The Bourne Identity(2002 film)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Bourne 1" redirects here. For the novel, seeThe Bourne Identity (novel). For the 1988 television film, seeThe Bourne Identity (1988 film).The Bourne Identity

Theatrical release poster

Directed byDoug Liman

Produced by Doug Liman Patrick Crowley Richard N. Gladstein

Screenplay by Tony Gilroy William Blake Herron

Based onThe Bourne IdentitybyRobert Ludlum

Starring Matt Damon Franka Potente Chris Cooper Clive Owen Brian Cox Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

Music byJohn Powell

CinematographyOliver Wood

Edited bySaar Klein

Productioncompany The Kennedy/Marshall Company FilmColony

Distributed byUniversal Pictures

Release date(s)June14,2002

Running time118 minutes

Country United States Germany[1]

LanguageEnglishItalianDutchGermanFrench

Budget$60 million[2]

Box office$214,034,224[2]

The Bourne Identityis a 2002 American-German[1]actionspy filmadaptation ofRobert Ludlum'snovel of the same name. It starsMatt DamonasJason Bourne, suffering fromextreme memory lossand attempting to discover his true identity amidst a clandestine conspiracy within theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA). The film also featuresFranka Potente,Chris Cooper,Clive Owen,Brian CoxandAdewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje. This, the first in theBournefilm series, is followed byThe Bourne Supremacy(2004),The Bourne Ultimatum(2007), andThe Bourne Legacy(2012).The film was directed byDoug Limanand adapted for the screen byTony GilroyandWilliam Blake Herron. Although Robert Ludlum died in 2001, he is credited as the film's producer alongsideFrank Marshall.Universal Picturesreleased the film to theatres in theUnited Stateson June 14, 2002, and it received a positive critical and public reaction.Contents[hide] 1Plot 2Cast 3Production 3.1Development 3.2Casting 3.3Filming 4Reception 4.1Critical response 4.2Box office 4.3Accolades 5Home media 6Soundtrack 7Video game 8Sequels 9See also 10References 11External linksPlot[edit]In theMediterranean SeaImperia, Italian fishermen rescue an unconscious American man floating adrift with two gunshot wounds in his back. The boat's medic finds a tiny laser projector surgically implanted under the man's skin at the hip. When activated, it displays asafe deposit boxnumber inZrich. The man wakes up and discovers he is suffering frommemory loss. Though fluent in several languages and possessing unusual skills, he cannot remember anything about his identity or events prior to his rescue. When the ship docks, he sets off to investigate the deposit box.AtCIAheadquarters inLangley, Virginia,Deputy DirectorWard Abbott learns that a CIA assassination attempt against exiledNigeriandictator Nykwana Wombosi failed. Meanwhile in Zrich, the amnesiac man incapacitates two policemen using advancedhand-to-hand combatwhen they attempt to arrest him. The next morning, he visits a bank and opens the safe deposit box of the account number displayed by the implanted projector to find several passports containing his picture under different names, nationalities and addresses, large amounts of assorted currencies, and a handgun. Taking an American passport name,Jason Bourne, he leaves with everything but the handgun.As he leaves, a bank employee contacts Operation Treadstone, a CIAblack opsprogram. Alexander Conklin, head of Treadstone, assures Abbott that he will clean up Bourne's failure against Wombosi, activating three agents to take down Bourne: Castel, Manheim, and The Professor. Chased by police, Bourne is then pursued through a U.S.consulate. He encounters a German woman named Marie Kreutz, offering her $20,000 to drive him to the address inParison his French driving licence.Bourne arrives at the address, an apartment, where he hits redial on his phone and is connected to Hotel Regina. Bourne enquires about some names: a "Jason Bourne" is not registered there, but "John Michael Kane" was and died two weeks ago in a car crash. Castel then ambushes Bourne and Marie at the apartment, but Bourne defeats him. Marie finds wanted posters in Castel's bag with both her and Bourne's pictures, while Castel jumps out of a window to his death. Marie, in shock, is later resolved to join Bourne as they escape and investigate "John Michael Kane".Wombosi had contacted police about the attempt on his life. To convince him that his assailant, Kane, is dead, Conklin plants a body in a Paris morgue but Wombosi is not fooled. The Professor then assassinates Wombosi as a result. Bourne poses as Kane and gains documents about Wombosi's yacht and finds that an assailant was shot twice while escaping it. He concludes that he is the assassin, before seeking refuge in the French countryside with Marie and her former friend/possible lover, Eamon and his children. Conklin traces their location and The Professor arrives in the morning. Bourne grabs Eamon's shotgun and outflanks The Professor in the fields, mortally wounding him. The Professor reveals their mutual connection to Treadstone before dying. Bourne sends Marie away with Eamon. He contacts Conklin using The Professor's phone to arrange a meet, but Conklin brings back-up, so Bourne instead tracks his vehicle to locate Treadstone's Parissafe house.Bourne breaks in and holds Conklin and logistics technician Nicky Parsons at gunpoint, beginning to remember his last mission through successiveflashbacks. Kane was Bourne's assumed identity during his mission to infiltrate Wombosi's yacht and kill him, but Bourne failed to because Wombosi's children were sleeping nearby. Bourne fled and was shot twice in the back in the process. Bourne tells Conklin that he is leaving Treadstone and warns not to follow him. After their altercation, both Conklin and Bourne leave, with Bourne fighting his way out through more agents. A nearby Manheim steps out of his car and kills Conklin: Abbott, in order to terminate Treadstone, ordered the hit. Before an oversight committee, Abbot dismisses Treadstone and announces a new project codenamed "Blackbriar". Some time later, Jason finds Marie renting outscootersto tourists inMykonos,Greeceand the two reunite.Cast[edit]

Damon in 2001 Matt DamonasJason Bourne Franka Potenteas Marie Helena Kreutz Chris Cooperas Alexander Conklin Brian Coxas Ward Abbott Clive Owenas The Professor Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbajeas Nykwana Wombosi Gabriel Mannas Danny Zorn Julia Stilesas Nicolette Parsons Josh Hamiltonas Research Tech Walton Gogginsas Research Tech Orso Maria Guerrinias Giancarlo Tim Duttonas EamonProduction[edit]Development[edit]Director Doug Liman stated that he had been a fan of the source novel by Robert Ludlum since he read it in high school. Near the end of production of Liman's previous filmSwingers, Liman decided to develop a film adaptation of the novel. After more than two years of securing rights to the book fromWarner Brothersand a further year of screenplay development with screenwriter Tony Gilroy, the film went through two years of production.[3]The inner workings of the fictitious Treadstone organization were inspired by Liman's father's job in theNational Security Agency(NSA) underRonald Reagan. Of particular inspiration were Liman's father's memoirs regarding his involvement in the investigation of theIran-Contra affair. Many aspects of the Alexander Conklin character were based on his father's recollections ofOliver North. Liman admitted that he jettisoned much of the content of the novel beyond the central premise, in order to modernize the material and to conform it to his own beliefs regarding United States foreign policy. However, Liman was careful not to cram his political views down "the audience's throat". There were initial concerns regarding the film's possible obsolescence and overall reception in the aftermath of theSeptember 11 attacks, but these concerns proved groundless.[3]Casting[edit]Liman approached a wide range of actors for the role of Bourne, includingRussell CroweandSylvester Stallone, before he eventually cast Damon. Liman found that Damon understood and appreciated that, thoughThe Bourne Identitywould have its share of action, the focus was primarily on character and plot.[4]Damon, who had never played such a physically demanding role, insisted on performing many of the stunts himself. With stunt choreographer Nick Powell and trainerJeff Imada, he underwent three months of extensive training in stunt work, the use of weapons,boxing, andeskrima. He eventually performed a significant number of the film's stunts himself, including hand-to-hand combat and climbing the safe house walls near the film's conclusion.[5]Filming[edit]From the onset of filming, difficulties with the studio slowed the film's development and caused a rift between the director and Universal Pictures, as executives were unhappy with the film's pacing, emphasis on small scale action sequences, and the general relationship between themselves and Liman, who was suspicious of direct studio involvement.[6]A number of reshoots and rewrites late in development and scheduling problems delayed the film from its original release target date of September 2001 to June 2002 and took it $8,000,000 over budget from the initial budget of $60 million; screenwriterTony Gilroyfaxed elements of screenplay rewrites almost throughout the entire duration of filming.[6]A particular point of contention with regard to the original Gilroy script were the scenes set in the farmhouse near the film's conclusion. Liman and Matt Damon fought to keep the scenes in the film after they were excised in a third-act rewrite that was insisted upon by the studio. Liman and Damon argued that, though the scenes were low key, they were integral to the audience's understanding of the Bourne character and the film's central themes. The farmhouse sequence consequently went through many rewrites from its original incarnation before its inclusion in the final product.[6]Other issues included the studio's desire to substituteMontrealorPraguefor Paris in order to lower costs, Liman's insistence on the use of a French-speaking film crew, and poor test audience reactions to the film's Paris finale. The latter required a late return to location in order to shoot a new, more action-oriented conclusion to the Paris story arc.[7]In addition to Paris, filming took place in Prague,Imperia,Rome,Mykonos, andZrich; several scenes set in Zrich were also filmed in Prague.[3]Damon described the production as a struggle, citing the early conflicts that he and Liman had with the studio, but denied that it was an overtly difficult process, stating, "When I hear people saying that the production was a nightmare it's like, a 'nightmare'? Shooting's always hard, but we finished."[8]Liman's directorial method was often hands-on. Many times he operated the camera himself in order to create what he believed was a more intimate relationship between himself, the material, and the actors. He felt that this connection was lost if he simply observed the recording on a monitor. This was a mindset he developed from his background as a small-scale indie film maker.[5]The acclaimed car chase sequence was filmed primarily by thesecond unitunderdirectorAlexander Witt. The unit shot in various locations around Paris while Liman was filming the main story arc elsewhere in the city. The finished footage was eventually edited together to create the illusion of a coherent journey. Liman confessed that "anyone who really knows Paris will find it illogical", since few of the locations used in the car chase actually connect to each other.[7]Liman took only a few of the shots himself; his most notable chase sequence shots were those of Matt Damon and Franka Potente while inside the car.[3]Reception[edit]Critical response[edit]The film received positive reviews. The film review collection websiteRotten Tomatoesgave the film an 83% approval rating based on 184 reviews collected, and an average score of 7/10. The site's consensus reads "Expertly blending genre formula with bursts of unexpected wit,The Bourne Identityis an action thriller that deliversand then some."[9]Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three out of four stars and praised it for its ability to absorb the viewer in its "spycraft" and "Damon's ability to be focused and sincere" concluding that the film was "unnecessary, but not unskilled".[10]Walter Chaw ofFilm Freak Centralpraised the film for its pacing and action sequences, describing them as "kinetic, fair, and intelligent, every payoff packaged with a moment's contemplation crucial to the creation of tension" and that the movie could be understood as a clever subversion of the genre.[11]Charles Taylor ofSalon.comacclaimed the film as "entertaining, handsome and gripping,The Bourne Identityis something of an anomaly among big-budget summer blockbusters: a thriller with some brains and feeling behind it, more attuned to story and character than to spectacle" and praised Liman for giving the film a "tough mindedness" that never gives way into "cynicism or hopelessness".[12]Ed Gonzalez ofSlant Magazinealso noted Doug Liman's "restrained approach to the material" as well as Matt Damon and Franka Potente's strong chemistry, but ultimately concluded the film was "smart, but not smart enough".[13]J. Hoberman ofThe Village Voicedismissed the film as "banal" and as a disappointment compared against Liman's previous indie releases;[14]Owen Gleiberman also criticised the film for a "sullen roteness that all of Liman's supple handheld staging can't disguise".[15]Aaron Beierle ofDVDTalkgave particular praise to the film's central car chase which was described as an exciting action highlight and one of the best realized in the genre.[16][17]Box office[edit]In its opening weekend,The Bourne Identitytook inUS$27,118,640 in 2,638 theaters. The film grossed $121,661,683 in North America and $92,263,424 elsewhere for a total worldwide gross of $214,034,224.[2]Accolades[edit]YearOrganizationAwardCategory/RecipientResult

2003ASCAP Film and Television Music AwardsASCAP AwardTop Box Office Films John PowellWon[18]

Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, USASaturn AwardBest Action/Adventure/Thriller FilmNominated[18]

American Choreography AwardsAmerican Choreography AwardOutstanding Achievement in Fight Choreography Nick PowellWon[18]

Art Directors GuildExcellence in Production Design AwardFeature Film Contemporary FilmsNominated[18]

Motion Picture Sound Editors, USAGolden Reel AwardBest Sound Editing in Domestic Features - Dialogue & ADR; Sound Effects & FoleyNominated[18]

World Stunt AwardsTaurus AwardBest Work With a VehicleWon[18]

Home media[edit]On January 21, 2003, Universal Pictures releasedThe Bourne IdentityonVHS, and onDVDin the U.S. in two formats; a single-disc widescreen collector's edition and a single-disc full screen collector's edition. Both contain supplemental materials including a making-of documentary, a commentary from director Doug Liman and deleted scenes. On July 13, 2004, Universal released a new DVD of the film in the U.S. in preparation for the sequel's cinema debut.[19]This DVD also came in two formats: a single-disc widescreen extended edition and a single-disc full screen extended edition. Both contain supplemental materials including interviews with Matt Damon, deleted scenes, alternative opening and ending, a documentary on the consulate fight and information features on the CIA and amnesia. The alternate ending on the DVD has Bourne collapsing during the search for Marie, waking up with Abbott standing over him, and getting an offer to return to the CIA. Neither contain the commentary orDTStracks present in the collector's edition. The film was also released onUMDforSony'sPlayStation Portableon August 30, 2005 and onHD DVDon July 24, 2007. With the release ofThe Bourne Ultimatumon DVD, a new DVD ofThe Bourne Identitywas included in a boxed set withThe Bourne SupremacyandThe Bourne Ultimatum. The boxed set is entitledThe Jason Bourne Collection. A trilogy set was released onBlu-rayin January 2009.[20]Soundtrack[edit]The Bourne Identity: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

Soundtrack albumbyJohn Powell

ReleasedJune 11, 2002

GenreScore

Length54:51

LabelVarse Sarabande

The Bourne Series chronology

The Bourne Identity: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack(2002)The Bourne Supremacy: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack(2004)

Professional ratings

Review scores

SourceRating

AllmusicLink

SoundtrackNetLink

The Bourne Identity: Original Motion Picture Soundtrackwas released on June 11, 2002. It contains selections of music composed by prolific composerJohn Powelland was performed by The Hollywood Studio Symphony. In addition to the score, the film also featured the song "Extreme Ways" byMobyand "Southern Sun / Ready Steady Go" byPaul Oakenfold. The soundtrack won anASCAP Award.[21]Track listingNo.TitleLength

1."Main Titles" 4:19

2."Bourne Gets Well" 1:21

3."Treadstone Assassins" 2:12

4."At the Bank" 4:07

5."Bourne on Land" 1:42

6."Escape From Embassy" 3:13

7."The Drive to Paris" 1:30

8."The Apartment" 3:27

9."At the Hairdressers" 1:31

10."Hotel Regina" 2:12

11."The Investigation" 1:40

12."Taxi Ride" 3:43

13."At the Farmhouse" 2:54

14."Jason Phones It In" 3:05

15."On Bridge Number Nine" 3:45

16."Jason's Theme" 2:21

17."Mood Build" 3:36

18."The Bourne Identity" 5:58

19."Drum and Bass Remix" 2:16

Video game[edit]In 2008,The Bourne Identitywas adapted into a video game,The Bourne Conspiracy. The game was available for thePlayStation 3andXbox 360.[22]Sequels[edit]See also:Bourne (film series)The Bourne Identitywas followed by a 2004sequel,The Bourne Supremacy, which received a similar positive critical and public reception,[23]but received some criticism for its hand-held camerawork, which observers argued made action sequences difficult to see.[24]The Bourne Supremacywas directed byPaul Greengrasswith Matt Damon reprising his role as Jason Bourne. A third film,The Bourne Ultimatum, was released in 2007 and again was directed by Paul Greengrass and starred Matt Damon. LikeSupremacy,Ultimatumreceived generally positive critical and public reception, but also received similar criticism for the camera-work.[25]The fourth film of theBournefranchise,The Bourne Legacywas released in 2012. Neither Damon nor Greengrass were involvedRetrograde amnesiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaRetrograde amnesia

ICD-10R41.2

ICD-9780.9

Retrograde amnesia(RA) is a loss of memory-access to events that occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the onset of a disease.[1]RA is often temporally graded, consistent withRibot's Law: subjects are more likely to lose recent memories that are closer to the traumatic incident than more remote memories.[2]Contents[hide] 1Brain structures 2Types of retrograde amnesia 2.1Temporally graded retrograde amnesia 2.2Focal, isolated, and pure retrograde amnesia 3Causes 3.1Traumatic brain injury (TBI) or post-traumatic amnesia 3.2Traumatic events 3.3Nutritional deficiency 3.4Infections 3.5Surgery 3.6Controlled induction 4Diagnosis and treatment 4.1Testing for retrograde amnesia 4.2Spontaneous recovery 5Case studies 6Other forms of amnesia 7See also 8References 9External linksBrain structures[edit]The most commonly affected areas are associated withepisodicanddeclarative memorysuch as thehippocampus,[3]thediencephalon,[4]and thetemporal lobes.[5] The hippocampus deals largely withmemory consolidation,[3]in particular episodic memory. Its main responsibility is making information go fromshort-term memoriesintolong-termstores. Amnesic patients with damage to the hippocampus are able to demonstrate some degree of unimpairedsemantic memory, despite loss of episodic memory, due to sparedparahippocampal cortex.[6] The diencephalon and the surrounding areas' role in memory is not well understood. However, this structure appears to be involved in episodic memory recall.[4] The temporal lobes are essential for semantic and factual memory processing. Aside from helping to consolidate memory with the hippocampus,[5]the temporal lobes are extremely important for semantic memory. Damage to this region of the brain can result in impaired organization and categorization of verbal material, disturbance of language comprehension, and impaired long-term memory. Right side lesions in particular, result in impaired recall of non-verbal material, such as music and drawings.[7]Difficulties in studying this region of the brain extend to its duties in comprehension, naming objects, verbal memory, and other language functions.[8]Plasticity of the brain is when rewiring occurs because of brain damage, finding different neural pathways and not relying on the damaged structures.[9]Thus, the brain can learn to be independent of the impaired hippocampus, but only to a certain extent.[10]For example, older memories are consolidated over time and in various structures of the brain, includingWernicke's areaand the neocortex, making retrieval through alternate pathways possible.[2]Types of retrograde amnesia[edit]As previously mentioned, RA commonly results from damage to the brain regions most closely associated with episodic and declarative memory, includingautobiographicalinformation. In extreme cases, individuals may completely forget who they are. Generally, this is a more severe type of amnesia known asglobalor generalized amnesia.[11]However, memory loss can also be selective or categorical, manifested by a person's inability to remember events related to a specific incident or topic.Temporally graded retrograde amnesia[edit]Recovery often takes place after the onset of RA, which the Standard model accounts for. It suggests that the hippocampal formation is only used in systematic consolidation for a temporary and short period of time, until long-term consolidation takes place by other brain structures.[12]The fact that damage to the hippocampal formation no longer causes RA, suggests that other brain structures are able to function more independently. RA can also progress, as in the case ofKorsakoff syndromeandAlzheimer's disease, due to the ongoing nature of the damage. It is very rare to find stable RA, since improvement generally takes place among patients.Focal, isolated, and pure retrograde amnesia[edit]These terms are used to describe a pure form of RA, with an absence ofanterograde amnesia(AA). In addition, Focal RA in particular, has also been used to describe a RA situation in which there is a lack of observable physical deficit as well.[13]This could be described as a psychogenic form of amnesia with mild anterograde and retrograde loss.[1]A case study ofDHrevealed that the patient was unable to provide personal or public information, however there was no parahippocampal orentorhinaldamage found.[1]Individuals with focal brain damage have minimal RA.[14]Isolated RA is associated with a visiblethalamiclesion.[15]Consistent with other forms of RA, the isolated form is marked by a profound inability to recall past information.[15]A pure form of RA is rare as most cases of RA co-occur with AA.[16][17]A famous example is that of patientML. The patient's MRI revealed damage to the right ventral frontal cortex and underlying white matter, including theuncinate fasciculus, a band of fibres previously thought to mediate retrieval of specific events from one's personal past.[18]Causes[edit]The causal explanation of retrograde amnesia is under investigation, however, it is commonly associated with head injuries or traumas, Korsakoff syndrome, and individuals suffering fromanterograde amnesia(AA).The three main models used to explain RA assume that the hippocampus is one of the main areas of the brain used in memory consolidation.[6]During consolidation, the hippocampus acts as an intermediate tool that quickly stores new information until it is transferred to theneocortexfor the long-term. The temporal lobe, which holds the hippocampus,entorhinal,perirhinaland parahippocampal cortices, has a reciprocal connection with the neocortex.[10]The temporal lobe is temporarily needed when consolidating new information; as the learning becomes stronger, the neocortex becomes more independent of the temporal lobe.[10]Studies on specific cases demonstrate how particular, impaired areas of the hippocampus are associated with the severity of RA. Damage can be limited to the CA1 field of the hippocampus, causing very limited RA for about 1 to 2 years.[10]More extensive damage limited to the hippocampus causes temporally graded amnesia for 15 to 25 years.[10]Another study also suggested that large medial temporal lobe lesions, that extends laterally to include other regions, produces more extensive RA, covering 40 to 50 years.[10]These findings suggest that density of RA becomes more severe and long-term as the damage extends beyond the hippocampus to surrounding structures.The common studied causes of RA do not always lead to the onset of RA.Traumatic brain injury (TBI) or post-traumatic amnesia[edit]Traumatic brain injury (TBI), also known as post-traumatic amnesia, occurs from an external force that causes structural damage to the brain, such as a sharp blow to the head, adiffuse axonal injury,[19]or childhood brain damage (e.g.,shaken baby syndrome).[19]In cases of sudden rapid acceleration, the brain continues moving around in the skull, harming brain tissue as it hits internal protrusions.[20]TBI varies according to impact of external forces, location of structural damage, and severity of damage ranging from mild to severe.[12][19][20]Retrograde amnesia can be one of the many consequences of brain injury but it is important to note that it is not always the outcome of TBI. An example of a subgroup of people who are often exposed to TBI are individuals who are involved in high-contact sports. Research on football players takes a closer look at some of the implications to their high-contact activities. Enduring consistent head injuries can have an effect on the neural consolidation of memory.[21]In a study examining football players, it was found that those who had sustained head trauma on the field were better able to answer questions about plays made and players involved when they were asked immediately after the event (vs. a delayed period).[21]Specific cases, such as that of patient ML, support the evidence that severe blows to the head can cause the onset of RA.[18]In this specific case there was an onset of isolated RA following a severe head injury. The brain damage did not affect the person's ability to form new memories. Therefore, the idea that specific sections of retrograde memory are independent of anterograde is supported. Normally, there is a very gradual recovery, however, a dense period of amnesia immediately preceding the trauma usually persists.[21]Traumatic events[edit]RA can occur without any anatomical damage to the brain, lacking an observable neurobiological basis.[22]Primarily referred to aspsychogenic amnesiaorpsychogenic fugue, it often occurs due to a traumatic situation that individuals wish to consciously or unconsciously avoid.[23]The onset of psychogenic amnesia can be either global (i.e., individual forgets all history) or situation specific (i.e., individual is unable to retrieve memories of specific situations).[24]People experiencing psychogenic amnesia have impaired episodic memory, instances of wandering and traveling, and acceptance of a new identity as a result of inaccessible memories pertaining to their previous identity.[23]Recent research has begun to investigate the effects of stress and fear-inducing situations with the onset of RA.Long-term potentiation(LTP) is the process by which there is a signal transmission between neurons after the activation of a neuron, which has been known to play a strong role in the hippocampus in learning and memory.[24]Common changes in the hippocampus have been found to be related to stress and induced LTP.[24]The commonalities support the idea that variations of stress can play a role in producing new memories as well as the onset of RA for other memories.[24]Also, theamygdalaplays a crucial role in memory and can be affected by emotional stimuli, evoking RA.[25]Studies of specific cases, such as 'AMN', support evidence of traumatic experiences as a plausible cause of RA. AMN escaped a small fire in his house, did not inhale any smoke, and had no brain damage. Surprisingly, the next day, he was unable to recall autobiographical based knowledge. This case shows that RA can occur in the absence of structural brain damage.[26]Nutritional deficiency[edit]RA has been found among alcohol-dependent patients who suffer from Korsakoff syndrome.[27]Korsakoff syndrome patients suffer from retrograde amnesia due to athiaminedeficiency (lack of vitamin B1).[28]Also, chronic alcohol use disorders are associated with a decrease in volume of the left and right hippocampus.[27]These patients' regular diet consists mostly of hard alcohol intake, which lacks the necessary nutrients for healthy development and maintenance.[28]Therefore, after a prolonged time consuming primarily alcohol, these people undergo memory difficulties and ultimately suffer from RA. However, some of the drawback of using Korsakoff patients to study RA is the progressive nature of the illness and the unknown time of onset.[10]Infections[edit]Infections that pass thebloodbrain barriercan cause brain damage (encephalitis), sometimes resulting in the onset of RA. In the case of patient 'SS', the infection led to focal or isolated retrograde amnesia where there was an absence of or limited AA. Brain scans show abnormalities in the bilateral medial temporal lobes, including two thirds of the hippocampal formation and the posterior part of the amygdala.[29]Surgery[edit]Henry Molaisonsuffered from epilepsy that progressed and worsened by his late twenties. The severity of his condition caused him to undergo surgery in an effort to prevent his seizures. Unfortunately, Molaison's surgeons removed his bilateral medial temporal lobe, causing profound AA and RA.[30]The removed brain structures include the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the parahippocampal gyrus, now called the medial temporal lobe memory system.[30]Other patients who suffered RA due to surgery are 'P.B.' and 'F.C.' who had unilateral removal of the medial areas in the left temporal lobe.[30]Controlled induction[edit]Clinically induced RA has been achieved using different forms of electrical induction. Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT), used as a depression therapy, can cause impairments in memory.[31]Tests show that information of days and weeks before the ECT can be permanently lost.[32]The results of this study also show that severity of RA is more extreme in cases of bilateral ECT rather than unilateral ECT. Impairments can also be more intense if ECT is administered repetitively (sine wave simulation) as opposed to a single pulse (brief-pulse stimulation).[33] Electroconvulsive shock(ECS): The research in this field has been advanced by using animals as subjects.[34]Researchers induce RA in rats, for example, by giving daily ECS treatments.[35]This is done to further understand RA.Diagnosis and treatment[edit]Testing for retrograde amnesia[edit]As previously mentioned, RA can affect people's memories in different degrees, but testing is required to help determine if someone is experiencing RA. Several tests exist, for example, testing for factual knowledge such as known public events.[36]A downfall of this form of testing is that people generally differ in their knowledge of such subjects.[36]Other ways to test someone is via autobiographical knowledge using the Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI),[36]comprising names of relatives, personal information, and job history. This information could help determine if someone is experiencing RA and the degree of memory affected. However, due to the nature of the information being tested, it is often difficult to verify the accuracy of the memoirs being recalled, especially if they are from a distant past.[36]Brain abnormalities can be measured usingmagnetic resonance imaging(MRI),computed tomography scan(CT) andelectroencephalograhy(EEG), which can provide detailed information about specific brain structures. In many cases, an autopsy helps identify the exact brain region affected and the extent of the damage that caused RA once the patient has died.There are some aspects essential to the patient that remain unaffected by RA. In many patients, their personality remains the same.[37]Also, semantic memory, that is general knowledge about the world, is usually unaffected.[38]However, episodic memory, which refers to one's life experiences, is impaired.[39]The legal system had started to push for a standardized test for amnesia. It is common for people who have committed a crime to report having RA for that specific event because they want to avoid their punishment. A standardized test would be able to identify individuals who are lying versus those who are truly suffering from RA.[40]Spontaneous recovery[edit]When someone is suffering from RA, their memory cannot be recovered from simply being told personal experiences and their identity.[41]This is calledreminder effector reminder treatment. The reminder effect consists of re-exposing the patient to past personal information,[42]which cannot reverse RA.[43]Thus, reminding the patient details of their life has no scientific bearings on recovering memory. Fortunately, memory can be and usually is recovered due tospontaneous recovery.[41]Case studies[edit]Since researchers are interested in examining the effects of disrupted brain areas and conducting experiments for further understanding of an unaffected, normal brain,[44]many individuals with brain damage have volunteered to undergo countless tests to advance our scientific knowledge of the human brain. For example, Henry Molaison was someone with significant brain damage and participated in a lot of neurological research. Furthermore, he was also the most tested person in neuropsychology.[45]All living people who participate are referred to in literature using only their initials to protect privacy.Patients with RA have exhibited an inability to describe future plans, whether in the near future (e.g., this afternoon) or in the distant future (e.g., next summer)[46]because of their inability to consolidate memories.[10]Also, researchers have found these patients can identify themselves and loved ones in photographs, but cannot determine the time or place the photo was taken.[46]It has also been found that patients with RA greatly differ from the general population in remembering past events.[47]A few case examples are: After a head injury,ABhad to relearn personal information.[48]Many of ABs habits had also changed.[48] PatientCD, reported disorientation of place and time following his injuries as well as relearning previously learned information and activities (e.g., using a razor).[48] EFwas examined and found to be very confused about social norms (e.g., appropriate attire outside his home). EF exhibited memory loss of his personal experiences (e.g., childhood), and the impaired ability to recognize his wife and parents.[48] JGis the first recorded patient suffering from isolated RA.[15] GH, a mother and a wife, had surgery in August 2002. When GH woke up after the surgery, she believed it was May 1989.[48]Due to her amnesia, GH experienced great difficulty in her social environment, being overwhelmed by relationships to others.[48]Although it may seem that people living with brain damage have great difficulty continuing the usual day-to-day aspects, they still can accomplish many feats. People with RA are able to lead a normal life. For instance,KCis a man who has many functional aspects intact; normal intelligence, unaffected perceptual and linguistic skills, short-term memory, social skills, and reasoning abilities.[46]All of these things are necessary in everyday life and contribute to normal living. KC also is fully capable of scripted activities (e.g., making reservations or changing a flat tire).[46]In addition, patientHCsuccessfully graduated high school and continued into post-secondary studies,[47]an obvious accomplishment despite her condition.Other forms of amnesia[edit]Other forms of amnesia exist and may be confused with RA. For instance,anterograde amnesia(AA) is the inability to learn new information.[49]This describes a problem encoding, storing, or retrieving information that can be used in the future.[50]It is important to note that these two conditions can, and often do both occur in the same patient simultaneously,[12]but are otherwise separate forms of amnesia.RA can also be an inherent aspect of other forms of amnesia, namelytransient global amnesia(TGA). TGA is the sudden onset of AA and RA caused by a traumatic event, however it is short lived, typically lasting only 4 to 8 hours.[51]TGA is very difficult to study because of the patients quick recovery.[52]This form of amnesia, like AA, remains distinct from RAmatt damon jason bournefranka potenta-marieclive owen-professorchris cooper-alexander ConklinJulia stiles-nicky parsonsThis lesson discusses retrograde amnesia, a form of memory loss. Whether its a blow to the head or a brain infection, retrograde amnesia is a really serious issue, so learn about the main causes and possible solutions below.We also recommend watchingAmnestic Disorder: Definition, Causes and Treatment for AmnesiaandWhat is Dissociative Amnesia? - Definition and Symptoms

What Is Retrograde Amnesia?Retrograde amnesiais memory loss of events that occurred in the recent past before the onset of amnesia. Research shows that people who experience retrograde amnesia are more likely to lose memories closer to the occurrence of the amnesia. For example, if John is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia in the year 2013, he is more likely to lose memories from 2012 and 2011 then he is to lose memories from 1980. It's possible that he loses those memories too, but more likely that he loses memories closer to 2013. Luckily, those with retrograde amnesia can still form new memories.SymptomsSymptoms of retrograde amnesia are false memories, confusion, or brain and coordination problems. These symptoms are similar to those associated with other types of amnesia. The only specific symptom of retrograde amnesia is forgetting past events as opposed to new ones. For example, John might not recognize his wife of five years, and he may recall having four children even if he has none. This can be difficult for loved ones. For example, in the movie,The Notebook, the woman doesn't remember who her husband is. He tells and retells the story of her past, but she seems to forget again and again.CausesCauses of retrograde amnesia can be brain injuries, surgeries, traumatic events, nutrition issues, infections, or electroconvulsive therapy (commonly known as shock therapy). At times, it can be difficult to track the exact cause of one person's retrograde amnesia. For example, in soap operas, a serious head injury is the usual suspect for amnesia, which can be a cause in reality as well, but is not the only possibility.DiagnosisDoctors will ask many questions in order to determine what the issue is. They'll ask about family history, drug use (prescription and non-prescription), alcohol use, recent head injuries or surgeries, what the patient can remember or not, and any other symptoms. It's likely that the patient will undergo tests - they can be scans, reflex tests, or simple questions. Questions may include recent news or topics such as the patient's address or name.PreventionWhile retrograde amnesia can occur even with precautions, appropriate measures can help.1. Safety precautions: Wearing a helmet or seatbelt depending on the vehicle of choice can prevent serious head injuries.2. Prompt medical attention: Treatment of any infections or serious head or brain-related injuries can prevent excessive damage.Create an account to read entire transcript...Related VideosThere are six different types of amnesia depending on the causes and the nature of disease progression.

a) Anterograde amnesia

Anterograde amnesia happens as a result of brain trauma that involves the hippocampus, fornix, or mammillary bodies.

Here the patient is unable to recollect events, that occur after the onset of the amnesia, for more than a few minutes. In other words, in these patients, recent events are not transferred to long-termmemory. For example the patient is unable to recollect what his colleagues name is or what he had for breakfast or which movie he saw the day before.

Although the person''s intelligence, personality and judgment is intact he may have trouble in retaining his job because his day- to- day functional memory is poor. This can be devastating to the person and to his family. However, with the use of memory aids the affected person can, more or less, lead a useful life.

b) Retrograde amnesia

In this form of amnesia the affected individual will be unable to recollect events that occurred before the amnesia set in. The condition is caused either by disease or a brain injury especially in areas linked with episodic memorythe hippocampus and the median temporal lobes.

Memoryis poorest regarding events that occurred just before amnesia set in. Early memories are comparatively safe with memory decline building up to the event. No cure has yet been found for this condition.

c) Dissociative amnesia

Dissociativeamnesiais a condition in which the patient is unable to remember vital personal information in a way that has nothing to do with normal forgetfulness. It is commonly seen in individuals who have witnessed a violent crime or a grave accident and does not occur due to a medical illness.

Patients with dissociative amnesia do not experience an identity crisis but they tend to pass through a trance-like state and may develop depersonalization as an effort to block out a stressful experience.Subtypes include

1.Generalized amnesia- When the amnesia involves the persons whole life.

2.Localized amnesia- no memory of a specific traumatic event that took place

3.Selective amnesia- remembers only selective parts of events that occurred in a defined period of time.

4.Systematized amnesia memory loss regarding a specific category of information.

d) Infantile amnesia

The inability to recall events from early childhood is known as infantile amnesia. It is assumed that this happens due to immaturity in certain areas of the brain in the very early stages. Today, this state is seen as an intricate part of human development as it is now clear that memories begin to form only when certain parts of the brain are well formed.

e) Transient Global Amnesia (TGA)

In this type of amnesia there is temporary impairment in an otherwise healthy person's memory.

During this period of amnesia, the person is unable to recall recent occurrences, visuals or verbal information for more than a couple of minutes. Patients retain their identities, immediate recall abilities, distant memories, attention span, language function, visual-spatial and social skills.

However, they are often very confused by the ambience and the people around them. Although the period of memory loss does not usually last for more than a day the experience can be frightening! Some of the victims experience headache, dizziness, and nausea along with memory loss. Once recovered, the individuals are able to remember what occurred during the period of memory loss.

TGA generally affects fifty to eighty-year-old men. Its incidence is 3.4 to 5.2 people per 100,000 per year and the condition mostly affects 50-80 year olds.

Causes of TGA remain controversial. They include -

Emotional stress

Strenuous physical exertion

Transient ischemic attack, a "mini-stroke."

Basilar artery migraine,

f) Wernike-Korsakoff's psychosis

This amnesia is a progressive disorder caused by extended alcohol abuse. It is usually accompanied by neurological dysfunctions such as loss of co-ordination during movement or a feeling of numbness in the fingers and toes

Read more:Types of Amnesia | Medindiahttp://www.medindia.net/patients/patientinfo/amnesia-types.htm#ixzz3Br4a5uBN