The Breckland Pine Rows:

History, Ecology and Landscape Character

Tom Williamson

University of East Anglia

September 2010

Acknowledgements Much of the fieldwork on which this report is based was carried out by Sarah Harrison, and much of the archive research by Annie Sommazzi. Thanks also to the staff of the Norfolk and Suffolk Record Offices, for their help and advice; and to Gerry Barnes, Peter Holborn, Gilbert Addison, Ian Featherstone and Scott Perkin for their comments on an initial presentation of these results in June 2010. The project was made possible with funding support from: the Norfolk Biodiversity Partnership; Breckland Council; Norfolk County Council; Suffolk County Council; and Forest Heath District Council.

Introduction: Breckland and its Pine Rows. To understand the pine rows of Breckland, the subject of this short report, requires a brief discussion of the region’s wider landscape history. Breckland is a distinctive area of south west Norfolk and north west Suffolk, distinguished by particularly dry and often acidic soils which are formed in sandy Aeolian drift overlying chalk or, in places, boulder clay. It is the most agriculturally marginal region of East Anglia, idiosyncrasies of climate compounding the problems posed to cultivators by acid and infertile soils: frosts have been recorded in every month of the year (Hodge et al. 1984, 27-34). Even at the end of eighteenth century, to judge from the county maps published by Faden (for Norfolk in 1797) and Hodskinson (for Suffolk in 1783) well over 40 per cent of Breckland was still occupied by heathland (Wade Martins and Williamson 1999, 13). From at least the fourteenth century, large areas were used for warrens, and the intensive grazing of the rabbits could lead to the formation of mobile sand dunes: William Gilpin, visiting the area in the 1760s, described ‘sand, and scattered gravel, without the least vegetation; a mere African desert’. There were, nevertheless, numerous settlements, and the more calcareous soils (mainly located within the principal valleys) were, well into the post-medieval period, occupied by arable open fields, in which the strips of farmers were intermingled with varying degrees of regularity. The fields were dunged by extensive flocks of sheep, grazed by day on the heaths and close-folded on the arable by night. But in addition to the permanent areas of arable land, and the permanent heaths, large areas were farmed as temporary outfields, or ‘brecks’, the organisation of which may have become more systematic and organised from late medieval times (Bailey 1989; Postgate 1962). By the seventeenth century, regular rotations were imposed on the outfields: they were ploughed for a specified number of years and then allowed to tumble down to heath once more. The population of this marginal area declined significantly in post-medieval times, and on the worst soils some settlements experienced severe contraction. Wordwell in Suffolk was, by 1736, little more than a single farm, ‘the chief profits whereof arise from a flock of sheep, the soil being for the most part a barren dry heath, a very bleak place’ (Wade Martins and Williamson 1999, 13). Such places fell under the control of large landowners, and by the eighteenth century the area was peppered with large numbers of country houses and landscape parks. From the eighteenth century, and especially from the end of that century, such individuals engaged in ambitious schemes of improvement and land reclamation: heaths and open fields were enclosed, and replaced by a mesh of rectilinear fields, new roads were often laid out and old ones terminated, tidied up or realigned. On the better soils of the district, where larger communities survived and landholding patterns were more complex, similar schemes of enclosure and reclamation were carried out but often slightly later, in the early years of the nineteenth century, and usually effected using parliamentary enclosure acts. By the 1830s few areas of open field survived, although extensive heaths and warrens remained, on land too poor to be effectively reclaimed. Large landowners in this period also planted belts and plantations, initially around their parks and mansions, later more widely. The late eighteenth-century owner of Riddlesworth in Norfolk, the appropriately named Sylvanus Bevan, reputedly planted 996,000 trees in and around the park (Young 1804, 383). Not all ‘improvements’, and in particular the more spectacular reclamation schemes, were motivated solely by

economic considerations. When in 1774 Thomas de Grey bemoaned the costs of enclosing the heaths at Tottington in Breckland he observed that the ‘great expense ... would but ill answer, unless there was a real satisfaction in employing the labourers and bringing forth a ragged dirty parish to neatness and cultivation’ (NRO WLS XXLVII/19 415). With the onset of the agricultural depression in the 1880s much of the heathland reclaimed during the previous century or so was abandoned. A comparison of the tithe award maps of c.1840, and the First and Second Edition OS 6” maps of c.1885 and 1905, reveal numerous areas, especially in Breckland, which passed from arable back to rough grazing. Further retrenchment occurred in the course of the twentieth century and the Croxton Park estate in Norfolk was not unusual in being described in 1929 as comprising ‘partly heath and partly low grade arable or pasture land which has passed, or is about to pass, out of cultivation’ (Forestry Commission Archives, Santon Downham. Croxton Park Acquisition Report, 1928 (no catalogue number). Effective abandonment of farming in the heart of Breckland did not mean complete dereliction. Many large estates diversified, becoming in effect large game farms, profitably leased for the shooting season. But many landowners, their rent rolls falling dramatically, were in serious financial difficulties. The depression had important effects upon the character of the heaths. The numbers of sheep being kept on farms often declined, so that land was less intensively grazed than before. The amount of bracken increased and so, more importantly, did the height of the heather, and in the patches of bare ground between over-mature stands hawthorn, sloe, and birch began to establish themselves and, in places, Scots pines, invading from adjacent plantations. Unchecked by grazing, these were able to grow into substantial bushes or trees. The number of belts and plantations on the heaths also seems to have increased, partly because landowners wanted to provide more cover for pheasants but also because some felt that timber would make a better long term investment than farming. But it was from the 1920s that the area under trees really began to expand. The Forestry Commission was established in 1921 as a consequence of the severe timber shortages experienced during the First World War (Ryle 1969; Skipper and Williamson 1997). The Commission began to acquire land in Breckland in 1922, when 1,275 hectares of the Elveden estate were purchased. This was rapidly followed by the acquisition of the 4,944 Downham Hall estate in 1923; and of the 6,208 acres Lynford estate, and 822 acres of the Beechamwell estate, in 1924. By 1929 the Commission owned some 40,000 acres in the district, mostly in the area to the north and west of Thetford. Almost all was purchased in the form of large continuous blocks of land - large chunks of, or the entire area of, impoverished landed estates. After a short pause, enforced by changes in government policy, acquisition of land resumed in 1934 with the purchase of the Culford estate between Bury St Edmunds and Thetford. By 1939, including land held on long leases, the Commission controlled no less than 59,000 acres in Breckland (Public Records Office FC 54386/4; FC 374/24. Forestry Commission Archives, Santon Downham, FC L3/1/1; L3/3/9; L3/3/15. Skipper and Williamson 1997, 18-26). The pine rows, still often referred to locally as the ‘deal rows’, are a distinctive feature of the Breckland landscape. They may be defined as single rows of Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) which exhibit varying degrees of twisting and contortion. Some are associated with low banks but the majority are not. The rows have quite rightly been singled out by

numerous writers on topography and landscape history as a major contributor to the region’s ‘sense of place’. To Ravensdale and Muir, the ‘tattered friezes of Scots pines … are the hallmark of the landscape’ (Ravensdale and Muir 1984, 204); while to Armstrong ‘the isolated rows of Scots pine trees, standing out from the bracken of the remaining heathland, remains a typical feature of the East Anglian scene’ (Armstrong 1985, 53). Most commentators agree that the rows were originally planted as hedges, which have gradually grown out. Today only a handful of examples are still recognisably hedges, mainly near Elveden in Suffolk. Of course, the rows are only one of several ways in which pines are present in the Breckland landscape. In many areas, as noted, narrows strips of woodland, usually referred to as belts, are to be found, mostly created as game cover in the middle and later nineteenth, and early twentieth, centuries; while from the 1920s extensive tracts were planted up as pine plantations, usually across former heath or arable lying derelict as a consequence of the agricultural depression, by the Forestry Commission. Although Scots pines were steadily replaced by Corsican in the course of the 1930s as the Commission’s preferred tree, and were never the only tree established in the Breckland forests, extensive areas of mature sylvestris woodland still remain in the district. Pine rows, it should perhaps be emphasised, are not entirely restricted to Breckland. Within East Anglia, there is also a rather smaller concentration in the southern part of the Suffolk ‘Sandlings’ (i.e., the Suffolk coastal heaths), especially in the area immediately to the south of Butley and, widely scattered, in the triangle formed by Alderton, Hollesley, and Sutton. There are also scattered examples elsewhere in East Anglia, in areas of relatively light and freely-draining soils: to the south of Bury St Edmunds, in the parish of Westley; and on the chalk escarpment at various places to the south west of Newmarket. Only in Breckland, however, are pine rows characteristic and common features of the landscape. As noted, there is general agreement that the pine rows represent the outgrown remains of what were originally pine hedges: indeed, a few examples survive as such, although fast growing out into lines of trees, principally on the Elveden estate. The historical ecologist Oliver Rackham discussed the rows briefly in his History of the Countryside (1986, 223-4).

AA ddeeffiinniittee eexxaammppllee ooff hheeddggeerrooww ttrreeeess aarriissiinngg bbyy ddeeffaauulltt aarree tthhee rroowwss ooff SSccoottss ppiinneess,, aallll mmuucchh tthhee ssaammee aaggee aanndd aallll ggnnaarrlleedd aatt tthhee bbaassee,, wwhhiicchh aarree tthhee cchhaarraacctteerriissttiicc ffiieelldd bboouunnddaarriieess ooff tthhee BBrreecckkllaanndd.. WWhheenn tthhee ooppeenn ffiieellddss aanndd ssoommee ooff tthhee ccoommmmoonnss ooff tthhee BBrreecckkllaanndd wweerree eenncclloosseedd iinn tthhee eeaarrllyy nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy,, iitt wwaass tthhee ffaasshhiioonn ttoo mmaakkee nneeww hheeddggeess ooff ppiinnee ……[[bbuutt]] eevveenn aa ffeeww yyeeaarrss’’ nneegglleecctt ccaauusseess ppiinneess ttoo ggrrooww uupp iirrrreevvooccaabbllyy iinnttoo ttrreeeess..

But this ‘late’ origin of the pine rows has never in fact been unequivocally demonstrated, and some writers have favoured an earlier origin. In particular, Sussams and others have noted how in 1668 Thomas Wright described his use of ‘Furre-hedges’ to reduce the progress of the famous sand blow that engulfed much of the parish of Santon Downham (Sussams 1996, 105); some have suggested that pine hedges were a traditional, long-lived feature of the local farming landscape, and that the present pines might thus perpetuate links with the Scots pine which – mixed with other native tree species – formed part of the natural vegetation of Breckland in remote prehistory. Conversely, Clarke in 1908 was

confident that the rows had only been planted on a large scale ‘since about 1840’ (Clarke 1908, 563), thus implying a later date of origin than that proposed by Rackham. In addition, even a cursory examination of the pine rows reveals a considerable degree of variation in growth patterns, and presumably management history. At one extreme we have highly contorted examples, twisted into dramatic shapes, which are particularly characteristic of roadside examples; at the other, lines of trees displaying a very slight ‘twist’, if any. Several questions thus remain concerning both the origins, and subsequent history, of the pine rows. Equally neglected, however, is the question of their distribution. Although the rows are often thought to be quintessential features of the Breckland landscape, they are not evenly distributed across the region. There are noted ‘hot spots’, as we shall see, most notably in and to the south of the parish of Cockley Cley in Norfolk (in the far north of Breckland), and to the south west of Elveden, in Suffolk. Indeed, the location of the latter cluster, to either side of the A11 – one of the major gateways to East Anglia – may in part explain the prominence of the pine rows in popular images of Breckland. In contrast, many other Breckland parishes have few examples, or none. So far as we are aware, no previous attempt has been made to map the rows, and the main purpose of this project was to provide as accurate as possible a picture of their current distribution. Lastly, virtually nothing has been written in the past about the possible importance of the pines in terms of biodiversity. The research described in this report was carried out by landscape historians, and considers the pines principally in terms of their place in the cultural landscape. But we do make some comments on their possible importance in ecological terms, derived in large part from an examination of the somewhat sparse published literature. In summary, the aims of this research were thus to answer the following questions:

•• WWhheerree wweerree tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss ppllaanntteedd?? •• WWhheenn wweerree tthheeyy ppllaanntteedd?? •• WWhhyy wweerree tthheeyy ppllaanntteedd?? •• WWhhaatt eexxppllaaiinnss tthhee cclleeaarr vvaarriiaattiioonnss iinn tthheeiirr ffoorrmm aanndd cchhaarraacctteerr?? •• WWeerree aallll ssuurrvviivviinngg eexxaammpplleess oorriiggiinnaallllyy mmaannaaggeedd aass hheeddggeess?? • WWhhaatt iiss tthhee ssiiggnniiffiiccaannccee ooff tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss ffoorr bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy??

IInn rreeaalliittyy tthheessee qquueessttiioonnss aarree nnoott sseeppaarraattee,, bbuutt iinntteerrccoonnnneecctteedd iinn ccoommpplleexx wwaayyss.. TThhuuss tthhee qquueessttiioonn ooff wwhheerree tthhee rroowwss aarree ffoouunndd hhaass,, aass wwee sshhaallll sseeee,, aann iimmppoorrttaanntt bbeeaarriinngg oonn tthheeiirr aannttiiqquuiittyy;; wwhhiillee tthhee ssiiggnniiffiiccaannccee ooff tthhee rroowwss ffoorr bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy iiss,, aatt lleeaasstt iinn ppaarrtt,, aa ffuunnccttiioonn ooff tthhee aaggee ooff tthhee ttrreeeess.. TThhee DDiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff tthhee PPiinnee RRoowwss.. MMaappppiinngg MMeetthhooddoollooggyy.. IItt wwaass oorriiggiinnaallllyy tthhoouugghhtt tthhaatt tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss ccoouulldd bbee mmaappppeedd ffrroomm tthhee aaiirr,, uussiinngg aa ccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ooff GGooooggllee EEaarrtthh iimmaaggeess aanndd ootthheerr aaeerriiaall pphhoottooggrraapphhss ((mmoosstt nnoottaabbllyy tthhee ssuurrvveeyyss mmaaddee ffoorr tthhee rreessppeeccttiivvee ccoouunnttyy ccoouunncciillss iinn tthhee llaattee 11998800ss)).. IInn pprraaccttiiccee tthhiiss pprroovveedd iimmppoossssiibbllee.. AAlltthhoouugghh ssoommee ppiinnee rroowwss aarree iiddeennttiiffiieedd wwiitthh eeaassee ffrroomm

FFiigguurree 11:: TThhee DDiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff PPiinnee RRoowwss iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd tthhee aaiirr,, iinn mmoosstt ccaasseess iitt pprroovveedd ddiiffffiiccuulltt ttoo ddiissttiinngguuiisshh,, wwiitthh aannyy ddeeggrreeee ooff ccoonnffiiddeennccee,, lliinneess ooff ppiinneess ffrroomm ootthheerr ffoorrmmss ooff ffiieelldd eeddggee vveeggeettaattiioonn,, eessppeecciiaallllyy oouuttggrroowwnn hhaawwtthhoorrnn oorr mmiixxeedd--ssppeecciieess hheeddggeess,, oorr eevveenn lliinneess ooff ssccrruubb.. AAeerriiaall pphhoottooggrraapphhss wweerree eemmppllooyyeedd,, bbuutt iinn aallll ccaasseess tthhee eevviiddeennccee tthheeyy pprroovviiddeedd wwaass ssuupppplleemmeenntteedd bbyy ggrroouunndd cchheecckkiinngg,, aanndd mmaannyy rroowwss wweerree iiddeennttiiffiieedd oonn tthhee bbaassiiss ooff ggrroouunndd oobbsseerrvvaattiioonn aalloonnee,, aallbbeeiitt oofftteenn ffrroomm aa ddiissttaannccee.. IItt iiss iimmppoorrttaanntt ttoo eemmpphhaassiissee tthhaatt wwee ddoo nnoott ccllaaiimm ttoo hhaavvee iiddeennttiiffiieedd eevveerryy ppiinnee rrooww ssuurrvviivviinngg iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd ttooddaayy.. GGiivveenn tthhee aavvaaiillaabbllee bbuuddggeett,, ttiimmee aalllloowweedd oonnllyy eexxaammiinnaattiioonn ffrroomm rrooaaddss aanndd ffoooottppaatthhss.. SSoommee ppiinnee hheeddggeess iinn tthhee mmoorree rreemmoottee aanndd iinnaacccceessssiibbllee ppaarrttss ooff tthhee rreeggiioonn mmaayy tthhuuss hhaavvee bbeeeenn mmiisssseedd.. IInn aaddddiittiioonn,, tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonnss pprreesseenntteedd hheerree aarree lliikkeellyy ttoo bbee bbiiaasseedd bbyy tthhrreeee ootthheerr ffaaccttoorrss::

•• SSoommee ppiinnee rroowwss wweerree eexxppaannddeedd,, aafftteerr tthheeyy hhaadd bbeeeenn ppllaanntteedd,, ttoo ffoorrmm bbeellttss ooff ppiinnee.. AAlltthhoouugghh cclloossee eexxaammiinnaattiioonn uussuuaallllyy rreevveeaallss tthhee oorriiggiinnaall rrooww rruunnnniinngg aalloonngg oonnee ssiiddee ooff tthhee ffeeaattuurree –– aanndd iinnddeeeedd,, iinn aa llaarrggee nnuummbbeerr ooff ccaasseess tthheessee ccaann bbee iiddeennttiiffiieedd eeaassiillyy eevveenn ffrroomm aa ddiissttaannccee –– ggiivveenn tthhee nnaattuurree ooff tthhee ssuurrvveeyy mmeetthhooddss iitt iiss lliikkeellyy tthhaatt sseevveerraall ssuucchh rroowwss hhaavvee bbeeeenn mmiisssseedd..

•• SSoommee ppiinnee rroowwss mmiigghhtt bbee hhiiddddeenn wwiitthhiinn tthhee llaarrggee bblloocckkss ooff ppiinnee ffoorreesstt eessttaabblliisshheedd

bbyy tthhee FFoorreessttrryy CCoommmmiissssiioonn iinn tthhee 11992200ss aanndd 3300ss.. SSoommee eexxaammpplleess wweerree iiddeennttiiffiieedd iinn ssuucchh llooccaattiioonnss,, bbuutt tthheeyy wweerree ffeeww iinn nnuummbbeerr.. OOnn bbaallaannccee,, iitt iiss uunnlliikkeellyy tthhaatt llaarrggee nnuummbbeerrss wwiillll hhaavvee eessccaappeedd ddeetteeccttiioonn iinn tthhiiss wwaayy.. MMaannyy ooff tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss wweerree pprroobbaabbllyy ssttiillll bbeeiinngg mmaannaaggeedd aass hheeddggeess wwhheenn tthhee ffoorreesstt wweerree ffiirrsstt ppllaanntteedd,, aanndd mmaayy tthhuuss hhaavvee bbeeeenn oovveerrsshhaaddoowweedd bbyy tthhee ssuurrrroouunnddiinngg ppllaannttiinnggss.. EExxaammpplleess wwhhiicchh wweerree aallrreeaaddyy oouuttggrroowwnn,, oorr wwhhiicchh ddiidd mmaannaaggee ttoo tthhrriivvee aanndd ddeevveelloopp iinnttoo

FFiigguurree 22.. PPiinnee rrooww eexxppaannddeedd iinnttoo bbeelltt,, EErriisswweellll.. ttrreeeess,, wwiillll eeiitthheerr hhaavvee bbeeeenn rreemmoovveedd dduurriinngg ‘‘bbeeaattiinngg uupp’’ aanndd tthhiinnnniinngg ooppeerraattiioonnss,, dduuee ttoo tthheeiirr mmiisssshhaappeenn ffoorrmm;; oorr,, iiff tthheeyy ssuurrvviivveedd,, ffeelllleedd wwiitthh tthheeiirr nneeiigghhbboouurrss aatt tthhee eenndd ooff tthhee ffiirrsstt rroottaattiioonn,, iinn tthhee llaasstt ddeeccaaddeess ooff tthhee ttwweennttiieetthh cceennttuurryy..

• AAlltthhoouugghh wwee hhaavvee ssoo ffaarr ddeessccrriibbeedd tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss aass aa ddiissccrreettee aanndd eeaassiillyy ddeeffiinneedd

llaannddssccaappee ffeeaattuurree,, iinn rreeaalliittyy tthheerree aarree aa nnuummbbeerr ooff vvaarriiaanntt aanndd iinntteerrmmeeddiiaattee ffoorrmmss,, hhaarrdd ttoo ccllaassssiiffyy.. FFoorr eexxaammppllee,, iinn aa nnuummbbeerr ooff ccaasseess cclloosseellyy ppaarraalllleell ssttaaggggeerreedd rroowwss ooff ppiinneess hhaavvee bbeeeenn nnootteedd,, ddiiffffiiccuulltt ttoo ccaatteeggoorriissee aass eeiitthheerr ppiinnee rroowwss oorr aass nnaarrrrooww bbeellttss.. IInn aaddddiittiioonn,, lliinnee ooff ppiinneess ssoommeettiimmeess ooccccuurr wwiitthhiinn aa mmaattrriixx ooff ootthheerr sshhrruubbss oorr ttrreeeess.. GGoooodd eexxaammpplleess lliinnee bbootthh ssiiddeess ooff tthhee rrooaadd ccaalllleedd SSppaallddiinngg’’ss CChhaaiirr HHiillll ttoo tthhee ssoouutthh ooff RRuusshhffoorrdd iinn SSuuffffoollkk:: hheerree cclloossee sseett--ppiinneess ooccccuurr,, bbuutt wwiitthh nnoo eevviiddeennccee tthhaatt tthheeyy hhaavvee eevveerr bbeeeenn mmaannaaggeedd aass hheeddggeess,, aanndd sseeppaarraatteedd bbyy oouuttggrroowwnn hheeddggeess ffeeaattuurriinngg pprriivveett,, hhaawwtthhoorrnn aanndd bbllaacckktthhoorrnn..

IInn ssppiittee ooff iinnccoonnssiisstteenntt rreeccoorrddiinngg ooff ssuucchh aannoommaalloouuss ffeeaattuurreess,, aanndd tthhee ppoossssiibbllee oommiissssiioonn ooff ggeennuuiinnee ppiinnee rroowwss ffrroomm tthhee mmoorree iinnaacccceessssiibbllee aarreeaass ((eessppeecciiaallllyy wwiitthhiinn tthhee llaarrggeerr ffoorreessttrryy bblloocckkss)),, wwee aarree rreeaassoonnaabbllyy ccoonnffiiddeenntt tthhaatt aatt lleeaasstt 8855%% ooff eexxaammpplleess hhaavvee bbeeeenn mmaappppeedd,, aanndd cceerrttaaiinn tthhaatt nnoo ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt ccoonncceennttrraattiioonnss wwiillll hhaavvee bbeeeenn mmiisssseedd.. TThhiiss mmaakkeess

rr FFiigguurree 33:: PPiinnee rroowwss,, ppllaannttaattiioonnss,, aaiirrffiieellddss aanndd bbuuiilltt--uupp aarreeaass

tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn mmaapp pprreesseenntteedd aass FFiigguurree 33 ppaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy iinntteerreessttiinngg,, ffoorr iitt iiss iimmmmeeddiiaatteellyy aappppaarreenntt tthhaatt tthheerree aarree mmaajjoorr ddiissccoonnttiinnuuiittiieess iinn tthhee ooccccuurrrreennccee ooff tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss.. SSoommee ooff tthheessee ccaann bbee eexxppllaaiinneedd bbyy tthhee pprreesseennccee ooff tthhee FFoorreessttrryy CCoommmmiissssiioonn ppllaannttaattiioonnss oorr tthhee llaarrggee mmiilliittaarryy bbaasseess aatt MMiillddeennhhaallll aanndd LLaakkeennhheeaatthh:: aannyy rroowwss tthhaatt oonnccee eexxiisstteedd wwiitthhiinn tthheessee aarreeaass hhaavvee llaarrggeellyy ddiissaappppeeaarreedd.. TThhee ddiissaappppeeaarraannccee ooff ppiinnee rroowwss ffrroomm tthhee ffoorreesstt aarreeaass hhaass aallrreeaaddyy bbeeeenn ddiissccuusssseedd;; iinn tthhee ccaassee ooff tthhee aaiirr bbaasseess,, iinncclluuddiinngg tthheeiirr aassssoocciiaatteedd rreessiiddeennttiiaall aarreeaass,, rreemmoovvaall wwaass eevviiddeennttllyy ssyysstteemmaattiicc aanndd tthhoorroouugghh ((iinn ccoonnttrraasstt,, ppiinnee rroowwss ccaann ssuurrvviivvee rreemmaarrkkaabbllyy wweellll wwiitthhiinn uurrbbaann aarreeaass,, iinn BBrraannddoonn,, MMiillddeennhhaallll aanndd iinn ppaarrttiiccuullaarr wwiitthhiinn TThheettffoorrdd,, wwhheerree tthhee ddeessiiggnneerrss ooff tthhee oovveerrssppiillll aarreeaass iinn tthhee 11996600ss eevviiddeennttllyy ttooookk ggrreeaatt ppaaiinnss ttoo iinnccoorrppoorraattee eexxiissttiinngg ppllaannttiinngg wwiitthhiinn tthhee nneeww ddeevveellooppmmeennttss wwhheerreevveerr pprraaccttiiccaabbllee))..

FFiigguurree 44:: TThhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff ppiinnee rroowwss aanndd ssooiill ttyyppee.. HHoowweevveerr,, wwhhiillee tthhee FFoorreessttrryy CCoommmmiissssiioonn ppllaannttaattiioonnss aanndd tthhee mmiilliittaarryy bbaasseess eexxppllaaiinn mmaannyy ooff tthhee aappppaarreenntt llaaccuunnaaee iinn tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff ppiinnee rroowwss,, aass FFiigguurree 33 cclleeaarrllyy iinnddiiccaatteess tthheeyy ccaannnnoott eexxppllaaiinn tthheemm aallll.. TThheerree aarree mmaannyy ppaarriisshheess iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd wwhhiicchh aarree cchhaarraacctteerriisseedd llaarrggeellyy oorr eennttiirreellyy bbyy aarraabbllee ffiieellddss,, bbuutt wwhhiicchh nneevveerrtthheelleessss ccoonnttaaiinn ffeeww oorr

nnoo eexxaammpplleess.. OOnnee ppoossssiibbllee eexxppllaannaattiioonn iiss tthhaatt tthhee ppiinnee hheeddggeess wweerree oonnllyy ppllaanntteedd oonn ppaarrttiiccuullaarr ttyyppeess ooff ssooiill aanndd,, iinnddeeeedd,, aa nnuummbbeerr ooff wwrriitteerrss hhaavvee ssuuggggeesstteedd,, oorr iimmpplliieedd,, tthhaatt SSccoottss ppiinnee wwaass ffaavvoouurreedd aass aa hheeddggiinngg ppllaanntt iinn tthhee aarreeaa bbeeccaauussee iitt tthhrriivveess iinn aacciidd ccoonnddiittiioonnss,, iimmppllyyiinngg iinn ttuurrnn tthhaatt iitt wwoouulldd bbee mmoorree lliikkeellyy ttoo bbee eemmppllooyyeedd ffoorr eenncclloossiinngg llaanndd rreeccllaaiimmeedd ffrroomm hheeaatthhss,, tthhaann llaanndd ttaakkeenn oouutt ooff tthhee ooppeenn ffiieellddss.. AAss FFiigguurree 33 iinnddiiccaatteess,, hhoowweevveerr,, tthheerree iiss lliittttllee ccoorrrreellaattiioonn bbeettwweeeenn tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff ppiinnee rroowwss,, aanndd tthhaatt ooff ppaarrttiiccuullaarr ssooiill ttyyppeess.. WWhhiillee tthheeyy aarree nnuummeerroouuss oonn tthhee lleeaacchheedd,, aacciidd ssooiillss ooff tthhee NNeewwppoorrtt 44,, MMeetthhwwoolldd oorr WWoorrlliinnggttoonn AAssssoocciiaattiioonnss,, tthheeyy ccaann aallssoo bbee ffoouunndd iinn ssoommee nnuummbbeerrss oonn tthhee mmoorree ccaallccaarreeoouuss ssooiillss ooff tthhee NNeewwmmaarrkkeett 11 aanndd 22 AAssssoocciiaattiioonnss –– tthhee bbeetttteerr aarraabbllee ssooiillss,, ffaarrmmeedd aass ooppeenn--ffiieelldd aarraabbllee iinn tthhee MMiiddddllee AAggeess,, aanndd iinn mmaannyy ppllaacceess uupp uunnttiill tthhee nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy.. WWhhaatt iiss mmoorree ssuurrpprriissiinngg iiss tthhaatt ssmmaallll bbuutt ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt nnuummbbeerrss ooccccuurr oonn tthhee ppeeaatt ffeennss iimmmmeeddiiaatteellyy ttoo tthhee wweesstt ooff BBrreecckkllaanndd,, eessppeecciiaallllyy iinn MMiillddeennhhaallll.. EEvviiddeennttllyy,, tthhee llooccaattiioonn ooff tthhee ppiinneess wwaass nnoott ddeetteerrmmiinneedd bbyy eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall ffaaccttoorrss,, aanndd tthhee cchhooiiccee ooff ppiinnee aass aa hheeddggiinngg ppllaanntt wwaass oonnee sshhaarreedd bbyy llaannddoowwnneerrss lliivviinngg wweellll bbeeyyoonndd tthhee bboouunnddaarriieess ooff BBrreecckkllaanndd pprrooppeerr..

FFiigguurree 55.. PPiinnee rroowwss aanndd ppaarriisshh bboouunnddaarriieess iinn tthhee EEllvveeddeenn//IIcckklliinngghhaamm aarreeaa.. AAnnootthheerr aapppprrooaacchh iiss ttoo eexxaammiinnee tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss iinn tteerrmmss ooff aassppeeccttss ooff oowwnneerrsshhiipp aanndd tteennuurree.. IInn tthhiiss ccoonntteexxtt tthhee mmoosstt nnoottaabbllee ffeeaattuurree iiss tthhee rreellaattiioonnsshhiipp wwiitthh ppaarriisshh bboouunnddaarriieess.. TThhee ccoonncceennttrraattiioonnss ooff ppiinnee rroowwss aarree nneesstteedd nneeaattllyy wwiitthhiinn tthhee bboouunnddaarriieess ooff eecccclleessiiaassttiiccaall ppaarriisshheess,, aass tthheessee eexxiisstteedd iinn tthhee eeaarrllyy aanndd mmiiddddllee ddeeccaaddeess ooff tthhee nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy:: aanndd iinn aa mmoorree ggeenneerraall sseennssee tthheerree aarree ssiiggnnss ooff ddrraammaattiicc ddiissccoonnttiinnuuiittiieess aatt ppaarriisshh bboouunnddaarriieess.. PPaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy ssttrriikkiinngg iinn tthhiiss rreessppeecctt iiss tthhee ccoonncceennttrraattiioonn,, aallrreeaaddyy eemmpphhaassiisseedd,, llyyiinngg ttoo tthhee ssoouutthh wweesstt ooff EElleevvddeenn,, ffoorr tthhiiss iiss llaarrggeellyy

ccoonnttaaiinneedd wwiitthhiinn EErriisswweellll aanndd IIcckklliinngghhaamm,, aanndd wwhhiillee eexxtteennddiinngg iinnttoo tthhee nnoorrtthheerrnn ppaarrttss ooff MMiillddeennhhaallll ((tthhee oolldd ttoowwnnsshhiipp ooff WWaannggffoorrdd)) iitt ssttooppss aabbrruuppttllyy aatt tthhee bboouunnddaarriieess ooff LLaakkeennhheeaatthh,, LLaacckkffoorrdd,, WWeesstt SSttooww aanndd WWoorrddwweellll ((FFiigguurree 44)).. IInn aa ssiimmiillaarr wwaayy,, tthhee mmaarrkkeedd ccoonncceennttrraattiioonn aarroouunndd CCoocckklleeyy CClleeyy iinn NNoorrffoollkk –– wwhhiicchh tthhee mmaapp rreevveeaallss iiss aaccttuuaallllyy cceennttrreedd mmoorree oonn tthhee aaddjjaacceenntt ppaarriisshh ooff GGooooddeerrssttoonnee –– rreessoolluutteellyy ffaaiillss ttoo eexxtteenndd iinnttoo tthhee aaddjjooiinniinngg ppaarriisshheess ooff OOxxbbuurrgghh,, FFoouullddeenn,, aanndd HHiillbboorroouugghh.. TThhee AAnnttiiqquuiittyy ooff tthhee PPiinnee RRoowwss TThhee mmoosstt oobbvviioouuss eexxppllaannaattiioonn ffoorr tthhiiss rreellaattiioonnsshhiipp wwiitthh ppaarriisshh bboouunnddaarriieess iiss tthhaatt tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss rreefflleeccttss tthhee ppllaannttiinngg ppoolliiccyy ooff ppaarrttiiccuullaarr eessttaatteess,, wwhhiicchh wweerree tthheemmsseellvveess oofftteenn ccoonntteerrmmiinnoouuss wwiitthh ppaarriisshheess oorr ggrroouuppss ooff ppaarriisshheess.. AAtt ffiirrsstt ssiigghhtt ssuucchh aann eexxppllaannaattiioonn sseeeemmss ccoonnvviinncciinngg:: tthhee ttwwoo mmaaiinn ccoonncceennttrraattiioonnss,, aarroouunndd CCoocckklleeyy CClleeyy aanndd EEllvveeddeenn,, ccoouulldd tthhuuss bbee aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthhee llaarrggee llaannddeedd eessttaatteess bbaasseedd oonn CCoocckklleeyy CClleeyy HHaallll aanndd EEllvveeddeenn HHaallll rreessppeeccttiivveellyy.. CClloosseerr iinnssppeeccttiioonn,, hhoowweevveerr,, ssoooonn rreevveeaallss tthhaatt tthhiiss ccaannnnoott bbee ccoorrrreecctt.. AAlltthhoouugghh tthhee EEllvveeddeenn eessttaattee nnooww iinncclluuddeess mmuucchh llaanndd iinn EErriisswweellll aanndd IIcckklliinngghhaamm,, tthhiiss wwaass nnoott tthhee ccaassee iinn tthhee eeaarrllyy aanndd mmiiddddllee yyeeaarrss ooff tthhee nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy.. IIcckklliinngghhaamm wwaass tthheenn oowwnneedd,, aallmmoosstt iinn iittss eennttiirreettyy,, bbyy tthhee GGwwiilltt ffaammiillyy,, wwhhiillee EErriisswweellll wwaass iinn ddiivviiddeedd oowwnneerrsshhiipp,, bbuutt wwiitthh tthhee CCoommppaannyy ffoorr tthhee PPrrooppaaggaattiioonn ooff tthhee GGoossppeell iinn NNeeww EEnnggllaanndd,, nnoo lleessss,, aass tthhee mmaaiinn oowwnneerr ((PPoossttggaattee 11996600)).. An alternative explanation would link variations in distribution to the chronology of enclosure – that is, the replacement of a landscape of arable open fields, brecks and heaths, with one of enclosed fields owned and occupied in severalty: for in general terms each parish has its own enclosure chronology, different (often radically so) from that of its immediate neighbours, so that the age of field boundaries can change dramatically at parochial boundaries. The enclosure history of the Breckland parishes is complicated. Because many settlements, especially in the centre of the region, experienced severe contraction or desertion in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, they often became the sole property of particular proprietors, and were thus technically enclosed – in the sense that they had a single freehold owner and no common rights – long before the eighteenth century. However, the date at which (and extent to which) they were enclosed in physical terms displays much variation. Some were divided into fields at an early date, such as Buckenham Tofts, shown on an estate map of 1700 (NRO Petre Mss Box 8). But others often remained physically unenclosed into the nineteenth century, their arable land remained as open fields, with intermixed strips held by tenants, while their heaths continued open and unreclaimed. Such landscapes were often transformed during the early nineteenth century, when grain high prices and a fashionable concern for ‘improvement’ saw the removal of common arable, and large-scale (if often short-lived) reclamation of heathland. Other parishes, particularly towards the perimeter of Breckland, were enclosed by parliamentary act in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with the actual award – fixing the new pattern of boundaries, and dividing the land between the various proprietors and common-right holders – usually coming between three and eight years later. By the terms of each award, the allotments given to landowners in lieu of land in the open fields,

and lost common rights, generally had to be fenced or hedged within twelve month. This does not, however, mean that every boundary in a parish dates to the year of, or immediately following that of, the award. This is because the individual allotments of land were often very big, and were only later subdivided into more manageable fields by landowners. Indeed, whenever or however enclosure was achieved, further modifications to the field pattern were often made – hedges added, or taken away – throughout the nineteenth century.

Figure 6. Pine rows and enclosure history. Orange: Breckland parishes enclosed by non-parliamentary means. Green: Breckland parishes enclosed by parliamentary act before 1801. Grey; parishes enclosed by parliamentary act after 1800. It is against the background provided by this brief review of local enclosure history that we need to examine the distribution of the pine rows. On Figure 6, the Breckland parishes are divided into three categories: those enclosed by parliamentary awards dating to the period before 1800; those with parliamentary enclosures after 1800; and those enclosed by non-parliamentary means. It is immediately apparent that pine rows are rare in the first category, occur to very varying extents in the third, but are very closely correlated with the second: a strong indication that they were largely, if not entirely, planted in the period after 1800. We can, however, to some extent refine this chronology further. The two parishes which contain the largest numbers of rows, Eriswell and Icklingham, were enclosed in 1818 and 1816 respectively. Other parishes with significant concentrations were enclosed around the same time: Freckenham in 1820, Feltwell in 1815, and Hockwold in 1818. Indeed, only three parishes with significant concentrations of pine rows were enclosed by earlier awards: Thetford in 1806, Gooderstone in 1805, and Methwold in 1807.1 This strongly suggests

1 Mundford was enclosed by an act of 1806 but the date of the actual award is unknown.

that the peak period for planting was in the years between 1815 and 1820, but leaves unresolved how much earlier the practice actually began.

Figure 7. Extract from the enclosure map for Gooderstone (1805), showing modern location of pine rows. Purple; pine row on boundary of allotment. Red; pine row forming later subdivision of allotment. Closer examination of the Gooderstone enclosure map (NRO C/Sca 2/132) throws some light on this question (Figure 7). It is apparent that relatively few of the pine rows correspond with the boundaries of the actual allotments: most are subdivisions of allotments. There are a few exceptions, but interestingly some of these only run along part of a boundary between adjacent allotments, perhaps indicating that they represent later replacements for failed hawthorn hedges. At the very least, the pattern implies that the use of pine hedges was only just beginning when the enclosure took place in 1805,

and it is noteworthy that with few exceptions the ‘rows’ are found within, or on the boundaries of, one of the several owners who received land (the Dowager Duchess of Essex): her local agent, perhaps, was an individual fully abreast of the latest agricultural fashions. As already noted, parishes enclosed by non-parliamentary means often have poorly-documented enclosure histories, but some light can be thrown on the antiquity of their field boundaries by using larger-scale maps: most notably, William Faden’s map of the county of Norfolk, published in 1797; Hodskinson’s Suffolk map of 1783; and in particular the unpublished draft 2”:1 mile drawings prepared by the Ordnance Survey at various times between 1810 and 1820. None of these maps shows boundaries with any accuracy, although the OS shows field patterns in a partial and schematic way. All, however, carefully distinguish between roads enclosed by hedges, and those which were unenclosed; and they also show areas of surviving heathland. On Figure 6, two parishes enclosed by non-parliamentary means stand out as having particularly dense concentrations of pine rows: Elveden in Suffolk and Cockley Cley in Norfolk. In Cockley Cley, most of the pine rows occur on roadsides, although a substantial minority are field boundaries. Almost all the roads in the parish, and all the roads on which the rows appear, are shown as unenclosed on Faden’s map, and also on the Ordnance Survey 2” draft. The fact that the roads were unenclosed indicates that much if not all of the land lying in between them also lay open, and some of the pine rows clearly lie within areas shown on both maps as open heath. In Elveden the situation is similar: here, too the pine rows occur on the sides of roads shown as unenclosed both on Hodskinson’s map of 1783, and on the Ordnance Survey draft drawings. Here, however, the maps also indicate that most if not all of the areas in which the other rows were located as open heath. Less pronounced clusters of pine rows appear in Didlington, West and East Wretham, and Snarehill, and here too the pattern is repeated: pine rows occur on roadsides shown as unenclosed on the various large-scale maps, and in some cases in areas shown as open heath. Only a few examples occur in other locations, and there is little reason to doubt that these, too, still lay open at the time, as common arable. In short, the cartographic evidence from these less well documented parishes, such as it is, supports that from those enclosed by parliamentary act, suggesting strongly that few if any of the pine rows originated before 1800. The only piece of evidence that has been produced to suggest an earlier date for pine hedges in the region, and which implies that they might be a ‘traditional’ form of enclosure, comes from the late seventeenth century. As already noted, Kate Sussams and others have noted how as early as 1668 Thomas Wright described his use of ‘Furre-hedges’ to reduce the progress of the famous sand blow that engulfed much of the parish of Santon Downham (Sussams 1996, 105). But it is difficult to believe that a landowner would improvise a barrier to a moving sand dune by planting a hedge of any kind – the sands were moving quickly, and would not wait while the plants matured into a significant obstacle. Almost certainly, Wright was describing the creation of dead hedges of staked gorse – locally known as furze. Gorse was widely used to make, or gap up, fences or hedges. John

Figure 8. Above: the eastern side of Cockley Cley, as depicted on William Faden’s map of Norfolk, 1797. Below, the same area today, showing location of pine rows. The maps are hard to compare closely – Faden is schematic – but it is evident that most pine rows occur today on the sides of roads which either did not yet exist, or were unbounded, at the end of the eighteenth century.

Figure 9. Above, the area to the west of Elveden, as depicted on the Ordnance Survey draft 2” drawings of c.1815. below, the area today, showing the distribution of pine rows. Note how almost all occupy areas which were still, in c.1815, open heath.

Norden, who had long experience of East Anglia, described in his Surveyors Dialogue of 1618 how it was used ‘to brew withall and bake, and to stoppe a little gap in a hedge’ (Norden 1618, 234). What is particularly striking in this context is that pine hedges receive no mention in Nathaniel Kent’s General View of the Agriculture of the County of Norfolk (1796) or Arthur Young’s 1804 book of the same name, the latter in particular usually keen to describe the novel or unusual. In contrast, Richard Bacon, in his Report on the Agriculture of Norfolk of 1844, refers to ‘fences of Scotch fir’ as if they were a well-established part of the Breckland scene (Bacon 1844, 392). The evidence thus suggests that pine hedges were first planted in the region some time around 1800; and that the peak period of planting was between 1815 and 1820. The fashion may have continued on some scale into the 1820s, to judge from the only surviving description of the planting of the rows so far discovered. In 1829 the Suffolk traveller David Davey described how:

Within two miles of Brandon I observed a mode, to me at least new, of raising a good fence in a very bad soil; a bank is thrown up, about four or five feet high, and of a considerable thickness at the bottom; upon the top of this is planted a row of Scotch firs, as thick almost as they can stand; these seem to make rapid progress in this soil and branching out towards the sides, immediately from the ground, and have the additional very strong recommendation of affording the best shelter from storms to the sheep and cattle which are fed, or rather starved upon the land (Blatchley 1982, 136).

There are also signs that hedges continued to be established, on a sporadic basis, through the nineteenth and into the twentieth century. Those bordering the A11 to the south west of the Elveden Monument, for example, do not appear to have existed in 1880, as the road is shown on the First Edition Ordnance Survey as unenclosed. It is not entirely clear why pines should have been widely used as a hedging plant in Breckland. Scots pines grow well on the poorer soils, but so too does hawthorn: and while it is possible that the hedges were intended to provide shelter for crops and restrict soils erosion it is noteworthy that the ‘rows’ are by no means restricted to the lightest sands, but can also be found in the more calcareous areas, and even in areas of drained fen to the west of Breckland proper. As already noted, not all aspects of the aristocratic transformation of the Breckland landscape in the later eighteenth and nineteenth can be explained in practical and economically rational terms, and it is possible that – like the sporadic attempts at creating irrigated water meadows in the region in this period – the planting of pine hedges was simply a fashion, perhaps initiated by one commercial nursery: a possible candidate would by the establishment run by Mr Griffin at Mundford, more or less central to the distribution of the rows (his name appears frequently in estate accounts, but no records of his company have survived). It is possible that the difficulties involved in maintaining hedges of pine became apparent fairly quickly, explaining the relatively short period over which the majority were planted.

The Management and Development of the Pine Rows. It is usually assumed that the pine rows were all managed as hedges into the twentieth century, and then gradually allowed to ‘grow out’. Locally, many believe that neglect began during the 1914-18 war, due to a shortage of labour; and continued through the inter-War years, when agriculture was, for the most part, in a state of depression. Such a link with the fortunes of the agriculture also invites the suggestion that decline may have set in before 1914, as an intense agricultural depression occurred in the decades after 1880, which affected the poor soils of Breckland more than other areas in East Anglia.

Figure 10. Pine hedge at Ickburgh, Norfolk, photographed by W.G.Clarke in 1923 (NRO MC 365).

There are a few contemporary observations which give some clues to the chronology of abandonment. In 1908, W.G.Clarke strongly implies that most of the pine hedges were still being regularly managed. ‘These hedges are made of ordinary trees kept stunted by constant trimming’. The only exceptions he seems to note are ‘many of the lines of fir trees now bordering plantations were originally hedges, but have ceased to be trimmed’ (Clarke 1908, 563-4). As late as 1925 he implied that many were still being regularly cut, noting how pines were ‘still the characteristic tree of the district, planted either in rows known as ‘belts’, or artificially dwarfed as hedges’ (Clarke 1925, 17). A photograph by Clarke in the Norfolk Record Office, dated 1923, shows an example of a managed hedge in Ickburgh (Figure 10). By the 1930s, however, Butcher implies that many had been abandoned, describing how ‘the rows of trees are in all stages of development and degeneration: there are some very fine hedges along the Barton Mills-Elveden road and some very neglected ones around Cavenham and Icklingham which no longer fulfill their primary purpose’ (Butcher 1941, 353). There is, however, abundant evidence that a significant proportion of the rows had been allowed to grow out long before this. A number of photographs showing storm damage on the Didlington estate, taken around 1900, show what appear to be tumbled lines of pine trees (Figure 10). More importantly, a significant number of the rows are shown as lines of conifers on the First Edition Ordnance Survey 6” maps from the 1880s. The surveyors were instructed only to show mature trees, well beyond the sapling stage, thus indicating that the management of the rows in question must have been abandoned many years before (Figure 11). Their distribution is broadly similar to that displayed today by the surviving pine rows as a whole within Breckland (Figure 12).

Figure 10. Didlington, Norfolk. A photograph from c.1900 showing what may be a pine row brought down by a gale (NRO MC 84/133, PH7).

Figure 11. The area between Eriswell and Elveden, as shown on the Ordnance Survey 6” First Edition of c.1880. Note the lines of Scots pines, already outgrown. Figure 12. The distribution of outgrown Scots pine rows in Breckland as shown on the First Edition 6” Ordnance Survey maps of c.1880-90.

In this context, attention should again be drawn to the marked variation in the growth pattern of the trees in different rows, ranging from almost upright, with only a slight twist; to excessively contorted (Figure 13). Without exception, it is those rows made up of trees towards the ‘straight’ end of the range which are shown as lines of conifers on the OS maps. Those composed of the more contorted examples are not so shown, indicating that they were still being managed as hedges. This raises the possibility that some of the pine rows may always have comprised lines of separate, well-spaced trees, rather than hedges, but fieldwork suggests otherwise. In many cases, lines Figure 13. Variations in the growth pattern exhibited by Scots pines in the Breckland ‘rows’. Left, straight (Thetford, Norfolk). Top right, contorted (Cockley Cley, Norfolk). Bottom right, excessively contorted (Barton Mills, Suffolk). composed of ‘straight’ trees include, interspersed with the full-grown specimens, stunted examples, and dead stumps, sometimes so closely spaced that they actually touch. In the example shown in Figure 14, in Eriswell, the live pines vary in size from 0.4 to 1.6 metres in circumference at waist height, with dead examples and stumps ranging from 0.3 to 0.6. Although displaying only a slight twist, and already depicted as a line of trees on the OS 6” map, this row was clearly planted as a hedge but, like the others in the immediate vicinity and many others in the area, was clearly not managed as one for very long, perhaps hardly at all.

Figure 14. Detail of pine row at Eriswell, Suffolk

Some of the pine rows boast trees with rather larger circumferences, in rare cases reaching as much as 3.7 metres. It is possible that, in these cases, some of the intervening trees were actively removed at an early stage, providing extra light and space for the remainder. In most cases, however, it appears that the rows have ‘thinned’ naturally, through the success for some trees and the gradual failure of neighbours. TThhee SSiiggnniiffiiccaannccee ooff tthhee PPiinnee RRoowwss:: BBiiooddiivveerrssiittyy aanndd aa SSeennssee ooff PPllaaccee.. TThhiiss ssuurrvveeyy aanndd aassssoocciiaatteedd ddooccuummeennttaarryy aanndd ccaarrttooggrraapphhiicc rreesseeaarrcchh wweerree uunnddeerrttaakkeenn bbyy llaannddssccaappee hhiissttoorriiaannss,, rraatthheerr tthhaann eeccoollooggiisstt,, aanndd tthhee ccoommmmeennttss tthhaatt ffoollllooww sshhoouulldd bbee rreeaadd iinn tthhiiss lliigghhtt:: tthheeyy aarree bbaasseedd oonn aa sseeaarrcchh ooff tthhee rreelleevvaanntt sscciieennttiiffiicc lliitteerraattuurree ccoommbbiinneedd wwiitthh cclloossee oobbsseerrvvaattiioonn ooff tthhee rroowwss’’ mmoorrpphhoollooggyy aanndd pphhyyssiiccaall cchhaarraacctteerr iinn tthhee ffiieelldd.. TThhee BBrreecckkllaanndd ppiinnee rroowwss hhaavvee tthhee ppootteennttiiaall ttoo ccoonnttrriibbuuttee ttoo rreeggiioonnaall bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy iinn ttwwoo wwaayyss.. FFiirrssttllyy,, iitt iiss tthheeoorreettiiccaallllyy ppoossssiibbllee tthhaatt tthhee ttrreeeess tthheemmsseellvveess aarree ggeenneettiiccaallllyy ddiissttiinncctt,, aanndd rreepprreesseenntt ddiirreecctt lliinneeaall ddeesscceennddaannttss ffrroomm tthhee ppiinneess wwhhiicchh,, ttooggeetthheerr wwiitthh ooaakkss aanndd ootthheerr ttrreeeess,, ffoorrmmeedd aann iimmppoorrttaanntt eelleemmeenntt iinn tthhee mmoossaaiicc ooff wwooooddllaanndd aanndd mmoorree ooppeenn hhaabbiittaattss tthhaatt ddeevveellooppeedd iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd aatt tthhee eenndd ooff tthhee llaasstt ggllaacciiaattiioonn.. The distinctive assemblages of beetles and fungi associated with them have suggested to some scientists that the species never entirely died out in East Anglia, as it apparently did elsewhere in lowland England during the Roman period (Dannatt 1996, 22). SSeeccoonnddllyy,, tthhee rroowwss mmaayy hhaavvee aann iimmppoorrttaannccee aass hhaabbiittaattss,, ssuussttaaiinniinngg aa rraannggee ooff rraarree oorr uunnccoommmmoonn fflloorraa aanndd ffaauunnaa.. TThhee ffiirrsstt iissssuuee ccaann bbee ddeeaalltt wwiitthh qquuiicckkllyy.. GGiivveenn tthhaatt tthhee rroowwss wweerree aallll,, aappppaarreennttllyy,, ppllaanntteedd iinn tthhee eeaarrllyy nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy,, iitt iiss aallmmoosstt cceerrttaaiinn tthhaatt tthheeyy wwoouulldd hhaavvee bbeeeenn ssoouurrcceedd ffrroomm tthhee mmaannyy ccoommmmeerrcciiaall nnuurrsseerriieess tthhaatt hhaadd ddeevveellooppeedd iinn EEaasstt AAnngglliiaa ((aanndd eessppeecciiaallllyy iinn NNoorrffoollkk)) bbyy tthhiiss ppeerriioodd,, eessttaabblliisshhmmeennttss wwhhiicchh aaccqquuiirreedd tthheeiirr ssttoocckk ffrroomm aallll oovveerr EEnnggllaanndd,, aanndd iinnddeeeedd,, ffrroomm aallll oovveerr tthhee wwoorrlldd.. SSoommee ppiinnee ttrreeeess cceerrttaaiinnllyy eexxiisstteedd iinn tthhee rreeggiioonn bbeeffoorree 11880000,, aanndd aarree sshhoowwnn as hedgerow trees on some early maps, such as that of the Walsingham estates in Tottington, surveyed in 1774 (NRO WLS XVII/4). Some examples referred to in a court case at Merton in 1772 were already 27’ high (NRO WLS XXXI/15/1 417X6). BBuutt nnoo ssppeecciiffiicc rreeffeerreenncceess ttoo oorr rreepprreesseennttaattiioonnss ooff ppiinneess ddaattiinngg ffrroomm bbeeffoorree tthhee llaattee eeiigghhtteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy hhaavvee ssoo ffaarr bbeeeenn ddiissccoovveerreedd,, aanndd iitt iiss tthhuuss hhiigghhllyy pprroobbaabbllee tthhaatt ppiinneess ddiidd nnoott ssuurrvviivvee iinn tthhee aarreeaa tthhrroouugghh tthhee MMiiddddllee AAggeess,, aanndd iinnttoo tthhee eeaarrllyy mmooddeerrnn ppeerriioodd.. TThhee sseeccoonndd iissssuuee –– tthhee iimmppoorrttaannccee ooff tthhee rroowwss aass hhaabbiittaattss -- iiss mmoorree ccoommpplleexx.. SSccoottss ppiinneess aarree nnoott rraarree iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd –– aass aallrreeaaddyy nnootteedd,, tthheeyy aarree aa mmaajjoorr ccoonnssttiittuueenntt ooff tthhee eexxtteennssiivvee ppllaannttaattiioonnss eessttaabblliisshheedd iinn tthhee ccoouurrssee ooff tthhee ttwweennttiieetthh cceennttuurryy bbyy tthhee FFoorreessttrryy CCoommmmiissssiioonn,, aanndd tthheeyy aallssoo ffeeaattuurree ttoo aa ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt eexxtteenntt iinn tthhee wwooooddllaanndd bbeellttss ppllaanntteedd iinn tthhee aarreeaa iinn tthhee ccoouurrssee ooff tthhee nniinneetteeeenntthh aanndd ttwweennttiieetthh cceennttuurriieess.. TThheessee mmoorree eexxtteennssiivvee ccoonncceennttrraattiioonnss ooff ppiinneess hhaavvee ssoommee cclleeaarr aaddvvaannttaaggeess oovveerr tthhee rroowwss:: hhoobbbbyy ffoorr eexxaammppllee nneesstt iinn tthhee tthhiicckkeerr ppiinnee bbeellttss,, wwooooddllaarrkk aanndd nniigghhttjjaarr nneesstt iinn tthhee ppllaannttaattiioonnss,, bbuutt nneeiitthheerr aappppeeaarrss ttoo ffaavvoouurr tthhee mmoorree ooppeenn aanndd eexxppoosseedd eennvviirroonnmmeenntt ooff tthhee rroowwss.. TThhee rroowwss aarree ppootteennttiiaallllyy iimmppoorrttaanntt ffoorr bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy,, hhoowweevveerr,, aanndd ffoorr ttwwoo mmaaiinn rreeaassoonnss..

FFiigguurree 1155.. PPiinnee rrooww wwiitthh aassssoocciiaatteedd uunnpplloouugghheedd ssttrriipp,, EEllvveeddeenn.. FFiirrssttllyy,, mmaannyy ccoommpprriissee nnoott oonnllyy aa lliinnee ooff ttrreeeess,, bbuutt aallssoo aann aassssoocciiaatteedd ssttrriipp ooff ttuussssoocckkyy,, uunnggrraazzeedd ggrraassss.. SSuucchh ffiieelldd mmaarrggiinnss aarree nnoott uunniiqquueellyy aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthhee rroowwss,, bbuutt tthheeyy aarree cclloosseellyy aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthheemm:: iinnddeeeedd,, iitt iiss pprroobbaabbllee tthhaatt tthhee pprreesseennccee ooff mmaattuurree lliinneess ooff ppiinneess hhaass sseerrvveedd ttoo pprreesseerrvvee mmaannyy ssuucchh ffeeaattuurreess ffrroomm ddeessttrruuccttiioonn tthhrroouugghh ffiieelldd aammaallggaammaattiioonn,, iinn wwhhaatt iiss ggeenneerraallllyy aann iinntteennssiivveellyy aarraabbllee eennvviirroonnmmeenntt.. TThheessee ssttrriippss aarree oofftteenn ooff ssuucchh aa wwiiddtthh tthhaatt tthheeiirr cceennttrraall aarreeaass,, aatt lleeaasstt,, aarree oonnllyy mmaarrggiinnaallllyy aaffffeecctteedd bbyy cchheemmiiccaall sspprraayyss.. MMoorree iimmppoorrttaannttllyy,, tthheeyy aarree ffrreeqquueennttllyy ccrroosssseedd bbyy ttrraacckkss oorr ddiissttuurrbbeedd bbyy rraabbbbiittss,, tthhuuss ppeerrppeettuuaattiinngg tthhee rruuddeerraall ccoonnddiittiioonnss iinn wwhhiicchh tthhee mmoosstt cchhaarraacctteerriissttiicc ooff tthhee BBrreecckkllaanndd fflloorraa tteenndd ttoo tthhrriivvee,, hhaavviinngg ddeevveellooppeedd nnoott iinn ccoonnddiittiioonnss ooff ppeerrmmaanneenntt hheeaatthhllaanndd,, bbuutt rraatthheerr iinn tthhaatt ooff tthhee sshhiiffttiinngg,, ppeerriiooddiicc ccuullttiivvaattiioonn wwhhiicchh cchhaarraacctteerriizzeedd tthhee aarraabbllee ‘‘bbrreecckkss’’ ((DDoollmmaann 11999944)).. TThheeyy aarree tthhuuss hhoommee ttoo ssuucchh cchhaarraacctteerriissttiicc BBrreecckkllaanndd ppllaannttss aass fflliixxwweeeedd,, ssaanndd ccaattcchhffllyy,, VVeennuuss llooookkiinngg ggllaassss,, aanndd ffiinnee--lleeaavveedd ffuummiittoorryy aanndd ffoorr ssuucchh nnaattiioonnaall rraarriittiieess aass ppeerreennnniiaall kknnaawweell,, sspprriinngg ssppeeeeddwweellll,, aanndd ggrraappee hhyyaacciinntthh ((RRootthheerraa 11999977)).... TThhee ggrraassss ssttrriippss aarree aallssoo rriicchh iinn iinnsseeccttss,, iinncclluuddiinngg sseevveerraall rraarree mmootthhss,, wwhhiillsstt ccoommppaacctteedd ssaannddyy ssiittuuaattiioonnss aarree iimmppoorrttaanntt ffoorr ssoolliittaarryy wwaasspp ssppeecciieess,, aanndd tthhee eeaarrtthh bbaannkkss aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh ssoommee ooff tthhee rroowwss hhoolldd iimmppoorrttaanntt ppooppuullaattiioonnss ooff bbeeeettlleess iinncclluuddiinngg ssuucchh nnaattiioonnaallllyy rraarree ssppeecciieess aass OOpphhoonnuuss llaattiiccoolllliiss,, mmaannyy ooff wwhhiicchh ffeeeedd iinn tthhee aarraabbllee ffiieellddss ttoo ssoommee eexxtteenntt bbuutt ssuurrvviivvee aanndd bbrreeeedd iinn tthhee ttuussssoocckkyy ggrraassss bbeenneeaatthh tthhee ppiinneess ((TTeellffeerr 22000088)).. TThheessee ffrraaggmmeennttss ooff ggrraassssllaanndd aarree aallssoo ffaavvoouurreedd bbyy sskkyyllaarrkkss,, ggrreeyy ppaarrttrriiddggeess aanndd ootthheerr ffaarrmmllaanndd

bbiirrddss,, aass wweellll aass bbyy hhaarreess.. TThhee ppiinnee rroowwss,, ppeerrhhaappss mmoorree tthhaann ootthheerr ffiieelldd mmaarrggiinnss iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd,, ffoorrmm iimmppoorrttaanntt ffeeeeddiinngg tteerrrriittoorriieess ffoorr hhaawwffiinncchheess aanndd ccrroossssbbiillllss.. TThheerree iiss aallssoo ssoommee eevviiddeennccee tthhaatt tthhee rroowwss aarree ffaavvoouurreedd bbyy bbaattss ((ppiippiissttrreellllee aanndd bbaarrbbaasstteellllee eessppeecciiaallllyy)) aanndd ppeerrhhaappss BBaarrnn OOwwllss,, wwhhiillee –– lliikkee ffaarrmmllaanndd hheeddggeess ooff nnoorrmmaall ffoorrmm –– tthheeyy mmaayy sseerrvvee iinn iimmppoorrttaanntt rroollee aass wwiillddlliiffee ‘‘ccoorrrriiddoorrss’’,, lliinnkkiinngg llaarrggeerr aarreeaass ooff wwooooddllaanndd aanndd uunniimmpprroovveedd ggrraassssllaanndd TThhee iinnvveerrtteebbrraatteess aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthhee ppiinneess tthheemmsseellvveess hhaavvee rreecceeiivveedd lleessss aatttteennttiioonn.. IInn RRootthheerraa’’ss wwoorrddss,, ‘‘tthheessee ttrreeeess aanndd tthheeiirr iinnsseeccttss aarree nnoott wweellll ssttuuddiieedd’’ ((RRootthheerraa 11999977)).. NNaattiioonnaallllyy,, iitt hhaass bbeeeenn ccaallccuullaatteedd tthhaatt SSccoottss ppiinneess hhaavvee 9911 aassssoocciiaatteedd iinnsseecctt ssppeecciieess ((ccoommppaarreedd wwiitthh 4411 ffoorr aasshh,, 2288 ffoorr hhaawwtthhoorrnn,, bbuutt 228844 ffoorr ooaakk)) ((SSoouutthhwwoooodd 11996611)).. TThheeyy hhaavvee 113322 aassssoocciiaatteedd lliicchheenn ssppeecciieess -- aaggaaiinn,, iinn tthhee UUKK aass aa wwhhoollee ((RRoossee aanndd HHaarrddiinngg 11997788)).. AAtt aa llooccaall lleevveell tthhee nnuummbbeerrss wwiillll bbee lleessss tthhaann tthhiiss aanndd,, aass aallrreeaaddyy eemmpphhaassiizzeedd,, ppiinneess aarree nnoott tthheemmsseellvveess rraarree iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd.. HHoowweevveerr,, iitt iiss nnooww wweellll--eessttaabblliisshheedd tthhaatt tthhee bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy ooff iinnddiivviidduuaall ttrreeeess iinnccrreeaasseess wwiitthh aaggee,, aass ccaavviittiieess aanndd aarreeaass ooff rrootttteenn wwoooodd pprroolliiffeerraattee iinn tthhee bbooddyy ooff tthhee ttrreeee ((RRoossee 11999911;; KKiirrbbyy aanndd DDrraakkee 11999933));; aanndd tthhiiss mmaayy bbee eessppeecciiaallllyy ttrruuee ooff SSccoottss ppiinneess wwhhiicchh oovveerr ttiimmee ddeevveelloopp,, nnoott oonnllyy llaarrggee aarreeaass ooff ddeeaadd wwoooodd aanndd rrootttteenn mmaatteerriiaall,, bbuutt aallssoo llaarrggee llaayyeerreedd ppllaatteess sseeppaarraatteedd bbyy ddeeeepp ffiissssuurreess.. TThhiiss iiss tthhee rreeaall vvaalluuee ooff tthhee rroowwss iinn tteerrmmss ooff tthheeiirr ppiinneess:: tthhee ttrreeeess tthheeyy ccoonnttaaiinn aarree,, aallmmoosstt wwiitthhoouutt eexxcceeppttiioonn,, nneeaarrllyy 220000 yyeeaarrss oolldd,, aanndd tthhuuss mmoorree tthhaann ttwwiiccee tthhee aaggee ooff tthhee oollddeesstt ssuurrvviivviinngg FFoorreessttrryy CCoommmmiissssiioonn ppllaannttiinnggss.. DDeeaadd wwoooodd iiss ppaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy aabbuunnddaanntt ggiivveenn tthhee ffaacctt tthhaatt,, aass aallrreeaaddyy eemmpphhaassiizzeedd,, tthhee rroowwss ffrreeqquueennttllyy ccoonnttaaiinn tthhee ssttuummppss aanndd bbrrookkeenn ttrruunnkkss ooff ffaaiilleedd ttrreeeess,, ssqquueeeezzeedd oouutt bbyy ccoommppeettiittoorrss;; aanndd,, iinn tthhee ccaassee ooff tthhee mmoorree ttwwiisstteedd aanndd ccoonnttoorrtteedd eexxaammpplleess,, aann aabbuunnddaannccee ooff ffaalllleenn aanndd bbrrookkeenn bbrraanncchheess ((FFiigguurree 1166)).. FFiigguurree 1166.. PPiinnee rrooww aatt TTuuddddeennhhaamm,, sshhoowwiinngg llaarrggee aammoouunnttss ooff ddeeaadd wwoooodd..

IInn sshhoorrtt,, tthhee aannttiiqquuiittyy ooff tthhee rroowwss,, aanndd tthhee ffaacctt tthhaatt mmaannyy aarree aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh ssttrriippss ooff ttuussssoocckkyy ggrraassss,, pprroobbaabbllyy mmeeaann tthhaatt tthheeyy mmaakkee aa ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt ccoonnttrriibbuuttiioonn ttoo tthhee rreeggiioonn’’ss bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy.. BBuutt ppeerrhhaappss mmoorree iimmppoorrttaannttllyy,, tthheeyy ccoonnttrriibbuuttee ssiiggnniiffiiccaannttllyy ttoo tthhee rreeggiioonn’’ss ddiissttiinnccttiivvee llaannddssccaappee,, aanndd tthhuuss ttoo aa llooccaall ‘‘sseennssee ooff ppllaaccee’’,, tthhiinnggss wwhhiicchh hhaavvee bbeeeenn ggiivveenn iinnccrreeaassiinngg pprroommiinneennccee oovveerr rreecceenntt ddeeccaaddeess nnoott oonnllyy bbyy nnaattiioonnaall ggoovveerrnnmmeenntt,, bbuutt aallssoo bbyy EEuurrooppeeaann ddiirreeccttiivveess.. FFoorr aallll tthheessee rreeaassoonnss,, tthhee ppiinneess sshhoouulldd bbee vvaalluueedd,, pprreesseerrvveedd,, aanndd wwhheerree ppoossssiibbllee ppeerrppeettuuaatteedd oorr rreessttoorreedd.. CCoonncclluussiioonn TThhee pprriinncciippaall ccoonncclluussiioonnss ooff tthhiiss pprroojjeecctt mmaayy bbee ssuummmmaarriisseedd aass ffoolllloowwss::

•• TThheerree iiss nnoo eevviiddeennccee ffoorr tthhee ppllaannttiinngg ooff ppiinnee ‘‘rroowwss’’ iinn BBrreecckkllaanndd bbeeffoorree tthhee eeaarrllyy nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy..

•• TThhee ppeeaakk ppeerriioodd ffoorr ppllaannttiinngg wwaass pprroobbaabbllyy bbeettwweeeenn cc..11881155 aanndd cc..11882200.. •• MMaannyy ooff tthhee rroowwss wweerree pprroobbaabbllyy mmaannaaggeedd aass hheeddggeess ffoorr oonnllyy aa sshhoorrtt ppeerriioodd ooff

ttiimmee:: ssoommee mmaayy nneevveerr hhaavvee bbeeeenn ssoo mmaannaaggeedd.. •• TThheerree iiss nnoo eevviiddeennccee tthhaatt tthhee ppiinneess mmaakkiinngg uupp tthhee ‘‘rroowwss’’ ccoonnssttiittuuttee aa ggeenneettiiccaallllyy

ddiissttiinncctt ggrroouupp.. TThhee rreellaattiivveellyy llaattee ddaattee aatt wwhhiicchh tthheeyy wweerree ppllaanntteedd ssuuggggeessttss tthhaatt tthheeyy wweerree oobbttaaiinneedd ffrroomm ccoommmmeerrcciiaall nnuurrsseerriieess,, wwhhiicchh -- bbyy tthhee nniinneetteeeenntthh cceennttuurryy -- wweerree ssoouurrcciinngg ppllaannttss ffrroomm aallll oovveerr tthhee ccoouunnttrryy aanndd ssoommeettiimmeess bbeeyyoonndd..

•• TThhee eeccoollooggiiccaall ssiiggnniiffiiccaannccee ooff tthhee ppiinnee rroowwss iiss iinnssuuffffiicciieennttllyy ssttuuddiieedd,, bbuutt pprroobbaabbllyy ddeerriivveess mmaaiinnllyy ffrroomm tthheeiirr aassssoocciiaatteedd ssttrriippss ooff ggrraassss,, aanndd tthhee aaggee aanndd ccoonnddiittiioonn ooff tthheeiirr ccoonnssttiittuueenntt ttrreeeess..

•• TThhee ppiinnee rroowwss aarree aann iimmppoorrttaanntt aanndd cchhaarraacctteerriissttiicc ffeeaattuurree ooff tthhee BBrreecckkllaanndd llaannddssccaappee,, aanndd eevveerryy aatttteemmpptt sshhoouulldd bbee mmaaddee iinn tthhee ffuuttuurree ttoo pprrootteecctt aanndd eennhhaannccee ssuurrvviivviinngg eexxaammpplleess,, aanndd ttoo eessttaabblliisshh nneeww oonneess..

•• FFuurrtthheerr rreesseeaarrcchh iiss uurrggeennttllyy nneeeeddeedd iinnttoo tthhee cchhaarraacctteerr ooff tthhee ffaauunnaa,, aanndd eessppeecciiaallllyy tthhee iinnsseeccttss,, aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthhee mmaattuurree ppiinneess wwhhiicchh mmaakkee uupp tthhee ‘‘rroowwss’’..

References Armstrong, P. 1985. The Changing Landscape, Lavenham. Bacon, R.N. 1844. The Report on the Agriculture of Norfolk, Norwich. Bailey, M 1989. A Marginal Economy? East Anglian Breckland in the Later Middle Age, Cambridge. Blatchley, J. (ed.) 1982. D.E.Davy: A Journal of Excursions through the County of Suffolk 1823-1844. Suffolk Records Society Vol. 24, Woodbridge. Butcher, R.W. 1941. The Land of Britain: Suffolk. Geographical Publications, London. Clarke, W.G. 1908. ‘Some Breckland Characteristics’. Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society 8, 555-78. Clarke, W.G. 1925. In Breckland Wilds, Cambridge. Dannatt, N. 1996. ‘Thetford Forest: its History and Development’. In P.Ratcliffe and J.Claridge (eds) Thetford Forest Park: the Ecology of a Pine Forest, Edinburgh. Dolman, P. 1994. ‘The use of Soils Disturbance in the Management of Grass Heath for Nature Conservation’, Journal of Environmental Management 44, 123-40. Hodge, C, Burton, R, Corbett, W, Evans, R, and Scale, R 1984. Soils and their Uses in Eastern England, Harpenden: Soil Survey of England and Wales, 27-34. Kent, N. 1796. General View of the Agriculture of Norfolk, London. Kirby, K.J. and Drake, C.M. (eds) 1993. Dead Wood Matters, English Nature, Peterborough. Norden, J. 1618. The Surveyor’s Dialogue, London. Postgate, M.R. 1960. ‘The Historical geography of Breckland, 1600-1840’. University of London MA thesis, unpublished. Postgate, M R 1962. ‘The Field Systems of Breckland’. Agricultural History Review 10, 80-101. Rackham, O. 1986. The History of the Countryside, London. Ravensdale, J. and Muir, R. 1984. East Anglian Landscapes: Past and Present, London.

Rose, F. 1991. ‘The Importance of Old Trees Including Pollards for Lichen Bryophyte and Epiphytes’, in H.J. Read (ed.) Pollard and Veteran Tree Management, London. Rose, F. and Harding, P.T. 1978. ‘Pasture and Woodlands in Lowland Britain and their importance for the conservation of the epiphytes and invertebrates associated with old trees’. Nature Conservancy Council and The Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Peterborough. Rothera, S. 1997. ‘Breckland: Natural profile’. Available online at www.English-Nature. Ryle, G. 1969. Forest Service: the First Forty-Five Years of the Forestry Commission in Great Britian, Newton Abbot. Skipper, K. and Williamson, T. 1997. Thetford Forest: Making a Landscape, 1922-1997, Norwich. Southwood, T.R.E. 1961. ‘The Numbers of Species of Insect Associated with Various Trees’. J. Animal Ecology 30, 1-8. Sussams, K. 1996. The Breckland Archaeological Survey, Ipswich. Telfer, M. 2008. ‘Monitoring OOpphhoonnuuss llaattiiccoolllliiss aatt GGaalllloowwss HHiillll,, TThheettffoorrdd’’:: FFiinnaall RReeppoorrtt’’.. AAvvaaiillaabbllee oonnlliinnee aatt www.Breckland.gov.ukwww.Breckland.gov.uk.. Turner, M. 1980. English Parliamentary Enclosure, Folkstone. Wade Martins, S. and Williamson, T. 1999. Roots of Change: Farming and the Landscape in East Anglia 1700-1870. Exeter: British Agricultural History Society, 13. Williamson, T. 2005. Sandlands. Macclesfield. Young, A. 1797. General View of the Agriculture of Suffolk, London, Young, A. 1804. General View of the Agriculture of Norfolk, London.