Thayer Terrorism Radicalization Through Social Networks

8/14/2019 Thayer Terrorism Radicalization Through Social Networks

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Explaining Clean Skins:

The Dynamics of Small Group Social Networks

and the London Bombers

Carlyle A. Thayer

Professor of Politics

Director, UNSW Defence Studies Forum

School of Humanities and Social Sciences

Australian Defence Force Academy

[email protected]

Paper to Workshop on

Sacrificial Devotion in Comparative Perspective:

Tamil Tigers and Beyond

Sponsored by

Department of Anthropology

University of Adelaide

Adelaide, South Australia

December 5-7, 2005
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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ExplainingCleanSkins:TheDynamicsofSmallGroupSocial

NetworksandtheLondonBombers

CarlyleA.Thayer*

AbstractIntheaftermathoftheJuly7th2005Londonbombings,therewasintensespeculationby

media commentators and security analysts about the degree to which al Qaeda was

responsible.Whenthe identitiesofthebomberswasknown,mediacommentatorsand

security analysts then turned their attention to explaining how socalled clean skins

couldberecruitedintotheglobaljihad.Mainstreamanalysistendedtofocusontheroles

ofbrainwashingandamastermindbehindthesesuicideattacks.

This paper offers an alternate approach to understanding how clean skinsbecome

suicide bombers. This paper utilizes social network theory which stresses the

importance of social background (socioeconomic status, education, faith as youth,

occupation,andfamilystatus).Socialnetworktheoryarguesthatsocialbondspredating

formalrecruitmentintotheglobaljihadarethecrucialelementoftheprocess.

Themainvenueforjoiningglobaljihadconsistsofgroupsoffriends(abunchofguys)

that spontaneously assemble in mosques. According to forensic psychiatrist Marc

Sagemen, author of Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvaniaPress,2004),joining theglobaljihad isa threeprongedprocessofsocial

affiliation (social bonding) involving membership in smallworld groups based on

friendship,

kinship

and

discipleship.

Over

time

members

of

these

cliques

experience

a

progressive intensification of their beliefs and faith leading them to embrace the

ideologyofglobaljihad.Thenextstageinvolvesanencounterbythesmallgroupwitha

link to thejihad. The final stage involves intense training and voluntary recruitment

usually markedby a formal ceremony (swearing an oath of loyalty). Social network

theorythusrejectstheargumentthatindividualsbecometerroristsbecauseoftopdown

recruitmentandbrainwashing.

TheLondonBombingsInearlyJuly2005,ShahzadTanweerrentedaNissanMicrafromalocalagency.

OnJuly

7

thhe

drove

two

of

his

friends

to

ahouse

in

the

Burley

area

of

Leeds

to

pick up a number of explosive devices. This group wasjoinedby the fourth

*ProfessorofPolitics,PostgraduateCourseworkCoordinatorandDirector,UNSWDefence

StudiesForum,SchoolofHumanitiesandSocialSciences,UniversityCollege,TheUniversityof

NewSouthWalesattheAustralianDefenceForceAcademy,Canberra.


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bomber in his carand they then drove to Luton inBedfordshire, parked their

cars in the railway station and took a Thameslink train to Kings Cross in

London.Theretheysplitup.

MohammedSidiqueKhanexplodedadeviceontheEdgwareRoadsubway,killingatleastsevenpersons.

ShahzadTanweerdetonatedanexplosivedeviceontheCircleLinebetweenLiverpoolStreetandAldgatekillingatleastsevenpersons.

Germaine Lindsay set off an explosive device near Kings Cross Stationkillingatleast26persons.

HasbibHussainfoundhisassignedNorthernlinedisrupted.Heleftthesceneand made frantic mobile phone calls to the otherbombers;but these calls

wentunanswered.Almostanhourafterthefirstattacks,hesetofhisbomb

ontheNo.30businTavistockSquare,killingatleastthirteenpeople.

AftertheJuly7bombings,policefound16otherexplosivedevicesinTanweers

rentalcarattheLutonrailwaystationcarpark.Severalofthedevicesconsisted

ofplasticbottlesturnedintonailbombswithadetonatorattachedtoanelectric

cableandweredesignedtobecarriedinarucksack.Theexplosivedevisesused

in the London bombings probably weighed 4.5 kilograms each and were

composedoftriacetonetriperoxide(TATP).Britishforensicexpertscharacterized

the London bombs as crude homemade devices. A police official stated,

Everything that we have suggests that these could have been made with

knowledgein

this

country.

These

are

the

type

of

devices

you

can

make

yourself

withinformationyoucouldacquirefromtheInternet,orotherextremisttraining

manuals.1

The July 7 London bombings prompted immediate speculation by counter

terrorism specialists and media commentators that al Qaeda was responsible.

David MartinJones, an Australian academic, wrote, the alQaeda in Europe

groupthatclaimedresponsibilityfortheattacksskillfullyplannedandexecuted

theoperation.2TheLondonbombingswereimmediatelycomparedtotheMarch

2004attacksinMadrid.Whoelsecouldhavecarriedoutsynchronizedattacksof

1RaymondBonner,StephenGreyandDonVanNatta,BritishInquiryShiftsAwayFromForeign

AidforPlots,TheNewYorkTimes,July31,2005.2DavidMartinJones,SchizophreniathatdogsUKswaronterrorism,TheAustralianFinancialReview,July13,2005,63.


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thisnature?AlQaedawasnotindecline,theyargued,andtheJuly7thbombings

wereproof.

When the identityof thebomberswasdiscoveredmediaattention tookanew

direction.Allfourofthebomberswere cleanskinsor lilywhites,thatis,they

were unknown to police and security authorities.3 Family relatives speculated

that Tanweer must havebeenbrainwashedby an extremist religious teacher.

Media commentator Cameron Stewart, for example, stressed the emotional

vulnerabilityoftheyoungerbomberstoanoldermentor.Stewartalsosuggested

that Tanweer mighthavebeen indoctrinatedby radicalized imams whileon a

visittoPakistaninlate2004/early2005.CameronalsoarguedthatMuslimswho

seektobecomesuicidebombersarerarelyabletocarryouttheirplanswithout

access toawellconnectedmastermindwhocanprovide themwithexplosives

andreinforcetheirwillingnesstodieforIslam.4

Britishpolicegavepriority to identifying thesupportnetwork includingbombmakerandmasterplanner thathadenabledtheseattackstotakeplace.Asofthis

writing,policehavenotindicatedanysuccessinthisendeavour.

Asevidencewasassessed,analystsbecamemore introspective.AlQaeda, they

concluded,wasno longerthehighlycapableterroristorganization itoncewas.

WhenalJazeeratelevisionbroadcastavideotapecontainingthelasttestimonyof

MohammedSidiqueKhanandacommentarybyAymanalZawahri,alQaedas

numbertwo,officialswerequicktopointoutthatthisdidnotconclusivelyprove

alQaedawasbehindthe7/7attacksinLondon.

Astheprofilesofthefourbombersindicates,allwerehomegrown.Accordingto

severalanalysts,thisrepresentedBritainsworstnightmarebecausehomegrown

terroristsaresohardtodetect.The7/7attackswerealsothefirstterroristsuicide

bombingstobecarriedoutintheUnitedKingdomandtheyseeminglyspawned

asecondroundofcopycatbombingsonJuly21.

3Theuseofthetermcleanskinsmaybefoundin:MartinChulov,UndertheRadar,TheAustralian,July14,2005,14;JohnSteeleandDouglasJehl,Homegrownmayhem,TheAustralianFinancial

Review,

July

14,

2005,

61;

Peter

Wilson,

Britains

home

grown

enemy,

The

Australian,

July14,2005,1;andDanielMcGroryandMichaelEvans,Bombersleaderidentifiedbypolice,

TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July15,2005,1and9.LilywhitewasatermusedduringtheIRAbombingsforterroristswithnoknownconnectionstomilitants,see:HowPolice

TracedtheSuspectsTrail,TheEconomistreprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July1617,2005,28andDanielMcGrory,BritianshomegrownenemyCallthatcrackedthecase,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July14,2005,12.4CameronStewart,Enemywithin,TheWeekendAustralian,July1617,2005,19and28.


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Thispaperwillapplysocialnetwork theory toexplain thephenomenonof the

emergenceofhomegrowncleanskinterroristsinBritain.Thistheoryhaswider

applicability,includingtoAustralia.Twocaveatsareinorder.First,thisresearch

isanoffshootoftheauthorsmaininterestintheemergenceofnewterrorismin

SoutheastAsia.

Second,

this

paper

must

be

viewed

as

only

apreliminary

analysis

untilBritishsecurityofficialsreleasefurtherdetailsoftheirinvestigation.

SocialNetworkTheoryMarcSagemanprovidesperhapsoneof themost insightfulaccounts intowhy

individualsbecometerroristsbasedonhisstudyasaforensicpsychiatristofthe

biographiesofnearly400 individualswhoweremembersofwhathetermsthe

globalSalafijihad.5Sageman considers threemainexplanatoryapproaches to

the study of why individualsjoin terrorist groups: (1) socialbackground, (2)

common

psychological

make

up,

and

(3)

situational

factors.

Sageman

evaluates

thestrengthsandweaknessesofeachapproach.He thenconstructsatheoryof

social networks to explain the dependent variable of why individualsbecome

terrorists. Sagemans study makes clear that the global jihad movement is

historicallyuniquewhencomparedwithotherterroristgroups.

Socialbackground. In termsofgeographicalorigin,of172persons inSagemansfirststudy,twothirdscamefromsixcountries:SaudiArabia(N=31),Egypt(24),

France(18),Algeria(15),Morocco(14)andIndonesia(12).Sagemanssecondand

largerstudyrevealed that mostof the terrorists in thesamplecome fromcore

Arab

countries,

immigrant

communities

in

the

West,

Indonesia

or

Malaysia.

6

In his first study, Sageman identified four large geographical clusters if the

patternofinteractionamongindividualterroristsisusedtodiscriminateamong

thesample:

CentralStaff(alQaedaleadership),32members; CoreArabStates(SaudiArabia,Egypt,Yemen,Kuwait),66members;

5MarcSageman,UnderstandingTerrorNetworks(Philadelphia:UniversityPennsylvaniaPress,2004)considersthebackgroundsof172terrorists.Thisdatasetwasexpandedtoabout400inhis

laterstudy,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,TheJournalofInternationalSecurityAffairs,8,2005,7990.Fordetailsonthedemographicbackgroundsofsuicideterroristsconsult:RobertA.

Pape,DyingtoWin:TheStrategicLogicofSuicideTerrorism(NewYork:RandomHouse,2005),199216.

6Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,80.


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MaghrebAfrica(Algeria,MoroccoandTunisiaandwellasmigrantsfromthesecountrieslivinginFrance),53members;and

Southeast Asia (Jemaah Islamiyah [JI] members from Indonesia andMalaysia),21members.7

Sageman included five variables in his analysis of socialbackground factors:

socioeconomicstatus,education,faithasyouth,occupation,andfamilystatus.

Intermsofsocioeconomicstatus,theSoutheastAsiaclustermaybeclassifiedas

solidly middle class. The Central and Core Arab clusters are similar and are

skewed toward the middle and upper classes; while the Maghreb cluster is

evenlydividedbetweenlowerandmiddleclasses.

The172membersofSagemanssamplecamefromrelativelywelltodofamilies

andweremuchbettereducated than thepopulationat large in thedeveloping

world. Over sixty percent had at least some college education. They were abettereducatedgroupthantheirparents.Asizeableproportionhadexperience

livingabroadintheMiddleEastandtheWest.Theywereabletospeakseveral

languages.TheCentralStaffclusterwasthebesteducated.Eightyeightpercent

had completed a college or tertiary education and twenty percent held

doctorates.

The majority of Sagemans sample attended secular schools; only seventeen

percent had Islamic primary and secondary educational backgrounds. It is

significant to note that the Southeast Asia cluster was drawn mainly from

religious

studies,

while

terrorists

in

the

other

clusters

undertook

science,

engineeringorcomputersciencecourses.OfthosewhohadanIslamiceducation,

halfwerefromIndonesia.The Indonesiannetworkstandsoutamongtheother

clusters with such a high percentage of its members the product of Islamic

education.

Threequarters of Sagemans sample canbe classified as professional (medical

doctors,architects,teachersorpreachers)orhadsemiskilledoccupations(police,

military,mechanics,civilservice,smallbusiness,students).Theremainingone

7Indonesians form the majority of the members of the Southeast Asia cluster (12 of 21); other

membersinclude:Malaysia(3),SingaporeandthePhilippines(2each),andAustraliaandKuwait

(1each).Mostof themembersofJIwere formerstudentsand/orstaffat twoboardingschools,

Pondok Ngruki in Indonesia and Pesentren Luqmanul Hakiem in Malaysia, foundedby the

groups leaders. The Southeast Asia cluster is also the second oldest (formed in 1993), and

developed in the 1990s when the leaders ofJI were exiled in Malaysia.JI did not embark on

terrorismuntilafteritsleadersreturnedtoIndonesiain1999.


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quarter of the sample was classified as unskilled workers; here the Maghreb

Arabspredominated.

Sagemans followup study confirmedhisearlier findings: [i]n termsof socio

economicbackground,threefourthscomefromupperandmiddleclassfamilies.

Far from coming frombroken families, they grewup in caring intact families,

mildlyreligiousandconcernedabouttheircommunities.Intermsofeducation,

over 60 percent have some college education. Most are in the technical fields,

suchasengineering,architecture,computers,medicine,andbusiness8

In terms of faith as youth, thirteen of sixteen Central Staff were considered

religious as children. The Southeast Asia cluster exhibited a similarly high

pattern due to theboarding school experience of its members. The Core Arab

cluster also showed early religious commitment. The Maghreb cluster was an

exception; its members were brought up in a secular school environment.

Sagemans second study found that [a]bout half of the sample grew up asreligious children,but only 13 percent of the sample, almost all of them in

SoutheastAsia,wereeducated inIslamistboardingschoolsormadrassas.9The

entiresampleofsecondgenerationEuropeanswenttosecularschools.Aboutten

percentoftheentiresamplewereCatholicswhoconvertedtoIslam.

In terms of family or marital status, seventythree percent of the sample was

married.AlloftheCentralStaffandSoutheastAsianleadersweremarried(data

availableon37).Theseindividualswereencouragedbytheirsocialnetworksto

marry theircolleaguessistersanddaughters.These ingroupmarriages forged

closereligiousandpoliticalrelationshipsandthuscontributedtothesecurityofthe group.10 Sagemans followup study reached the same findings: [t]here

fourths are married and the majority have children.11 This marital profile is

uniquetotheglobalSalafijihad;mostotherterroristswereunmarried.

Psychological explanations. Sageman considered and rejected a variety ofpsychological explanations as factors explaining why individuals became

terrorists.12 His first sample was relatively small as sufficient information was


9Ibid.

10SeethediscussioninJemaahIslamiyahinSouthEastAsia:DamagedButStillDangerous,AsiaReportNo.63,JakartaandBrussels:InternationalCrisisGroup,August23,2003,2729.


12Thesefactorsincluded:mentalillness,terroristpersonality,pathologicalnarcissism,paranoia

andauthoritarianpersonality.


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availableononlytencasesoutof172.Inhislaterstudy,Sagemencouldonlyfind

dataonaboutonethirdofthetotal.Thesedatarevealedlessthaneightpercent

showedevidenceofaconductdisorder.Therestofthisgroupseemstohavehad

normalchildhoodwithoutanyevidenceofgettingintroublewiththelaw.13

Situationalfactors. Sageman considers five variables as part of this explanatoryapproach:age,placeofrecruitment,faith,employment,andrelativedeprivation.

The average age when a person joined thejihad14 tobecome a terrorist was

25.69 years. The Southeast Asian cluster had the highestmeanage onjoining,

29.35 years, followedby the Central Staff whose average onjoining was 27.9

years.

Seventypercentof the terrorist leadershipsamplejoined thejihad inacountry

other thanwhere theyhadgrownup.Theywereexpatriatesaway fromhome

and familyworkers,refugees,studentsand fightersagainsttheSovietUnion.

The Central Staff members converted to global jihad while in the Sudan.IndonesianmembersofJIjoinedwhilelivinginMalaysia.Withtheexceptionof

theSoutheastAsiansandtheSaudis,mostotherterroristleadersjoinedthejihad

intheWestFrance,GermanyortheUnitedKingdom.

Inasignificantfinding,Sagemandiscoveredthattherewasadecidedshiftinthe

degree of devotion to Islam in adulthood (greater than religious devotion as

youths)byindividualspriortotheirbecomingmujahedin.Ninetysevenpercent

of his terrorist sample adopted Salafi Islambeforejoining thejihad through

exposureatmosqueswherereligiousleadersespousedthediscourseofjihad.

Next,Sagemanconsideredthevariablerelativedeprivation.Thebiographicdata

indicatedthatjustbeforejoiningthejihad,futureterroristssufferedfromsocial

isolation, spiritual emptiness and underemployment (lack of a fulltimejob).

Thesebecameasourceofgrievanceandfrustration.Sagemanconcludedthathis

datasupportedrelativedeprivationasanecessarybutnotsufficientexplanation

ofwhytheindividualsinhissampleturnedtoterrorism.

Finally,Sagemanconsideredsituationalcircumstancesatthetimeofjoiningthe

jihadasavariableinexplainingwhyindividualsdecidedtojointheglobaljihad.

Sageman found that most terroristsjoined thejihad through friendship and

kinshipbonds and that the decision tojoin thejihad was a collective not an


14Sagemandefinesjointhejihadasanindividualsdecision(aspartofagroup)togo

somewherefortrainingAfghanistan,thePhilippines,MalaysiaorIndonesia.


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individual decision. In his words, [t]hese were not individualbut collective

decision. These preexisting friendship bonds accounted for all the students

joiningthejihad15Inotherwords,[j]oiningthisviolentsocialmovementwas

abottomup activity.After9/11and theelimination of terrorist sanctuaries in

Afghanistan,anew

pattern

emerged.

Now,

writes

Sagemen,

volunteers

join

the

movementandperformoperationswithoutbeingtrainedorformallyjoiningthe

oldalQaeda.16

Sagemans study discounts the role of religious fanaticism in post9/11 new

terrorism. Sageman argues that young men drifted toward local mosques

because theywere looking forMuslim friends,and thatswhereMuslimshang

out. And this is where pure chance might have contributed to their

radicalization.Therewasadipinreligiositywhengroupsoffriendsformedbut

within a short time, there was a dramatic shift in devotion to their faith. But

socialbonds

predated

any

ideological

commitment.

There

was

no

evidence

of

brainwashing:thefutureterroristssimplyacquiredthecommonbeliefsoftheir

friends.17

Insummary,Sagemanarguesthatjoiningthejihadwasathreeprongedprocess

of social affiliation (social bonding) involving membership in smallworld

groupsbased on friendship,kinship18anddiscipleship. Over timemembers of

thesecliquesexperiencedaprogressive intensificationof theirbeliefsand faith

leadingthemtoembracetheglobalSalafijihadideology.Thenextstageinvolved

anencounterbythesmallgroupwithalinktothejihad.Thefinalstageinvolved

intense

training

and

voluntary

recruitment

usually

markedby

a

formal

ceremony(swearinganoathofloyalty).

Sagemans findings reject the arguments that individuals become terrorists

because of top down recruitment andbrainwashing. In his view, socialbonds

predatingformalrecruitmentintothejihadarethecrucialelementoftheprocess.

Groupsof friends thatspontaneouslyassemble inmosquesconstitute themain

vectorforjoiningthejihad.


16Ibid,85.

17Ibid.

18Forexample,AliGhufron,histhreeyoungerbrothersandthenextdoorneighbourwereall

involvedinthe2002Balibombings.


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ProfileoftheSuicideBombersMohammadSidiqueKhan,30.KhanwasborninPakistan.Heoriginallylivedandgrew up in Beeston. He attended Matthew Murray High School. When his

parents moved to Nottingham, he remained in Beeston to attend Leeds

University. He met his wife at university and was the father of two children.

KhanisreportedtohavevisitedPakistanafewtimesforshortvisits.19

In2002,hewasemployedasa teachingassistant inBeestonsHillsidePrimary

School forchildrenwith learningdisabilitiesand forchildrenofnewlyarrived

immigrant families. His most recent job was in an Islamic bookshop. Khan

attended the Muslim Association mosque on Stratford Street in Beeston with

TanweerandHussain.

Khan recently moved to Dewsbury. He and his wife separated in late in 2004

around

the

time

she

fell

pregnant

with

their

second

child.

Reportedly

they

continually argued over his growing religious fervour. His wife supported

womensrightsandopposedMuslimextremism.20

In2004,KhanwasthesubjectofaroutineterroristthreatassessmentbyMI5.He

wasjudgednottobeathreattonationalsecurity.21KhanandTanweertraveled

toPakistantogetherinNovember2004.KhanregularlyvisitedTanweeratChak

villageandbothlaterattendedanIslamicstudiescourseatamadrassa.

Accordingtoreports,KhanandTanweermetaknownalQaedaactivistwhowas

laterjailedforbombingachurch.22PakistaniintelligencereportedthatKhanalso

met with al Qaeda operative Mohammed Yasin (aka Ustad Osama), anexplosivesspecialistwiththemilitantgroup,HarkateJihad.23InFebruary2005

KhanandTanweerleftPakistantogetherandreturnedtoLeeds.

19JohnSteeleandDouglasJehl,Homegrownmayhem,TheAustralianFinancialReview,July14,2005,61.

20Familiesspeakofshock,disbeliefonlearningofthesecretdoublelives,TheCanberraTimes,July18,2005,6andPeterWilson,Focusonsuspectshometurf,TheAustralian,July15,2005,9.21DavidLeppard,AttackerwasjudgedbyMI5tobenothreat,TheSundayTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July18,2005,12andElaineSciolinoandDonVanNatta,JuneReportLedBritaintoLowerItsTerrorAlert,TheNewYorkTimes,July19,2005.22DanielMcGroryandZahidHussain,Militantlongedforsuicidemission,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July2324,2005,14.23GlennFrankel,BritishPursueLinkBetween2Setsofbombers,TheWashingtonPost,July25,2005,A1.


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ShahzadTanweer,aged22.ShahzadsfathermigratedfromtheFaisalabadregionofPakistanandsettledintheLeedsarea.Shahzadsfatherownedandoperated

theSouthSeasFisheries,afishandchipsshop.Previouslyheownedabutchery

and a curry takeaway. He was respected locally as abusinessman. Shahzads

mothermakes

clothes

at

the

family

home.

ShahzadTanweerwasborninBradfordonDecember15,1982andthenmoved

first to Beeston in 1984 and then to Colwyn Roads, Leeds five years later. He

livedwithhisparentsandthreeyoungersiblingsinahouseconvertedfromtwo

semidetachedterracehouses.Hissisterwenttouniversityandmanagesashoe

shop.

He attended Wortley High School where he was an excellent student and

outstanding athlete in several sports (cricket, track and field, and soccer). He

attended Leeds Metropolitan University and studied sports science and took

martialartsclasses.LastseasonhiscricketteamwonitsdivisioninaLeedswidecompetition for PakistaniBritish players. He had aspirations to play county

cricket. Also,hewasonebeltaway fromablackbeltwhen, about sixmonths

before thebombing, he suddenly stopped attending classes. And hebecame a

lessregularparticipantofpickupgamesofsoccerandcricketatanearbypark.24

Occasionallyheworkedinhisfathersfishandchipsshop.

Tanweers family went to the Hardy Street mosque in Beeston,but Tanweer

attended theBengalimosqueand theMuslimAssociationmosqueonStratford

Street inBeeston.MohammadSidiqueKhanandHasibHussainalsoprayedat

the Stratford Street mosque. Tanweer frequented the Hamara Youth AccessPoint,adropincentreforteenagers.

In2004,Tanweerwasarrestedfordisorderlyconductbutwascautionedandnot

charged.TanweerdroppedoutofhissportsciencecourseatLeedsMetropolitan

Universityatendof2004..Hetoldhisparentsthathewantedtojoinagroupof

friends fromhis localmosqueona twomonthsvisit toareligiousschoolnear

Lahore.25 He promisedhis perplexed parents he would pick up his studies on

return.HereportedlytookpartinthehajbeforetravelingtoPakistan.Hearrived

thereonNovember19,2004inthecompanyofMohammadSidiqueKhan.

24PeterWilson,Anyonecouldbeaterrorist,TheAustralian,July14,2005,1and2.25DanielMcGroryandZahidHussein,BombersschooledinhateonvisittoLahore,TheAustralian,July15,2005,8.


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While inPakistanTanweervisitedhis relatives in the village ofChakNo.477

nearFaisalabad.OnpreviousvisitstoChak,Tanweerwouldplaycricketwithhis

cousins. But this trip he was more subdued and remained secluded in his

grandfathershouse.Onhismostrecenttriphewasoutspokeninexpressinghis

viewsregarding

Muslim

oppression

at

the

hands

of

the

West.

The

treatment

of

Muslim prisoners at Guantanamo Bay particularly rankled. He confided to a

cousinhisadmirationofOsamabinLadenandhisdesiretobeaholywarriorto

avengethewayMuslimswerebeingtreated.26

Tanweer and Khan reportedly met a known al Qaeda activist who was later

jailed inPeshawarforterroristoffenses.Theylaterattendedatwoweekcourse

inIslamicstudiesatJamiaManzoorulIslammadrassainMuridike.

Tanweer and Khan left Pakistan on February 8, 2005 and returned to Leeds.

According to his uncle, Bashir Ahmed, He came home after three months

becausehedidnt like thepeople there.Tanweer resumedhis studies;healsoexhibitedanewfoundreligiosity.Hestartedattendingmosquethreetimesaday

sometimes in the companyofHussain. InJune,TanweerandKhanwentona

whitewaterraftingtriptoWales.

HasibHussain,aged19.HussainsfamilyoriginatedfromPakistan.Hisfatherisafactory worker and Hussain had three siblings. The family lives in a four

bedroom redbrick house in innerLeeds suburb of Holbeck, where Hussain

spent his entire life.His family often went toBeeston forgrocery shopping at

halalbutchersandtoattendmosque.

Hussain attended Matthew Murray High Schoolbut not at the same time as

Khan.Hehadatroubledadolescenceandsmokedmarijuana.After9/11Hussain,

aged14,passedoutflyerssayingjusticehasbeendone.Friendssayhewentoff

therailsand leftschool in2003withoutgraduating.Inanefforttoinstillsome

discipline, his father sent him to Pakistan, Hussan underwent a change and

returned more devoutly religious. His olderbrother expressed concern when

HussainjoinedaMuslimgroup,grewabeard,andstartedwearingawhiterobe.

Hussain,KhanandTanweerprayedtogetherattheMuslimAssociationmosque

onStratfordStreet.

In2004Hussainwasarrestedforshopliftingandwascautionedbutnotcharged.

InJuly2004HussainreturnedtoPakistanandremainedthereuntilAugust2005

26DanielMcGroryandZahidHussain,Militantlongedforsuicidemission,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July2324,2005,14.


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whenhereturnedtoLeeds.HisvisitoverlappedwiththatofKhanandTanweer

buttherearenoreportsthatthethreemetup.

Jermaine(Jamal)Lindsay,late20s(somereportssay19).MuchlessisknownatthisstageaboutLindsaysbiographicaldetailsandhis relationshipswith theother

threeLondonbombers.27 HewasborninJamaicaandgrewupinHudderfield.

HeconvertedtoIslamandchangedhisnametoJamal.LindsayattendedIslamic

religiousclassesafterschool.HiswifeiswhiteandconvertedtoIslamtwoyears

ago.ReportedlyhevisitedAfghanistanin2001andretunedahardlineMuslim.

Lindsayhadafifteenmontholddaughteratthetimeofhissuicide.

A short time before the London bombings Lindsay moved to Aylesbury in

Bukinghamshireandlivedinarentedredbricksemidetachedhouse.Duringhis

short stay,his familydidnotmixwith the restof theMuslim community.He

was reportedly seen in Leeds in the company of the otherbombers. There is

speculationhemayhavemettheotherbombersduringatriptoamadrassa inPakistan.28OnJuly7,Khan,TanweerandHussaindrovebycartoAylseburyto

meetupwithLindsayandthenproceededtotheLuttonrailstationtotakethe

traintoLondon.

U.S. officials claim Lindsay was on a terrorist watch list and MI5 failed to

monitorhisactivities.29IntelligenceconnectsLindsaytoabombfactoryinLeeds

areawherematerialswerestoredtomakeexplosivedevices.Allegedly,healso

hadlinkswithcriminalactivityintheLuttonarea.

SocialNetworkTheoryandtheLondonBombers30AfterthepartitionofIndiaandPakistanin1947,therewasamajormigrationof

PakistanistotheUnitedKingdom.Thenewarrivalsworkedinthetextilemiles

ofnorthernEngland.ThemajoritycamefromKashmir,otherscamefromGujarat

27DetailsaboutLindsayhavebeenculledfrom:DanielMcGroryandMichaelEvans,Bombers

leaderidentifiedbypolice,TheAustralian,July15,2005,1and9;AdamFresco,SeanONeillandStewartTendler,Familymannamedasfourthbomber,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July1617,2005,10;and(LondonthreeinPakistantogether,TheTimes[London]

reprinted

in

TheAustralian,July19,2005,10.

28LondonthreeinPakistantogether,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July19,2005,10.

29DavidLeppard,AttackerwasjudgedbyMI5tobenothreat,TheSundayTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July18,2005,12.30ThissectiondrawsheavilyonandisacloseparaphraseofAmyWaldmansexcellent,Seething

UneaseShapedBritishBombersNewfoundZeal,TheNewYorkTimes,July31,2005.


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14

and Punjab provinces. Britains new arrivals experienced minimal integration

intowidersocietyduetosuchfactorsasethnicity,language,cultureandreligion.

TheyformedinsularcommunitiesbasedontheiridentityasMuslimsandFriday

prayersatthemosquebecameamajorfocalpoint.ThesuburbofBeestonHillisa

gatheringplace

for

Leeds

Muslim

community

due

to

its

concentration

of

Asian

groceryshops,halalbutcheriesandmosques.

In late 1980s, most mills and factories in northern England were shut down.

Pakistanimillworkerseitherretiredormovedintosuchnewoccupationsastaxi

drivers or shop keepers. South Asians prospered more than whites which

generated some resentment. According to the 2002 census, Beeston comprised

77%whitesand18%Asian.Almosthalfthepopulation isunderthirtyyearsof

age. Young men divided into white and Asian gangs, and a racist milieu

pervadedthestreets.Generally,inthelanguageofsocialwelfareworkers,young

Asianmen

were

NEET

Not

in

Education,

Employment

or

Training.

31But,

according to one account, secondgeneration young Asian men were more

directionlessthandeprived.32

ThefamiliesofthethreeLondonbombersKhan,TanweerandHussaincame

from the Punjab. These families were not faced with staggering poverty and

unemployment.Theiroffspringwerethefirstgenerationtobeeducatedentirely

inBritain.TheyachievedEnglishlanguage fluencyandbecameadeptatusing

the Internet. Some had expectations of taking over the familybusiness. Khan,

TanweerandHussiangrewupinBeestonwheretheirliveswerecomparatively

easy.Khan,

Tanweer

and

Hussian

were

afforded

access

to

secondary

and

even

tertiaryeducation.Thetrioattendedthesamesmallneighbourhoodmosqueon

Stratford Street. Generally, they hung out together playing pickup soccer in

CrossPlattsParkandsocialcricket.

Theirbeliefs and identities straddled their parents traditional values and the

workingclass culture around them. They were alienated from their parents

rural South Asian culture which they viewed as backward. They also felt

alienated from mainstream British society. The Beeston school system made

almost no accommodation to the presence of secondgeneration Asian young

31AccordingtoastudyproducedbyWhitehall,Islamicextremismwasbeingdrivenbyhigh

levelsofdeprivationinMuslimcommunities.MuslimsintheUnitedKingdomwerethreetimes

aslikelytobeunemployed,with43percenthavenoeducationalqualificationsandmorethan

halfclassedaseconomically inaction;AlQaidarecruitsaffluentstudents,TheSundayTimes(London)reprintedinTheAustralian,July11,2005,13.32Ibid.


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15

men.TheylearnedlittleaboutPakistanorIslam.Theywereexpectedtobecome

British.InBeestonthismeanttattooing,drinking,pitbulls,anddrugs.According

tooneinvestigativejournalist,TheydontknowwhethertheyreMuslim,British

orboth.33

Theneighbourhoodswereroughandhardnesswasessential.34Islamprovided

awayoutofaimlessness,addiction,andviolence.At firstKhan thenTanweer

andHussainbecamereligious.This triodefinitelyswamagainstthetide.Khan

andTanweerbecameactive increatinganetworkoforganizationsdesigned to

lure Asian youths off the streets through sports, outings and educational

activities. For example, Khan availed himself of a grant from the Leeds City

CounciltoequipagymonbehalfoftheSouthLeedsAsianYouthAssociation.

Khan, Tanweer and Hussain came to Islam like converts who questioned

everythingandacceptednothing.AsbornagainMuslimsthisgroupoffriends

developedanewsocialconservatismthatdistancedthemselvesfromtheirpeers.Sometimes they came in conflict with their parents who, as shopkeepers, sold

cigarettes,bacon, tinned pork and girlie magazines, goods they considered a

violationoftheir faith.TheyrejectedtheIslamoftheirparents.Khansawtheir

religiousadaptationtolifeinBritainashavingcontaminatedIslam.

The trio stopped praying at their parents mosque;but used its gym to warn

otheryouthagainst thetypeofIslambeingpracticedupstairs.Theyattendeda

Deobandi mosque where the imam preached a more rigid orthodox school of

Islamthatadvocatedaliteralapproachtoreligion.Khanandhisfriendssoonleft

theDeobandimosqueinfrustrationandcontemptforitsimam.35ForthemIslamwaspoliticshatredpftheWestduetotheoppressionofMuslimsinKashmir,

Kosovo,andIraq.

The London bombers gravitated towards an extreme form of Islam, called

Salafism, that was rapidly spreading through the Internet, university societies

and Islamicbookshops.Salafismdemandedareturnto Islam in itsearlyyears.

AllotherformsofIslamwererejectedasimpure.Salafismprovidedunequivocal

answers.Ittaughtthattheummahwasonecommunity,ifonepartoftheummah

33Ibid.

34Ibid.andTamaraJones,AmongtheYoungofMultiethnicLeeds,AHardeningHatred,TheWashingtonPost,July20,2005,A14.35AmyWaldman,SeethingUneaseShapedBritishBombersNewfoundZeal,TheNewYorkTimes,July31,2005.


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16

suffered the rest wouldbe in pain as well. Therefore, Salafi Muslisms had an

obligationtoundertakephysicaljihadundercertainconditions.

In sum, the London bombers did it themselves in Beeston. They were not

recruited,indoctrinatedorbrainwashed.Theymighthavegatheredataderelict

house on Stratford Street for small group discussions.36 After they left the

mosque they gravitated to the Iqra Learning Centre.37 There they formed

discussiongroupsandstudycircles.TheypostedpoliticaltractsontheInternet

andproducedDVDswhichtheycirculatedinIslamicbookshops.Thesematerials

were as much political as religious. A central theme was that the West was

wagingacrusadeagainst Islam.Materialproducedanddistributedby the Iqra

Learning Centre juxtaposed images from the Crusades with war mutilated

Muslims.

MarcSagemanpositsthattheprocessofjoiningtheglobalSalafijihadisathree

pronged process of social affiliation involving membership in smallworldgroupsbasedonfriendship,kinshipanddiscipleshipbyindividualswhoseage

averagesnearly26.38Theaccountpresented in thispaperprovidespreliminary

support for his theoryof social networks. Mohammed Sidique Khan,Shahzad

TanweerandHasibHussainwereagedbetween19and30.Theiraverageage,

fallingbetween22and24,isslightlylowerthanaverage.

This group of friends formed social affiliationsbased on their identities as

British Muslims who grew up in the Leeds suburb of Beeston. Although it is

unknownwhenthey firstmet, it isknownthattheywent to thesamemosque,

played social sports together and interacted in a local youth association. ThebiographiesoftheLondonbombersprovidedetailsthatdocumenttheirpassage

throughthefirstofSagemansthreeprongedprocess.Duringthisstagethetrio

experiencedaprogressiveintensificationoftheirreligiousbeliefsthateventually

ledthemtoembracetheideologyofglobaljihad.Thiswasgraphicallyillustrated

inKhanstestimonialvideoairedafterhisdeath(seeAppendixA).Khanstated,

Your democratically elected governments continuously perpetuate atrocities

against my people all over the world. And your support of them makes you

directlyresponsible,justasIamdirectlyresponsibleforprotectingandavenging

myMuslim

brothers

and

sisters.

36PeterWilson,Focusonsuspectshometurf,TheAustralian,July15,2005,9.37Ibid.



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17

There ismuch lessdirectevidenceofhow the trio transitioned to stage two. It

seems reasonably clear that Khan and Tanweer (and possibly Hussain)

establishedadirectlinktotheglobaljihadthroughtheir2004visittoPakistan,if

notearlier.Pakistaniintelligenceandotherreportssuggesttheymayhavemade

contact

with

the

militant

organizations

LashkareTayyaba

and

Jaish

e

Mohammed,and/orothermilitantssuchasZeeshanSiddique.

So far there is no public evidence to suggest that the Londonbombers were

voluntarilyinvolvedinintenseterroristtypetrainingoverseasorparticipatedin

aformalswearing inceremony.Khansvideotestimonialdoessuggest,butnot

conclusively,somelinkwithanalQaedaaffiliatedmilitantgrouporindividual.

ConclusionsThe London suicide bombings of July 2, 2005 has resulted in a rethink by

security and intelligence analysts about the factors that shape homegrownterrorism and terrorist support networks. Increasingly, analysts arebecoming

skepticalabout topdownmodels thatemphasize theroleof foreignactors in

the recruitment and indoctrination/brainwashing of the new generation of

terrorists.39Australiansecurityofficialsconcluded,forexample,thattheLondon

bombers were a selfcontained cell working without sanction from terror

masters.40

AlQaeda,forexample,isnolongerperceivedasthekeyorganizationalplayer.A

senior Australian official stated that the London attacks were probably

independentofalQaeda.41ButalQaedaismhasbecomeapotentideologyandOsamabinLaden isnowperceivedby thenewgenerationasmoreofan icon

than leader. One senior counter terrorism official has concluded, Al Qaeda is

finished.But there isAlQaedism.This isapowerful ideology thatdrives local

groups todowhat theythinkOsamabinLadenwants.42Accordingtoanother

analysis,FromBalitoMadridtoLondon,itseemsincreasinglylikelythatyoung

39SeetheremarksbyPierredeBousquet,directorofD.S.T.,Francesdomesticintelligenceservice

quotedin

Elaine

Sciolino,

Europe

Meets

the

New

Face

of

Terrorism,

TheNewYorkTimes,August1,2005.

40MartinChulov,Policeblindsidesbyselfcontainedcells,TheAustralian,July11,2005,2.41MartinChulov,Bombergrouplikelytobeindependent,TheWeekendAustralian,July910,2005,4.

42ElaineSciolinoandDonVanNatta,SearchingforFootprints:BombingsLinkDoubted,TheNewYorkTimes,July25,2005.


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18

menwhodidnottrainwithbinLaden inAfghanistanandhavenoestablished

place inthealQaidahierarchyarecommittingattacksoftheirownconception

underthealQaidabanner.43

Socialnetworktheoryhelpstoexplaintheriseofhomegrowngroupsthatform

spontaneously frombelow. Social network theory stresses the importance of

socialbondsamongofgroupsoffriends(abunchofguys)thatpredateformal

recruitmentintotheglobaljihadasthecrucialelementofthisprocess.

ThedatapresentedinthispaperprovidessupportforSagemansthreepronged

social network theory. It is clear that a process of social bonding based on

friendship helped to create a small world group. Kingship and discipleship

playednodiscernablepart,buttheroleofKhan,theoldest,asmentorshouldbe

noted.TheBeeston trioexperiencedaprogressive intensificationof faith in the

period from 2003 that led them as a group to embrace the ideology of global

jihad. It is still unclear when and how Lindsaybecame associated with thisgroup.

Authoritativedetailsaboutthesecondpronginthisprocessestablishingalink

toglobaljihadislacking.ButpubliclyavailableevidencepointstoPakistanat

the likelymeetingplacebetweenmembersof theBeeston trioandmembersof

extremist Muslim groups. It is not known where Khan made his testimonial

video. Lindsay may have had independent connections to the globaljihad as

resultofhisunconfirmedvisittoAfghanistanin2001.Thereisnoevidencethat

the four London bombers underwent any form of intense training and

recruitment. Social network theory thus rejects the argument that individualsbecometerroristsbecauseoftopdownrecruitmentandbrainwashing.According

to British authorities the youths path to terrorism may have stemmed from

internetjourneystheyembarkedonthemselves.44

43IanBremmer,Openingnewfranchisesoffear:Blairsfrontline,TheWeekendAustralian,July910,2005,22.Forasimilaranalysisquotingwesternintelligenceagencies,see:GeoffKitney,Local

terroristcellsseenasrisingthreat,TheWeekendAustralianFinancialReview,August67,2005.44MartinChulov,UndertheRadar,TheAustralian,July14,2005,14.


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19

AppendixAFull Text of Videotape of Mohammad Sidique Khan broadcastby alJazeera

Television

BBC News, September 4, 2005: The full text of the videotape of MohammadSidique Khan, one of the four 7July [suicide]bombers, which was aired on

ArabictelevisionchannelalJazeeraandinwhichheexplainshismotives.

Textbegins:

Imgoingtokeepthisshortandtothepointbecauseitsallbeensaidbeforeby

farmoreeloquentpeoplethanme.

Andourwordshavenoimpactuponyou,thereforeImgoingtotalktoyouina

languagethatyouunderstand.

Ourwordsaredeaduntilwegivethemlifewithourblood.

Im sureby now themedias painted a suitable picture ofme, thispredictable

propaganda machine will naturally try to put a spin on things to suit the

governmentandtoscarethemassesintoconformingtotheirpowerandwealth

obsessedagendas.

Iandthousandslikemeareforsakingeverythingforwhatwebelieve.

Ourdrivingmotivationdoesntcomefromtangiblecommoditiesthatthisworld

hastooffer.

Ourreligion is Islam obedienceto theonetrueGod,Allah,andfollowingthefootsteps of the final prophet and messenger Muhammad... This is how our

ethicalstancesaredictated.

Your democratically elected governments continuously perpetuate atrocities

against my people all over the world. And your support of them makes you

directlyresponsible,justasIamdirectlyresponsibleforprotectingandavenging

myMuslimbrothersandsisters.

Untilwefeelsecurity,youwillbeourtargets.Anduntilyoustopthebombing,

gassing,imprisonmentandtortureofmypeoplewewillnotstopthisfight.

We are at war and I am a soldier. Now you too will taste the reality of this

situation.

Asecondpartofthetapewaslessclear,buthecouldbeheardsaying:

Imyself,Imyself,Imakedua(pray)toAllah...toraisemeamongstthosewhomI

love like theprophets, themessengers, themartyrsand todaysheroes likeour


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20

beloved Sheikh Osama Bin Laden, Dr Ayman alZawahri and Abu Musab al

Zarqawiandall theotherbrothersand sisters thatare fighting in the...of this

cause.

WiththisIleaveyoutomakeupyourownmindsandIaskyoutomakeduato

Allahalmighty toaccept thework frommeandmybrothersandenterus into

gardensofparadise.

Source:http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//1/hi/uk/4206800.stm.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stm


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21

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Documents

Thayer Terrorism Radicalization Through Social Networks