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The Berries grow on the Slopes.

A Typology of Substrate

Dan Ungureanu

Department of Balkanic and South-Slavic Studies

Faculty of Humanities

Charles University, Prague

Abstract : Many languages have lexical substrates, a small number of words scattered in the

vocabulary. Our article tries to substantiate the fact that some meanings are clustered around the

substrate. It can be shown that some meanings will be typical for the substrate, across many languages.

Introduction

In most languages, there is a substrate, an odd number of words kept from the language spoken

before the present one. There is a pre-Greek substrate in Greek, and a non-Indo-European substrate in

Germanic. Sometimes, we can only identify these terms as belonging to the substrate, without any

further possibility of analysis. There is a further frustration : these words are usually few, and their

distribution in language seems arbitrary.

I. A Typology of the Substrate

Some words simply do not travel. For fir-tree, oak, birch and some other tree names, it seems as the

words have their own areal and do not get replaced by invasive languages : Portuguese, Spanish,

French, Romanian took the substrate words they found on the spot, as Latin has done before. Tree

names, rocks, dens, caves, cliffs are more attached to a place than to languages. Swamps, bogs and

marshes keep their local names. Berries too.

From a linguistic point of view, substrate words are simple loanwords. In fact, loanwords behave

like dogs ; they can be given away and will follow the new master somewhere else. Substrate words

are like cats : cats prefer to stay where they live, they are more attached to their condo than to a master

or another. We consider that words belong to a language. A few of them, in fact, belong to an area,

and do not move.

1.1. Abstract concepts

Lat. autumnus

Rom. amurg evening Sscr. Rig-Veda arvar night

Fr. gauche left Irish ciotg 'left hand' ; Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese esquerra, izquierdaleft.

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Rumantsch tschanc left

Sp. zurdo, left, sinister

Sp. aicos small pieces Rom. frme crumbles

Rom. mare big (cf. Irl. mor big) ; Lat. grandis big, Engl. big may be substrate.

Ital. Lombard Poschiavino biglir many

Rom. mic small , Sp. charro small, weak, bad

Fr. gaillard, Rom. bucuros joyful, merry Gr. happy are substrate [and may be related as

well]. Finnish kikama reverly, merrymaking ; Orkney English blide happy, pleased (< Norn)

Germ. Goth. diups deep etc.

Rom. smbr team, peasants working together

Sp. berrendo with white limbs

Sp. zurrapas dregs

Rumantsch crena incision

1.2 Actions, verbs

Rom. a rbda to endure Northern Saami gierdat to endure (< Germ. *hardjan)

1.3 Tools and other objects

Usually, plough parts:

Fr. soc plough-share, Rom. brs share-beam ; Sskr. linga plough, Sanscr. phla-; Pers. supr

plough-share ; Finnish sahra wooden plough, saara fork in a plough ; Egyptian Arabic biskha

part of a plough (< Coptic pisHo plough handle) ; Egyptian Arabic sikka ploughshare

(< Coptic) ; Egyptian Arabic antt peg on the beam of a plough (< Coptic) ; Egyptian Arabic

bahda plough handle (< Coptic) ; Akkadian apin to plow

Bahraini Arabic xain digging tool

Rom. mtur broom, Fr. balai, broom, Genista tinctoria, Genista sp., Sp. Galician bascullo

broom (see also in Plants) ; Egyptian Arabic bihnw broom made of palm leaves (< Coptic) ;

Fr. braies trousers ; Gr. belt ; Sard tuvele threshing-floor

Sp. cama bed

Gr. cloak used by herders and peasants ; Fr. saie, sayon, Rom. undr cloak worn by

peasants . Sscr. *da- coarse garment

Fr. bourre uncarded wool Rom. basc freshly shorn uncarded wool

Rom. traist sack Gr. leather sack ; Egyptian Arabic shinf sack for straw (

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French Savoyard blchier to milk; Rom. zer whey (if not from Lat. serum) ; Rom. urd ricotta

cheese ; Romantsch Grisons tigrn ricotta cheese Swiss Glarus ziger id ; Rumantsch tarm, tierm

Zieger, ricotta cheese ; Ital. Lombard Poschiavo puina ricotta ptt type of small cheese

Indo-Iran. *piia colostrum, biestings. Sscr. Rig-Veda kilala id.

colostrum is substrate in many languages.

2. Body parts

2.1 Face

Lat. labium lip (cognate to Germ. *lepjan) ; Ital. Lombard Valtellina bsc'iula lip Rom. buz

lip Sp. buz lip, Irula (Dravidian language) mattu lip (pre-Dravidian) Bengali thot lip Gr.

upper lip , lip

Lat. bucca cheek ; Fr. joue cheek proto-Germ. *kaukon cheek, Sscr. kapola cheek

Sard. bruncu snout, Rom. bot snout

Fr. becbeak, Rom. cioc beak, Portuguesebeak, bill Gr. beak

2.2 Neck and throat

Fr. gosier throat, Rom. grumaz neck, Finnish niska neck, Gr. throat,

windpipe, proto-Germ. *khnekkan neck

Sinhalese bella neck (

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Lat. fulix, heron , Rom. barz white stork, Ciconia, Sp. garza heron. Gr. bee-eater,

Merops sp., nightingale ; Gr. blackbird, Turdus merula. Maghreb Arabic

bellarj white storck, Ciconia

Sinhalese rera wild duck (< Vedda) ; Neo-Mandaic msekk mallard

Romanian (Albanian, Slovenian) ra duck is very probably substrate.

Arm. aawni dove , Sanskr. kapota Indo-Iranian *kapauta-pigeon.

3.3 Fishes

In Greek, Germanic and some Saami languages, the fish names are substrate.

Germanic eel.

Germanic roe ; Sard groli, grori fry

Sp. esgun salmon parr

3.4 Snails

Ital. Lucanian caracio snail (< Greek ?) . Sp. caracol. Rom. melc snail.

3.5 Horses

Celtic marka horse may be substrate ; Fr. cheval, horse Irish pell 'horse' are substrate. So is Ugric

*lox horse (Hungarian, Khanti, Mansi ; loanword in Russian) ; proto-Germ. *hursa horse

Rom. mnz foal, colt Sanskr. kior foal

3.5.1 Cows

Sp. becerro colt ; Ital. Lombard Poschiavino brna bad, weak cow

3.5 Deers and goats

Fr. bouc, Engl. buck, proto-Germ. *lambaz lamb Rom. ap billy-goat, Sanskr. chga- ; Osset

saeae billy-goat Wakhi kid; and Old Irish molt castrated billy-goat, wether. Latin caper

(capra) billy-goat, Greek (castrated) billy-goat ; Ital. Campania zmmaru buck (Gr.)

Fr. chamois deer, daim roe deer,Romanian ciut doe, English doe, Catalan isard chamois.

Germ. *skap sheep ; Proto-Celt. *sido- elk, stag ; Saami Kildin puaz deer koannt wild deer

Fr. Gascon marro ram ; Fr. mouton ram ; Rumantsch nuorsa sheep

Sp. sarrio chamois ; Cors. mavra mouflon, Ovis musimon

3.6 Boars

Gr. boar, Sus scrofa, Engl. boar, Indo-Iranian *uarj a- wild boar

3.7 Hounds

Engl. dog ; Sp. perro dog (

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Sp. sabandija wall lizard zarandilla id. Rom. oprl lizard

3.10 Bees and hives

Catalan rusc beehive, Fr. ruche, Galician colmea, Sp. colmena, Gr. beehive (< Semit. ?)

Cat. Sp. arna beehive ; Mogogodo sakana bee-hive, log hive (< Yaaku) xnb nest site in a

hollow stem (Brenzinger p. 235)

Lat. cera wax.

3.11 Parasites

Rom. cpu tick, Catalan paparra tick [possibly Gr. tick ] ; Lat. cimex bed-bug

Catalan etc. llagasta tick, Ixodes sp. French Languedoc lagast tick, Ixodes sp.

Sp. garrapata tick, Ixodes sp.

4. Plants

4.1 Cereals

Lat. alica emmer groats, Triticum diccocum; Arm. gari barley ; proto-Slavic *zoboats, Avena

sativa ; Gr. husk, bran ; Rumantsch crestga bran Sard. talau bran

Lat. avena oats, Avena sativa ; straw ; Ital. Lombard Bormio domga barley

4.2 Berries

Fr. Occitan amlanche shadberry, Amelanchier rotundifolia, Fr. Gascon avajon myrtille ;

blueberry, Vaccinium myrtillus ; Rumantsch suspidauna Amelanchier ovalis

Rom. zmeur raspberry ; Armenian mo blackberry, bramble ; Sp. madroo strawberry ,

Catalan maduixa strawberry, Fragaria vesca ; Gr. blackberry, Rubus fruticosus ;

strawberry tree, Arbutus fruticosus raspberry ; proto-Celt. *subi strawberry Old Irish

sub ; Italian dial. Veneto gisena blueberry, Vaccinium myrtillus ; Italian Lombard magiustra

berry, Fragaria sp. ; Italian Lombard Ticino dren raspberry (< Celtic) ; Port. arando, Sp.

arandano, Ital. Piemontese arandss blueberry, Vaccinium myrtillus ; Lombard Varesotto lidrin

blueberry ; Rumantsch puauna Rubus idaeus ; blackberry, Rubus fruticosus

Tosc. bcola blueberry, Vaccinium myrtillus ; Ital. Piemont ladrion blueberry ; Ital. Poschiavo

gaglida Vaccinium vitis timiln rowan, Sorbus aucuparia

Lat. baca berry or other fruit

Sp. zarza blackberry, Rubus fruticosus ; Rumantsch frosla eglantine, fruit of Rosa canina garveis

bear-berry, Arctostaphylon uva-ursi

Gr. reed, flute proto-Germ. *khreudom reed

4.3 Wine, grape

Indo-eur. *oinos, Rom. strugure grape, Gr. vintage Lat acinus grape racemus id., Gr.

grape-vine

Port. bagalh grape

4.4 Leguminosae / Fabaceae (bean family)

Rom. mazre, peas, Pisum sativum pstaie pea pod Latin ervum vetch, Vicia sp. , Lat. faba

bean ; Vedic masra, lentil Nahali malk pea (pod). Gr. beans, Phaseolus sp.

Lathyrus sativus chickpea, Cicer arietinum Germanic *arawit peas Germ.

Erbse. Alb. bath broad beans, Vicia faba ; Italian Napoletano alastra (Acacia genus)

Catalan arn gorse, Ulex europaeus.

Fr. balai, broom, Genista tinctoria, Genista sp., Galician bascullo broom ; It. Liguria *alastra

broom, Genista tinctoria

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Lat tuber tuber, lump

4.4.1 Other plants

Sp. berro watercress, Nasturtium officinale

Corsican caracutu Ilex aquifolium ; Cors. erba barona Thymus vulgaris ; Cors. tarabucciu

Asphodelum album Ital. Ladin, Lombard vertegoi fieno di secondo taglio. Ital. Lombard Ticino

visgha mountain hay Rhaetorom. (Rumantsch) bleis high hay heap

Rumantsch grusaida Rhododendron sp. Ital. Lombard Poschiavo rump Rhododendron flowers

Sard. litta brushwood Sard. zenzur Equisetum arvense ; Rumantsch caglia shrub

Rumantsch arclina reed grass, Calamagrostis sp.

Rumantsch busecca moss, Cetraria islandica ;

4.5 Poisonous plants

Rom. brndu Colchicum autumnale Gr. violet ; Sp. Port. *belenium, belumte Colchicum

autumnale ; Catalan velesa Colchicum autumnale

Rom. spnz henbane, Hyoscyamus niger or Veratrum sp. ; Ital. Lucca carongello id. (contra, LEI,

Lessico Etimologico Italiano) Sl. *belenhenbane

Rom. zrn black nightshade, Solanum nigrum Gr. hemlock, Conium maculatum (both

poisonous) ; Gr. thorn-apple, Datura stramonium / sleepy nightshade, Withania somnifera

or hound's berry, Solanum nigrum

Sard. nnniri Adonis annuus, A. aestivalis

Rumantsch buloma white hellebore, Veratrum album or Colchicum autumnale

4.6 Plant parts

Rom. iasc tinder fungus, Fomes fomentarius cf. Gr. fungus growing on trees

Rom. smbure pit, kernel Gr. kernel of fruit ; Sp. corozo fruit pit, kernel ; Sp. cogollo

core of salad

Sard tserra bud, sprout Rom. mugur bud, sprout ; Rumantsch cries, paratscha shell

4.7 Trees

4.7.1 Conifera

Latin abies, abietis fir-tree, Fr. sapin fir-tree , Rom. brad fir-tree; cf. Gr. Juniperus

sp.; Old Icelandic bar fir needles barr-vir fir forest ; Aramaic, Hebr. beroth fir or

Cyparissus sp. 1 ; Cors. ghjallicu fir-tree, Abies sp. ; Ital. Lombard brinsol etc. juniper, Juniperus

communis ; Rumantsch burschin, giep, juniper, Juniperus communis

Rom. zmbr, Rumantsch schiember Pinus cembra

Lat. larix, Fr. mlze, Rom. zad (larch, Larix decidua) ; Compare Fr. mlze with Rom. molid, maybe

re-made from *moliz (Picea abies)

Rumantsch dasch, Ladin dasa fronda di abete, fir tree branch, Rom. cetin id.2

4.7.2 Birch

French bouleau, Spanish abedul, Catalan bedoll birch (could come from Celtic or from Lat. betula,

itself of Celtic origin) ; Finnish suokko downy birch.

4.7. 3 Quercus sp.

1 Plinius petunt igitur in Elymaeos arborem bratum, cupresso fusae similem, exalbidis ramis, iucundi odoris

accensam et cum miraculo historiis Claudi Caesaris praedicatam. (Naturalis Historia, lib. XII, XXXIX) in the

Zagros mountains, in Elam .

2 Unsure. Either Slavic loanword or substrate.

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Lat. quercus, aesculus oak, suber cork-oak ; Lat. cerrus Quercus cerris Fr. chne, Galician

caxigo oak, Romanian stejar, oak, gorun Quercus pedunculata, Bearnais droulh holm-oak,

Quercus ilex, Portuguese carvalho; Italian Lombard rugul oak; Armenian teaw, ui/*(h)oi holm-

oak ; Greek holly oak, Quercus ilex ; kermes oak, Quercus coccifera ; Quercus

suber, acorn ; proto-Germ. *aiks oak. [cf. Gr. beech, Fagus sp.] ; Egyptian

Arabic qarw oak (< Coptic)

4.7.4 Other trees

Lat. ficus fig-tree ; Bulg. muskura medlar, Mespilus germanica

Fr. Franche-Comte avent willow, Salix sp.

Ital. Lombard drsa alder, Alnus viridis

5 Landscape terms

According to Beekes in Greek many landscape terms belong to the substrate. The observation is valid

for other languages as well.

Lat. campus field.

5.1 Ashes

Rom. scrum anything charred (cf. Alb. shkrumb). Gr. black soot for writing ,

ashes

5.2 Gravel

Lat. sabulum, gravel ; Fr. gravier gravel ; Gr. sand Indo-Iran.*sikat-; Old Pers.

iksand, Khotanese siyat, Sogdian ykth sand, gravel Pashto ga ; Germanic *sand . North

Saami ievra gravel. Rumantsch grava gravel ; Ital. Maratea cala beach

5.3 Stone

Gr. stone , psephon,stone, Fr. caillou stone Catalan pissarra slate, Port.

lousa slate. Egyptian Arabic lgame of pebbles (

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Cors. tafonu hole ; Sard. nuraghi nuraghi ; Rumantsch bargia hut, shed camon cowshed,

stable ; Ital. Maratea catoio (Gr. ) half-buried room

Ital. Lombard bar, barc cattle shed in the mountains Bormio tea id.

5.5 Swamp

Rom. balt swamp, pond, Rumantsch pultaun, Sp. balsa, Catal. bassa pond, Finnish suo

swamp, Port. barro clay, Sard. lothiu muddy. Sp. tollo muddy place ; Fr. boue mud. Engl.

bog ; Sard. orgs morass, marsh. Fr. dial. noue muddy, swampy place ; brook.

Sp. barromud ; Sard. orgosa marsh

5.6 Water springs

Rom. pru brook, Sp., Port. arroyo id. North Russian or brook ( < Permic) Sard. mintza, mittsa

water spring ; Old Prov. toron source, fountain (< Basque iturri) Fr. Barcelonette aven water

spring ; North Saami djg- water spring . Italian Ladin festil abbeveratoio, abreuvoir, water hole

(aiva de festil, spring water) may belong here.

Ital. Piemont rugia water pipe ; Bahraini Arabic skr irrigation channel stopper ; Rumantsch begl

water hole ; Ital. Lombard tasin river

5.7 Hills, cliffs, slopes and shores

Ladin krep mountain

Lat. caespes sod, turf Fr. motte, clump of soil, mound ; Ital. Calabr. panica clump of soil

Portuguese morro hill and penedo cliff, French motte, tolon,and Romanian mgur, hill ;

Fr. berge embankment. Cors. teppa steep embankment, falaise

Fr. Barnais cruque hillock, Basque mokor "mound ; motte de terre" (does not belong here if it

means only clump of soil) ; Sardinian mgoro hill, Armenian blur hill; *doyn hill; Greek

mound ; Finnish vaara hill ; North Saami baksi cliff

Germ. Fels rock Klippe cliff, reef . Engl reef.

Rom. mal shore Not replaced in Romanian by rm sea shore. Albanian mal mountain is related,

but farther.

cf. Old Norse melr sandbank, sand dune ; -r is a masc. sg. suffix.

French Jrriais (Jersey island) mielle sand dune ; North Saami, miel'li steep, sandy bank on the

shore of a river ; hill ; Icelandic melur gravel bank ; Welsh moel bare hill ; proto-Germanic

*melha Sandbank. Russian shoal, sand bank ; to run aground.

Basque mala tierra arrastrada por un torrente ; means also hill. Russian dial. coastal rock

(< Komi-Yodzyak) ; Sard. giara plateau

Russian dial. low place near river (< Komi-Permyak)

Russian dial. rapids ( < Mansi)

Finnish neemi promontory ; Ital. Lucania timpa cliff, slope, promontory (< Oscan)

Sinhalese kolamba ford, harbor (< Vedda)

Gr. sea ; proto-Germ., Engl. sea sea.

Vedic kla slope, bank Fr. talus slope. Gr. slope, overhanging bank, shore,

bank, Sicilian calanna slope ( a widely represented word calanca) ; Ital. Ampezzo luda steep

slope Ladin lda slope for sleighs

Germ. Strand ; North Saami uffir rocky slope near the seashore [if not from Germ. Ufer], Finnish

niemi cape, peninsula North Russian budm slope on riverside (

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Rumantsch bleissa grass-covered slope bova stone collapse in the mountains cavorgia ravine,

gorge, gully con hillock, mound furgnun steep slope. Sp. Gascon pala mountain slope

5.7 Islands

Saami suolu, Finnish saari, Lituanian island, Lat. insula island,

5.8 Fallows

Fr. jachre fallow, Fr. dial. Centre bouige friche, fallow

North Russian utem abandoned field overgrown by grass ( < Komi id. fallow land ; Ital.

Campania, Lucania iersu fallow land (< Gr. , dry) Calabr. margiu fallow ; Fr. Occitan

apsar fallow

Sp. serna field, Saatfeld

6 Physical phenomena

Egyptian Arabic shb heat of the day (< Coptic) ; Ital. Lombard Poschiavo faliiva spark

6.1 Fogs and mists

Rom. abure vapor, Finnish kaasu mist, haze, steam Gr. clouds of mist Engl. steam ;

Egyptian Arabic shabbura fog (< Coptic) Rom. negur mist North Saami ciehka layer of clouds,

mist or haze over the sea ; Saami Kildin cigk fog ; Rumantsch brentina mist, fog ; Ital. Lombard

Poschiavo ghba low clouds, mist

6.2 Winds

Fr. galerne cold wind ; Germ. *brise breeze Rom. a adiaa breeze blows ; Orcadian English kuil

light breeze (

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