true prophet’s oracles were

produced after their ecstatic experience had

ended, and thus the product of a rational mind.

However, this is based on little evidence, and

there is evidence which seems to point to the

contrary. Jeremiah in particular, in Jeremiah 4:19

exclaims in anguish, in 29:26 his speech is said to

be described as that of a madman, and in 23:9 he

describes himself shaking like a drunk man

because of Yahweh’s words.58 A third approach

admits that the prophets may have had

infrequent ecstatic experiences, however, the

content of their prophecy must be distinguished from the ecstatic means by which those

words were received.59

A Brief Overview of Scholarship on False Prophecy

With this in consideration, let us finally look at some of the views of scholarship on

the topic. Some modern scholars have suggested that the criteria for determining a false

prophet changed between different time periods in the Bible. Gerhard von Rad proposed that

the false nature of the message is what distinguished a prophet as true or false, recognizing

that the message was not the only qualifier identified in the Bible (Von Rad, “Die falschen

Propheten,” 109–120; Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 2:209–210). Sigmund Mowinckel

proposed that true pre-exilic prophets were marked by dependence on the word of Yahweh

57 Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 7. See also H.T. Obbink, “The Forms of Prophetism,” HUCA 14

(1939), 25-28; S. Mowinckel, “‘The Spirit’ and the ‘Word’ in the Pre-exilic Reforming Prophets,” JBL 53 (1934),

199-227. 58 Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 7-8. See also Lundbom, The Hebrew Prophets, 29 who said,

“The prophets also came and went, as with the wind, as seen in the discourse between Elijah and Obadiah—who

was worried Elijah would disappear and he wouldn’t be able to find him (1 Kgs 18:12). They were mobile

messengers of Yahweh, which was different to priests who resided in the sanctuary. You could go see a priest,

because you knew where to find him. The prophet was not like that, but might come to see you when you least

expected it. “The importance of mobility for the prophet persisted even in to the late first century C.E., when, in the

early church, the false prophet was one who stayed with his host more than two days (Didache 11:5).” 59 Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 8. See also Rowley, “Old Testament Prophecy,” 128-131 and

Mowinckel, “Ecstatic Experience,” 279-280. For discussions of ecstasy and cult see Eissfeldt, The Old Testament

and Modern Study, 119-126, 134-145 and Clements, One Hundred Years of Old Testament Interpretation, 51-75.


(Mowinckel, “The ‘Spirit’ and the ‘Word,’” 199–227). Buber and van der Woude suggest that

correct interpretation of events is what defines a true or false prophet, and that false

prophets relied upon conceptions of covenant and Zion theology to proclaim ultimate victory

for Jerusalem (Buber, “Falsche Propheten,” 277–83; see also Sanders, “Hermeneutics of True

and False Prophecy,” 24–41; and Overholt, “Jeremiah 27–29,” 241–49; van der Woude, “Micah

in Dispute,” 244–60). H.J. Kraus concluded that a true prophet had access to the divine

council and false prophets relied on alternative forms of divination (Kraus, Prophetie in der

Krisis, 105–15; Kraus, Prophetie und Politik, 41).

However, all of these definitions fell short in one way or

another of being comprehensive to the diversity seen in biblical

descriptions of false prophets. Therefore, scholarship moved

towards using clearly defined objective boundaries instead.

Some of these were that prophets identified true and false

prophecy by guidance of an inner spirit (Quell, Wahre und

falsche Propheten, 105–15), or that only true prophetic

utterance from God could correctly identify false utterances

(Childs, Old Testament Theology, 136), or that the line between

true and false prophecy was variable which mean that prophets

could slip from one to the other (Jacob, “Quelques remarques sur

les faux prophetes,” 479–86), and Brueggemann’s proposal that

prophecy was only able to be judged true or false retrospectively (Brueggemann, Theology

of the Old Testament, 631; Birch et al., A Theological Introduction to the Old Testament, 271–

72).60

Concluding Thoughts

In conclusion, the discerning of true and false prophecy was a legitimate concern in

the OT, although the focus was primarily on the legitimacy of the message itself. However,

the character of the prophet themselves was not unimportant, as the word of a godly prophet

of good standing would naturally carry more weight than one of ill repute. False prophecy

was a very serious matter, as seen in Deuteronomy 18, death is declared for false prophets.

However, no prescription of execution is detailed, but rather it seemed that the penalty was

to be overseen by YHWH himself. “It is written that Yahweh himself will ‘require it of him’ (v.

19). We are immediately reminded of the fate of the prophet Hananiah, whose imminent death

60 Werse, “False Prophecy,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, no pages. See also Von Rad, Old Testament Theology

and Overholt, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 35, 241–249 and Brueggemann, Theology of the Old

Testament.


is announced in an oracle by Jeremiah (Jer. 28:16) and who, we are told, ‘died the same year in

the seventh month.’”61

There were several marks of legitimation such as confirming miracles, fulfilment, true

doctrine, the prophet’s call narrative and ecstatic experience which would be considered, but

none of them could singularly give the answer. Instead, a more comprehensive look at the

prophet and his message needed to be

taken into account, looking also at

whether the prophet encouraged the

people to repentance, relationship and

the worship of the One True God. We

can see links to this understanding of

prophets and prophecy carried over

into the NT times, where others were

to weigh what was said (1 Cor. 14:29).

Also, there are doctrinal admonitions

to test everything and hold fast to

what is true (1 Thess. 5:20-21; 1 John 4:1-6). It is assumed that there will continue to be

struggle for God’s people with discerning false prophets (Matt. 7:15, 24:24; 2 Cor. 11:13-15;

2 Pet. 2:1-22) and it is to be taken no less seriously than it was in the OT.

So this issue of discerning false prophets is still relevant to us today with so many

speaking “in the Name of the Lord.” This is no light claim, and often some modern prophecy

advocates have taken the idea of ‘fallible’ prophecy far too nonchalantly. Lastly, we must

consider also—how does this affect the belief in the sufficiency of scripture? We live in a time

of a completed canon. So, if the Bible is sufficient, and God has given us “everything we need

pertaining to life and godliness,” (2 Pet. 1:3) why do we need contemporary prophecy? Is it

even right to call the modern phenomenon prophecy or is it something totally different? And

how authoritative are these prophetic utterances? How does God speak to His people today?

We must always go back to scripture as our grounding in doctrine, practice and theology.

However, this issue of modern prophecy would be one that would need to be addressed

perhaps in a subsequent article.

61 Day, Prophecy and Prophets in Ancient Israel, 156.


BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berquist, J. L., Prophetic Legitimation in Jeremiah., Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 39, Fasc. 2, Brill: 1989. Online: http://jstor.org/stable/1519571

Brueggemann, Walter. Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997.

Clements, Ronald E. One Hundred Years of Old Testament Interpretation. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976.

Crenshaw, James L. Prophetic Conflict: Its Effects upon Israelite Religion. BZAW 124. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1971.

Davidson, A. B. Old Testament Prophecy. ed. J.A. Paterson. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1904.

Davidson, A.B. “The False Prophets.” The Expositor. 5th ser., 2. 1895. Online: http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/expositor/series5/02-001.pdf

Davies, Philip R. and John Rogerson. The Old Testament World. 2nd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. 2006.

Day, John. Prophecy and Prophets in Ancient Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 531. ed. Claudia V. Camp, et al. New York: T&T Clark International, 2010.

Deere, Jack S. “Deuteronomy,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985.

Eissfeldt, Otto. “The Prophetic Literature,” in H.H. Rowley, ed., The Old Testament and Modern Study. London: Oxford University Press, 1951.

Elwell, Walter A. and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988.

Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, Baker Reference Library. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999.

Geisler, Norman L. Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1992.

Hyatt, J. Philip., Jeremiah and Deuteronomy, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Apr. 1942). University of Chicago Press., 156-164. Online: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542125

Johnson, Aubrey R. The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel. Cardiff: University of Whales Press, 1962.

http://jstor.org/stable/1519571

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/542125


Lundbom, Jack R. The Hebrew Prophets: An Introduction. Minneapolis, MN. Fortress Press: 2010.

Merrill, Eugene H. Everlasting Dominion: A Theology of the Old Testament. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 2006.

Napier, B. D. Prophets in Perspective. New York. Abingdon Press: 1962.

Orlinksy, Harry M. “The Seer in Ancient Israel.” Oriens Antiquus 4. 1965

Overholt, Thomas W. “Jeremiah 27–29: The Question of False Prophecy.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 35, 1967.

Redditt, Paul L. Introduction to the Prophets. Grand Rapids, MI. William B. Eerdmans: 2008.

Shemesh, Aharon. Halakha in the Making: The Development of Jewish Law from Qumran to the Rabbis. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 2009.

Smith, G. V., “Prophet” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. ed. G.W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1979-1988.

Southwell, Peter. Prophecy. London. Hodder and Stoughton: 1982.

Werse, Nicholas R. “False Prophecy,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015.

Westermann, Claus. Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967.

Wilson, Robert R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980.

Von Rad, Gerhard. Old Testament Theology: The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions. Translated by D.M.G. Stalker. Vol. 2. New York: Harper & Row, 1962.

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