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How Did Life Originate?
Understanding what life is and how it originated from non-living matter requires some understanding of
basic chemistry
Chemical behavior results from two tendencies of atoms:
• Atoms tend to fill their outer electron shells …the Octet Rule
• Atoms interact with other atoms in ways that cancel electrostatic charges (+ and - charges)
There are 92 kinds of atoms in nature, called elements. Each element has a characteristic set of protons, neutrons, and electrons (indicated by the atomic number in each block).
Electrons are distributed in concentric regions outside the nucleus called electron shells. Each electron shell has a limited capacity, as shown by
the numbers below:
An atom’s inner shells fill first because negatively charged electrons are
attracted to the positively charged nucleus
nucleus
2222
8888
8888
8888
He2 Ne
2+8 = 10 Ar2+8+8 = 18 Kr
2+8+8+8 = 26
2222
8888
8888
8888
Atoms whose outer shells are filled because they have just the right number of electrons will be stable and not interact with other atoms.
These are called the inert elements, or noble gases.
nucleus
Inert elements
Non-inert elements will interact with one another in ways that fill their outer electron shells or cancel charges
For example, consider the two smallest elements: hydrogen (1) and helium (2).
(a) Hydrogen atoms have an unfilled shell and will interact with other atoms in ways that fill the shell.
(b) Helium atoms are non-reactive (and therefore solitary) because their only (and therefore outer) electron shell is filled to capacity.
Kinds of Attractions Among Atoms• Ionic Bonds (attraction between oppositely charged ions)
• Covalent Bonds (sharing electrons to fill outer shells), two kinds:
Non-polar Covalent Bonds (electrons shared equally by identical or very similar atoms, so no partial charges are produced)
Polar Covalent Bonds (electrons shared unequally by different kinds of atoms, producing + and - partial charges in participating atoms)
• Hydrogen Bonds (attraction between partially charged atoms that are also involved in a polar covalent bonds with additional atoms)
• Van der Waals attractions (attraction between atoms that induce transient, opposite, partial charges in one another)
• Hydrophyllic (water loving) and Hydrophobic (water hating) Influences (charged regions of molecules are attracted to water molecules, whereas uncharged regions are repelled from watery environments)
Ionic Bonds, e.g., sodium (Na, 11) and chlorine (Cl, 17)
unfilledouter shell,
almost empty
unchargedatom
unfilledouter shell,almost full
unchargedatom
lost an electronhas a filled outer shell
charged ion
stole an electronhas a filled outer
shellcharged ion
Na+
SALT:outer shells filled
charges cancelledstable now
Ionization: transfer of electron creates ions
Ionic
Bond
11 p+
11 n11 e-
11 p+
11 n11 e-
17 p+
17 n17 e-
17 p+
17 n17 e-
11 p+
11 n10 e-
11 p+
11 n10 e-
17 p+
17 n18 e-
17 p+
17 n18 e-
Cl-
Na
Cl
NaCl
A hydrogen Molecule (H2)
A non-polar covalent bond: 2 equally shared electrons
The electrons are shared equally because the two atoms are identical and therefore have the same ability to attract electrons (electronegativity)
A hydrogen Molecule (H2)
Because the electrons are shared equally, the positive charges of each nucleus are cancelled out by the electrons. Therefore hydrogen molecules are uncharged
or non-polar.
Oxygen Molecule: O2
Unshared electrons in
atomic orbitals
Shared electrons in molecular orbitals
Shared electrons orbit both atoms,
although they are sometimes diagrammed as if they were between
nucleus nucleus
Atoms that are 2 or more electrons short of a filled outer shell are likely to fill the shell by sharing electrons from
other atoms, forming covalent bonds.
Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell, needing 4 more
Oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell, needing 2 more
Numbers of Covalent Bonds an Atom Can Form
Atom
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Atomicnumber
1
6
7
8
15
16
Capacity ofouter shell
2
8
8
8
8
8
Electrons in outer shell
1
4
5
6
5
6
Number of covalent bonds
1
4
3
2
3
2
P P P
Polar Covalent Bonds: Water
H H
O
H2O
Atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally. The more electronegative atom gets more than its fair share of the electron’s time and therefore has a slightly negative charge. The other atom will have a partial + charge because it gets less of the electron’s time than is required to cancel the positive charges in its nucleus.
Hydrogen Bonds:
Attraction between oppositely charged atoms engaged in polar covalent bonding with other atoms
water tension: numerous hydrogen bonds can be very strong
Van der Waals Interactions
+
-
-+
+-
Electrons are constantly on the move, mostly in random directions around the atom’s nucleus.
Even when the number of electrons equals the number of protons, there will be brief events where an atom’s electrons tend to be bunched together a little.
This leaves one side of those atoms + charged and the other - charged until the electrons spread out again.
3 charged atoms (“dipoles”)
Van der Waals Interactions
+
-
-+
-+-+
(a) as two dipoles approach one another...
(b) their electron clouds interact (opposite charges repel) and the two atoms face each other with opposite charges.
+- +-
(c) now they attract each other
Van der Waals Interactions
The two atoms will attract one another until their electron clouds begin to overlap and repel the two atoms …which remain suspended at a distance where attraction and repulsion are balanced
Van der Waals Interactions
Van der Walls interactions are very weak. The movement of atoms at room temperature breaks them apart almost immediately, except...
Biological molecules that interact often have complementary shapes, which brings large numbers of atoms into position for Van der Waals interaction …the cumulative effect of which is very strong
Hydrophyllic/Hydrophobic Interactions
Many molecules have polar (charges) and non-polar (uncharged) regions. The polar regions tend to orient toward the water that the molecule is suspended in, whereas the no-polar parts fold up within the interior of the molecules, hidden from water.