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the cambridge history of
TURKEY*
Volume I of The Cambridge History of Turkey examines the rise ofTurkish power in Anatolia from the arrival of the first Turks atthe end of the eleventh century to the fall of Constantinople tothe Ottomans in 1453. Taking the period as a whole, rather thandividing it along the more usual pre-Ottoman/Ottoman fault line,the volume covers the political, economic, social, intellectual andcultural history of the region as the Byzantine Empire crumbledand Anatolia passed into Turkish control to become the heartlandof the Ottoman Empire. In this way, the contributors to the volumeengage with and emphasise the continuities of the era rather than itsdislocations, situating Anatolia within its geographic context at thecrossroads of Central Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean.The world which emerges is one of military encounter, but also ofcultural co-habitation, intellectual and diplomatic exchange, andpolitical finesse. This is a state-of-the-art work of reference on anunderstudied period in Turkish history by some of the leadingscholars in the field.
k ate f leet is Director of the Skilliter Centre for Ottoman Stud-ies, Newnham College, Cambridge, and Newton Trust Lecturerin Ottoman History at the Faculty of Asian and Middle EasternStudies, Cambridge University. Her previous publications includeEuropean and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State (1999) and, asjoint-editor, The Ottomans and Trade (2006).
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
the cambridge history of
TURKEYFounding editor
I . Met in Kunt, Professor of History, Sabancı University
The Cambridge History of Turkey represents a monumentalenterprise. The History, comprising four volumes, covers theperiod from the end of the eleventh century, with the arrival of theTurks in Anatolia, through the emergence of the early Ottomanstate, and its development into a powerful empire in the fifteenthand sixteenth centuries, encompassing a massive territory fromthe borders of Iran in the east, to Hungary in the west, and NorthAfrica and the Arabian Peninsula in the south. The last volumecovers its destruction in the aftermath of the First World War, andthe history of the modern state of Turkey which arose from theashes of empire. Chapters from an international team of contrib-utors reflect the very significant advances that have taken place inOttoman history and Turkish studies in recent years.
volume i
Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453
Edited by Kate Fleet
volume 2
The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603
Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet
volume 3
The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839
Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi
volume 4
Turkey in the Modern WorldEdited by Resat Kasaba
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
T H E C A M B R I D G E
H I S TO RY O F
TURKEY
*
VO LU M E I
Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453
*
Edited by
KATE FLEET
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521620932
C© Cambridge University Press 2009
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2009
Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication dataByzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 / edited by Kate Fleet.
p. cm. – (The Cambridge history of Turkey ; v. 1)Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-521-62093-2 (hardback)1. Turkey – History – To 1453. I. Fleet, Kate.
dr481.b98 2008
956.1′014 – dc22 2008035737
isbn 978-0-521-62093-2
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence oraccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on suchwebsites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Reprinted 2014
University Printing House, Cambridg nited Kingdom
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’ s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
Contents
·List of illustrations ix·List of maps x
·List of contributors xi·A note on transliteration xiii
·Chronology xiv
· 1 · Introduction 1
k ate fleet
· 2 · The Byzantine Empire from the eleventh to the fifteenth century 6
jul ian chrysostomides
· 3 · Anatolia under the Mongols 5 1
charles melv ille
· 4 · Anatolia, 1300–1451 102
rudi paul l indner
· 5 · The incorporation of the Balkans into the Ottoman Empire,1353–1453 1 38
machiel k iel
· 6 · Ottoman warfare, 1300–1453 192
p al fodor
· 7 · The Turkish economy, 1071–1453 227
k ate fleet
vii
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
Contents
· 8 · Art and architecture, 1300–1453 266
howard cr ane
· 9 · Social, cultural and intellectual life, 1071–1453 3 5 3
ahmet ya sar o cak
·Glossary 423
·Bibliography 429
· Index 482
viii
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
Illustrations
8.1 Plan of Bursa in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries page 275
8.2 Ilyas Bey Camii, Balat (Miletus), plan and view of north facade 280
8.3 Yesil Cami, Iznik, plan and view from north-west 282
8.4 Ulu Cami, Ermenak, plan and view of prayer hall interior along kıble wall 284
8.5 Isa Bey Camii, Ayasoluk, plan and view from south 285
8.6 Sungur Bey Camii, Nigde, plan and view of north portal 287
8.7 Ulu Cami, Bursa, plan and interior of prayer hall 289
8.8 Ilyas Bey Camii, Manisa, plan and view of prayer hall interior 291
8.9 Uc Serefeli Cami, Edirne, plan and view of covering showing arrangementof prayer hall domes 293
8.10 Yesil complex, Bursa, site plan and view of south-west exterior of mosque 296
8.11 Hatuniye Medrese, Karaman, plan, view of portal and view of courtyard 299
8.12 Vacidiye Medresesi, Kutahya, plan and view of courtyard and eyvan 301
8.13 Haliliye Medresesi, Gumus, Merzifon, plan 303
8.14 Muradiye Medresesi, Bursa, plan 304
8.15 Hudavend Hatun Turbesi, Nigde, general view 307
8.16 Asik Pasa Turbesi, Kırsehir, general view 309
8.17 Taskın Pasa Sarayı, Damsa Koyu, Urgup, plan and general view 312
8.18 Issız Han, Ulubad, plan and general view of entry facade 315
8.19 Iskendername, dated 819/1416 323
8.20 Muradiye, Edirne, detail of kalem isi 325
8.21 Konya carpet (tıem 688), c.1300 330
8.22 Niccolo di Buonacorso, Marriage of the Virgin (c.1370), with Anatolian animalcarpet 332
8.23 Animal carpet with struggling dragon and phoenix, c.1400 334
8.24 Proto-Holbein carpet from Beysehir 337
8.25 Mihrab, Ulu Cami of Birgi 339
8.26 Yesil Turbe, Bursa, general view of exterior 341
8.27 Mihrab and cenotaph, Yesil Turbe, Bursa 342
8.28 Muradiye, Edirne, detail of dado 344
8.29 Minber bone inlay, Taskın Pasa Camii, Damsa Koyu, Urgup 349
8.30 Kundekari wooden door, Yesil Turbe, Bursa 350
ix
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
Maps
1 The Byzantine Empire, 1071 page xvii2 Beylik Anatolia xviii3 The Ottoman Empire, 1453 xix
x
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Contributors
JULIAN CHRYSOSTOMIDES is the Director of the Hellenic Institute, Royal Hol-loway and Bedford New College, University of London and is Emerita Reader in ByzantineHistory at the University of London. Her books include Funeral Oration on his BrotherTheodore: Manuel II Palaeologos (Thessalonike, 1985) and Monumenta Peloponnesiaca: Docu-ments for the History of the Peloponnese in the 14th and 1 5 th Centuries (Camberley, 1995).
HOWARD CRANE is a Professor in the Department of the History of Art at Ohio StateUniversity. His books include The Garden of Mosques: Hafiz Huseyin al-Ayvansarayi’s Guide tothe Muslim Monuments of Ottoman Istanbul (Leiden, 2000) and Risale-i Mi’mariyye: an EarlySeventeenth-Century Ottoman Treatise on Architecture (Leiden, 1987).
KATE FLEET is the Director of the Skilliter Centre for Ottoman Studies, NewnhamCollege, Cambridge and is Newton Trust Lecturer in Ottoman History at the Faculty ofAsian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge. Her books include Europeanand Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State: the Merchants of Genoa and Turkey (Cambridge,1999).
PAL FODOR is Head of the Department of the Early Modern Age at the Instituteof History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He has published extensively on themilitary and administrative organisation and the ruling elite of the Ottoman state as wellas on Ottoman political relations with Europe. His books include In Quest of the GoldenApple: Imperial Ideology, Politics, and Military Administration in the Ottoman Empire (Istanbul,2000), and ‘Affairs of State are Supreme’: the Orders of the Ottoman Imperial Council Pertaining toHungary (1 5 44–1 5 45 , 1 5 5 2) (Budapest, 2005), which he co-authored with Geza David, withwhom he has also co-edited several collections of articles on Ottoman–European relations.
MACHIEL KIEL was Director of the Netherlands Archaeological Institute in Istanbul.He is Adviser to UNESCO for Bosnia-Hercegovina and lectures on Islamic Architecture atIstanbul Teknik Universitesi. He has also worked for eighteen years as a builder and stonecutter at the Dutch Service for Historical Monuments, thus combining academic studywith work in the archives and practical experience in building. He has written extensivelyon the Ottoman Balkans and his books include Studies on the Ottoman Architecture of theBalkans (Aldershot, 1990).
xi
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List of contributors
RUDI PAUL LINDNER is Professor of History at the University of Michigan, AnnArbor, where he teaches comparative medieval history and the history of astrophysics. Hehas published on the history of steppe nomads, early Ottoman historiography, medievalmonetary history and the development of astronomical institutions in the twentieth-centuryUSA. His books include Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia (Bloomington, 1983) andExplorations in Ottoman Prehistory (Bloomington, 2006).
CHARLES MELVILLE is Reader in Persian History at the Faculty of Asian and MiddleEastern Studies, University of Cambridge. His books include A History of Persian Earthquakes(Cambridge, 1982), which he c0-authored with N. N. Ambraseys and The Seismicity of Egypt,Arabia and the Red Sea: a Historical Review (Cambridge, 1994) (with N. N. Ambraseys andR. D. Adams).
AHMET YASAR OCAK is a Professor in the Department of History at HacettepeUniversitesi. His work is on Seljuk and Ottoman social, cultural and religious history andhis extensive publications include Babaıler Isyanı: Alevıligin Tarihsel Altyapısı Yahut Anadolu’daIslam-Turk Heterodoksisinin Tesekkulu (Istanbul, 2000), Osmanlı Imparatorlugu’nda MarjinalSufılik: Kalenderıler (Ankara, 1999), Osmanlı Toplumunda Zındıklar ve Mulhidler Yahut DaireninDısına Cıkanlar, 3rd edn (Istanbul, 2003), Sarı Saltık: Populer Islam’in Balkanlardaki DestaniOncusu, (Ankara, 2002) and Kultur Tarihi Kaynagı Olarak Menakıbnameler: Metodolojik BirYaklasım (Ankara, 1997).
xii
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A note on transliteration
Ottoman Turkish has been transliterated using modern Turkish orthography, and diacriticalmarking of long vowels has not been used for Arabic and Persian terms or names. Nameshave been given in their Turkish form except when in common usage in English. Wherefigures are more familiar under a different form, both forms are given.
xiii
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1Edited by Kate FleetFrontmatterMore information
Chronology
Seljuks
1063–72 Alp Arslan1071 Battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert)1081–92 Suleyman I1092–1107 Kılıc Arslan I1107–16 Meliksah1116–56 Rukneddin Mesud I1156–92 Kılıc Arslan II1192–6, 1204–10 Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev I1196–1204 Rukneddin Suleyman II1204–5 Izzeddin Kılıc Arslan III1210–20 Izzeddin Keykavus I1220–37 Alaeddin Keykubad I1237–43 Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev II1243 Battle of Kosedag1246–48 Izzeddin Keykavus II1248–65 Rukneddin Kılıc Arslan IV1249–57 Alaeddin Keykubad II1265–83 Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev III1283–4, 1284–93, 1294–1301, 1303–7 Gıyaseddin Mesud II1284, 1292–3, 1301–3 Alaeddin Keykubad III1307 Gıyaseddin Mesud III
Ilkhans
1253–65 Hulegu1265–82 Abaqa1282–4 Ahmad Teguder1284–91 Arghun1291–5 Geyhatu1295 Baidu1295–1304 Ghazan
xiv
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Chronology
1304–16 Oljeitu1317–35 Abu Sa‘id
Beyliks
Latter part 13th century Foundation of the beyliks?–c.1324 Osmanc.1324–62 Orhan1326 Fall of Bursa to the Ottomans1331 Fall of Nikaia (Iznik) to the Ottomans1337 Fall of Nikomedia (Izmit) to the Ottomansc.mid-1330s Ottoman conquest of Karası1344 Crusader force partially occupied Izmir1354 Ottoman occupation of Gelibolu (Callipolis)1362–89 Murad Ic.1369 Fall of Adrianople (Edirne) to the Ottomans1371 Battle of Cirmen on the Maritsa (Meric)1370s Ottoman conquest of Germiyan and Hamid1380s Ottoman conquest of Teke1385 Fall of Nis to the Ottomans1387 Fall of Thessalonike to the Ottomans1389 Battle of Kosovo1389–1402 Bayezid I1389–90 Ottoman conquest of Aydın and Mentese1394–1402 Siege of Constantinople by the Ottomans1396 Battle of Nikopolis1397 Ottoman defeat of Karaman1402 Battle of Ankara1402–13 Period of internecine fighting among the
Ottomans1413–21 Mehmed I1416 Revolt of Seyh Bedreddin and Borkluce
Mustafa1421–44, 1446–51 Murad II1422 Siege of Constantinople by the Ottomans1430 Fall of Thessalonike to the Ottomans1444 Battle of Varna1444–6, 1451–81 Mehmed II1448 Second battle of Kosovo1453 Ottoman conquest of Constantinople
Byzantium
1071–8 Michael VII Doukas1078–81 Nikephoros III Botaneiates
xv
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Chronology
1081–1118 Alexios I Komnenos1118–43 John II Komnenos1143–80 Manuel I Komnenos1180–3 Alexios II Komnenos1183–5 Andronikos I Komnenos1185–95, 1203–4 Isakios II Angelos1195–1203 Alexios III Angelos1203–4 Isakios II Angelos and Alexios IV Angelos1204 Alexios V Doukas
Fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade1204–61 Latin kingdom of Constantinople1204–1461 Latin kingdom of Trebizond1204–22 Theodore I Laskaris1222–54 John III Doukas Vatatzes1254–8 Theodore II Laskaris1258–9 John IV Laskaris1259–82 Mıchael VIII Palaeologos1282–1328 Andronikos II Palaeologos1328–41 Andronikos III Palaeologos1341–91 John V Palaeologos1341–7 Civil war in Byzantium1347–54 John VI Kantakouzenos1373–6 Manuel II Palaeologos1376–9 Andronikos IV Palaeologos1391–1425 Manuel II Palaeologos1425–48 John VIII Palaeologos1448–53 Constantine XI Palaeologos
xvi
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