The Bomb Test Programs1946 - 1963

Art work by Grant Powell

Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992 the United States of America conducted (by official count) 1054 nuclear tests, and two nuclear attacks. Whatare the reasons and results?

List of US atmospheric Bomb tests

1Pacific Ocean1955Wigwam

14Nevada Test Site1955Teapot

6Bikini AtollEnewetak Atoll

1954Castle

11Nevada Test Site1953Upshot-Knothole

2Enewetak Atoll1952Ivy

7Nevada Test Site1951Tumbler-Snapper

7Nevada Test Site1951Buster-Jangle

4Enewetak Atoll1951Greenhouse

5Nevada Test Site1951Ranger

3Enewetak Atoll1948Sandstone

2Bikini Atoll1946Crossroads

#LocationYearOperation

Pacific Atolls and Nevada desert areas

56Nevada Test SiteNellis Air Force Range

1962-1963

Storax(with Sunbeam and Roller Coaster)

36Christmas IslandJohnston IslandCentral Pacific

1962Dominic(with Fishbowl)

32Nevada Test Site1961-1962

Nougat

37Nevada Test Site1958Hardtack II

3South Atlantic1958Argus

35Bikini AtollEnewetak AtollJohnston Island

1958Hardtack I

2Nevada Test Site1958Project 58 A

2Nevada Test Site1957Project 58

30Nevada Test Site1957Plumbbob

17Bikini AtollEnewetak Atoll

1956Redwing

4Nevada Test Site1955Project 56

316 tests until October 10, 1963; Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Preparation of PopulationTest program needed psychological preparation of populationdown-playing internal impact while up-playing external enemy

familiarizing population and society through media & propaganda

The Commies are coming,the Commies are coming!

The Red Nightmare:Federally funded propaganda film. The tale of an ordinary American town and its life as a Communist satellite, with everyone becoming emotionless automations.

Invasion, USA is the key cold war 'scare' picture. Unlike pacifist weepies such as Arch Oboler's Five, this show depicts a Soviet Union so aggressive, SenatorJoe McCarthy wouldn't recognize it.

The Fear Factor

Comic Book Industry

Presenting violence and horror with “the good guys” beating “the bad guys”

The American Hero at the End of Times

No doubt or criticism was voiced in media, film, and popular literature towards arms race, weapons development and testing!

Duck and Cover

Training to be prepared and to accept the “unavoidable”!

The public warning system

Preparation and Shelter

Public shelter and warning system was installedPurchasing private “atomic bunker” system became big business. Business based on fear and false information.

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But there were limits …

To realistic movies and or satire was suppressed or forbiddento avoid the generation of criticism and/or panic reactions.

Nukes as business motivatorMarch 1, 1954Hydrogen Bomb test on Bikini Atoll;Louis Réard, thought his daring new swimsuit would have an impact comparable to the impact of the bomb.

Fall-Out Pattern

Crater

Nukes became normal part of everybody’s life

But accidents occurred and criticism grew slowly but surely!

The Nature of the Blast

q Kind and shape of blastsq Blast effects, range & damageq Thermal effectsq Radiation effects

The results of the weapons test programs

Blast—40-60% of total energy Thermal radiation—30-50% of total energy Ionizing radiation—5% of total energy Residual radiation (fallout)—5-10% of total energy

Classifications of blastsq Surface Blast:

fireball in touch with surfacevaporization of surface structures through blastand firestorm, immediate radioactive fallout

q High Altitude Air Blast: fireball > 100,000 ft (>3000m)interrupts satellite based communicationthrough electromagnetic pulse (EMP)

q Low Altitude Air Blast:fireball < 100,000 ft (without touching ground)generates shock waves, pressure differenceartificial for large areal damage, sea battle

q Subsurface Blast:Underwater burstgenerates surge

Surface Blast – the fireball

Central temperature: ~10,000,000 KImmediate vaporization of material!Central pressure: ~33000 atm

q Radiation release & absorption in surrounding matter generates red-glow intense luminosity.

q Expansion of fireball through internal pressureq Fireball rises like hot air balloon

StokesAugust 1957

1500 Foot Balloon19 kt

Fireball expansion

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Pressure evolution within the fireball:

Initial expansion speed vcs is the speed of sound in the vaporized gasγ is the specific heat ratio of the gas

Five times earth gravitation escape velocityte

mpe

ratu

re pressure

The shock front developmentAfter ~10 second the fireball expands with constant rate of ~300 ft/s

After ~ 1minute fireball has cooled and radiation emission ceases!

18 ms

16 ms

6ms

90 ms

109 ms

15.0 s

General Features – the mushroom the emergence of the mushroom shape

q Absorption of cool airtriggers fast toroidal circulation of hot gases and causes upwardmotion forming the stem and mushroom.

q Condensation of water changes red brownish color ofcloud towards white!

q Strong upward windDrags dirt and debrisInto the cloud mixingwith radioactive material

q Cloud rises in heightwith ~ 440 ft/s

Evolution of Mushroom cloud

Dirt

Cloud AltitudeMaximum altitude for cloudrise is reached after ~ 4min.

RATE OF RISE OF THERADIOACTIVE CLOUD FROM a I-MEGATON AIRBURSTHeight Time Rate of Rise(miles) (min) (mph)

2.0 0.3 3303.0 40.7 2704.0 61.1 2205.0 102.5 1406.0 123.8 27

Cloud height & cloud radiusdepend on the magnitude ofthe explosion, increase ofboth radius & height scaleswith explosion yield.