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THE CHURCH’S MIDDLE-AGED SPREAD HAD NO LOVE HANDLES Looking In The Rearview As The Church Drives Forward

Lesson 6: The Dark Ages – When The Scriptures Are Ignored, The Light Goes Out

Introduction:

1. The Dark Ages

Refers to the lack of light and understanding of Scripture and education after the fall of the Roman Empire and during the Roman Catholic Church’s control

2. The State Of The Church

At 500, there were three main branches of the church o West (Rome and Constantinople) o Africa (centered in Alexandria) o East (centered in Persia)

Timothy Yates: “its great missionary school of theology transferred from Edessa to Nisibis around 471 led by the famous theologian Narsai, who died in 503. At its largest the school had 1,000 students. The church of the East mounted successful missions among nomad people after 450 and spread Christianity across central Asia between 450 and 650. These included missions among the Huns, west of the Caspian Sea, conducted by Nestorian bishops and priests. Another missionary leader, Abraham of Kaskar (491-586), revived the monastic communities of the church and provided further spiritual vitality.” (The Expansion Of Christianity, IVP, 2004, p. 32)

I. Vatican Rising

A. The Weakening Of The Roman Emperor, The Rise Of The Pope

1. The Sack Of Rome The Barbarian tribes (Goths, Franks, Vandals) sacked Rome and the Roman Empire

in the fifth century 2. The Last Emperor

August Romulus (r. 475-476)

3. The Power Vacuum

Political demise and cultural chaos in the Roman Empire opened the door for the church to become powerful.

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B. The Increased Power Of The Papacy 1. The Donation Of Constantine

This document was supposedly from Constantine, who was the first emperor to embrace Christianity, but was eventually proved to be a forgery

But the Roman Catholic Church used this document to establish the pope’s authority over the state

Gregory VII asserted the Roman bishop as superior over other bishops as well as over the state

o Gregory claimed “at the knee of the pope every king should bow” 2. The Investiture Contest

The period when the Church and State disputed over power

G.R. Evans: “Every time a bishop died and had to be replaced, there was a complex process in which the local king or emperor handed over the lands of the diocese (the ‘temporalities’) and the Church consecrated the new bishop for his office (the ‘spiritualities’). Royal patrons had been intruding on the Church’s part of this process, giving the new bishop his pastoral staff or the ring which symbolized his ‘marriage’ to his diocese. This dispute reached an uneasy settlement in the Concordat of Worms of 1122, but it prompted still more determined self-aggrandizement on the part of the Church.” (Faith in the Medieval World, IVP, 2002, p. 71)

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Pope Gregory VII (a.k.a. Hildebrand, a Cluniac reformer and pope) removed any intrusion of lay investiture and silencing the say of any king on who the pope should be

This led to a clash between Gregory VII and King Henry IV of Germany in the 11th century

o When it came to the investiture of church officials (installation and investment with symbols of authority), Gregory and Henry differed on who should do the investing – the pope or the emperor

o The Frank emperor or prince, during medieval times, would invest an abbot or bishop with the official symbols of a ring and staff

o When it came to the investiture of Germany’s bishop, Gregory and Henry disagreed

o Gregory excommunicated Henry o Henry humbled himself before

the pope o Gregory VII humiliated the Holy

Roman Emperor Henry IV at Canossa in 1077 o Henry sought to consult with Gregory and crossed the Alps to do so o Gregory left him waiting outside barefoot, wearing clothes of penance for

three snowy days in winter o Canossa became a place of symbolic victory of the Pope having power of the

Emperor (from Lesson 5)

The Concordat of Worms (1122) achieved a compromise where the church did the investing, but it would consult with the monarch. But the church had the ultimate say (thus power).

3. On Consideration

A collection of letters written by Bernard of Clairvaux to Pope Eugenius III which defined how the pope was positioned in the universe to control everything on earth

4. Innocent III (1198-1216)

He presided over the peak of the papal authority of the state He asserted that the pope is not only over the church, but over the state He called himself the “Vicar of Christ” who was appointed by Christ to oversee all

spiritual and political leadership in the world He also presided over the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)

o This council determined that the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper was the actual, physical body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation)

o This council addressed heretical threats by calling for the Crusades and reformation within the church

o This council enacted auricular confession (to a priest) and the assigning of penance before one could participate in the Easter Eurcharist

o Priests were forbidden from going to dramas and doing surgery

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o Priests could not preside over more than one parish o Priests were exempt from taxation by kings o

He also commissioned military Crusades against those within the church who dissented his position and against the rising Islamic movement in the East

He suppressed heresies of Cathari and Albigenses) He elevated Rome over all the other churches

C. The Increased Corruption Of The Papacy

Nicholas I (r. 858-867) was a capable pope concerned for the spiritual health of the church. He also advocated the power of popes over civil leaders when it came to religious and moral issues.

Example of the pope’s power over civil leaders: Lothair II divorces Teutberga, whom he married for political reasons. Lothair was granted the divorce by the bishops. Then Lothair falls in love with Waldrada and marries her while the divorce is under appeal. Nicholas intervenes and forces Lothair to drop Waldrada and remarry Teutberga.

II. Hey, Hey We’re The Monks: The Impact Of Monasticism

A. More Notable Monks

1. Basil of Caesarea (c. 330-379) Furthered the popularity of communal monasteries in the East Trained in Athens and Constantinople Gave up worldly gain at 27 and adapted the ascetic lifestyle He became bishop in Capadocia in 370 and served their until his death Cairns: “He gave a more utilitarian and social expression to the monastic spirit by

insisting that the monks under rule work, pray, read the Bible, and perform god deeds. He discouraged extreme asceticism.” (pp. 153-154)

2. Athanasius

Athanasius popularized communal monasteries to the West While exiled from Alexandria, Athanasius went westward

3. Benedict of Nursia (480-543)

Benedict was more of an administrator than a scholar He was upset with the immorality of Rome He would live a hermit life in a cave east of Rome c. 500 Benedict laid out the monastic ideal by writing the regulations in the Vow (or Rule)

o “Benedict's Rule is famous for codifying vows of obedience, stability, and conversatio morum (continual conversion) which led on to the more general vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.” (Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, Kindle Edition, p. 93)

The abbot was the authority

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There would be communal worship, manual labor, Scripture reading and charity work

Idleness was “hostile to the soul” He advocated a work of the mind and a work of the hands – contemplation in winter,

agriculture in good weather They were to live a strenuous, but not overburned life They would learn the classics as well as theology

He established self-maintaining monasteries starting in Monte Cassino, Italy (529). o This monastery at Monte Cassino existed until it was bombed during World

War II Monastic idealism was widespread by the time of Charlemagne in the 9th century

Bruce Shelley evaluates: “the Benedictine conception of the Christian life was essentially unnatural. ‘To enter a monastery was to separate from the world, to abandon the ordinary relationships of social life,’ to shun marriage and all that the Christian home signifies. And supporting the whole endeavor was an erroneous view of man. The soul, said the monk, is chained to the flesh as a prisoner to a corpse. That is not the biblical view of human life, and it created a fundamental flaw in monasticism.” (Church History In Plain Language, Word, 1995, p. 123)

4. Boniface (680-754)

Also known as Winfrid Brought the Gospel to the Teutonic tribes in the region of modern-day Germany

When he was in Rome in 718, the pope authorized him to preach the Gospel in Germany

He cut down an oak tree in the city of Geismar, which was considered sacred to Thor, a German god, and used it to make a chapel

He became archbishop in 732 by Pope Gregory III He was instrumental in involving women in the missionary endeavor

Described by Mark A. Noll: “Boniface (680-754), who is often called the apostle of

Germany, lived until age forty as a monk in England but then traveled widely in what is now modern France, Germany, and the Low Countries in a series of path-breaking mission tours. One of the most enduring of his many legacies to northern European Christianity was the founding of a Benedictine monastery at Fulda (northeast of Frankfurt, Germany), which long remained a center for further missionary outreach. Of the monk Boniface, the modern historian Christopher Dawson once wrote that he ‘had a deeper influence on the history of Europe than any Englishman who has ever lived.’” (Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, pp. 99-100, Kindle Edition)

B. Monasticism And Worship

1. Worship And Work

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Mark Noll describes the rhythm of a monk of “orare et laborare – praying and working, praying and working, throughout the passing of the seasons and the rolling of the years.”

Monasteries also developed a lot of agricultural technology that would impact the rest of civilization (cleared forests, drained marshes, road implementation, seed improvement, livestock breeding)

2. Scholarship

While the Roman Empire was distracted fighting off the barbarians, the monasteries became the centers for scholasticism during the Dark Ages (500-1000)

Monks would copy and preserve Bible manuscripts

Cassidorus (478-573) left his lofty government position to devote himself to the copying, translating and collecting Biblical, patristic and classical literature

Monasteries also developed schools to educate the local people

Mark Noll: “If virtually all cross-cultural proclamation of the gospel in the Middle Ages was done by monks and friars, so learning was virtually a monastic monopoly. Even in the time of Benedict, other monastic leaders had grasped the importance of preserving the critical documents of the Christian past. Cassiodorus of Rome (ca. 485-ca. 580) retired from public life in 540 in order to found a monastery, the Vivarium, along Benedictine lines where secular as well as Christian writings could be saved. The Vivarium became a widely imitated model.” (Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, p. 101, Kindle Edition)

3. A Typical Life In The Day Of A Monk of a 14th century Benedictine monk, summer schedule, Durham, England

(Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, Kindle Edition, p. 97)

Midnight Matins in the church (about one hour)

Then back to bed 6 A.M. Prime in the church (about 1/2 hour) Breakfast Work or reading 9 A.M. Chapter Mass in the church 10 A.M. Chapter meeting in the chapter house 11 A.M. High Mass in the church 12 Noon. Supper

then Siesta 2 P.M. Nones in the church (about 1/2 hour)

Work 4 P.M. Vespers in the church (about 1/2 hour)

Work

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6 P.M. Supper 7 P.M. Compline, the evening prayer, in the church (about 1/2 hour) Then to bed, later in summer than in winter (Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, Kindle Edition, p. 97)

C. Monasticism And Evangelism

Mark Noll: “In the first instance, the missionary expansion of Christianity was unthinkable apart from the activity of monks. A fine survey of world missions by Stephen Neill, who himself served as a missionary in India, divided the missionary history of the Middle Ages into a five-hundred-year period (500-1000) in which the main task was to draw the barbarians into the Christian orbit and a succeeding five hundred years (1000-1500) in which the great task was to turn nominally Christian Europeans into genuine believers. The key element in both of these gigantic efforts was monasticism. “In Neill's first phase, monks of several kinds did the pioneering work that was necessary to spread news of Christianity beyond the settled boundaries of the old Roman Empire northward, westward, and eastward into barbarian Europe. Celtic missionaries were pioneers, with Patrick's preaching in Ireland during the fifth century as the vanguard. Later missionaries from England and Scotland combined Celtic fortitude with Benedictine order in using monastic foundations as a way of anchoring missionary outreach.” (Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, p. 99, Kindle Edition)

1. Reaching Out Near To Home

Monasteries became a refuge for those who were society’s outcasts They would be a hotel for travelers, providing a meal and a bed They would be a center of meditation for the local folks grappling with the pressures

of the world They would be mercy centers for those who needed physical, medical or spiritual

help 2. Reaching Out Across The Borders

Edward Cairns: “Monks, particularly from Britain, became the missionaries of the medieval church. They went out as fearless soldiers of the Cross to found new monasteries, and these became centers from which whole tribes were won to Christianity.” (Christianity Through The Centuries, p. 155)

o Patrick was a monk from England who reached Ireland o Columba was a monk from Ireland who reached Scotland o Aidan, a follower of Columba, reached northern England

Cairns points out: “Unfortunately, much of their missionary work was marred by their mass methods of conversion. If a ruler accepted Christianity, he and his people were baptized whether or not they fully understood the meaning of the act or the implications of Christianity for their lives.”

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The 10th – 12th centuries saw Christianity spread into Scandinavia, Southeastern Europe and Russia

a. Scandanavia

Ansgar (801-865), from Flanders, was called “the apostle to the North” King Harald, the Danish king, asked for a missionary in 826 and Ansgar responded

to the call to become a missionary in northern Europe

The Scandinavians were initially resistant because the early missionaries were connected to the Carolingian imperialism

But when the Carolingians dissolved, the Vikings expanded into England and Normandy

Normandy was the base from which the Vikings conquered England under William the Conqueror in 1066

Vikings were being converted and their homeland became more open to the Gospel Denmark formally accepted Christianity during the reign of Sven I (985-1014) and

Canute the Great (1014-1035) Norway was pressured to receive Christianity under King Olaf Haraldson (a.k.a. St.

Olave) (1016-1029) after he was converted in England. He would later be exiled in Russia.

Christianity eventually was established in Norway around 1000 during the days of Canute.

Christianity eventually became the state religion of Sweden and Iceland

b. Eastern Europe The Roman Catholics, when connected to the Carolingian Empire, reached the Slavic

Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats and Slovenes The Eastern church brought Christianity from Constantinople to Bulgaria and Serbia

The Slavs were more open to the eastern church because of the connection the western church had with the imperialistic Carolingians

Famous missionaries include two noble brothers, Methodius (c. 815-885) and Cyril (c. 826-869) who reached the Balkans

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o Cyril invented the Slavic alphabet, then translated the Scriptures in the vernacular of the Slavic people

c. Russia

The Swedish Vikings, who ventured the Caspian and Black Sea, brought Christianity To Russia

The Vikings were hired as protectors, but they assimilated into the population

Emperor Vladmir (956-1015) married the Byzantine emperor’s daughter in 988, received Christianity and demanded his people convert as well

During the Great Schism of 1054, Russia sided with the Eastern Orthodox church. Russia would later suffer the horrific invasion of the Mongols under Genghis Khan

(1167-1227).

The Tartars would gain the largest empire in the history of the world, stretching from China to the Balkans, until they were freed by Ivan the Great (the Terrible)

Russia would eventually separate from the Eastern Orthodox Church and start the Roman Orthodox Church, autonomous, but related to the other Orthodox movements

d. Germany

Charlemagne was long gone and so was the concept of the universal Roman empire Though the concept would not be realized in Rome, it would carry on in Germany Louis the German, in 843, received the eastern section of Charlemagne’s empire and

this would become the center of the new empire Germany was unified among several tribal dukes in order to fight off invasion from

the Northmen and Slavic Magyars under the leadership of Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony (919)

Henry’s son Otto (912-973) would succeed his father in 936

Otto made dukes his vassals who supervised the church, selected abbots and bishops and oversaw ecclesiastical issues

Earle Cairns points out that Otto would have become very powerful if he kept his reign in Germany, but he got involved with Italy, trying to help the pope, and it drained his resources

Pope John XIII crowned Otto the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 962 and the spirit of Charlemagne revived

But subsequent Holy Roman emperors weakened the movement

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D. The Rise Of Religious Orders

(from several sources including Robert Walton’s Church History, Chart 42) 1. The Benedictines

Followed Benedict of Nursia (see Lessons 4 & 6 on Benedict) Monastery at Monte Cassino established in 529

Ascetic practice Work, worship and scholastic emphasis The Rule of Benedict required centralized residence, biblical obedience, monastic

zeal, private prayer, spiritual reading, manual labor, common property and celibate living

Spread monastic movement westward Significant Members: Bede, Boniface

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2. Military Orders

a. Kings of St. John Founded at Jerusalem in 1113 by Raymund de Puy

They protected the pilgrims and fought in crusades In 1530, they became Knights of Malta Napoleon suppressed them in 1798 but reorganized in 1834

b. Knights Templar

Founded at Jerusalem in 1119 by Hugo de Payens and Godfrey St. Omer They provided military defense for pilgrims They were rich and powerful

They were suppressed in 1312 c. Teutonic Knights

Founded at Acre in 1190 by German pilgrims They ran hospitals in Israel

They reached Germany as missionaries After being suppressed in 1523, they went and conquered East Prussia They were the ancestors of the Junker landlords

3. Benedictine Spin Offs

a. The Cluniacs

Monastery of Cluny, France founded in 910 by William of Aquitaine

The Roman Catholic church was very wealthy and corrupt and the Cluny monastery rose to leadership to lead a reform

A reform movement that split from the Benedictines to take a more devoted approach to the Benedictine’s vows of poverty, chastity and obedience.

The Cluniac reform aimed at 3 evils in the church: o Simony – selling church offices to the highest donor o Clerical Concubinage – sanctioned marriage of priests o State Interference – the state or laity interfering with the leadership of

the church The 3 aims to counter the church evils would be:

o More piety, less manual labor o Making monasteries independent

Cairns: “In 909, Duke William of Aquitaine, ‘for the good’ of his soul, gave a charter to Berno, who had already made a record as abbot of another monastery, for founding a new monastery at Cluny in eastern France. He charter provided that the monastery was to be free from all secular or episcopal control and that it was to exercise self-government under the protection of the pope.” (Christianity Through The Centuries, p. 201)

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Each monastery had its own abbot, though the Cluny aboot appointed abbots to other monasteries

o A tighter relationship between the monastery and the pope The Clunys would become powerful when they sent their own Hildebrand of

Sovana (1021-1085) to the papacy as Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085)

o Prior to becoming pope, Hildebrand served in the administration of several popes and led many Cluny reforms

o Under Nicholas II, Hildebrand (now Gregory VII) would make certain that outside politics would not have a say in pope selection, but that it would become a function of the cardinals. This would eventually lead to the College of Cardinals that would choose the rest of the popes in history.

o Gregory VII cleaned up the selling of church offices, priests having concubines and lay investiture (outside people having a say on who becomes a church leader, including the king)

o Gregory claimed that the Roman pontiff was the sole leader of the Christian church

o Gregory was not afraid of exerting power to correct weaknesses within the church

o But this absolute power would corrupt absolutely During the period of the Clunys, the church became more powerful over the

kings and the lay people Pope Urban II, who would initiate the Crusades, was also a Cluniac By the 12th century, there were over eleven hundred monasteries under

Cluny’s control

b. The Cistercians Founded by Robert of Citeaux, a.k.a. the White Monks, in 1098

Stricter than Benedictines Supportive of the Cluny reformers

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Trappists are a branch of the Cistercians Significant members: Eugene III, Benedict XII, Bernard of Clairvaux

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)

o Founded monastery in Clairvaux o Motivated the Second Crusade through preaching o Opponent of Peter Abelard o Mystic o Contemplative and ascetic o Wrote hymns including “O Sacred Head Now Wounded”

and “Jesus The Very Thought Of Thee” o Wrote treatises On Grace and Free Choice and The Steps of Humility

and Pride o Advocated the veneration of Mary o Employed the rosary

4. The Augustinians a. The Augustinians

Followed Rule of St. Augustine Sanctioned by Pope Alexander VI in 1256 as the Augustinian Hermits or Friars Some were mendicants (beggars who preached, ascetics who relied solely on

donations) Significant members: Thomas à Kempis, Gerhard Groote, Martin Luther,

Gregory of Rimini

Thomas à Kempis (c. 1380-1471): o From Kempen, Germany o Member of the Brethren of Common Life o Wrote The Imitation of Christ

b. The Premonstrants

Founded by Norbert in Premontre, France in 1119 They also followed the Rule of St. Augustine

5. The Independents a. The Carthusians

Founded by Bruno in 1082 at Chartreuse, France

They followed the Rule of the Carthusian Order Extreme ascetism that included self-flagellation Significant member: Hugh of Lincoln

b. The Carmelites

Founded by Berthold in 1156 at Mt. Carmel They awkwardly trace their origins to Elijah They were mendicants

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They went through a reformation in the 16th century where they became the Discalced (Barefoot) Carmelites

Significant members: Teresa of Avila, John of the Cross

6. The Mendicants

a. The Dominicans

Founded by St. Dominic Guzman (1170-1221) at Spain in 1216 They

followed the Augustinian rule

They were devoted to living free of materialism and took up beggin (mendicant)

They were the pope’s (Innocent III) instrument to deal with heresy and eliminate heretics, such as the Cathari and the Albigenses

o The Cathari believed in dualism, rejected the Old Testament as work of the evil god, Satan, who presided over all things of matter and flesh (spirit is good, matter is evil). Thus they denied Christ coming in the flesh.

o Some Cathari, in an effort to separate from the flesh, would commit suicide

o Cathari traces its roots to Persian Manichaeism They were the primary preachers urging the Crusades They presided over the Inquisitions Significant members: Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus, Meister Eckhart,

Johann Tauler, Bartolomeo de Las Casa, Girolamo Savonarola, Tomas de Torquemada

Meister Eckhart (c. 1260-1327)

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o A mystic monk from Hochheim, Saxony who preached to other monks and nuns that they could have a union with God through mystical experience

o His mystical view leans towards pantheism

Johann Tauler (c. 1300-1361) o Was a disciple of Eckharts from Strassburg, Germany who preached

that righteousness was not achieved through religious works or the sacraments

o He was admired by Martin Luther

Savonarola: o Famous preacher in Florence o Predicted great judgment if the city would

not repent o He attacked corruption and immorality

through fiery preaching and censorship o During a carnival in 1496, he coordinated

the “bonfire of the vanities” where repentant individuals brought their gambling paraphernalia, immoral literature and cosmetics to be burned

o He preached hard against the papacy which led to his excommunication and execution

o Though condemned to death, his spirit did not let up o Right before his death he said: “He who believes that Christ rules

above, need not fear what happens below.”

Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) o An Italian mystic known for her mercy to the poor

and sick, a broker of peace and a reformer in the church

o She became a Dominican nun at 18 o She ministered to those afflicted by the Black

Death, which she survived herself o She ministered to prisoners o Many of her letters still survive o She claims a vision of Christ who came and gave her a wedding ring o She also claims to have received the stigmata

Wikipedia: “Stigmata (singular stigma) are bodily marks, sores, or sensations of pain in locations corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus, such as the hands and feet. In some cases, rope marks on the wrists have accompanied the wounds on the hands.”

o She influenced Gregory XI to stop the Babylonian Captivity o She supported the Roman Popes during the Great Schism o She wrote The Dialogue which was a supposed conversation she had

with God Himself that she dictated while in a trance

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b. The Franciscans Founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1223 at Italy When the pope granted permission for the new order, it was called the

Preachers of Penance

Also known as the Order of Friars Minor, but more commonly known as The Franciscans

They followed the rule of Scripture

They took the vow of absolute poverty They produced Capuchins in 1525

Significant scholars: St. Bonaventure (c. 1217-1274), Duns Scotus (c. 1265-1308) and Wiliam of Occam (c. 1289-1349)

Bonaventure wrote the Tree of Life drawing meditations from an analogy to a tree with 12 branches

St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226)

o Son of a wealthy cloth merchant o His life transformed after a severe illness and a

year in prison as a prisoner of war o John Hannah: “While worshipping in 1208, he

heard the words of Christ recorded in Matthew 10:7-19; immediately, he discarded his status, put on a simple gray robe, and called his followers to imitate the simplicity of Christ.” (Kregel, Vol. 3, p.21)

o He would give away all his possessions, including much of his father’s stock (which angered his father, naturally)

o He lived a life of poverty and served the poor o He started begging to raise funds to restore destroyed churches and to

help the poor o He was known to be a

lover of the outcast, the poor and animals

o The content of his preaching brought emphasis on the need for penance and became known as the “Preacher of Penance”

o Sought to reach Muslims and preached to the Sultan of Egypt

o He was the father of missions to the Muslims also preaching to the Moors in Spain and southern France

o He preached in Palestine, too o Said to have received stigmata

Catherine of Genoa (1447-1510)

o Named after Catherine of Sienna

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o A noblewoman who joined Franciscan nuns to serve the poor o Mystical writer who wrote Dialogues on the Soul and the Body

7. The Jesuits

Official name: Society of Jesuits Founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540 at Rome They followed the rule from Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises

They were involved in missions and education They aimed to eliminate the influence of the Protestant Reformation

They were advocates of the pope’s absolute authority Though repressed in 1773, they were restored in 1814

E. Monasticism Evaluated 1. Brain Drain

Cairns: “Too many of the best men and women of the empire were drained off into the monasteries, and their abilities were lost to the world, which was so badly in need of such leaders.”

2. No Perpetuation Of Progeny

The vow of celibacy would deny the possibility of children raised by men and women devoted to God.

God wants men and women to be fruitful and to multiply.

3. Spiritual Pride

An elitism often developed because they were ascetic and the rest of the world couldn’t match their discipline and perceived spirituality.

Jesus wasn’t impressed by outward works, but measured a man/woman by his/her heart

Noll: “the bent of the heart, rather than the mere disposal of the body, is the key matter in godliness.” (p. 103)

4. Rich & Powerful

Monasteries became wealthy as land was given to them, money from the church was given to them and they didn’t spend a lot on basic function.

Monks would become proud, lazy, greedy, gluttonous, drunk and immoral.

III. The Holy Roman Empire, Batman!

A. The Frankish Merovingian Dynasty

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After Rome was sacked by the Goths under Alaric in 410, there was a mad scramble for power and settlement.

The Vandals took North Africa and the Goths possessed southern Italy until both were conquered by Justinian I (483-565) of Constantinople

o Justinian sought to regain the West for the Roman Empire In northern Europe, the Franks became the most dominant of the Barbarian tribes They conquered the Gaul region (modern France)

They developed the concept of the dynasties of kings Each king maintained a strategic and mutually beneficial relationship with the popes

1. Childeric

Frankish tribal prince

First Merovingian

2. Clovis (466-510) Consolidated the Frank tribe

by uniting them He married Clotilda (474-

545), a Burgundian princess, which linked the Franks and the Burgundies

Clovis embraced Christianity under the influence of his wife

Created a dynasty But after his passing, his

sons were unable to manage the government

Thus the Mayors of the Palace arose to power

B. The Carolingian Dynasty (687-843)

The Frankish Merovingian dynasty was replaced by the Carolingian dynasty in 614

The Carolingians had served under the previous regime as Mayors of the Palace, but they became more powerful

1. Charles Martel (c. 690-741)

A.k.a. Charles the Hammer or Karl Martell (in German speaking countries)

Succeeded Pepin II Military and political leader and

considered the “founding figure of the Middle Ages, often credited with a seminal role in the development of feudalism and knighthood, and laying the groundwork for the Carolingian Empire.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Martel)

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Served as Mayor of the Palace during the Merovingian rule

Defeated Islamic invasion into Europe at the Battle of Tours (732) in Spain

Cairns: “Charles defeated [the Muslims] at the battle of Tours near Poitiers in 732 and obligated the Roman church to him because he had apparently saved western Europe for orthodox Christianity.” (Christianity Through The Centuries, p. 183)

Martel’s relationship with the church was pragmatic, not spiritual. He appointed leaders in the church as a reward for civil and military duty.

2. Pepin III (The Short)

Martel divided the empire between his two sons upon his death in 741 Older brother Carloman became Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia while Pepin

became Mayor of the Palace of Neustria o Grifo, Charle’s son by his second wife, also

wanted a piece of the rulership, but was imprisoned by Carloman and Pepin in a monastery

Carloman voluntarily abdicated (or may have been pressured) his rulership and joined the monastery

Pepin the Short becomes the sole Frank king (751)

Grifo escaped his imprisonment and led a revolt against Pepin that was shortlived

Pepin The Short reached out to Pope Zacharius in an effort to legitimize his rulership

Boniface, missionary from Germany (archbishop of Mainz), represented the pope in crowning Pepin emperor in 752

Pepin would also be visited by Pope Stephen II who came to Paris to anoint him a second time giving him the title Patricius Romanorum (Patrician of the Romans), which is the first coronation of a government leader by a pope

Pepin also had his sons, Charles (aka Charlemagne) and Carloman, also anointed so that they could continue their father’s reign during a day when people didn’t live very long

The church in the East interpreted this coronation as the flexing of religious power and military imperialism

As Pepin conquered territory in Italy, he gave the land to the papacy and the church became exceedingly rich

Pepin expanded the Frankish empire from southern France to southern Germany

Pepin died during a battle in 768 at age 54 (considered a long life)

His Frankish realm was split between Charlemagne and Carloman I

3. Charlemagne (Charles the Great) (768-814)

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When Carloman died, Charlemagne became the sole ruler Charlemagne was said to have been 7’ tall with long white hair Charlemagne was also a warrior-king and expanded the empire east towards the

Saxon occupation

He spread Christianity to the Saxons by force He engaged in over 50 campaigns Hadrian I asked for help in squashing the rebellious Lombards

Charlemagne defeated them easily bringing northern Italy into his empire John Hannah: “These activities are the ground of later charges by the pre-

reformers that the papacy existed only because of the protection by the state.” (The Kregel Pictorical Guide To Church History, Vol. 3 – The Triumph of the Church, A.D. 500-1500, Kregel, 2005, p. 8)

Pope Leo III crowned him emperor on Christmas day in 800 giving him the title “Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire”

o Mark Noll recounts: “Then the people-in fact, ‘all the Roman people,’ according to the annals of the Franks-arose as one. They had been told what to say; three times a great shout rang out: "Carob Augusto a Deo coronato, magno et pacifico imperatori, vita et victoria" (To Charles Augustus, crowned by God, great and peace-giving emperor of the Romans, life and victory). (Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, pp. 108-109)

o Noll: “Charlemagne had come to Rome in the summer of 800 as the climax of fifty years of cooperation between the Frankish rulers and the bishops of Rome. His immediate purpose was to

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vindicate Pope Leo III from charges of corruption leveled by the Roman nobility.” (pp. 109-110)

o Noll: “The turning point in church history that this event symbolizes will be clear when three questions are answered: (1) How did the pope come to have power enough to crown a Roman emperor? (2) How had the king of the Franks risen to a position to be so crowned? (3) And how did this new relationship between the pope and the greatest ruler of northern Europe shape the centuries-long period of Western history usually referred to simply as Christendom?” (p. 110)

This papal coronation demonstrated how the state’s authority was derived from the church

Charlemagne believed that he would bring Augustine’s “City of God” to Europe, which also was beneficial to the church.

From his court in Aachen, Charlemagne brought education, renaissance and liturgy

Alcuin (c. 730-804) was an Anglo-Saxon from York who came to Charlemagne’s court bringing scholarship and the concept of liberal arts

The court studied the Church Fathers (Augustine, Jerome, Chrysostom) while the theologians engaged in political disputes and dialogue

He also distinguished the clergy and laity

Politically, he established a highly functional bureaucracy and government which served a large empire

Though committed to Christianity as a religion, he didn’t practice what the Scriptures taught – he kept concubines

4. Louis the Pious (d. 840)

Upon Charlemagne’s death in 814, the empire began an instantaneous fall.

Charlemagne’s only living son, Louis the Pious, succeeded his father in the throne but was unprepared to maintain control of the large empire.

The political chaos led to Louis being deposed several times by his own sons who neither like their father nor each other

They were invaded by the Normans from the sea and the Franks were powerless to defend because they never developed an effective Navy

When Louis died in 840, the kingdom was divided among his three sons

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o Charles II (the Bald) got the West o Louis II (the German) got the East o Lothair got a thin strip in the middle from the North Sea to Italy which he

would be unable to defend from his brothers The Carolingian dynasty fell when the Vikings invaded Europe and the fighting

brothers were not prepared to defend against the Vikings because of their in-fighting

Though the political dynasty was weak, the Roman Catholic Church was a powerful entity and took advantage of the political vacuum

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Church and State in the West (754-1309)

Period Dates Key Events Leading Figures

Characteristics

Holy Roman Empire of Charlemagne

742-962

754 – Donation of Pepin Mid 8th century – Donation of Constantine (forged) 800 – Crowning of Charlemagne Mid 9th century – Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals (forged) 840 – Division of empire among Charlemagne’s grandsons

Pepin the Short (c. 714-768) Charlemagne (742-814) Nicholas I (c. 800-868)

Creation of Papal States made pope temporal ruler Crowning of Charlemagne set stage for power struggle between church and state Feudal fragmentation of society occurred In latter part of period, papacy was held by unworthy men under domination of Roman barons (“Pornocracy”)

Holy Roman Empire of Otto I

962-1059

962 – Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope 1044-1046 – Papal schism 1054 – Schism of Eastern and Western churches

Otto I (912-973) Leo IX (1002-1054)

Period was characterized by constant German interference in Italian and papal affairs Popes were generally weak, puppets of Italian or German overlords Growth of Cluny reform developed strong leadership for church

Increase of Papal Domination

1059-1216

1059 – Papal elections entrusted to College of Cardinals 1077 – Henry IV humbled at Canossa by Gregory VII 1095 – Crusades begin 1122 – Concordat of Worms brings compromise in lay investiture controversy 1215 – Magna Carta 1215 – Fourth Lateran Council

Hildebrand (Gregory VII) (c. 1021-1085) Urban II (1042-1099) Henry IV (1050-1106) Innocent III (1161-1216)

Hildebrandine reform greatly enhanced power of papacy Lay investiture controversy reached its peak Excommunication and interdict became potent weapons in papal arsenal Papal power reached its zenith as Innocent III claimed absolute spiritual and temporal authority

Decline of Papal Domination

1216-1309

1291 – Fall of Acre, end of Crusades 1302 – Papal bull Unam Sanctum 1309 – Beginning of the so-called Babylonian Captivity; papacy moved to Avignon, France

Boniface VIII (c. 1234-1303) Philip IV (the Fair) (1268-1314)

Popes continued to make grandiose claims of temporal power but were less and less able to back them up By the end of the period, the papacy fell completely under French domination after Philip IV kidnapped Boniface VIII

(John Walton, Chronological And Background Charts Of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 34)

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IV. The Son Rises In The East: The Rise Of The Eastern Orthodox Church

Charlemagne sought to unite the Eastern and Western church The Eastern emperors did resist Muslim invasions in Europe while the West tried to get its act

together The Eastern church was dominated by the Byzantine emperors The Western empire disappeared after the 5th century but reappeared in the 9th century, but

never to the full governmental authority it once had

David Horton: “The mere fact that after 800 there were two empires – impossible in theory – suggested two churches. Economic disparity between the flourishing East and the barbarous West increased differences. Doctrinal difficulties between the activistic, Latin-speaking West, with its concern for the doctrine of man and sin, and the passivistic, Greek-speaking East, with its concern for contemplation and doctrine of the incarnation, took forms rather obscure to modern minds but fundamental to the diverging theological paths at the time. And the personal struggles for prestige and power, four-sided between Eastern and Western emperors and Eastern and Western prelates, led to hard feelings and then growing suspicion and hatred.” (The Portable Seminary, Bethany House, 2006, p. 449)

A. Significant Leaders In The Eastern Church

In our previous lessons, we learned about three significant theologians from the West: Jerome, Ambrose and Augustine.

There were also great leaders from Asia Minor and Syria

The Three Great Caapadocians (central Asia Minor)

1. Basil the Great (330-397) – opposed Arianism and other heresies, organized Eastern monasticism

2. Gregory, bishop of Nyssa (332-398) – brother of Basil, led orthodox defense at the

Council of Constantinople (381), seen as the founder of the Eastern church 3. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) – bishop of Constantinople (381), defended Nicene

faith against Arianism, prolific writer (1,200 – 1,500 of his manuscripts still survive) B. Significant Theologians In The Eastern Church 1. Theodore (350-428)

Bishop of Mopsuestia (Cilicia, Asia Minor) for 36 years Wrote several Bible commentaries Used a grammatico-historical method of interpretation (literal) and would attack the

allegorical method of the Roman church This literal method of interpretation became the major mode of interpretation for

the Antiochene school and would later be adapted by John Calvin

Yet the followers of Origen of Alexandria would seek him condemnation because Theodore attacked the allegorical method of interpretation

Only fragments of his writings exist today

He was the first to interpret Psalms in its historical context

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2. John Chrysostom (347-407)

“Chrysostom” means “golden mouth” and this nickname was given to him for his preaching ability

Howard Vos notes: “Perhaps he is best known for his preaching. The name Chrysostom (golden-mouthed) was bestowed upon him for his eloquence. Copies of some 650 of his sermons still exist. These sermons must often have lasted for an hour or more. Theologically, they expressed the ideas of Athanasius and the Great Cappadocians. Practically, they portrayed a deep compassion for the poor and a zeal for social righteousness.” (Exploring Church History, Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996, Logos edition)

Born in Antioch

He was a leader in the Greek church He also championed the grammatico-historical interpretation of Scripture and

opposed the allegorical and mythical interpretations that Alexandria was promoting He would become the patriarch of Constantinople in 398 He would criticize the excess lifestyle of the court of the Patriarch of Alexandria

(Chrysostom was an ascetic) which lead to him being deposed from his patriarchal status

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Church And State In The Byzantine Empire (c. 500-1453)

Emperor Dates Of Reign

Impact On Church

Justinian 527-565 Advanced caesaropapism Sought triumph of Chalcedonian Orthodoxy over Arianism and Monophysitism Empress Theodora supported Monophysites Built Hagia Sophia in Constantinople Condemned some teachings of Origen as heretical Condemned “Three Chapters” (including Theodore of Mopsuestia) by royal decree in 544, favored Christology of Cyril of Alexandria Called Fifth Ecumenical Council at Constantinople in 553 Persecuted pagans, Manichaeans, Montanists

Heraclius 610-641 Affirmed Monothelitism in 638

Constans II 641-668 Issued forbidding discussion of number of natures or wills of Christ Tortured and exiled Pope Martin I and Maximus the Confessor for ignoring edict

Constantine IV 668-685 Called Sixth Ecumenical Council at Constantinople in 680 Condemned Monothelites, declared Pope Honorius heretical

Justinian II 685-695 Called council at Constantinople that widened gap between Eastern and Western churches by allowing deacons and presbyters to marry and rejecting other Western church practices

Leo III (the Isaurian)

717-741 Promulgated edict against the veneration of icons in 726, initiating Iconoclastic Controversy Decreed removal or destruction of all icons in 730 During his reign, Pope Gregory III excommunicated the iconoclasts

Constantine V 741-775 Called council to condemn icons, persecuted those who venerated them

Leo IV 775-780 Permitted icons outside Constantinople

Constantine VI 780-797 Mother Irene served as regent, favored icons, and convened Seventh Ecumenical Council at Nicea in 787 Affirmed veneration of icons but regulated their use

Leo V (the Armenian)

813-820 Again banned icons, but without the persecution characteristic of earlier iconoclasts

Theophilus II 829-842 Persecuted, imprisoned, and mutilated monks who supported icons

Michael III 842-867 Mother Theodora served as regent, restored icons in 843, ending Iconoclastic Controversy First Sunday in Lent celebrated as Feast of Orthodoxy in honor of restoration of icons Deposed Ignatius as Patriarch of Constantinople, replacing him with Photius; action was overruled by Pope Nicholas I, further alienating Eastern and Western churches Sent Cyril and Methodius to labor as missionaries among Slavs

Constantine IX 1042-1055 During his reign the Great Schism occurred when Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius excommunicated Pope Leo IX

Alexius I Commenus

1081-1118 Issued summons for help that led to the First Crusade

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Alexius II Angelus

1203-1204 Begged for assistance from Crusaders after his father Isaac II Angelus was blinded and deposed, offering to submit to the pope’s authority Crusaders sacked Constantinople and established Latin Crusader Kingdom there; Eastern church refused to back Alexius’ promise

John III 1222-1254 Sought peace with Western church; conducted failed negotiations with popes Gregory IX and Innocent IV

Michael VIII Peleologus

1259-1282 Put an end to Latin Crusader Kingdom of Constantinople in 1261 Sought reunion with Rome at Second Council of Lyons in 1274, but gained only temporary success

John V Paleologus

1341-1376 Submitted to the pope on visit to Rome in 1369, but Byzantines refused to agree

John VIII Paleologus

1425-1448 Sought unity with Rome at Council of Basel/Ferrara in 1438 to try to save Byzantine Empire from Turkish invasion; agreement again repudiated by majority of Orthodox

Constantine XI Paleologus

1449-1453 During his reign Constantinople fell to the Turks and the Byzantine Empire came to an end

(John Walton, Chronological And Background Charts Of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 33)

V. The Theological Controversies

A. The Iconoclastic Controversy

This issue originated with Leo III who decreed in 726 and 730 that images be banned and destroyed

The Iconoclastic Controversy

Those Who Supported Icons Those Who Opposed Icons

Key Figures In The East

Major Arguments Key Figures In The East

Major Arguments

Germanus (634-734) John of Damascus (c. 675-c.749) Irene (755-803) Theodore of Studium (759-826) Constantine VI (771-797) Theodora (d. 856)

It is appropriate to use art the service of the church Pictures aided an illiterate population Emotional attachment of common people, especially women, to icons necessitated the continuation of the veneration of icons Icons were said to have performed miracles Incarnation of Christ justifies his representation in human form Icons combatted Docetism and Monophysitism by showing the humanity of Christ

Leo III (675-741) Constantine V (718-775) Leo V (775-820) John the Grammarian (late 8th – early 9th centuries) Theophilus (813-842)

Icons represented a compromise with paganism

Icons violated the second commandment

Many church fathers opposed the veneration of images

Veneration of icons constituted idolatry

Kissing, bowing, and burning incense before images are idolatrous practices

Icons contributed to the veneration of saints, which is idolatry (though not all iconoclasts opposed the veneration of saints)

Images place false limits on

Key Figures In The West

Key Figures In The West

Gregory II Alcuin of York

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(pope 715-731) Gregory III (pope 731-741) Adrian I (pope 772-795)

Use of icons reduced power of the state over the church Icons, being two-dimensional, are not “graven images” Veneration is not the same as worship Images bring truth to the eye while the Word brings it to the ear

Veneration of icons gives honor to what the icons represent Icons serve as windows into the spiritual world Popes supported use of images in worship

(c. 735-804) Charlemagne (c. 742-814)

the incomprehensibility of the Godhead

The bread and wine of the Eucharist are the only permissible representations of Christ

Worship of icons was the reason for conquest of Christian lands by Muslims

Removal of icons would gain support of strict Montanists

Removal of icons would reduce the power of monasteries, which produced them, while enhancing the power of the emperor

Alcuin’s Caroline Books threw support of Carolingian Empire behind iconoclasts

(John Walton, Chronological And Background Charts Of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 35) B. The Adoptionism Controversy

The bishops of Toledo and Urgel, in Spain, taught that Christ was the “adopted Son of God” which was similar to the ancient heresies denying Christ’s deity. Alcuin and the Franks condemned this heresy with three synods in the 790’s

C. The Filioque Controversy

The Franks also got involved with the Filioque Controversy This issue would later be instrumental in the Great Schism of 1054. The divide occurred

when Pope Leo (West) excommunicated Michael Cerularius (East), who was the Patriarch of Constantinople. The dispute and divide were over two issues: 1) Rome’s assertion to the universal authority of the Pope and 2) Rome’s addition of the “filioque” to the Nicene Creed. Rome wanted to stress that the Holy Spirit originated from God the Father “and from the Son” (Latin: filioque). The Eastern Orthodox held that the Son and Spirit both proceeding from the Father.

The relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and Son still needed clarification.

Did the Son send the Holy Spirit into the world along with the Father (dual procession) or did God the Father do it by Himself (single procession)?

This was dealt with at the Third Council of Toledo in 589, but remained a divisive issue.

The Constantinople Creed (381) stated

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that the Spirit came from the Father, but Rome did not accept this statement until the Synod of Toledo (589) added the words “and the Son”

“The term ‘generation’ was used to describe the relation of the Son to the Father, while the term ‘procession’ was employed to denote the relation of the Spirit. The question was: Did the Spirit proceed from the Father only, or from the Father and the Son?” (Charles Ryrie, The Holy Spirit, Moody Press, p. 115)

“The word proceeds was not understood to refer to a creating of the Holy Spirit, or any deriving of his being from the Father and Son, but to indicate the way the Holy Spirit eternally relates to the Father and Son.” (Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, footnote, p. 246)

Ferguson explains procession this way: “In the farewell discourse, Jesus sends the Spirit ‘from the Father’ (para tou patros) as the one who ‘goes out from [AV ‘proceeds from’] the Father’ (ho para tou patros ekporeuetai, Jn 15:26). This statement pinpoints the Trinitarian significance of Pentecost. While it is Jesus who sends the Spirit, this takes place in response to his asking the Father to do so (14:16,26). The Spirit is therefore sent by the Father and by the Son as Mediator. There is a twin source to his mission….In terms of the economic Trinity we can therefore speak of a ‘double sending’.” (Sinclaire Ferguson, The Holy Spirit, IVP, 1996, pp. 72-73)

The Western church held to the procession from the Father and Son (the “a patre filioque” clause – meaning “from the Father and from the Son”). The Synod of Toledo clarified the procession of the Spirit from the Father and Son for the Western church.

The Eastern church denied the double (proceed from Father only) and accused the Western church of tampering, heresy and claiming that the Spirit directly manifested Himself through the Pope. Theologically, the Eastern church emphasized a subordinationism of the Spirit to the Son and the Son to the Father; thus a dual procession would “threaten the unity of the Trinity by positing two sources for the Spirit.” (Ferguson, p. 74).

Yet the Western view of a dual procession, based on John 14:26 & 15:26, both emphasizes the unity of the Trinity and a deeper relationship within the Trinity.

John 14:26 “But the Helper, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in My name, He will teach you all things, and bring to your remembrance all things that I said to you.”

John 15:26 “But when the Helper comes, whom I shall send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth who proceeds from the Father, He will testify of Me.”

Ferguson details Augustine’s teaching this way: “(1) The Father sends the Spirit in the name of the Son (Jn 14:26); the Son also sends the Spirit in the name of the Father (‘from the Father’, Jn 15:26). The Spirit comes, therefore, in the (single) name of both Father and Son….(2) The Spirit is the Spirit of the Father, since he proceeds from him. But he is also said to be the Spirit of the Son (Gal 4:6) whom the Father has sent just as he sent the Son himself….(3) [The Spirit’s] relationship to each [the Father & Son] is distinct; yet both experience the Spirit in common in mutual union and communion.” (Ferguson, pp. 76-77)

Grudem concludes: “If the Son together with the Father sends the Spirit into the world, by analogy it would seem appropriate to say that this reflects eternal ordering of their relationships. This is not something that we can clearly insist on based on any specific verse, but much of our understanding of the eternal relationships among the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit comes by analogy from what Scripture tells us about the way they relate to the creation in time….Nevertheless, the controversy ultimately over such an obscure point of doctrine (essentially, the relationship between the Son and Spirit before

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creation) that it certainly did not warrant division in the church).” (Systematic Theology, p. 247)

By the 9th century, the Frankish monks held to the dual concept as established in Toledo and restated it in Jerusalem in 847. The eastern monks objected.

The Franks asked Leo III of Rome to preside over this controversy. John Hannah: “Leo privately approved the Filioque clause, but would not publicly defend it.

Frankish theologians demanded that double procession be affirmed in the mass. The empire was flexing its intellectual and religious power before the pope of Rome and the eastern empire, its military protagonist.” (Vol. 3, p. 8)

VI. The Emergence Of Islam And The Effect On The Church

Islam is the 2nd largest religion in the world (Christianity is first)

Islam will soon be the 2nd largest religion in the United States 1 in 5 people in our world are Muslims In America, there are more Muslims than Methodists Muslim Population: In California: < 0.5%; In the United States: 1% (2007)

(http://religions.pewforum.org/maps) Nothing stifled the growth of the Christian Church in the Middle Ages more than the rise of

Islam A. Islam’s Founder: Muhammad the Prophet (570-632) 1. His Background

Muhammad born in Mecca in 570 AD His name means “highly praised”

He was born into a powerful tribe called the Quraysh which insisted upon him to be born clean, to be circumcised and to have his umbilical cord cut

The Quraysh tribe was in charge of the temple in Mecca where several Arabian deities were worshipped

His father died before he was born and his mother died when he was six.

His grandfather, then an uncle raised him.

3. His Revelation

At the age of 40 began (610 A.D.) seeing visions including a call from the angel Gabriel.

Gabriel forced Muhammad to read 3x which was difficult, because he claimed illiteracy. He thought he would die in this exchange.

Gabriel commanded: “Recite, in the name of the Lord who has created, Created man from clots of blood, Recite, seeing that the Lord is the most generous, Who has taught by the pen, Taught man what he did not know.” (Sura 9:1-5)

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He would receive visions for the next 23 years, often quite violently.

Muhammad himself was unable to discern if the visions were divine or demonic (jinn).

He was even suicidal, not wanting others to find out that he was “possessed” by a demon.

But his wife and her cousin Waraqa (an Ebionite Christian) exhorted him to submit to these visions as being from Allah, not a demon.

Muhammad had struggled with demon possession before this revelation by Gabriel. Even Halima, a foster mother who nursed him, believed he was demon possessed.

Khadijah was his first convert. B. Islam’s Spread Into Christian Territory

Muhammad became the religious and political potentate of Arabia, with Mecca as his capital.

By sword, Islam spread throughout the Middle East.

He would send messengers to various countries ordering them to convert to Islam or die.

Surah 9:29 “Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Apostle, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.”

Muhammad died in Medina, Saudi Arabia in 632 A.D., the 10th year of Hijra. Muhammad had four successors (caliphs) that were both political and religious leaders

throughout Arabia. “The successors to the Prophet bore the title ‘Caliph’ (from the Arabic khalifa, ‘deputy’ or

‘successor’).” (Gordon, p. 15) Abu Bakr (the head caliph) used his military might to unite the various tribes of Arabia

under Islam.

The next Caliph, Omar (aka. Hadrat Umar Farooq; 634-644), expanded the Muslim rule through Persia (Sassanian) and the Byzantine regions. He conquered the region where modern Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Egypt and Central Asia.

o Syria and Palestine in 640 o Egypt and Iraq in 650

Islam spread by sword where Christianity once ruled – through North Africa, through Jerusalem towards southern Europe.

Islam took advantage of the fall of Rome in the west, the decline of the Byzantine Empire in the East and the spiritual and political division in the church.

Islam took Jerusalem and Damascus with

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little military resistance. From there, Islam spread through North Africa and Spain (711-718)

o The Muslims in Spain would be called the Moors

Islam spread by sword where Christianity once ruled – through North Africa, through Jerusalem towards southern Europe.

Islam took advantage of the fall of Rome in the west, the decline of the Byzantine Empire in the East and the spiritual and political division in the church.

Islam took Jerusalem and Damascus with little military resistance.

From there, Islam spread through North Africa and Spain (711-718) o The Muslims in Spain would be called the Moors

John Hannah: “Their military success has been attributed to three factors: First the foreign policy of eastern emperors which involved cutting off subsidies to the Bedouins between Medina and Syria. Second, the often cruel treatment of non-orthodox groups such as Monophysites and Jews by the empire. Such attitudes eliminated the military benefit these groups could have given in resisting Muslim invasion. Third, Muslim treatment of subjected people was often benevolent through calculated. They disallowed the repair or building of churches, enforced a non-conversion pact, refused military arms to conquered peoples, and prohibited the marriage of a Christian man to a Muslim though the reverse was sanctioned. The net effect of these policies was that Christianity vanished from Muslim territories rapidly.” ((The Kregel Pictorical Guide To Church History, Vol. 3 – The Triumph of the Church, A.D. 500-1500, Kregel, 2005, p. 11)

If Charles Martel did not defeat the Muslims at the Battle of Tours in 732, Europe might have had a far different culture.

o “By the time of the Battle of Tours in 732, when the Franks under Charles Martel put an end to their advance into Western Europe, the Arabs were vastly outnumbered within their empire by people more culturally advanced than they.” (Thomas Lippman, Understanding Islam, p. 106)

After Muhammad’s death, division among his followers ensued.

Though several sects emerged, the Shia (Shiites) and the Sunnites became the two most dominant sects.

Civil war took place after the 3rd caliph, Othman, was murdered in 656. Othman was a Umayyad.

The Shiites opposed the Umayyads and placed Ali as the 4th caliph. He was assassinated in 661.

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The Umayyad Dynasty reigned from 661-750 AD. The Abbasid Dynasty reigned from 750 – 1258 AD with Baghdad as the capital. This was a

time of Islamic renaissance in art, education, science, trade and law. o Earle Cairns: “By 750 the era of conquest came to an end, and the Muslims, influenced

by Greek culture, set out to build a splendid Arabic civilization centered in Bagdad. The peak of culture came under Haroun-Al-Raschid (786-809), the ruler of the eastern section of Muslim territory.” (Christianity Through The Centuries, Zondervan, 1981, p. 175)

But towards the end of the Abbasid Dynasty, caliphs began to lose power and warlords reigned.

Mongols took Baghdad in 1258. But the Mongol rulers converted to Islam. So what looked grim began to rebound.

In the Middle Ages, the Christians tried to reclaim Jerusalem from the Muslims. Both Christians and Muslims did horrific things during the Crusades.

Earle Cairns: “They eventually brought about the downfall of the Eastern empire in 1453 and put the Eastern church under Muslim political control.” (p. 173)

VII. Doing The Splits: The East-West Schism (1054)

A. Cracking

The roots for the East/West split came with the establishment of Constantinople by Constantine in the 4th century

To further the future split, Emperor Theodosius I appoints two head of the church – one in Rome and one in Constantinople in 395

The two churches had two different cultures

They had different views on language, liturgy and the date of Easter

The Eastern folks looked down at the West as being inferior in culture and intellect

The Western folks looked down at the East as being corrupt and sinful

Then the Roman bishop self-proclaims himself as head of all the churches (Council of Constantinople, 381)

Then the two churches split over the Filioque controversy (see last lesson, Lesson 6, pt V) on the procession of the Holy Spirit

The Synod of Toledo (589) resulted in the insertion of “and the Son” into the earlier Nicean and Constantinople Creed (which originally read that the Spirit was sent by

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the Father) which really made the East upset with West for abusing their authority of the church

The East also didn’t like the fact that the West sent missionaries into their territory in the Balkans

David Horton tells of a host a dichotomies: “By the

end of the eleventh century the church already exhibited four forms of diversity:

1) schism between East and West; 2) ancient though small schismatic churches springing from doctrinal and disciplinary controversies; 3) non-institutionalized ‘heretical’ movements; and 4) monasticism, with its principle of a double ethic, the higher for the monks who would follow the counsels of perfection, the lower for ordinary mortals who hoped for salvation in spite of their own sinfulness through the sacraments and ministry of the church.” (The Portable Seminary, Bethany House, 2006, p. 450)

The Primary Causes of the East-West Schism of 1054

Cause Eastern Church Western Church

Political Rivalry Byzantine Empire Holy Roman Empire

Claims of Papacy Patriarch of Constantinople was considered second in primacy to bishop of Rome.

Bishop of Rome claimed supremacy over the entire church.

Theological Development

Stagnated after Council of Chalcedon.

Continued to change and grow through controversies and expansion.

Filioque Controversy

Declared that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father.

Declared that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.

Iconoclastic Controversy

Engaged in 120-year dispute over the use of icons in worship; finally concluded they could be used (statues prohibited).

Made constant attempts to interfere in what was purely an Eastern dispute (Statues permitted).

Differences in Language and Culture

Greek/Oriental Latin/Occidental

Clerical Celibacy Lower clergy were permitted to marry.

All clergy were required to be celibate.

Outside Pressures Muslims constricted and put continual pressure on Eastern church.

Western barbarians were Christianized and assimilated by Western church.

Mutual Excommunications

Michael Cerularius anathematized Pope Leo IX after having been

Leo IX excommunicated Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople.

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of 1054 excommunicated by him.

(John Walton, Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 37) B. Splitting

By the time of 1054, the issue over Communion blew up

o Both the East & West believed the presence of Christ was actually present in the communion elements

o But the East didn’t believe leavened bread (with yeast) could be used because Christ could not transform into the leavened bread if He was sinless.

The Western pope (Leo IX) excommunicates the Eastern patriarch, Michael Cerularius

Cerularius responds by anathematizing (pronouncing a curse) on the pope

The Orthodox churches were run as a fellowship, not a denomination. o There were 14 bodies divided mostly by nation (Greek, Serbian, Antiochene, etc) o Each country was represented by a patriarch, each church was self-governing o Constantinople was the oldest and most influential Eastern church o So they were not going to be held under the iron rule of a pope

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VIII. The Great Schism (1378-1417)

Pope Boniface VIII (r. 1294-1303) strengthened the supervisorial role of the papacy over the rulers of Europe

He sought to deny the taxation of clergy by secular kings and princes He established the universal authority of the pope in two Papal Bulls (letters from the pope

sealed with a bulla) called Clericis laicos and Unam sanctam When King Philip IV of France (a.k.a. Philip the Fair) saw what Boniface was doing, he got

upset. He plotted to kidnap the pope and take him prisoner to face trial and to be deposed. But Boniface was rescued by his supporters and brought back to Rome and would die soon after.

France and England were now in contention with the Roman papacy Boniface’s successor died early and so another pope was appointed – a Frenchman from

Bordeaux, Clement V. He would not go to Rome for his coronation, under the influence of Philip IV, but chose Lyon for his coronation before the French king.

The Italians called his refusal to go to Rome the “Babylonian Captivity”

This would be called the “Avignonese period” since these popes resided in Avignon The popes in France would submit to the French kings at the dismay of the Italians This lead to the Great Schism

Gregory XI was urged to go to Rome by Catherine of Siena and others in 1377, ending the French exile. Then he died suddenly.

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The cardinals then elected Urban VI, who responded by alienating the cardinals who elected him

So the cardinals voided Urban VI and elected a new pope, Clement VII.

But Clement VII went back to Avignon Both Urban VI and Clement VII would be called antipopes Urban refused to accept his voided status – so he took up the seat in Rome while Clement

took up the seat in Avignon The Great Schism of the Papacy (1378-1417)

Date Roman Popes Avignon Popes Conciliar Popes

1375 1378 1381 1384 1387 1390 1393 1396 1399 1402 1405 1408 1411 1414 1417 1420 1423

Gregory XI (1370-1378) Died in 1378, setting stage for Schism

Urban VI (1378-1389) Ended “Babylonian Captivity” but caused Schism by alienating French cardinals

Clement VII (1378-1394) After three years of warfare with supporters of Urban VI, moved to Avignon in 1381

Boniface IX (1389-1404)

Benedict XIII (1394-1417) Deposed by Council of Pisa in 1409, but refused to step down; deposed by Council of Constance in 1417; returned to Spain, convinced to his dying day that he was the true pope.

Innocent VII (1404-1406)

Gregory VII (1406-1415) Deposed by Council of Pisa in 1409, but refused to step down; deposed by Council of Constance in 1415.

Alexander V (1409-1410) Appointed at Pisa.

John XXIII (1410-1415) Deposed by Council of Constance in 1415.

Martin V (1417-1431) Named by Council of Constance to end Schism.

(John Walton, Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 46)

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Discussion:

1. The more powerful the Church became, the problems arose. What were some of the

examples of problems from history? What are some of the problems power plays can bring to the church? (3 John 9-10)

2. When and why should we consider leaving a ministry over an issue or to stay and fight? When is it too petty, personal or just? (Rom 16:17; Jude 3-4)