the cambridge history of inner asia THE CHINGGISID AGE...world-historical importance of the regimes and states formed during and ... and An Historical Atlas of Central Asia (2003)

the cambridge history of inner as ia

T H E C H I N G G I S I D AG E

This volume centres on the history and legacy of the Mongol World Empire founded by Chinggis Khan and his sons, including its impact upon the modern world. An international team of scholars examines the political and cultural history of the Mongol Empire, its Chinggisid successor states, and the non-Chinggisid dynasties that came to dominate Inner Asia in its wake. Geographically, it focuses on the continental region from East Asia to Eastern Europe. Beginning in the twelfth century, the volume moves through to the establishment of Chinese and Russian political hegemony in Inner Asia from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Contributors use recent research and new approaches that have revitalized Inner Asian studies to highlight the world-historical importance of the regimes and states formed during and after the Mongol conquest. Their conclusions testify to the importance of a region whose modern fate has been overshadowed by Russia and China.

Nicola Di Cosmo is Henry Luce Foundation Professor of East Asian Studies in the School of Historical Studies at the Institute for Advanced Study, Prince-ton. His recent publications include Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Powers in East Asian History (2002), Manchu-Mongol Relations on the Eve of the Qing Conquest (2003) and The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China (2006).

Allen J. Frank is an independent scholar. He has published widely on the history of Islam in Imperial Russia and in the Central Asian Soviet successor states. His previous publications include Islamic Historiography and ‘Bulghar’ Identity among the Tatars and Bashkirs of Russia (1998), Muslim Religious Insti-tutions in Imperial Russia (2001) and An Islamic Biographical Dictionary of the Eastern Kazakh Steppe, 1770–1912 (as co-editor, 2005).

Peter B. Golden is Professor of History and Academic Director of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Rutgers University. Among his publications are An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (1992; Turkish editions 2002, 2006), Nomads and their Neighbours in the Russian Steppe (2003) and The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives (as co-editor, 2007).

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84926-5 - The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid AgeEdited by Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen J. Frank and Peter B. GoldenFrontmatterMore information

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T H E C A M B R I D G EH I S T O RY O F I N N E R A S I A

T H E C H I N G G I S I D A G E

*

Edited by

N I C O L A D I C O S M OA L L E N J . F R A N K

and

P E T E R B . G O L D E N






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A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data The Cambridge history of medieval Inner Asia : the Chinggisid Age / edited by Nicola Di Cosmo,

Allen Frank, and Peter B. Golden.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-521-84926-5 (hardback)

1. Asia, Central – History. 2. Asia, Central – Civilization. 3. Mongols – Asia, Central – History. I. Di Cosmo, Nicola, 1957– II. Frank, Allen J., 1964– III. Golden, Peter B. IV. Title.

ds329.4.c36 2009 958.02 – dc22

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isbn 978 0 521 84926 5 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to

in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






Contents

List of fi gure and maps viiiList of contributors ix

Note on transliteration xiiList of abbreviations xiii

Maps xviii

Introduction 1nicola di cosmo, allen j. fr ank

and peter b. golden

pa rt o n eT H E R I S E O F T H E C H I N G G I S I D S

1 . Inner Asia c. 1200 9peter b. golden

2 . The Mongol age in Eastern Inner Asia 26peter jackson

3 . The Mongols in Central Asia from Chinggis Khan’s invasion to the rise of Temür: the Ögödeid

and Chaghadaid realms 46michal b ir an

4 . The Jochid realm: the western steppe and Eastern Europe 67

i stván vásáry

v






pa rt t woL E G AC I E S O F T H E M O N G O L C O N Q U E S T S

5 . Institutional development, revenues and trade 89arsenio peter martinez

6 . Migrations, ethnogenesis 109peter b. golden

7 . Islamization in the Mongol Empire 120devin deweese

8 . Mongols as vectors for cultural transmission 135thomas t. allsen

pa rt t h r e eC H I N G G I S I D D E C L I N E : 1 3 6 8 – c . 1 7 0 0

9 . The eastern steppe: Mongol regimes after the Yuan (1368–1636) 157

veronik a veit

10 . Temür and the early Timurids to c. 1450 182beatrice forbes manz

11 . The later Timurids c. 1450–1526 199stephen dale

pa rt f o u rN O M A D S A N D S E T T L E D P E O P L E S I N I N N E R A S I A

A F T E R T H E T I M U R I D S

12 . Uzbeks, Qazaqs and Turkmens 221yuri bregel

13 . The western steppe: Volga-Ural region, Siberia and the Crimea 237allen j. fr ank

vi

Contents






vii

14 . Eastern Central Asia (Xinjiang): 1300–1800 260james millward

15 . The Chinggisid restoration in Central Asia: 1500–1785 277r.d. mcchesney

16 . The western steppe: the Volga-Ural region, Siberia and the Crimea under Russian rule 303

christ ian noack

pa rt f i v eN E W I M P E R I A L M A N DAT E S

A N D T H E E N D O F T H E C H I N G G I S I D E R A ( 1 8 th– 1 9 th C E N T U R I E S )

17 . The Qing and Inner Asia: 1636–1800 333nicola di cosmo

18 . The Qazaqs and Russia 363allen j. fr ank

19 . Russia and the peoples of the Volga-Ural region: 1600–1850 380

allen j. fr ank

20 . The new Uzbek states: Bukhara, Khiva and Khoqand: c. 1750–1886 392

yuri bregel

Bibliography 412Index 466

Contents






viii

Figure and maps

Figure

Genealogy of the Chaghadaid Rulers (up to 1347) 45

Maps

1 Inner Asia c. 1250 xviii2 The Mongol Empire xx3 Central Asia in the time of Timur xxii4 Central Asia in the fi fteenth and sixteenth centuries xxiii5 Manchuria and Eastern Mongolia in c. 1600 xxiv6 Central Asia in the seventeenth century xxv7 Inner Mongolia under the Qing Dynasty xxvi8 Outer Mongolia under the Qing Dynasty xxvii9 Central Asia in the eighteenth century xxvii






ix

Contributors

Thomas T. Allsen is Professor Emeritus, The College of New Jersey. His publications include The Royal Hunt in Eurasian History (2006), Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia (2001), Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire (1997) and Mongol Imperialism: the Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259 (1987).

Michal Biran is Associate Professor at the Institute of Asian and African Studies at the He-brew University of Jerusalem. Her main publications include Chingg is Khan (2007), The Qara Khitai Empire in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World (2005), Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World, co-edited with Reuven Amitai-Preiss (2005) and Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia (1997).

Yuri Bregel is Professor Emeritus of Central Eurasian Studies at Indiana University, Bloomington. His major works include Khorezmskie Turkmeny v XIX veke (1961), Dokumenty arkhiva khivinskikh khanov po istorii i etnografi i karakalpakov (1967) and An Historical Atlas of Central Asia (2003). He is also the editor of the text (1988) and translation (1999) of the Firdaws al-Iqbal of Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis and Muhammad Riza Mirab Agahi.

Stephen F. Dale is Professor of South Asian and Islamic History at Ohio State University. He is the author of The Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire, 1483–1530 (2004), Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750 (1994) and Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: the Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922 (1980).

Devin DeWeese is Professor of Central Eurasian Studies at Indiana University, Blooming-ton. His publications include Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition (1994).

Nicola Di Cosmo is the Henry Luce Foundation Professor of East Asia Studies at the School of Historical Studies, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. His publications include Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China (2006), A Documentary History of Manchu–Mongol Relations (1616–1626), co-authored with Dalizhabu Bao (2003), Political Frontiers, Ethnic Boundaries and Human Geographies in Chinese History, co-edited with Don J. Wyatt (2003), Ancient China and its Enemies: the Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (2002) and Warfare in Inner Asian History (500–1800), editor (2002).






x

Allen J. Frank is an independent scholar who lives in Takoma Park, Maryland. His publications include Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: the Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780–1910 (2001) and Islamic Historiography and ‘Bulghar’ Identity among the Tatars and Bashkirs of Russia (1998).

Peter B. Golden is Professor of Central Eurasian History and Academic Director of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Rutgers University. His publications include The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives, co-edited with Haggai Ben-Shammai and András Róna-Tas (2007), Türk Halkları Tarihine Giris, trans. Osman Karatay (2007), an expanded second edi-tion of the Turkish translation of his An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (1992), Hazarlar ve Musevîlik (The Khazars and Judaism), a collection of essays with C. Zuckerman and A. Zajaczkowski, edited and translated by Osman Karatay (2005), Nomads and their Neighbours in the Russian Steppe: Turks, Khazars and Qipchaqs (2003), The King’s Dictionary. The Rasulid Hexâglot, editor (2000), Nomads and Sedentary Societies in Medieval Eurasia (1998) and Khazar Studies, 2 vols. (1980).

Peter Jackson is Professor of Medieval History at Keele University. His main pub-lications include The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (2005), The Delhi Sultanate: a Political and Military History (1999) and The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: his Journey to the Court of the Great Khan Mongke, 1253–1255, translated and co-edited with David Morgan (1990).

Beatrice Forbes Manz is Professor of History at Tufts University, Massachusetts. Her previous publications include Power, Politics and Religion in Timurid Iran (2007), The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (1989) and as editor, Central Asia in Historical Perspective (1994) and Studies on Chinese and Islamic Central Asia (1995).

Arsenio Peter Martinez is Emeritus Associate Professor of Middle Eastern–Islamic Studies at the State University of New York and of Social Sciences at the City University of New York. He has published extensively on Persian sources on Inner Asian history. In addition to numerous translations, his publications include ‘The Wealth of Ormus and of Ind’: the Interregional Trade in Bullion, Intergovernmental Arbitrage, and Currency Manipulation in the Il-Khanate, 1304–1350 (1995–7), and Changes in Chancery Language and Language Changes in General in the Middle East with Particular Reference to Iran in the Arab and Mongol Periods (1987–91).

R. D. McChesney is Professor Emeritus of Middle Eastern Studies and History at New York University and director of the Afghanistan Digital Library. His recent publications include Central Asia: Foundations of Change (1997) and Waqf in Central Asia (1991). He is the editor and translator of Fayz Muhammad, Kabul under Siege: an Inside Account of the 1929 Uprising (1999).

James Millward is Professor of Intersocietal History in the Department of History and School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. His research has focused on Chinese–Inner Asian relations and, in particular, the Xinjiang region. He is author of Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (1998) and Eurasian Crossroads: a History of Xinjiang (2007).

List of contributors






xi

Christian Noack is Lecturer for East European History (including Russia) at the National University of Ireland, Maynooth. Among his publications are Muslimischer Nationalismus im Russischen Reich. Nationsbildung und Nationalbewegung bei Tataren und Baschkiren, 1860–1917 (2000).

István Vásáry is Professor of Turkic and Central Asian Studies at the Loránd Eötvös University (Budapest) and former Ambassador of the Republic of Hungary to Turkey (1991–6) and Iran (1999–2003). His recent books include Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Mili-tary in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1361 (2005); Turks, Tatars and Russians in the 13th–16th Centuries (2007); Eski Iç Asya Tarihi (Turkish translation of his Pre-Mongol Inner Asia) (1993, in Hungarian) and The Golden Horde (1986) and Chancellery of the Golden Horde (1987) (both in Hungarian).

Veronika Veit is Professor of Mongolian Studies at the Rheinische Friedrich Wilhelms-Universität Bonn. Her works include Petitions of Grievances, 18th to Early 20th Century, in collaboration with S. Rasidondug (1975), The Four Qans of Qalqa, according to the Iledkel sastir of 1795 (1990, in German) and The Role of Women in the Altaic World (2007), as editor.

List of contributors






xii

Note on transliteration

Arabic and Persian terms, including names and titles, have been transliterated accord-ing to the system used in the International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. Russian has been transliterated according to the Library of Congress system. For Chinese, the pinyin transliteration system has been adopted. Turkic names and terms have been transliter-ated according to the system used in the Encyclopaedia of Islam with the usual exceptions (e.g. c is rendered as ch). Terms of Mongolian origin have been transliterated normally in accordance with Nicholas Poppe’s Grammar of Written Mongolian except for c, γ, j, š which are rendered respectively as ch, gh, j, sh. The letter q has been rendered as kh in terms and names around and after 1600 for consistency with more common forms of transliteration. Many Mongol names also appear in Turkicized form, in particular when a people or politi-cal unit has adopted a name of Mongol origin (e.g. Turk. Chaghatay for Mong. Chaghadai and hence Chaghatayid for Chaghadaid, Turk. Noghay, the name of a Turko-Mongolian people, from Mong. Noghai). Both forms will be indicated in the Index. Certain forms (e.g. Qara Khitai rather than Qara Qitai) which do not conform to this schema have become generally used in the scholarly literature and are employed here. For Manchu the system of Jerry Norman’s Manchu–English Lexicon has been followed. Common renderings of place names, personal names and titles have been left in their usual English form.






xiii

Abbreviations

AEMAe Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi. Wiesbaden.AOH Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae.

Budapest.Bar Hebraeus/Budge Bar Hebraeus, The Chronography of Gregory Abu’l-Faraj

1225–1286, the Son of Aaron, the Hebrew Physician Commonly Known as Bar Hebraeus, trans. E. A. W. Budge. London, 1932.

Bartol’d, Sochineniia Vasilii V. Bartol’d, Sochineniia. Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Vostochnoi Literatury, 1963–77. 9 vols.

al-Bıru nı, Atha r al-Bır u nı, Al-Atha r al-Ba qiyya �an Qur u n al-Kha liyya: Chronologie Orientalischer Völker, ed. C. E. Sachau. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1878, reprint Leipzig: Brockhaus and Otto Harrassowitz, 1923, reprint Publications of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science. Islamic Mathematics and Astronomy 30, Frankfurt am Main, 1998.

BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. London.

CAJ Central Asiatic Journal. Wiesbaden.CHChina, VI Dennis Twitchett and Herbert Franke, eds., The

Cambridge History of China, vol. VI, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

CHEIA Denis Sinor, ed., The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1990.

CHIran, V John A. Boyle et al., eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. V, The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968.

CHIran, VI Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. VI, The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.






xiv

CMCT Chiu Man Chiu Tang. The Old Manchu Archives, vols. I–II, ed. N. Kanda, J. Matsumura and H. Okada. Tokyo: The Toyo Bunko, 1972–5.

Du ghla t/Ross Du ghla t, Haidar, A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia being the Tarikh-i Rashidi of Mirza Muhammad Haidar, Dughla t, ed. N. Elias, trans. E. Denison Ross, 2nd edn. London, 1898; reprint London Curzon Press, and New York: Barnes and Noble, 1972.

Du ghla t/Thackston Du ghla t, Muh. ammad H. aydar, Mirza Haydar Dughlat’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi: A History of the Khans of Moghulistan, trans. W. M. Thackston. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, Press, 1996; Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures 38; Central Asian Sources, III.

EI1 Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st edn. Leiden: Brill, 1913–36.EI2 Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn. Leiden: Brill, 1960–

2002.HJAS Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. Cambridge, Mass.HUS Harvard Ukrainian Studies. Cambridge, Mass.Ibn al-Athır/Tornberg Ibn al-Athır, Al-Ka mil f ıal-Ta�r ı kh, ed. C. J. Tornberg.

Beirut, 1965–6, pagination diff ers from the Leiden, 1851–76 edn. 12 vols.

Ibn Bat.t. ut.a/Defrémery Voyages d’Ibn Bat.t. ut.a, ed. and trans. Charles Defrémery and B. R. Sanguinetti. Paris: L’Imprimirie Nationale, 1969. 4 vols.

Ibn Bat.t. ut.a/Gibb Ibn Bat.t. ut.a, The Travels of Ibn Bat.t. ut.a, trans. Hamilton A. R. Gibb. Cambridge, Mass.: The Hakluyt Society, 1958–94. 4 vols.

Ibn Khaldun Ibn Khaldun, �Abd al-Rah.ma n, Kita b al-�ibar. Beirut: Da r al-Kita b al-Lubna nı, 1957. 7 vols. Reprint Beirut: Da r al-Kita b al-Lubna nı, 1983–6. 14 vols.

Ibn Khaldu n/Muqaddima Ibn Khaldu n, The Muqaddima (Muqaddimatu �l-�alamati �bni Khaldun). Beirut, 1886.

Ibn al-Naf ıs Ibn al-Naf ıs, The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn al-Naf ı s, trans. Max Meyerhof and Joseph Schacht. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968.

IVRUz Institut vostokovedeniia Akademii nauk Respubliki Uzbekistana (Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan).

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society.JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.al-Juvainı/Boyle al-Juvaini, �At.a -malik, The History of the World-

Conqueror, trans. E. J. Boyle. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958. Reprint Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997. 2 vols.

al-Juvainı/Qazvını al-Juvainı, Ta’r ı kh-i Jaha n-Gusha , ed. M. Qazvını. Leiden and London, 1912, 1916, 1937. 3 vols.

List of abbreviations






xv

Ju zja nı/H. abıbı Minha j al-Dın al-Ju zja nı, T. abaqa t-i Na s.ir ı, ed. �A. H. abıbı. Tehran, 1363/1984.

JWH Journal of World History.Ka sγarı/Dankoff Mah.mu d al-Ka sγarı, Compendium of the Turkic Dialects

(Dıwa n Luγa t al-Turk), ed. and trans. R. Dankoff in collaboration with J. Kelly. Cambridge, Mass., 1982–5. 3 vols.

Khva ndamır/Thackston Khva ndamır, H. ab ı bu’ siyar [sic], ed. and trans. Wheeler M. Thackston. Cambridge, Mass.: Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Harvard University, 1994. 3 vols.

Mengda beilu/Wang Zhao Hong, Mengda beilu, in Wang Guowei, ed., Mengg u shiliao sizhong. Taibei: Zhengzhong shuju, 1975.

Mengda beilu/Olbricht, Pinks Meng-ta Pei-lu und Hei-Ta Shih-Lüeh, intro. by Erich Haenisch and Yao Ts�ung-wu, trans. and commentary by Peter Olbricht and Elisabeth Pinks. Asiatische Forschungen 56. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1980.

Munzavı, Ganj-bakhsh Munzavı, Ah. mad, ed., Fihrist-i nuskhaha -yi khat.t.ı-i Kit a bkh a nah-i Ganj-bakhsh, vol. IV. Islamabad: Markaz-i Tah. qıqa t-i Fa rsı-yi Ira n va Pa kista n, 1982.

MWLD Manwen laodang [Manbun Ro to ] Tongki fuka hergei-i dangse. The Secret Chronicles of the Manchu Dynasty 1607–1637 A.D. Trans. and annotated by Kanda Nobuo et al. Tokyo: The Toyo Bunko, 1955–63. 7 vols.

Nakhchiva nı, Dastu r Nakhchiva nı, Muh. ammad b. Hindu sha h, Dastu r al-ka tib f ı ta�y ın al-mara tib (Rukovodstvo dlia pistsa pri opredelenii stepenei), ed. A. A. Ali-zade. Moscow: Nauka, GRVL, 1976; Pamiatniki literatury narodov Vostoka, Teksty, Bol’shaia seriia 9. 2 vols. in 3.

Al-Nasawı/Buniiatov Shiha b al-Dın Muh. ammad al-Nasawı, S ırat al-Sult.a n Jala l al-Dın Mankburnı (Zhizneopisanie sultana Dzhalal ad-Dina Mankburny), ed. and Russian trans. Z. M. Buniiatov. Moscow: Vostochnaia Literatura, 1996.

ONS Oriental Numismatic Society. London.PSRL Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei. St Petersburg/

Petrograd/Leningrad, 1846– . 43 vols. to date.Qarshı Qarshı, Jama l, Mulkhaqa t al-s.ura h. , in V. V. Bartol’d,

Turkestan v epokhu mongol’skogo nashestviia, vol. I (texts). St Petersburg: Tipografi ia imperatorskoi akademii nauk, 1900, pp. 128–52.

Qa sha nı Qa sha nı, Abu al-Qa sim �Abdalla h b. �Alı, Ta�r ıkh-i Uljaytu , ed. Mahin Hambly. Tehran: Bangah-i tarjumah wa-nashr-i kita b, 1969.

QGZ/Taskin Ye Lungli, Qidan guozhi: Istoriia gosudarstva kidanei (tsidan’ gochzhi), trans. V. S. Taskin. Moscow, 1979.







xvi

QTZWHSL Qing Taizu Wuhuangdi Shilu. In Qing shi lu, vol. II. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985.

Qutadghu Bilig Yu suf Khas.s. H. a jib, Kutadgu Bilig, ed. R. R. Arat. Ankara, 1979.

Qutadghu Bilig/Eng. R. Dankoff , trans., Wisdom of Royal Glory. Chicago, 1983.

Rashı d al-Dın/�Ali-za de et al. Rashıd al-Dın, Ja mi‘ al-Tava r ı kh, ed. �A. �A. �Ali-za de, A. A. Romaskevich and L. A Khetagurov. Baku: Nashariyya t -i farhangista n-i �ulu m-i jumhu ri-i sosiya lıstı-i Adharbayja n, 1957; Moscow: Nauka, 1965/68, 1980. 3 vols.

Rashıd al-Dın/Blochet Rashıd al-Dın, Fad. lalla h, Ja mi� al-tava r ıkh, vol. II, ed. Edgar Blochet, E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Series 18. London and Leiden: Luzac and Brill, 1911.

Rashıd al-Dın/Boyle Rashıd al-Dın, Fad. lalla h Ab u al-Khayr, The Successors of Genghis Khan, ed. and trans. John A. Boyle. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1971.

Rashıd al-Dın/Jahn Rashıd al-Dın, Ta �r ı kh-i Muba rak-i Gha za nı, ed. Karl Jahn. Gibb Memorial Series 14. London: Lusac & Co., 1940.

Rashıd al-Dın/Karımı Rashıd al-Dın, Ja mi‘ al-Tava ar ı kh, ed. Barman Karımı. Tehran: Iqba l, 1338/1959. 2 vols.

Rashıd al-Dın/Rawshan Rashıd al-Dın, Fad. lalla h, Ja mi� al-Tava r ı kh, ed. M. and Mu savı Rawshan and M. Mu savı. Tehran, 1373/1994. 4 vols.Rashıd al-Dın/Thackston Rashiduddin Fazlullah’s Jami�u�t-tawarikh. Compendium

of Chronicles, trans. Wheeler M. Thackston. Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures: Central Asian Sources 4. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998–9. 3 vols.

Secret History/de Rachewiltz Igor de Rachewiltz, The Secret History of the Mongols: a Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century. Brill’s Inner Asian Library 7. Leiden: Brill, 2004. 2 vols.

Sha mı/Tauer Sha mı, Ni z. a m al-Dın (1937, 1956) Histoire des conquêtes de Tamerlan intitulée Z. afarna ma, par Niz. a muddın Sha mı, ed. Felix Tauer. Prague: Oriental Institute, 1937, 1956. 2 vols. (Vol. II contains additions made by H. a fi z. -i Abr u .)

Simna nı, Opera minora �Ala �uddawla Simna nı, Opera minora, ed. W. M. Thackston, Jr. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, Offi ce of the University Publisher, 1988; Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures, 10, ed. Sinasi Tekin and Gönül Alpay Tekin, Islamic Sources 2.

Simna nı, al-�Urwa Simna nı, �Ala � al-Dawla, al-�Urva li-ahl al-khalva va’l-jalva, ed. Najıb Ma yil Haravı. Tehran: Intisha ra t-i Mawla , 1362/1983.

SR Slavic Review.







xvii

SVR Sobranie vostochnykh rukopisei Akademii nauk Uzbekskoi SSR; vol. III, ed. A. A. Semenov. Tashkent: Fan, 1955; vol. IX, ed. A. Urunbaev and L. M. Epifanova. Tashkent: Fan, 1971.

Tavakkulı, S.afvat al-s.af a Ibn Bazza z Ardabılı, ‘Tavakkulı’. S.afvat al-s.afa , ed. Ghula m-riz. a T. aba t.aba �ı-Majd. Tabriz, 1373/1994.

al-�Umarı/India al-�Umarı, Ah.mad b. Yah.ya ibn Fad. lalla h, A Fourteenth Century Arab Account of India under Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughluq. Being English Translation of the Chapters on India from Shiha b al-Di ı n al-�Umar ı’s Masa lik al-abs.a r fi -mama lik al-ams.a r, ed. Iqtidar H. Siddiqi and Qazi M. Ahmad. Aligarh: Siddiqi Pub. House, 1972.

al-�Umarı/Lech al-�Umarı, Das mongolische Weltreich: al-�Umar ı’s Darstellung der mongolischen Reiche in seinem Werk Masa lik al-abs.a r f ı mama lik al-ams.a r, ed. and trans. Klaus Lech. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1968. Asiatische Forschungen 22.

Vas.s.a f Vas.s.a f, �Abd Alla h b. Fad. l Alla h, Ta�r ıkh-i Vas.s.a f (Tajziyat al-ams.a r va-tazjiyat al-a�s.a r) (reprint Tehran: Shamsı 1338 S/1959–60 of facs. edn. Bombay, 1269 H/1852–3. Reprint Tehran: Ibn-i Sina, 1338/1959).

Yazdı/�Abba sı Yazdı, Sharaf al-Dın �Alı, Z. afarna ma, ed. Muh. ammad �Abba sı. Tehran: Amır Kabır, sh. 1336/1957. 2 vols.

YS Song Lian, Yuan shi [The Offi cial History of the Yuan]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1976. 15 vols.

Yule, Cathay H. Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither. Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society, Series II, vol. XXXVII. Reprint Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint Limited, 1967.







xviii

Map 1 Inner Asia c. 1250

0

0

1000

1000 miles

500 1500 km

500250 750

AralSea

LakeBalkhash

POLAND

HUNGARY

GEORGIALESSERARMENIA

Cracow

Buda PestSpalato

(Split)

Constantinople

Nicaoa

Konya

Ayas

Aleppo

DamascusAcreMosul

BaghdadSultaniyya

Hamadan

Isfahan

Yazd

Shiraz

Hurmuz

Kirman

Ray

AlamutMaragha

Tabriz

TiflisDarband

Ca

s pia

nSe

a

Sarai

New SaraiBlack Sea

Kaffa

Sudaq(Soldia)

Kiev

Novgorod

Vladimir

Rlazan

Ukek

Volga

Bulghar VOLGABULGARS

BASHKIRSUral

Yangikent

Sighnaq

Utrar

TashkentBukhara

Samarqand

Balkh

MervNishapur

KabulPeshawar

Tiginabad(Qandahar)

Nandana

Lahore

IndusUchSivistan

(Sehvan)

MultanSamana

DelhiAmroha

Kashghar

Khotan

Talas Balasaghun

Irtysh

Herat

Don

Dn

ieper

Da

nube

Chu

Jaxartes

Oxus

Tig

ris

Eup

hrates

EG

YP

T

CALIPHATE

FARS KIRMAN

HERAT

MAKRAN

K H W A R A Z MS H

AH ’ S

E MP I R

E

Q A R A K H I T A I

E M P I R E

RUS’PRINCIPALITIES

Q A N G L Ï

MORDVINS

R UM

DELHISULTANATE

QARLUQS

QI

PC

HA

Q

QAIS

Me

di t e

r r an

ea

n

S e a






xix

LakeBaikal

T I B E T

JAPAN

BURMA

Yenisei

Hami(Qamul)

Qaraqorum

Shangdu

Liaoyang

Kaifeng

Yangzi

Yellow

River

Am

ur

Onon

Ker

ule

n

Selenga

Yangzhou

Hangzhou

FuzhouQuanzhou

Guangzhou

UIGHURKINGDOM

B E N G A L

J I NE M P I R E

S O N GE M P I R E

T A N G U T

( X I X I A )

E M P I R E

D

A L I

AN

NAM

CH

AM

PA

QÏRGHÏZ

M

ERKIT

TA

TAR

S

KEREYIT

MONGOLSN A I M A N S

FOREST PEOPLES

OIRAT

ÖNGGÜT

QO

NG

GIR

AT

Ob

AlmalighQayaligh

Imil

Khotan

BeshbalighKORY

O






xx

Map 2 The Mongol Empire

0

0

1000

1000 miles

500 1500 km

500250 750

QI

PC

HA

Q

AralSea

LakeBalkhash

POLAND

HUNGARY

GEORGIA

Ca

s pia

nSe

a

Black Sea

Volga

Ural

Yangikent

Indus

Kashghar

Irtysh

Don

Dnieper

Danube

Chu

Jaxartes

Tig

ris

Eup

hrates

EG

YP

T

DELHISULTANATE

I

L

K

H

A

N

A

TE

C H A G H A D A I

K H A N A T EOxus

Me

di t e

r r an

ea

nS e a






xxi

LakeBaikal

T I B E T

JAPAN

Yenisei

Qaraqorum

Shangdu

Liaoyang

Yangzi

Yello

w

River

Am

ur

Onon

Ker

ule

n

Selenga

Ob

SuzhouTadu

Y U A N E M P I R E

KORYO






xxii

0

0

500 1000 km

500250 750 miles

Zerafshan River

Moscow

Tabriz

SamarqandTashkent

Bulghar

Saray

Derbent

Bukhara

Isfahan

Yazd Herat Kabul

KHOREZM

BLUE HORDE

GOLDEN HORDE

Termez

Balkh Kunduz

Kashghar

Uzgard

Sighnaq

Otrar MOGHULISTA

N

CHAGHATAY

ULUS

Map 3 Central Asia in the time of Timur






xxiii

0

0

500 1000 km

500250 750 miles

Moscow

Tabriz

Samarqand

Tashkent

Kazan

Saray

Derbent

Bukhara

HeratKabul

KHOREZM

NOMADIC

UZBEKSGREATHORDE

Termez

Balkh

Kashghar

Andijan

Turkistan

MOGHULISTAN

AZERBA

IJAN

RUSSIANPRINCIPALITIES

Ufa

Isker/Sibir�

Tura

KAZAN KHANATE

SaraychiqAstrakhanASTRAKHAN KHANATE

TURKMENS

KHANATE OF SIBIR

Q A Z A Q S

NOGHAYS

BASHKIRSCRIMEANKHANATE

Urgench

SHÏBANIDS

SEMIRECH’E

Map 4 Central Asia in the fi fteenth and sixteenth centuries






xxiv

0 0

3 00

400

mile

s

1 00

6 00

k m

2 00

1 00

3 00

2 00

4 00

5 00

Kai

pin

g

Ch

eng

de

Bei

jing

Dat

on

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an)

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AR

AC

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KO

U

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gg

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EN

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HA

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OR

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RM

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iver

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.

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Riv

er

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ver

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ling

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NG

BAISH

AN

CHAKHAR

TÜMED

Gre

at W

all

Map

5 M

anch

uria

and

Eas

tern

Mon

golia

in c.

1600






xxv

0

0

1000

1000 miles

500 1500 km

500250 750

Moscow

Samarqand

Tashkent

Kazan

Saraychiq

Bukhara

KHOREZM

BASHKIRS

Termez

Balkh

Turkistan

Kashghar

Perm

UfaSamara

Tobol‘sk

Tiumen

Q A Z A Q S

JUNGARIA

JUNGARS

QIRGHIZTURKMENS

Astrakhan

NOGHAYS

Urgench

FERGHANAVALLEY

SEMIRECH‘E

Map 6 Central Asia in the seventeenth century






xxvi

0 0

300

1 00

200

1 00

3 00

mile

s

2 00

4 00

5 00

k m

Khor

chin

Khor

chin

Khor

chin

Khor

chin

Khor

chin

Khor

chin

Gho

rlosGho

rlos

Mu

kden

JER

IM L

EA

GU

E

Dörb

etJa

layi

t

Jaru

tJa

rut

Tüm

et

Tüm

et

Kara

chin

Kara

chin

Kara

chin

Ch

eng

de

Do

lon

no

r

Zhan

gjia

kou B

eijin

gSh

anh

aig

uan

JO

SUTU LE

AGUE

Jin

gp

eng

Wu

dan

Aru

Khor

chin

Barin

Barin

JUU

UD

A L

EA

GU

EN

aim

an

Aokh

an

Ong

niut

Ong

niut

Kesi

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SIL

ING

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L L

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it

Dar

igan

ga

CHAKHA

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NN

ERS

UL

AN

JA

B L

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GU

E

Hö

hh

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Tüm

eaY

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E J

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SHA

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SH

AN

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Nin

gxi

a

Lin

gw

u

Süni

t

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tAbag

ha

Abag

ha

Abag

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r

Abag

hana

r

Khal

kha

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g

Dörb

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t

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SHA

ND

ON

G

FE

NG

TIA

N

OU

TE

RK

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LK

HA

(U

LIA

SU

TA

I)

Map

7 I

nner

Mon

golia

und

er th

e Q

ing

Dyn

asty






xxvii

0

0

1000

1000 miles

500 1500 km

500250 750

KOBDO REGION

TANNU ULA REGION

JASAGHTU KHAN AIMAGH

SAYIN NOYAN KHAN AIMAGH

TÜSIYETÜKHAN AIMAGH

SECHENKHAN AIMAGH

Ob

L. BaikalYeni

sei

An

gara

Lena

Hu

ang

He

Amur

Ulaanbaatar

Irtysh

Map 8 Outer Mongolia under the Qing Dynasty

0

0

1000

1000 miles

500 1500 km

500250 750

Moscow

Samarqand

Tashkent

Kazan

Ural’sk

Bukhara

KHANATE OF KHIVA

UDMURTS

Turkistan

Kashghar

Perm

UfaSamara

Tobol‘sk

Petropavlovsk

Q A Z A Q S

JUNGARIA

QIRGHIZTURKMENS

Astrakhan

Khiva

Omsk

CHUVASH

JUNIOR HORDE

BASHKIRSOrenburg

MIDDLEHORDE

SENIOR HORDE

EMIRATE OF

BUKHARA

Semipalatinsk

MARI

TATARS

Qoqand

NOGHAYS

Map 9 Central Asia in the eighteenth century






Documents

the cambridge history of inner asia THE CHINGGISID AGE...world-historical importance of the regimes and states formed during and ... and An Historical Atlas of Central Asia (2003)