The Biopsychological Basis of Religion and Spirituality

Running Head: BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION

The Biopsychological Basis of Religion and Spirituality

Christy M. Fagiana

Southern New Hampshire University

“It is by understanding the brain that an understanding of the mind is discovered”~ Author unknown

BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION

Abstract

This paper considers the biopsychological basis of religion, religious experiences and

spirituality. It seeks to discover the answer to the question “Is God real?” Throughout this paper,

the author will explore the history of psychology and religion, the structure and function of the

religious brain and the spiritual mind, current research regarding religion and possible direction

of future research. In addition, during the course of this presentation, the author will address

various theories regarding why religious and spiritual belief appears to be so essential to the

human species, the purpose of religion, and the value of religious and/or spiritual participation.

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The Biopsychological Basis of Religion and Spirituality

It is the opinion of this author and of many other professionals who have performed

research in the field religion and psychology that most human beings have little choice but to

adhere to a religious paradigm. Religion allows humans a sense of control over a capricious

environment through contractual agreements with gods, spirits and other personalized,

personified power sources. The creation of religious myths provide explanations the world

around them and helps orient them within the universe. These myths make up the foundations of

religion and provide guidance towards experiencing religious and/or spiritual phenomena –

altered states of consciousness that generate a sense of unity with another enigmatic realm or

being that is perceived as superior and divinely perfect. The human brain is hardwired with

cortical functions that allow humans to solve abstract problems and determine causality.

However, these higher cortical functions also enable humans to transcend their immediate

perceptual field. This ability makes humans terribly aware of their mortality and of the

contingency of their existence. The result is an existential anxiety that must be reconciled.

Therefore, God.

Although it has been more than a century since Sigmund Freud published his first article

on the psychoanalytic psychology of religion, not much changed in the discussion. Considered a

significant contributor to the literature on the subject, Freud has been inaccurately accredited

with the theory of religion as a demonstration of projection or as a neurosis. However, Ludwig

Feuerbach proposed the theory of religion as a manifestation of projection in 1840 – nearly 70

years before Freud published his first article. Feuerbach alleged that God was “an objectified

externalization of the essence of human nature” and projection “a mental operation in which the

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subject denies something of [themselves] (qualities, feelings, wishes) and ascribes it to someone

or something else” (Belzen, 2010, p 7).

While Freud held a very negative opinion of religion, believing that it affirmed things

about reality that science had shown to be untrue, he did not regard it as projection. He did agree,

however, that projection played a big part in religion. Freud believed that religion was archaic –

part of a stage in humanity’s development that should be left behind. He thought that the origin

and role of religion were understandable and that “being religious may support a person’s

individual mental functioning [and] may help prohibit neurosis” (p 4) by helping individuals

cope with life.

In 1956, Fokke Sierksma published a book of “exceptional scientific quality” (p 11)

based largely on the assertions of novelist Simon Vestdijk. Sierksma’s book, titled The Religious

Projection: An Anthropological and Psychological Study of the Phenomena of Projection in the

Various Religions, proposed a functional definition of religion in which religious projection is a

normal defense mechanism resulting from human limitations and inadequacy. He argued that

human beings are searching to pinpoint that fine line between what is real and unreal because of

the ability to recognize that perception does not always reflect reality as it truly is.

Kenneth Pargament, one of the best known present researchers in the field, agreed with

Freud on the many points but challenged psychoanalysts with the question “How helpful or

harmful are particular forms of religious expression for particular people dealing with particular

situations in particular social contexts according to particular criteria of helpfulness or

harmfulness?” (Pargament, 2002, p 168). He also agreed with Freud that being spiritual or

religious could impact an individual’s mental functioning by helping them cope with their life.

Pargament suggested that the stress-vulnerability model uses the relationship between biological

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and psychosocial factors to determine the onset and course of mental illness. He also believed

that religious and/or spiritual coping can work as a positive or negative resource. Pargament

suggested religious coping serves “five purposes:

Spiritual (meaning, purpose, hope) Self-development (positive identity) Resolve (self-efficacy, comfort) Sharing (closeness, connectedness to a community) Restraint (helps keep emotions and behavior under control)

Positive coping can help control symptoms while negative coping may be related to symptoms

and outcome of mental disorders” (Hughlett & Mohr, 2013, p 2).

While there does not appear to be any new progress towards answering the fundamental

psychological questions regarding religion, the discussion has sparked insights in other areas of

science including neurobiology, cognitive science, and evolutionary psychology. Although these

other disciplines do not put to rest the questions regarding religion, they enhance and expand on

an understanding of the biopsychology of religion and religious concepts that cannot be achieved

by studying the psychology of religion alone.

For example, in 1936, Heije Faber’s neurobiological research justified the attention

psychoanalysts give to early childhood. Faber found that the structural foundation of neural

synapses in the brain responsible for perception and religious expression are formed during

childhood (Belzen, 2010, p. 10). Also, an American anthropologist and evolutionary

psychologist known for his work in the cognitive science of religion, Pascal Boyer, studies the

cognitive mechanisms that predispose the human brain towards religious and spiritual themes.

The cognitive science of religion states that the endurance of any form of religion depends on the

ability of the human mind to process and facilitate the concepts held by that religion and that said

religion will never be able to be anything other than what can be processed by the human mind.

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Boyer himself claims that “the way the human mind has been prepared to take in certain types of

information and treat them in a certain way; evolution as it were has equipped the mind with

predispositions about the existence and causal powers of non-observable entities and agencies

(Boyer, 2001). Finally, while the evolutionary standpoint in and of itself does not appear to be

psychological, it provides a framework to which psychological explanations can be applied.

Evolutionary psychologist Stewart Guthrie stated that humans are genetically “biased… to

interpret ambiguous things and events as if they were of great importance” (Belzen, 2010, p 24).

Thus, evolutionary psychology promotes the thought that the neuropsychological mechanisms

that inspire spiritual and religious behaviors are “thoroughly ingrained in the human gene pool

(d’Aquili & Newbert, 1998, p 187).

Research from multiple fields of psychology are at the forefront of recent advances in the

investigation of the mental processes and neuropsychological mechanisms of religious and

spiritual experiences. Biologically, there are several specific neural mechanisms within the

human brain that activate when an individual participates in religious or spiritual practices. These

mechanisms, in the words of Andrew Newbert and Eugene d’Aquili, are called the causal

operator, the binary operator, the emotional value operator and the holistic operator. These

operators are cognitive networks of nerve tissue in the brain that interpret human perceptions of

reality including the abstract concepts of time and space, the dichotomy of opposites, cause and

effect, and the logical ordering of elements into causal chains which result in both scientific and

non-scientific explanations of their external world; the emotional value operator provides an

emotional response to the information. Therefore, in nearly any given situation if the initial cause

is not or cannot be realized by human senses the binary operator recognizes the incongruity

between what is known and what is unknown. This results in the emotional value operator

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initiating a feeling of disquiet and unease that the mind is compelled to reconcile. So, the causal

operator postulates an origin that enables humans to perceive causality in the form of “Gods,

powers, spirits, demons or in general what we have come to call personalized power sources”

(d’Aquili & Newbert, 1998, p 191). Finally, the holistic operator creates a feeling of wholeness

or unity of reality that is greater than the typical perception of unity in everyday life. In other

words, the holistic operator puts forth a revised understanding of reality that enables the

individual to perceive themselves as one with their god and their universe. It should also be

noted that religious lore almost always involve opposites, right and wrong or good and evil, that

are in conflict with each other; The conflict is subsequently resolved by way of the myth.

According to the psychology of religion, religion serves two major functions: it is a

system of self-maintenance and a system of self-transcendence. Psychological self-maintenance

is the process by which humans seek answers to the question “Who am I?” Alternatively,

psychological self-transcendence answers the question “What is my purpose?” while allowing

and encouraging an individual to fully focus on someone or something other than themselves.

Yet, before one can fully understand the functions of religion, one must understand the function

of the human body, brain, and mind.

To begin with, think of the brain as the structure that performs all of the functions and the

mind is the product of these functions. The brain is constantly receiving sensory input from the

body via the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and it uses this input to regulate various body

functions in order to maintain homeostasis. There are two divisions of the ANS: the sympathetic

nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system

stimulates, organizes, and mobilizes energy resources in threatening situations, whereas the

parasympathetic nervous system acts to conserve energy (Pinel, 2014, p 53). Basically, these two

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systems work together to balance the other’s activity and thus provides the mind’s general

emotional state. However, if one system is overstimulated to maximum activity, the opposite

system actually becomes more active rather than being suppressed as is typical. This activation

of the opposite system is referred to as “spillover, because it is as if there is a spillover of activity

from the overstimulated system into the other system” (d’Aquini & Newbert, 2000, p 55).

Considering how the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

interact with each other, there are five basic emotional states that result when the activity of

either one or both systems is very high. The first four states - profound calm, hyper-arousal,

active bliss and tranquility (p 56) may be routinely experienced by individuals who meditate or

those that run marathons. However, the fifth state occurs when the sympathetic nervous system

and the parasympathetic system are both fully activated and spilling over into each other at the

same time. This state is rare and is associated with “spontaneous mystical states such as near-

death experiences” (p 56). During this experience, the individual may have visual and auditory

hallucinations while feeling a “deep and profound quiescence with a sense of extreme alertness,

awareness… and unity” (p 56).

The human brain operates to deliver two basic versions of reality: one of distinct,

individual beings and another of unity with an absolute being. The complex interactions between

perceptions, memories, cognitive judgments, and physiology determine which reality will

presented. Key components of these complex interactions, and thus responsible for the creation

of reality, are the limbic system, cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, and the autonomic

nervous system.

The cerebral cortex, which is involved in higher order thinking and behavior, functions to

analyze the external world. It contains several association areas that produce an integrated

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understanding for each individual and the world in which they live using the input received by

the senses. The frontal lobes are home to the prefrontal cortex and the attention association area.

They are also the location of part of the causal operator. The remainder of the causal operator is

located in the parietal lobes and includes the extensive neural connections between the lobes.

The temporal lobes are involved in object recognition and linking emotional reactions to

the objects (Livingston, 2005, p 83). Not surprisingly, the limbic system is located in the

temporal lobes. The limbic system is responsible for the regulation of emotion and survival-

motivated behaviors including fight or flight, feeding, and sex. Within the limbic system, the

amygdala controls aggression and emotional experience, recognition and regulation. Not

surprisingly, the emotional value operator discussed previously is located within the limbic

system. Crucial for the emotional response involved in religious and spiritual experiences, the

emotional value operator connects the limbic system to all of the other operators and provides an

emotional response to all input the brain receives. In addition, the hippocampus is located in the

medial temporal lobes and is part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is part of the circuitry

of the orientation association area (OAA) which interprets audio, visual, and somatosensory

input to create a three-dimensional perception of “body” and enables the individual to judge

between the two categories of reality mentioned above. The OAA is divided between the left and

right hemispheres. The OAA within the right hemisphere defines the physical space in which the

three-dimensional body can exist while the OAA within the left hemisphere creates an

understanding of a limited, physically-defined body. The holistic operator discussed earlier can

be found in the hippocampus.

While the function of religious and spiritual experiences involve neurobiological factors,

psychological processes [of the mind] are also fundamentally involved in the experiences

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(Fayard, Pereau, & Ciovica, 2009, p. 168). The Theory of Mind posits that the circuitry involved

in the development and maintenance of attachment connects to “higher cortical areas where

cognitive processes categorize and organize systems of belief. Theory of mind is the cognitive

foundation for a personal spirituality” (p. 176) which causes an unconscious and conscious need

for God. Attachment Theory is a psychological model that describes the dynamic of

interpersonal relationships, typically between humans (Santrock, 2009). It is a motivational and

behavioral system that directs the individual to strive for closeness with a trusted caregiver with

the expectation of receiving emotional support and protection. Studies indicate there is a

complex connection between childhood attachment patterns and adult attachment to a God or

other omnipresence; if the individual is securely attached, they display a secure attachment to

God, if the individual is insecurely attached, they either display an insecure attachment to God or

do not consider God as a source of security, support or protection.

In addition, the seeking system, which activates during religious or spiritual experiences,

appears to play a role in the search for a relationship with God, positive existential meaning, and

spiritual or philosophical insights. The seeking system is a basically a motivational engine that

drives complex mental operations and has its roots in early childhood development. This system

is a dopamine neurotransmission system that responds to positive incentives but also to

emotional challenges and stressful conditions in which the individual is persistently compelled to

find a solution. The seeking system initiates whenever the individual becomes overwhelmed by

the sensory stimulation received from their world. This influences the individual to explore

options for attaining the security, support, and protection they deem as necessary. Over time, the

seeking system creates a distinctive, salient landscape within the mind that details the emotional

implication of everything in the individual's personal reality using input from their stored

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knowledge (Santrock, 2009). It is important to remember, however, that these psychological

processes only function in the context of the individual’s ability to make choices and impose

these choices on their personal reality.

For decades researchers relied on the human electroencephalogram (EEG) to discover

what was happening in the brains of religious or spiritual individuals. EEGs measure the

electromagnetic field near the scalp that is produced by brain activity. Activity within the brain

produces electromagnetic fields large enough to be measured because the cells in the cerebral

cortex are consistently aligned and oriented in columns. An enormous amount of research has

been dedicated to measuring EEG under normal conditions as well as during neurological and

psychiatric disorders. Normal EEG has well-defined characteristics during sleep, during the

onset of sleep, during quiet moments with eyes closed and when awake/alert, therefore, it is easy

to identify abnormalities. Abnormal brain activity, such as failure of normal regulation and

inhibition in complex neural circuits, are identified by high-voltage spikes that disrupt typical

sensorimotor and cognitive control patterns. Mild anomalies may cause the individual to

experience a vague sense of disorientation or déjà vu. Serious disturbances can result in vivid

sensory experiences in which God, demons, and angels are perceived and clearly remembered

afterward. Individual subjective reports of being in the presence of a God who was outside of

ordinary time and space yet who spoke to them and inspired strong feelings of awe are quite

common. Validation studies provide “direct empirical evidence that there are correlation and

causal connections… [between major EEG anomalies and]… experiences of mystical or divine

encounters” (Livingston, 2005, p. 85).

Current neuroscience research has greatly expanded an understanding of how the human

brain functions during the most profound spiritual and religious experiences. Imaging studies

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using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed

tomography (SPECT), and positron emission tomography (PET) illustrate specific

neurophysiological events that are linked to religious and spiritual experiences. These techniques

provide a functional map of the brain by measuring blood flow, metabolism, and

neurotransmitter activity within specific brain structures. For instance, researchers have assessed

the changes in cerebra activity during glossolalia (speaking in tongues) using SPECT and

discovered that the decreased activity in the prefrontal cortices are consistent with the altered

emotional state described by individuals singing religious songs or hymns. Studies using fMRI

found that activation of the frontal lobes explain the intrinsically fulfilling quality of spiritual

experiences. PET studies found that different types of prayer are associated with specific brain

regions.

In fact, the connection between religious ritual such as meditating or prayer and mystical

experiences has been documented. Researchers discovered that ritualistic behavior “produces

changes in brain areas associated with sense of self, focus of attention, and contents of

consciousness” (Livingston, 2005, p. 91). EEG data showing increased alpha-frequency activity

suggests “a decrease in brain activity, but the SPECT data indicate an increase in activation, a

pattern observed in positron emission tomography (PET) studies of meditators as well”

(Livingston, 2005, p. 91). These results are reconciled if it is recognized that meditation results

in a decrease in the orientation association area and hyperactivity in the attention association

area, which explains the absence of abstract complex thinking, a reduction in self-awareness, and

an expanded sense of time and space accompanied by heightened awareness of external sensory

input. Consequently “these changes appear to be the direct consequence of engaging in a

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ritualized activity” (Livingston, 2005, p. 99) and thus provide evidence supporting the core

beliefs of the religious doctrine.

Interestingly, research has also found that experiences such as those described above can

be induced by a procedure called transient temporal lobe spiking creating the argument that

“religious systems tend to promote practices that increase the likelihood of religious experiences

that are easily interpreted as evidence in support of core beliefs of the tradition (Livingston,

2005, p. 75). Still others believe that defining correlates for specific behaviors or experiences

provide “few, if any, insights into causative factors. Even if a certain brain structure were

strongly associated with religious experience, this says nothing about whether the structure

generates that experience” (Jones, 2010, p. 125). The methods discussed may ascertain which

parts of the brain are associated with religion and religious experiences but these “correlations do

not point unequivocally to the neural basis of morality or consciousness, [because] their

overtones are mechanistic in nature (Jones, 2010, p. 123).

Therefore, further investigation of the connection between neurobiological, affective and

cognitive processes involved in the human experience of God is warranted to delve into the

question of causality. Do the structures of the brain generate the experience or do the affective

and/or cognitive processes of the mind during the experience elicit the changes in the brain? In

other words, which comes first - the chicken or the egg?

Another possible area of future research concerns the connections between symptoms of

psychosis and/or mental health diagnoses and spirituality or religiosity that leads to undesirable

behaviors such as intolerance and fanaticism. This paper and the resource literature have described

spirituality and religiosity as protective factors against alcohol abuse, drug use, and suicide by

promoting a positive sense of self, a healthy lifestyle and by providing a supportive social network.

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This author would be interested in research that delves into the dark side of religion, religious

practices and spiritual experiences because “religion can be anything in connection with mental

health and psychopathology: a cause of mental illness, but also a prophylactic, a therapy, a

medium through which a disorder becomes manifest” (Belzen, 2010, p 29).

“It is a common assertion that there is a fundamental epistemological divide between

religious and secular ways of knowing. The claim is that knowledge of the sacred rests on faith,

while knowledge of the natural world rests on the evidence of our senses (Livingston, 2005, p. 75)

but a review of the literature concerning the biopsychological basis of religion, religious

experiences and spirituality indicate there are still reasons to believe in the supernatural. Religion

and spirituality including mystical experiences are complex phenomenon that cannot be explained

by any one psychological perspective and biology does not provide all the answers either. The fact

is that “religion is human reality” (Belzen, 2010, p 28). So, does that mean that God is real? Well,

yes – if one perceives that God is real, then God is real to them because as humans we do create

our reality.

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Resources

Belzen, J. (2010). Beyond Freud in psychoanalytic psychology of religion? On the discussion of

religion as projection. Journal of Religion in Europe, 3(1), 1-33.

doi:10.1163/187489210X12597396698708

Boyer, P. (2001). Religion Explained: The evolutionary origins of religious thought. New York:

Basic Books.

D'Aquili, E. G., & Newberg, A. B. (1998). The neuropsychological basis of religions, or why

God won't go away. Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science, 33(2), 187.

doi:10.1111/0591-2385.00140

D'Aquili, E. G., & Newberg, A. B. (March 2000) The creative brain / The creative mind. Zygon:

Journal of Religion & Science, 35(1), 53 - 68

Fayard, C., Pereau, M., & Ciovica, A. (2009). ‘Love the Lord with all your mind’: Explorations

on a possible neurobiology of the experience of God and some implications for the

practice of psychotherapy. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 28(2), 167 – 181.

Huguelet, P. & Mohr, S. (15 March 2013). Religion, spirituality, and psychiatry. Psychiatric

Times, 30(4). Retrieved from http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/vol-30-no-4

Jones, D. G. (June 2010). Peering into People’s Brains: Neuroscience’s Intrusion into Our Inner

Sanctum. Perspectives of Science and Christian Faith, 62(2), 122 – 132.

Livingston, K. (2005). Religious practice, brain, and belief. Journal of Cognition and Culture,

5.1(2), 75 - 117

Pargament, K.I., “The bitter and the sweet: an evaluation of the costs and benefits of

religiousness,” Psychological Inquiry 13 (2002), 168 – 181

Pinel, J. (2014). Biopsychology. (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

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Santrock, J. W. (2009). Life-span development. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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The Biopsychological Basis of Religion and Spirituality