The Adolescent Mattering Experience: Gender Variations in Perceived Mattering, Anxiety, and Depression

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer2009 ■ Volume87302©2009bytheAmericanCounselingAssociation.Allrightsreserved.

Adolescence, defined as the period between childhood and adulthood (i.e., ages 10–19 years in the United States), is marked by dramatic developmental changes in physical, cogni-tive, and social-emotional capacities (Erikson, 1963). It is well known that psychological distress during the adolescent period of the life span is a common experience that may be due to the innumerable changes adolescents face (Ollendick, Selig-man, Goza, Byrd, & Singh, 2003). As early as age 11, young adolescents begin forming their self-concept and must cope with increasing expectations from parents, friends, school, and society (Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994; Rosenberg, 1985). The intersection of these experiences, coupled with environ-mental stressors such as parental divorce, can result in increased psychological distress, such as anxiety and depression (Rapee, Wignall, Hudson, & Schniering, 2000). Although some anxiety and depression is common in early adolescence because of the development rate in this life stage (Ollendick et al., 2003), there also can be frequent forms of serious mental disorders in adolescents (Rapee et al., 2000). In fact, evidence suggests a considerable increase in adolescent anxiety and depression over the past 2 decades, and mental health counselors report an increase in medication prescriptions and counseling services specific to adolescent concerns (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 1999).

Recent statistics suggest that 1 in 10 adolescents experience anxiety and that 1 in 8 experience depression at some time by the later adolescent period of life (DHHS, 1999); however, these forms of psychological distress are now a more custom-ary occurrence for young adolescents as well. Studies indicate that 1 in 5 young adolescents (ages 11–14 years) have some sort of mental, behavioral, or emotional problem and that 1 in 10 may have a serious emotional problem (DHHS, 1999; Freres, Gillham, Reivich, & Shatte, 2002). Furthermore, 1 in 8 may experience comorbid anxiety and depression (Deas-Ne-smith, Brady, & Campbell, 1998). Of these adolescents, only 30% receive any sort of intervention or treatment; the other

70% cope with the challenges of mental illness or emotional turmoil on their own (DHHS, 1999).

Although anxiety and depression in early adolescence is more common today, excessive amounts can become harmful and disabling (Essau & Petermann, 2001; Freres et al., 2002; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994). For instance, adolescents’ anxious responses are considered impairments when they are excessive in comparison with appropriate anxiety levels for the situation (Essau & Petermann, 2001). In addition to disturbed thought patterns and altered behaviors, anxiety regularly coex-ists with depressive disorders in adolescents (Deas-Nesmith et al., 1998) and may result in noteworthy social impairments. For example, adolescents who are anxious and depressed often experience substantial distress in their interpersonal relation-ships. Therefore, adolescents who have a higher proclivity toward anxiety are more likely to experience dissatisfaction and unhappiness in their relationships with others, resulting in anxiety and/or depression (Essau & Petermann, 2001; Freres et al., 2002; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981).

Adolescence is a period during life when fitting in and connecting with others are highly valued; thus, interpersonal conflicts in close relationships can lead to even greater anxi-ety and depression levels (Jenkins, Goodness, & Buhrmester, 2002). Vast amounts of literature highlight adolescents’ needs for a sense of belonging and the importance it plays in their daily relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Erikson, 1963; Maslow, 1968; Rosenberg, 1985). More specifically, all human beings are known to have a fundamental need to form and maintain at least a few important relationships with others, and a lack of this belonging may cause severe ill effects (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). To experience be-longingness in one’s life is a primary human motivation; humans are social beings who wish to be loved and accepted (Maslow, 1968).

For adolescents, this need to feel as a part of a group and to belong to others seems to be one of the most crucial aspects

Andrea L. dixon, Corey Scheidegger, and J. Jeffries McWhirter, DivisionofPsychologyinEducation,ArizonaStateUniversity.AndreaL.Dixon isnowatDepartmentofCounselorEducation,UniversityofFlorida.CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoAndreaL.Dixon,DepartmentofCounselorEducation,UniversityofFlorida,1207NormanHall,POBox117046,Gainesville,FL32611-7046(e-mail:[email protected]).

The Adolescent Mattering Experience: Gender Variations in Perceived Mattering, Anxiety, and DepressionAndrea L. Dixon, Corey Scheidegger, and J. Jeffries McWhirter

Individualswhoperceivethattheymattertoothersarelikelytoexperienceloweranxietyanddepressionlevels.Theeffectsofyoungadolescents’perceivedmatteringontheiranxietyanddepressionlevelswereexamined.Resultsindi-catedthatfemaleadolescentsreportedloweranxietylevelsbutgreaterdepressionlevelsthandidmaleadolescents,perceivedmatteringwasinverselyrelatedtoadolescents’anxietyanddepressionlevels,andtheassociationsbetweenmatteringandanxietyandbetweenmatteringanddepressionvariedbygender.

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AdolescentGenderVariationsinPerceivedMattering,Anxiety,andDepression

of their young lives. When he described the consolidation of identity development in adolescence, Erikson (1963) asserted that acknowledgment from others was a critical interpersonal process. In fact, adolescents often report feeling “out of things” (Schlossberg, Lynch, & Chickering, 1989, p. 7) when they do not feel that they fit in with others. Therefore, adolescence may be a phase during which a sense of mattering to specific others is of critical importance (Rosenberg, 1985). Mattering to others, however,is thought to differ from individuals’ sense of belonging (Dixon Rayle, 2005), because perceptions of mattering occur through individuals’ interpretations of the quality and quantity of others’ attending behaviors (Mak & Marshall, 2004). Unlike the sense of belonging, mattering has not received substantial attention in the literature. In ad-dition, although past research highlights the possible links between depressive symptomatology and mattering to others for adults, the possible relationships between mattering to others, anxiety, and depression have not been explored with young adolescents.

Mattering in AdolescenceIt is widely held that all individuals want to believe that they are important, to feel appreciated, and to perceive that they matter to others in their lives (F. M. Marcus, 1991; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981; Schlossberg et al., 1989). Perceived mattering to others is more than simply having regular contact with others; it represents individuals’ internal perceptions that they are important and that they matter to those people who are important in their lives (Dixon Rayle, 2005; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981). During adolescence, being recognized and mattering to others are particularly salient (Dixon Rayle & Myers, 2004; Marshall, 2001; Rosenberg, 1985; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981). Erikson (1963) stated that adolescents need recognition from others because it is a critical interper-sonal process for identity formation, which is the foremost task in this stage of life. Because adolescence is a demanding time when individuals may experience greater anxiety and depression levels (Ollendick et al., 2003), it is conceivable that both may be moderated by a sense of perceived matter-ing to others.

Mattering to others is one component of individuals’ self-concepts that informs them of their relational salience to others (Marshall, 2001; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981). Following this line of thought, researchers now believe that the relational affiliations humans maintain are central in establishing how their self-concepts form (H. R. Marcus & Kitayama, 1991; Turner, Oakes, Haslam, & McGarty, 1994), and there is evi-dence that perceiving one is important to others is highly cor-related with one’s sense of self (Schlossberg, 1989). Although most adolescents experience difficulty in developing positive self-concepts, research indicates that adolescents with positive self-concepts and higher self-esteem tend to report more posi-tive affect (Pelham & Swann, 1989), greater wellness (Dixon

Rayle, 2005), more life satisfaction (Myers & Diener, 1995), fewer depressive symptoms (Tennen & Herzberger, 1987), and reduced anxiety (Marshall, 2001). Therefore, if adolescents perceive that they are important and matter to others, they may report lower anxiety and depression levels.

Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) were among the first researchers to define and study mattering with adolescents, and they noted that “mattering may be high among children and adults [and] low among adolescents and old people” (p. 180). Their earliest studies addressed the relationship between adolescents’ mental health and their sense of mattering to parents. Results indicated that adolescents who felt that their parents cared about them, were interested in their lives, and cared about their feelings had greater self-worth. Additionally, adolescents who perceived that they mattered to their parents were less anxious and depressed and were less likely to get involved in delinquent acts, such as smoking, truancy, theft, or vandalism. Furthermore, perceptions of mattering to specific other people, or being the object of others’ attention, have been linked to positive psychosocial well-being, the develop-ment of individual identity, and lower anxiety and depression levels (DeForge & Barclay, 1997; Dixon Rayle, 2005; F. M. Marcus, 1991; Rosenberg, 1985; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981; Schlossberg et al., 1989). Simply stated, mattering may be especially influential during adolescence (Dixon Rayle & Myers, 2004; Marshall, 2001) and may differ for female and male adolescents (Dixon Rayle, 2005; Schieman & Taylor, 2001; Taylor & Turner, 2001).

Variations by GenderVariations in perceived mattering to others are likely among young female and male adolescents, and substantial dif-ferences exist between female and male adolescents who experience anxiety and depression (Broderick & Korteland, 2002; Rapee & Melville, 1997). Research indicates that from early adolescence through adulthood, females are twice as likely as males to experience anxiety and depression at greater levels (Burt & Stein, 2002; Whalen, Jamner, Hender, & Delfino, 2001).

Similarly, the phenomenological experiences of mattering to others differ for older female and male adolescents as well as for women and men (Dixon Rayle, 2005; Marshall, 2001; Taylor & Turner, 2001). In a study with 553 high school adolescents, Marshall found that female adolescents perceived themselves mattering more to others than did male adolescents. Simi-larly, Dixon Rayle found that female high school adolescents perceived that they mattered more to their families than did male high school adolescents. Schlossberg (1989) noted that mattering may play out differently for college-age individuals depending on their gender, with women reporting a higher degree of mattering to others than do men (Dixon Rayle, 2005; Dixon Rayle & Myers, 2004; Marshall, 2001; Taylor & Turner, 2001). Past research seems to substantiate that it is likely that

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young adolescents need and wantto matter to others, although female and male adolescents may report differing perceptions and experiences. As such, anxiety and depression may be mod-erated by young adolescents’ experiences of mattering to others, and there may be significant differences in these relationships for young female and male adolescents.

Purpose of the StudyPrevious research on mattering to others linked the experience to depression in adults (Schieman & Taylor, 2001; Taylor & Turner, 2001); however, no research to date focused specifi-cally on the experiences of mattering to others, anxiety, and depression in a population of young adolescents. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to further the understanding of perceived mattering during early adolescence and how it relates to other well-documented psychologically distressing experiences for adolescents. Specifically, we examined three general questions: (a) Do male adolescents differ from female adolescents in their mean scores of perceived mattering to others, anxiety, and depression? (b) Are there differences in the interrelationships of perceived mattering to others, anxi-ety, and depression for male and female adolescents? and (c) Does mattering to others and gender interact differently in association with anxiety and/or depression?

MethodParticipantsandProcedure

We solicited students from two public middle schools in a large southwestern U.S. city. The schools were in a school district with which we work in conjunction regularly for research purposes. Within each middle school, we visited 2 sixth-grade, 2 seventh-grade, and 2 eighth-grade classrooms to invite voluntary participation in our study (12 classes overall). We notified the adolescents and their parents that participation in the study was voluntary and would in no way affect their grades in school. We received voluntary assent from 218 students; however, for varying reasons, parental consent forms were only returned by 177 adolescents, which resulted in 81.2% of the original students contacted. The school district and school principals provided permission before data collection took place, and we obtained written consent from all participants’ parents or guardians. The instrument was administered before and after school over blocks of time at the middle schools on 2 different days. The actual administrations took place in teachers’ classrooms, and the instrument took an average of 25 to 35 minutes to complete.

Because participation was voluntary, our final sample con-sisted of an unequal number of female and male adolescents. Of the 177 participants, 125 were female (70.6%), and 52 were male (29.4%). In addition, 61 were in the sixth grade (34.5%), 42 were in the seventh grade (23.7%), and 74 were in the eighth grade (41.8%). Although most of the sample

self-identified as European American (n = 109, 61.6%), the remainder of the sample represented racial/ethnic diversity. Thirty-two students self-identified as Latino/a (18.1%), 16 self-identified as American Indian (9.0%), 10 self-identified as African American (5.6%), 6 self-identified as biracial (3.4%), and 4 self-identified as Asian American (2.3%). Ages ranged from 11 to 14 years, and the mean age was 12.38 years (SD = 1.91) for female adolescents and 12.87 years (SD = 1.85) for male adolescents. Additionally, it is important to note that this school district generally draws students from a high socioeconomic population, which resulted in a low percent-age of free or reduced-price lunch program recipients (only 7% district-wide).

Measures

GeneralMatteringScale(GMS;H.R.Marcus&Kitayama,1991). Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) defined mattering as the degree to which individuals perceive themselves to be important to others. Furthermore, they purported that an individual’s sense of mattering is aligned with the belief that others care enough about the individual to have an opinion of her or him at all. Positive perceptions of mattering to others are indicative of decreased psychological distress (Amundson, 1993; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981).

The five-item GMS is based on Rosenberg and Mc-Cullough’s (1981) theoretical propositions and their suggested five components of mattering: (a) attention (the perception of being noticed by others), (b) importance (the belief that one is cared about), (c) ego extension (the belief that others will be proud of one’s successes and/or empathize with one’s failures), (d) dependence (the perception of being needed by others), and (e) appreciation (the feeling that one is appreciated by others). Respondents rate each item on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (notatall) to 4 (verymuch). The GMS is scored by summing the ratings of the individual items and dividing by the total number of items (5) for a final mean score ranging from 1 to 5, with higher scores indicating greater perceived mattering. The items on the GMS are as follows: (a) “How important do you feel you are to other people?” (b) “How much do you feel other people pay attention to you?” (c) “How much do you feel others would miss you if you went away?” (d) “How interested are people generally in what you have to say?” and (e) “How much do people depend on you?”

The GMS focuses on general mattering in the more global sense because it does not identify specific others to whom respondents might believe that they matter, such as parents, teachers, or friends. A variety of populations reported their perceived mattering to others through taking the GMS: nontraditional adult college students (Schlossberg et al., 1989), young adults (Mak & Marshall, 2004), homeless men (DeForge & Barclay, 1997), adolescents (Dixon Rayle, 2005; Dixon Rayle & Myers, 2004; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981), adults (Taylor & Turner, 2001), and businesspersons (Connolly & Myers, 2003).



DeForge and Barclay (1997) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .85 for the GMS using a sample of 199 homeless men, and Con-nolly and Myers (2003) reported an Cronbach’s alpha of .86 for businesspersons. Using the GMS with high school adolescents, Dixon Rayle (2005) and Dixon Rayle and Myers (2004) both reported Cronbach’s alphas of .74. Also, Connolly and Myers conducted a confirmatory factor analysis of the GMS and found the scale to be a valid instrument for measuring mattering. For the current study, the Cronbach’s alphas were .85 for the total sample and .85 for both the female and male adolescents.

BeckYouthInventories(BYI;Beck,Beck,&Jolly,2001).The BYI’s five self-report inventories assess symptoms of emotional and social impairment in five specific areas: depression, anxiety, anger, disruptive behaviors, and self-concept. The five inventories each contain 20 items about thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as-sociated with each of the emotional and social constructs. For this study, we used two of the five inventories: the Beck Anxiety Inventory for Youth (BAI-Y) and the Beck Depression Inven-tory for Youth (BDI-Y).

The BAI-Y reflects specific worries about school performance, the future, negative reactions of others, fears (including loss of control), and physiological symptoms associated with anxiety. Examples of items are “I worry I might get bad grades,” “I worry people might get mad at me,” and “I am afraid something bad might happen to me.” The BDI-Y allows for early identification of symp-toms of depression and includes items related to an adolescent’s negative thoughts about self, life, the future, and feelings of sadness and guilt. Examples of items are “I feel like I am stupid,” “I think my life will be bad,” “I feel like bad things happen to me,” and “I feel empty inside.” Each of the inventories takes between 5 and 10 minutes to complete and consists of 20 items. Respondents rate how frequently the statement has been true for them dur-ing the past 2 weeks on a scale ranging from 1 (notatall) to 4 (verymuchso). Items are written at a second-grade reading level in easy-to-understand language with items selected from statements made by children seen in various treatment settings. Overall mean scores for the BAI-Y and the BDI-Y are deter-mined by summing the individual item ratings on each scale and dividing by the total number of items (20). Reliability and validity seem to be adequate (Beck et al., 2001). In the current study, the Cronbach’s alphas for the BAI-Y were .95 for the total sample, .96 for the female adolescents, and .98 for the male adolescents. For the BDI-Y, the Cronbach’s alphas were .94 for the total sample, .94 for the female adolescents, and .95 for the male adolescents.

ResultsBefore investigating the first research question, we computed the means and standard deviations for mattering, anxiety, and depression. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the female adolescents, the male adolescents, and the total sample, respectively. We then conducted three Mann–Whitney Utests to investigate possible differences between female and male

adolescents on the three study constructs. The results of the first test indicated that there were no significant differ-ences between female and male adolescents for perceived mattering (z = –1.39, p > .05). Nevertheless, results from the Mann–Whitney Utest for anxiety indicated statistically significant differences in anxiety levels between female and male adolescents: The female adolescents had a an average rank of 3.82, whereas the male adolescents had an average rank of 5.97. The results of the Mann–Whitney Utest for dif-ferences in depression also indicated statistically significant differences between female and male adolescents: The female adolescents had a an average rank of 3.85, whereas the male adolescents had an average rank of 5.89.

The second research question involved the investigation of the interrelationships between perceived mattering to others, anxiety, and depression for the female and male adolescents separately and for the total sample. We conducted Pearson product–moment correlations and Spearman rank correlations to explore the possible relationships (see Table 2). The dis-crepancies between the Pearson product–moment correlation and Spearman rank correlation coefficients help to quantify the degree of discrepancies between distribution shapes across variables and, thus, are informative as to the nature of the relationships among the sampled variables. We report the Spearman rank correlation coefficients here (see Table 2 for the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficients). For the total sample of adolescents, mattering to others was negatively related to anxiety (r = –.25, p < .01) and to depression (r= –.42, p< .01). In addition, anxiety was related to depression (r= .75, p< .01).

The relationships between the study variables were also explored for the female and male adolescents (see Table 2). For the female adolescents, mattering to others was nega-tively related to anxiety (r = –.48, p < .01) and to depression (r = –.27, p < .01). In addition, anxiety and depression were related for the female adolescents (r = .76, p < .01). For the male adolescents, mattering to others was negatively related to anxiety (r = –.39, p < .01) and to depression (r = –.37, p < .01). In addition, anxiety and depression were related for the male adolescents (r = .85, p < .01). To test for differences in the strength of the corresponding Spearman rank correlations for the female and male adolescents, we conducted Fisher’s

TABLE 1

Means and Standard deviations for Male Adolescents, Female Adolescents, and

Total Sample

Construct

MatteringAnxietyDepression

M

SD

2.33 1.43 1.42

0.74 0.49 0.58

M

SD

2.47 2.03 2.06

0.79 0.78 0.90

M

SD

2.41 1.73 1.74

0.74 0.65 0.75

Male Adoles-cents (n = 52)

Female Adoles-cents (n = 125)

Total Sample (N = 177)



z tests. No statistically significant differences were found between the correlations for female and male adolescents for mattering to others and anxiety. Nonetheless, Fisher’s z-test results indicated that the relationship between mattering to others and depression (z= –3.93, p< .05) was statistically different for female (r=–.27) and male adolescents (r= –.37). Mattering to others explains more of the variance in anxiety levels for young male adolescents than for young female adolescents. In addition, Fisher’s z-test results indicated that the relationship between anxiety and depression (z= 11.51, p< .05) was different for female (r=.76) and male adolescents (r= .85).

Table 3 presents results of the hierarchical multiple regres-sion analyses exploring the question of whether perceived mattering moderates the relationship of anxiety and depression differently for female and male adolescents. As suggested by Courville and Thompson (2001), we report both the beta weights and structure coefficients (r

s = r

yx1/R) in Table 3

because the mattering predictor was correlated with both of the outcome variables (i.e., depression and anxiety). Before

running regression analyses, we centered the mattering, depression, and anxiety variables (Courville & Thompson, 2001; Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). Then, we entered the mattering variable into a regression equation for depression followed by a separate regression equation for anxiety. For the first equation, in Step 1, we entered depression and mat-tering to test for main effects; in Step 2, we entered the new, dummy-coded gender variable; and in Step 3, we entered the Mattering × Depression interaction term. We followed the same procedure for the second equation using anxiety as our outcome variable. For both equations, it is important to note that the betas and structure coefficients for the variables in Step 2 change when we enter the interaction term in Step 3. Step 1 of each equation showed no statistically significant main effect relationship between mattering and depression or between mattering and anxiety. In the next step (Step 2), we found no significant differences between female and male adolescents when gender (dummy coded) was entered into the equation. In Step 3, however, we found significant interactions between mattering and gender for both depression and anxi-ety; the associations between mattering and depression and between mattering and anxiety varied by gender. In addition, because of multicollinearity, the interaction between matter-ing and gender actually suppressed the relationship between mattering and depression and between mattering and anxiety (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). The interactions were statistically significant because of the shared variance of mat-tering and gender, but ultimately the models revealed that the interaction variable had no shared variance with either depression or anxiety.

DiscussionThis study was the first of its kind to explore younger ado-lescents’ unique perceptions of mattering to others and the relationship of mattering to their anxiety and depression levels. More specifically, the purpose of the study was to examine whether young female and male adolescents differed in their average scores of perceived mattering to others, anxiety, and depression; to explore possible differences in the interrelation-ships of perceived mattering to others, anxiety, and depression

TABLE 3

Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses Testing Moderating Effects of Mattering in the

Relationship of depression and Anxiety

Step and predictor Variable

Step1Mattering

Step2Gender(dummycoded)

Step3Mattering×Depression

Step1Mattering

Step2Gender(dummycoded)

Step3Mattering×Anxiety

.13

.04

–.91

.16

.04

–.20

.08

.50

.03

.08

.56

.03

R2

.20

.27

.19

.22

.26

.16

.02

.02

.05*

.03

.03

.08*

SCSE BbOutcomeVariable:Depression

OutcomeVariable:Anxiety

Note. SC=structurecoefficient.*p <.05.

TABLE 2

pearson product–Moment Correlations and Spearman Rank Correlations for Male Adolescents, Female Adolescents, and Total Sample

Measure

1.GMS2.BAI-Y3.BDI-Y

Total Sample (N = 177)Female Adolescents (n = 125)

1

Male Adolescents (n = 52)

— –0.39** –0.37**

–0.39**—

0.85**

1 12 2 23 3 3

–0.39** 0.85**

—

— –0.48** –0.27**

–0.53**—

0.66**

–0.25** 0.76**

—

— –0.25** –0.42**

0.84**—

0.75**

–0.49** –0.33**

—

Note. Formaleadolescents,femaleadolescents,andtotalsample,Pearsonproduct–momentcorrelation coefficientsarepresentedabovethediagonal,andSpearmanrankcorrelationcoefficientsarepresentedbelowthediagonal.GMS=GeneralMatteringScale;BAI-Y=BeckAnxietyInventoryforYouth;BDI-Y=BeckDepressionInventoryforYouth.**p <.01.



for female and male adolescents; and to examine whether mattering to others and gender interact differently in their association with anxiety and/or depression. Only recently has the mattering to others construct been studied with adoles-cents; thus, we hope that this study presents information that furthers the conceptualization and understanding of mattering for future research and theory with young adolescents.

Our results indicated that female and male adolescents were statistically different in their reported anxiety and depression levels; however, there were no differences in their perceptions of mattering to others. The female adolescents reported lower anxiety and depression levels than did their male peers. These results provide a different picture of female and male adoles-cents when compared with results of past research with older adolescents indicating that female adolescents experience greater mattering to others and higher anxiety and depres-sion levels than do male adolescents (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000; Burt & Stein, 2002; Dixon Rayle, 2005; Essau & Petermann, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Taylor & Turner, 2001). Our current results suggest that it is possible that young female adolescents do not experience greater perceived mattering when compared with young male adolescents, although past studies with older adoles-cents demonstrate this trend. In addition, some alternative research findings indicate that female and male adolescents do not differ in anxiety and depression until afterpuberty (Taylor & Turner, 2001; Tennen & Herzberger, 1987), which also support our current findings. We consider our findings informative, although they may be a direct result of unequal numbers of female and male participants as well as volunteer participation in the study; thus, the current results should be considered with caution.

In addition, as might be expected, the relationships between anxiety and depression were all statistically significant for female and male adolescents. It is well known that in early adolescence higher anxiety levels typically result in increased depression (APA, 2000; Burt & Stein, 2002; Essau & Pe-termann, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001); our findings lend additional support to past research that links adolescent anxiety and depression (Essau & Petermann, 2001; Fergusson, Hor-wood, & Lynskey, 1993). Overall, the current results should be interpreted with caution because of the diminutive sample of young adolescents; it is always possible that this particular sample of youth was at greater risk for psychological concerns and was impervious to gender differences.

Also interesting to highlight is that the young female and male adolescents did not differ in their perceptions of mat-tering. Rosenberg and McCullough (1981), in their introduc-tion of the mattering construct, hypothesized that “mattering may be high among children and adults [and] low among adolescents and old people” (p. 180), and Schlossberg (1989) purported that mattering might differ between female and male college students. In addition, it is well documented that

perceptions of mattering are substantially greater for females than for males, both among adults and among high-school-age and college-age adolescents (Dixon Rayle, 2005; Dixon Rayle & Myers, 2004; Marshall, 2001; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981; Schieman & Taylor, 2001; Schlossberg, 1989; Taylor & Turner, 2001). This past research leads us to speculate on the current results, which indicate possible variability of mattering in early adolescence. The lack of expected gender differences in mattering could be related to adolescents’ per-ceptions or misperceptions of how others feel about them, the importance placed on social/interpersonal relationships and mattering to others, and their learned social gender roles. Also, an inverse relationship may be occurring during early adolescence; higher anxiety and depression levels may be causing a reduction in mattering to others. Because there are no past studies focused on the mattering construct and younger adolescents and because the current findings diverge from previous findings with older females’ and males’ experiences of mattering, future research with similar, larger populations of young adolescents is highly needed.

Past research indicates inverse relationships between per-ceived mattering and anxiety and between perceived mattering and depression (Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981; Taylor & Turner, 2001). Similarly, our results indicated that mattering to others was negatively related to anxiety and depression for both the female and the male adolescents. These findings concur with those of Taylor and Turner’s past research, which indicated that for adults, mattering was directly related to both women’s and men’s depressive symptoms. In addition, Rosen-berg and McCullough reported statistically significant inverse relationships between mattering and anxiety and between mattering and depression among a sample of adolescents. The current results align with those of previous research regarding the gender variations with female and male participants: Mat-tering to others is related to fewer experiences of depression. Future research might further delineate any existing differ-ences for young female and male adolescents among these psychological experiences.

Finally, because we found such interesting gender dif-ferences in the study’s constructs, we conducted regression analyses to examine whether mattering to others and gender interact and, thus, moderate their association with anxiety and/or depression. The issue of moderating variables is complex in the literature; consequently, it is important to clarify the differences between covariate, moderator, and mediator vari-ables (Frazier et al., 2004). Covariate variables share variance with the outcome variable; thus, outcome variable results are predicted on the basis of the values of the covariate variables (Cohen et al., 2003). In addition, Frazier et al. explained that a moderator variable is one that altersthe direction/strength of the relation between a predictor and an outcome, whereas a variable functions as a mediator to the extent that it accounts for the relation between the predictor and the outcome. For



our study, we implemented moderation models to investigate whether the interaction of mattering and gender altered the strength of the relationships between mattering and anxiety and between mattering and depression.

In our study, the main effect analyses of the regression equations for both female and male adolescents showed no moderation effects of mattering in its relationship with anxiety or depression; however, because of its shared variance with mattering, the interaction variable of gender and mattering actually became a better predictor of anxiety and depression when entered during the third step of the regression analyses. Overall, the investigation of the hypothesized moderating effects of mattering revealed no moderating effects because of the suppression of the relationship between anxiety and depression for both female and male adolescents. With this particular group of young adolescents, it may be that other constructs linked to identity and/or the major developmental tasks of adolescence, relationships, and other interpersonal interactions may be altering the strength of the relation be-tween anxiety and depression. Future studies should advance this particular line of investigation to further understand pos-sible moderating effects of the well-documented relationship between anxiety and depression.

In general, we believe that causal models need to be ex-plored with this particular population to better identify how these three constructs are working in relation to one another and whether low perceptions of mattering are causing higher anxiety and depression rates or if the opposite is true. In ad-dition, comparison studies of adolescents, young adults, and older adults would lead to a better understanding of Rosenberg and McCullough’s (1981) original hypothesis. Future qualita-tive studies might reveal differing phenomenological experi-ences of mattering, anxiety, and depression for young female and male adolescents through ethnographic interviewing. Female and male adolescents may define mattering differently or may define it differently depending on the context (e.g., parents, friends); thus, qualitative studies might help further explain existing quantitative findings.

Although this study yields additional information about the role of perceived mattering, anxiety, and depression in the lives of female and male adolescents, there are limitations that need to be mentioned. First, the theoretical propositions of perceived mattering as used in this study require continued testing and challenging. In addition, we conducted this study in only one region of the United States with a somewhat homogeneous, small sample of young adolescents, which limits the generalizability of the findings to older adolescents, adolescents of varying racial/ethnic groups, and adolescents in other areas of the United States or around the world. Fur-thermore, the numbers of female and male adolescents in the study were unequal (125 female adolescents vs. 52 male adolescents), which can almost certainly skew the results when examining gender differences and should be considered in future research with similar constructs. The actual findings of

our study differ from those of previous studies with mattering, anxiety, and depression, thus raising questions concerning the generalizability of these findings to other young adolescents. In addition, this study is the first that we are aware of that used the GMS with a sample of young adolescents, which limits its known psychometric properties with this population. In addi-tion, the BAI-Y and the BDI-Y are relatively new instruments that still need to be validated with younger adolescents. Finally, because the measures used were all self-report, results should be interpreted with caution. They may lack external validity, and because of the age of the participants and because data collection took place within classrooms, some of the responses may not be reliable.

Implications for Counseling Practice and Future Research

Despite the limitations, this study contributes to the litera-ture on perceived mattering for young adolescents and has implications for counseling practice and future research. Our findings suggest that mattering to others is related to young adolescents’ anxiety and depression and that female and male adolescents may experience these constructs differ-ently. Focusing on experiences of mattering to others may be one of the most important starting points in counseling with adolescents because of their developmental tasks of belonging and social identity development. In addition, it is important for counselors to help adolescents find those individuals to whom they matter and to help adolescents explore these supportive relationships in relation to their experiences of anxiety and depression. If counselors can facilitate adolescents’ realiza-tions of mattering to others who matter to them, it may aid in their social support networks and facilitate greater self-worth, thus reducing their anxiety and depression levels. Counselors are also encouraged to be sensitive to the specific needs of female and male adolescents concerning these psychological experiences because they may likely place differing values on the mattering experience. Both school and community agency counselors can facilitate the experience of mattering by helping adolescent students/clients realize that they mat-ter and that they have others in their lives who support and care about them.

In addition, taking the current results into consideration, we believe that these constructs could make for intriguing future studies with a larger, more diverse sample of young adolescents. Our results highlight the importance of studying perceived mattering, anxiety, and depression among young adolescents. Moreover, the results highlight possible distinc-tions between female and male middle school adolescents’ experiences of anxiety and depression. Future research should focus on examining the possible predictive qualities perceived mattering might have regarding reducing anxiety and depres-sion among young adolescents through questionnaires and small, in-school group formats that promote the experience



of mattering to others. Future qualitative studies that involve in-person interviewing might be implemented to further ex-plore and advance understanding of the phenomenological experience of mattering during adolescence and its relation to other psychosocial constructs.

In addition, further research could uncover differences between young female and male adolescents’ perceived mat-tering, just as differences exist for women and men (Taylor & Turner, 2001), or future researchers may find similar results as those of our study, which might indicate a trend of a lack of gender differences in mattering between younger female and male adolescents. With a larger sample of minority female and male adolescents, researchers could explore possible trends in mattering that may exist between female and male adolescents in individual racial/ethnic groups. Regarding perceived mattering in early adolescence, two future research questions are evident: (a) How does the socialization of female and male adolescents in their individual cultures, families, and peer groups affect their perceptions of mattering and their experiences of anxiety and depression? and (b) Do adolescents who perceive that they matter to others develop into adults who perceive that they matter and experience reduced anxiety and depression? It may be that the earlier individuals experience mattering to othersduring their life spans, the more lasting the effects may be. Overall, the results of our study underscore the need for parents, counselors, teach-ers, and other adults working with young adolescents to create environments that visibly and concretely enhance adolescents’ perceptions of mattering to others who matter to them.

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The Adolescent Mattering Experience: Gender Variations in Perceived Mattering, Anxiety, and Depression