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Helsinki University of Technology
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management
Institute of Strategy and International Business
Antti Vassinen
The Concept of Strategic Marketing in Marketing Discourse – a Bibliometric Study
This study is a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Science in Industrial Engineering and Management.
Helsinki, 17 May 2006
Supervisor: Juha-Antti Lamberg, Acting Professor, Helsinki University of Technology
Instructor: Henrikki Tikkanen, Professor, Helsinki School of Economics
HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY ABSTRACT OF THE MASTER´S THESIS Industrial Engineering and Management Author: Antti Vassinen Subject of the thesis: The Concept of Strategic Marketing in Marketing Discourse – a Bibliometric Study Number of pages: 104 + 19 Date: 2006-05-17 Library location: TU
Professorship: Strategy and International Business
Code of professorship: TU-91
Supervisor: Juha-Antti Lamberg, Acting Professor Instructor: Henrikki Tikkanen, Helsinki School of Economics In management discourse, strategic marketing is found everywhere. Yet, one will rarely come across two identical definitions. There is a distinct need for a clarification. A shared terminology would serve many purposes in clarifying the scientific discourse, not to mention usage in business. To this end, the thesis attempts to map the phenomena referred to by “strategic marketing”. Secondly, the thesis reflects on the various understandings of strategic marketing in discourse, in contrast to a specific understanding and definition of strategic marketing as the key driver in any value-creating process. The purpose of this thesis is to serve as a preliminary literature study to a wider joint research project by the Helsinki School of Economics and the Swedish School of Economics in Helsinki, by the name of StratMark. The aim of the study is to investigate the origins of the present understandings of “strategic marketing”, taking advantage of bibliometric methodology. The research aims to answer the following questions: (1) What are the antecedents that have contributed to the present state of the discourse on “strategic marketing”? (2) What roles, organizational activities, processes and levels of decision-making are attributed to “strategic marketing” in literature? (3) What antecedents might prove useful starting points for framing further research within the StratMark project? A population of 423 articles related to strategic marketing, published in 37 journals between 1986 and 2005 comprised the base set of data. All articles were classified according to relevancy, and a series of descriptive, citation and co-citation analyses performed on the articles and their citation data. The analyses indicated, that the discourse is indeed wide and varied. Four distinct groups of antecedents to the present state of the discourse were discovered, each composed of a selection of seminal publications: (A) The competitive environment, (B) Operational marketing performance and international growth, (C) The resource-based view, and (D) Market orientation and performance. The points of view and research fields that most closely corresponded with the StratMark perspective were the ones reflected and originating in the antecedent groups C and D. The study achieved the objective of setting directions for further research and enabling linkages to be made to other components in the StratMark research project. Suggestions for improvements and further research, both within the scope of this study and the wider research project context, were suggested.
Keywords: strategic marketing, marketing, strategy, bibliometrics, citation analysis, discourse, antecedents
Publishing language: English
TEKNILLINEN KORKEAKOULU DIPLOMITYÖN TIIVISTELMÄ Tuotantotalouden osasto Tekijä: Antti Vassinen Työn nimi: Strategisen markkinoinnin käsite markkinoinnin diskurssissa – bibliometrinen tutkimus Sivumäärä: 104 + 19 Päiväys: 2006-05-17 Työn sijainti: TU
Professuuri: Yritysstrategia ja kansainvälinen liiketoiminta
Koodi: TU-91
Työn valvoja: Juha-Antti Lamberg, vs. professori Työn ohjaaja: Professori Henrikki Tikkanen, Helsingin kauppakorkeakoulu Liikkeenjohdon keskustelu on täynnä viittauksia strategiseen markkinointiin. Määritelmät termille eivät kuitenkaan usein ole yhteneväisiä: johdonmukaiselle ja jaetulle terminologialle olisi kuitenkin vahva tilaus sekä tieteellisen diskurssin selkeyttämisessä että etenkin liikkeenjohdon käytössä. Tämä tarkoitusperä mielessä tämä tutkimus yrittää kartoittaa niitä eri ilmiötä, joihin viitataan käsiteparilla ”strateginen markkinointi”. Tämän lisäksi tutkimus tarkastelee näitä eri strategisen markkinoinnin ymmärryksiä, pyrkien peilaamaan niitä strategisen markkinoinnin käsittämiseen arvonluontiprosessin avaintekijänä. Tutkimuksen tarkoitus on luoda alustava kirjallisuuskatsaus Helsingin kauppakorkeakoulun ja Svenska Handelshögskolanin yhteistä StratMark-tutkimushanketta varten. Tutkimuksen päämääränä on selvittää ”strategisen markkinoinnin” nykykäsitysten alkuperiä käyttäen hyväksi bibliometrisiä tutkimusmenetelmiä. Tavoitteena on vastata seuraaviin tutkimuskysymyksiin: (1) Mitkä antesedentit ovat vaikuttaneet “strategisen markkinoinnin” diskurssin nykytilaan? (2) Mitä rooleja, organisatorisia toimintoja, prosesseja ja päätöksenteon tasoja kytketään ”strategisen markkinoinnin” käsitteeseen kirjallisuudessa? (3) Mitkä antesedentit voisivat olla hyödyllisiä lähtökohtia StratMark:in puitteissa tapahtuvan jatkotutkimuksen kannalta? Tutkimusaineistoksi valittiin 423 strategiseen markkinointiin liittyvän artikkelin populaatio. Artikkelit on julkaistu 37 tieteellisessä aikakausilehdessä vuosien 1986 ja 2005 välillä. Artikkelit luokiteltiin relevanssin mukaan. Tämän jälkeen aineistoa tarkasteltiin useiden eri kuvaavien analyysitekniikoiden sekä sitaatio- ja yhteissitaatiomenetelmien avulla. Analyysit osoittivat, että strategisen markkinoinnin ympärillä käytävä keskustelu on erittäin laajaa ja monikäsitteistä. Neljä selkeää ja erillistä keskustelun nykyrakennetta taustoittavaa antesedenttiryhmää tunnistettiin: (A) kilpailuympäristö, (B) operatiivinen markkinoinnin tuloksellisuus ja kansainvälinen kasvu, (C) resurssipohjainen näkökulma, ja (D) markkinasuuntautuneisuus ja tuloksellisuus. Näistä jokainen koostui joukosta uraauurtavia julkaisuja. Näkökulmat ja lähestymistavat, jotka lähimmin vastasivat StratMark-tutkimusryhmän näkemystä, löytyivät antesedenttiryhmistä C ja D. Tutkimus saavutti tavoitteen, jonka mukaan sen tuli osoittaa suuntaviivoja tulevalle tutkimukselle ja mahdollistaa sidoksia StratMark-hankkeen muihin osakokonaisuuksiin. Kehityskohteita ja jatkotutkimuskohteita tunnistettiin sekä tämän tutkimuksen aihealueen sisältä, että laajemman tutkimushankekokonaisuuden puitteissa. Avainsanat: strateginen markkinointi, markkinointi, strategia, bibliometria, sitaatioanalyysi, diskurssi, antesedentti
Julkaisukieli: englanti
i
Acknowledgements I am indebted to Professor Henrikki Tikkanen, Professor Kristian Möller
and Docent Petri Parvinen, as well as other faculty members at the HSE
Department of Marketing and Management, without whose support this
thesis would be quite different. In involving me with the StratMark
project, and academic research at large, they have indeed opened a new
window to the world for me. I look forward to continuing my research
under their guidance and support for years to come.
I also owe great thanks to the Department of Industrial Engineering and
Management at the Helsinki University of Technology – a hallmark of
rationality and flexibility. I have but praise for both the athmosphere at
the Institute of Strategy and International Business and department
administration. An embodiment of this spirit is also Dr. Juha-Antti
Lamberg, who supervised this thesis. Furthermore, I would like to thank
all those brilliantly intelligent individuals, who I have had the opportunity
to work with with during our time as undergraduates. You truly made the
experience worthwhile.
In the scope of the thesis, I wish to thank Juha Mattsson, Henri Schildt and
others who have trodden the path the path of bibliometric analysis
before me. Your experiences have been invaluable.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents, family and
close friends, all who have stood firmly by during my studies, offering
their support and wise words. Finally, I would like to mention two
individuals, without whose fostering and inspiring example I would not
be where I am today: my first teacher Riitta Mäkinen, for starting me on
my path, and Nicholas Botting, for showing me science for what it really
is.
Helsinki, 17 May 2006
Antti Vassinen
ii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................i
Table of Contents....................................................................................................ii
List of Figures .........................................................................................................iv
List of Tables ..........................................................................................................iv
1 Introduction........................................................................................................1
1.1 Background......................................................................................................1
1.2 The StratMark Project ......................................................................................2
1.3 Research Problem.............................................................................................4
1.3.1 Research Objectives .................................................................................8
1.4 Key Concepts....................................................................................................8
1.4.1 Marketing ................................................................................................9
1.4.2 Strategy..................................................................................................10
1.4.3 Strategic Marketing...............................................................................12
1.4.4 Discourse ................................................................................................15
1.4.5 Antecedents ...........................................................................................16
1.4.6 Citations and References .......................................................................17
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study ..............................................................17
1.6 Methodology .................................................................................................20
1.7 Research Progress and Structure of the Thesis .............................................24
2 Data Organization............................................................................................27
2.1 Journal Selection............................................................................................27
2.2 Database Queries ...........................................................................................31
2.3 Article Selection .............................................................................................34
2.4 Data Coding, Management And Analysis .....................................................44
3 Descriptive Analysis .........................................................................................46
3.1 Publication Activity ........................................................................................46
3.2 Authorship .....................................................................................................48
3.3 Distribution Among Publication Outlets.......................................................52
iii
3.4 Temporal publication pattern .......................................................................55
3.5 Summary ........................................................................................................56
4 Citation Analysis...............................................................................................58
4.1 Theoretical background.................................................................................59
4.1.1 Citation analysis .....................................................................................59
4.1.2 Co-citation analysis ................................................................................61
4.2 Citation Analysis of Strategic Marketing Discourse......................................62
4.2.1 Most Cited Articles and Books...............................................................63
4.2.2 Most Cited First Authors........................................................................73
4.2.3 Most Cited Journals ...............................................................................74
4.2.4 Temporal Profile of Cited References ...................................................76
4.2.5 Co-citation Analysis ...............................................................................76
4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................83
5 Discussion .........................................................................................................86
6 On Reliability and Validity ...............................................................................90
6.1 Data Selection ................................................................................................90
6.2 Analyses..........................................................................................................92
7 Conclusions.......................................................................................................93
8 References ........................................................................................................95
Appendix A: The article population and relevancy classifications ...................105
Appendix B: Co-citation coupling strengths ......................................................119
Appendix C: Co-citation cluster analysis results ................................................121
Appendix D: Co-citation network centrality analysis results............................123
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1. The structure of the StratMark research project. ...................................4
Figure 3. Distribution of articles across publication outlets. ...............................53
Figure 4. Temporal publication pattern of all 423 articles. .................................56
Figure 5. Inaccurate information in the citation database. .................................64
Figure 6. "Competitive Strategi" by Michael Porter. ...........................................65
Figure 7. Incorrect volume number for Harvard Business Review in 1977. .........65
Figure 8. The temporal distribution of cited articles and books. ........................76
Figure 9. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, average link method. ..........................................................................................................79
Figure 10. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, complete link method...........................................................................................79
List of Tables
Table 1. The intellectual foundations of marketing theory. ...............................14
Table 2. Journals and periodicals selected for bibliometric analysis. ..................30
Table 3. ISI SSCI article data output (example).....................................................32
Table 4. Classification levels and criteria for article assessment. .........................36
Table 5. Final article classification category counts. ............................................43
Table 6. Author counts and relevancy levels. .......................................................49
Table 7. Authors with most published articles in the article population. ...........51
Table 8. Most cited articles and books. ................................................................66
Table 9. Most cited first authors. ..........................................................................73
Table 10. Most cited journals. ...............................................................................75
Table 11. Co-citation clusters for the 28 most cited documents..........................80
Table 12. Descriptions of clusters formed from co-citation data.........................81
Table 13. Network centrality analyses. .................................................................82
1
1 Introduction
This chapter describes the background and context of the thesis; defines
the research problems, key objectives and concepts; discusses the scope
and limitations of the study and outlines the structure of this master’s
thesis.
1.1 Background
Strategic marketing is found everywhere. Yet, one will rarely come across
two identical definitions. Managers, leaders, researchers and business
apostles alike impose different meanings on the phrase. In usage, it
sprawls across the fields of marketing, product promotion, management,
and strategy. There is a distinct need for a clarification.
Finnish business has relied first on raw materials and then on advanced
technology for global competitive advantage. The sustainability of the
present situation is suspect. For increased global competitiveness, Finnish
companies must involve a new appreciation of marketing in their business
and ways of thinking. (Tikkanen 2006;Vassinen 2006)
2
This thesis addresses these issues with a processual mindset. The object is
to examine the origins of the present state of the “strategic marketing”1
discourse in a conceptual and metatheoretical manner.
A shared terminology would serve many purposes in clarifying the
scientific discourse, not to mention usage in business. To this end, the
author’s goal is to first map the phenomena referred to by “strategic
marketing”. Secondly, the author will reflect on that current nature of the
discourse in contrast to a specific understanding and definition of
strategic marketing as the key driver in any value-creating process.
1.2 The StratMark Project
The purpose of this thesis is to serve as a preliminary literature study to a
wider joint research project by the Helsinki School of Economics and the
Swedish School of Economics in Helsinki. Drawing on both public and
private funding, the long-term goal of the StratMark project is to enhance
the global competitiveness of Finnish companies by bringing strategic
marketing capability to par with technological competence.2 The research
group has an understanding of strategic marketing as a cross-functional
customer-centered mindset, originating at the highest stratum of
management. It is this understanding, which the group wishes to
1 In this study, the phrase strategic marketing will be enclosed in quotes when it refers to
the different understandings of the phrase and concept found in marketing discourse.
Without quotes, the phrase will most often refer to the defined StratMark understanding
of strategic marketing or the context or school of thought being examined. The StratMark
perspective is defined in section 1.4.3.
2 More information on the StratMark project is available via the Internet at
<http://www.stratmark.fi/>.
3
popularize on to achieve its goal. Strategic marketing should form the
core of leadership, based on which a company’s organization, activities
and relationship network are constructed and managed. For sustainable
competitive advantage, focus should be on effective strategic
commercialization, supported by a pervasive marketing spirit and solid
technological foresight. A company will need to have resolve and
boldness to be marketing-driven, not market-driven.
The Role of the Study within StratMark
The StratMark project is structured as two parallel working packages.
Both packages follow similar lines of research with their own set of goals.
The interaction between the working packages provides the interface to
promoting the overall goals of the project: sustained public discussion of
the state, nature, role and adoption of strategic marketing as the key
issue for top management.
Working package 1 focuses on the role, position and status of marketing
in Finnish business organizations. This is broken down to four areas of
research:
(i) Understanding the current state research into strategic marketing
and marketing performance
(ii) Benchmarking Finnish companies with international best practices
(iii) The role of marketing spirit in business: creativeness,
innovativeness, courage, innovativeness, vision and cognition
(iv) A critical reflection on “theory versus practice”
The outcomes of research in working package 1 can be summarized in the
form of a question: “In practice, what should happen in Finland?” The
second working package concerns the link between marketing and
business performance. Research is sub-divided as follows:
4
(i) Evaluating and defining the strategic role of marketing
(ii) Developing both qualitative and quantitative metrics for
marketing competence within a broader definition of strategic
marketing
(iii) Linking strategic marketing practices and business performance
(iv) Developing new tools for marketing and business performance
Again, research within the working package aims to answer a quesstion:
“How can marketing performance be managed in practice?” The parallel
nature of the work packages is illustrated in Figure 1. Research progresses
as interaction between the two work packages; this thesis falls in the first
component of working package, with a flexible interface to its co-topic in
working package 2.
1.3 Research Problem
This thesis purports that the understanding of strategic marketing
remains, to this date, fragmented. Several general understandings of the
Figure 1. The structure of the StratMark research project.
5
strategic role of strategic marketing can be identified in literature and,
perhaps with more visible results, the general and business press. An
interesting semantic elaboration is whether these represent streams of
thought within strategic marketing or merely three related topics that
share a common name in different schools of thought. An altogether
different issue is the performance implications of the different meanings:
How will a business perform, if its “strategic marketing” consists of
nothing but inconsistent promotional actions? Discussions with executives
consistently indicate, that misunderstandings about the role and
possibilites of well-organized, strategic marketing processes abound.
This reflection gives way to structured empirical assessment of scientific
research on strategic marketing. Through bibliometric analysis employing
citation analysis, co-citation coupling and network centrality analysis, an
attempt is made to address the nature of the streams of thought in what
is referred to as strategic marketing.
To these ends, the following main research question is called on:
What are the origins of the present understandings of strategic
marketing?
This question is divided into three sub-questions:
(1) What are the antecedents that have contributed to the present state
of the discourse on “strategic marketing”?
(2) What roles, organizational activities, processes and levels of decision-
making are attributed to “strategic marketing” in literature?
(3) What antecedents might prove useful starting points for framing
further research within the StratMark project?
6
The study is meta-theoretical in nature, as it concerns research on
research, as well as semantic in that it examines what terminology used in
discourse. The question of terminology usage is as important as that of
the content of those terms. Without shared language, it is difficult to
communicate concepts. Communication becomes even more difficult
when a term such as “strategic marketing” can be the trade name for any
sort of quick-fix hawkery. In this onslaught, the simple realities of
marketing are often lost behind useless rhetoric. Seemingly, the result of
ceaseless re-invention of the wheel and what to call it has been the
confused understanding of marketing by the wider audience. Affecting
management perspectives will require, first, both an assessment of the
current terminology and referencing as well as that of the discourse
content itself:
General knowledge about words, syntax, the world, spatial relations – in
short, general knowledge about anything – constrains the construction of
discourse representations at all levels. (Kintsch 1988, p. 163)
The first research question is meta-analytical in nature. It aims at
discovering what bodies of knowledge and research traditions are the
sources for the discourse in strategic marketing as it stands today. There is
also a semantic facet: Is the term “strategic markeing” used in a different
sense in different traditions and schools of thought? As general
observation would indicate that to be the case, can we point out the
origins of the conflict? Presumably, a rigid understanding of the key issues
would allow the project to better approach its goals.
The second research question is semantic in nature. It seeks to capture
what past and ongoing literature refers to by “strategic marketing”. It
rests on the premise that what is presented in literature will be reflected
in actual business management, addressing the question of whether there
are distinct variations in how "strategic marketing" is referred to in
7
literature, and what level of strategic and marketing thinking, processes
and organization is explicitly or implicitly attached to the term.
Furthermore, related concepts, presented under a variety of names, are of
interest, to provide a perspective into what extent such concepts
correspond with the proposed construct of strategic marketing.
The themes and streams of thought that are bear an influence on the
present state as well as future of how strategic marketing is understood
among the wider audience of marketing practitioners, in all levels of the
organization, are of interest. A key assumption is that the publics'
understanding of the term and associated structures is heavily influenced
by what basic and widely used and accessible academic textbook and
management literature has to say on the matter. The wide majority of
those exposed to marketing will not carry on to continue as researchers,
but will move on to business. To discover how strategic marketing is
perceived by the wider audience, we need to look at the foundation:
given a limited varying amount of marketing education within a
descourse, what perception will the future economic actor be left with? Is
“strategic marketing” a key top management issue or a functional,
operational-level detail?
The third research question moves from the meta-analytical to the
applied. The underlying assumption here is that one of the streams
identified in response to research question will be closely associated with
the StratMark understanding of strategic marketing. The research
question question seeks to establish some reference point for further
research and a firm intellectual and academic grounding for the
StratMark project. The final question, thus, asks how answers to the
previous questions can be applied to the wider context and social goals of
the research project.
8
1.3.1 Research Objectives
Proper addressing of the research questions implies a wide body of
literature. This leads to the questions on how a valid analysis can be
carried out across such a wealth of information, given restricted resources.
Answering the questions set above will require not only gathering
relevant information but also structuring it, investigating what is
pertinent and processing this into a comprehensible and consistent
response. This work aims to map the understandings of strategic
marketing as well as identify gaps, conflicts, interconnections and
academic orientations in strategic marketing research. In other words, we
need to identify what the world means by “strategic marketing”, what
we ourselves mean by strategic marketing, and how we best could work
to shape the general understanding of the topic while (and by) laying a
consistent framework of strategic marketing components and processes.
Secondly, the process aims at providing direction for further research into
developing, structuring and innovating within the discourse of strategic
marketing. Thirdly, a focus must always remain with the practical
applicability of all research, keeping in mind the goals of the StratMark
project – stimulation and support of both academic and public discussion,
general attitude change and ultimately, enhanced global competitiveness
for Finnish companies.
1.4 Key Concepts
This section defines key terms and concepts used in the study. First, the
used understandings of marketing and strategy are defined. Next, usage
of the phrase strategic marketing is reflected on. Explaining the usage of
discourse and antecedents. Finally, the definitions of citations and
references are discussed in light of bibliometric analysis.
9
1.4.1 Marketing
Marketing has been defined in a myriad of ways. Every marketing
textbook on marketing principles begins with a definition. The definitions
very commonly referred to are those of the American Marketing
Association (AMA 2004). The most recent version stands thus:
Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for
creating, communicating and delivering value to customers and for
managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization
and its stakeholders.
The AMA adopted this new definition in August 2004. The association’s
first definition from 1935 stated,
[Marketing is] the performance of business activities that direct the flow
of goods and services from producers to consumers.
A revision of this in 1985 changed this to:
[Marketing is] the process of planning and executing the conception,
pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create
exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.
Clearly, the focus of the term as reflected in AMA usage, has shifted
towards the strategic. This was also the stated goal of the AMA:
One thing academics can do is disseminate knowledge. This will filter
down into the textbooks and give us the opening to talk about marketing
at the strategic level. (AMA 2004)
This goal of including a more strategic approach to general
understanding of marketing coincides with goals of the StratMark project.
10
Usage of the term marketing in this study includes a long-term
perspective. Marketing will include strategic as well as operative
marketing; strategic marketing will comprise a sub-set of marketing.
When used without a limiting prefix, marketing will refer to the general
publics’ understanding of marketing, which will usually agree most with
the 1985 AMA definition and an operative and functional view of
marketing. Marketing will, thus, differ in this text from the StratMark
view of strategic marketing. A goal of the wider research effort is to
transform the public’s perception of marketing towards StratMark’s
strategic marketing.
1.4.2 Strategy
Definitions for strategy are as varied as for marketing. Long-term
planning is always at the core, and a difference is either made to the level
of decision-making – top management for strategy – or to the level of
detail involved, as a difference to tactics. Schendel (1985, quoted in
Thomas and Gardner 1985) develops Drucker’s distinction “doing things
right” and “doing the right things” to distinguish between operations
management and strategic management respectively (Drucker 1973, p.
481). Strategic management means creating a strategy to ensure future
viability of the firm,
…[A] determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an
enterprise, and adoption of courses of action and the allocation of
resources necessary for carrying out these goals. (Chandler 1962)
This definition of strategy as an organizational process has remained
dominant to this day. Wright et al define strategy as
Top management’s plans to attain outcomes consistent with the
organization’s missions and goals. (Wright, Kroll, and Pringle 1992)
11
Mintzberg et al (1998) make a difference between strategy as a plan
when ahead a pattern when behind – a realized and an intended
strategy. Besides the common definition of a plan and a pattern, they
offer a perspective to strategy as an emergent phenomenon, in contrast
to deliberate actions. Furthermore, they distinguish strategy as a position:
“Strategy is the creation of a unique and valuable position, involving a
different set of activities.” (Michael 1996, p. 61) Fourth, they introduce a
fifth definition of strategy, as a perspective: “As perspective, in contrast,
strategy looks in – inside the organization, indeed, inside the heads of the
strategists, but it also looks up – to the grand vision of the enterprise.”
Finally, Mintzberg &al offer the perspective of some schools of thought,
that of strategy as a ploy: maneuvers for outwitting competition.
(Mintzberg, Lampel, and Ahlstrand 1998)
For the purposes of this study, an agreement as to the best exact
definition for strategy is unnecessary. The term will in this thesis cover
both the traditional definitions based on long-range plans and their
fulfillment. However, since the StratMark perspective specifically includes
all components of the value network, the scope of strategy in this study
must cover long-range network-level plans of the top management for
operational, financial and managerial efficiency and effectiveness. Of the
five perspectives discussed by Mintzberg et al, the definition will mostly
exclude the “ploy” view to the domain of tactics. Strategy is seen as a
high-level process, involving the entire value network, initiated by top
management and heralded by every member of the organization as the
strategy it is realized as. There is little need for distinction between the
StratMark group’s view on strategy and strategic marketing: the
perspective of strategic commercialization integrates the two.
12
1.4.3 Strategic Marketing
Defining and redefining strategic marketing is a major component of this
study. Throughout the analysis, the definitions for and streams of thought
within strategic marketing will be reflected on in terms of a pre-set
understanding of strategic marketing, namely that of the StratMark
research group. This is done in order to comply with the role of this thesis
as a background study for the project’s other components – the shared
terminological and theoretical base on which to build.
The Initial StratMark Perspective to Strategic Marketing
Next, we define the StratMark idea of strategic marketing that the study,
as indeed the entire research project, begins with. The key goals for this
study are the further development of this initial understanding through
research into conceptual parallels and by the identification of related
streams of thought and theory.
StratMark derives their understanding of strategic marketing from what
have been presented as the corresponding perspectives to marketing and
strategy. In a sense, the StratMark perspective to strategic marketing
constitutes a theory of the firm: a goal-setting, strategic framework for
describing and analyzing a company.
The StratMark perspective to strategic marketing agrees with the
concerns put forth by Hayes and Abernathy (1980): Marketing’s role has
been overshadowed at higher levels of management by those of financial
managers and lawyers. Marketing skills need to be brought to basic
research, technology, product development and introduction. Hayes and
Abernathy recognize the developments brought on with the development
of the market concept, but criticize shunning the customer concept and
the emphasis on short-term cost reduction and what is nowadays referred
to as “quarter-to-quarter capitalism”:
13
By their preference for servicing existing markets rather than creating new
ones and by their devotion to short-term returns and “management by
numbers”, [managers] have effectively sworn off long-term technological
superiority as a competitive weapon. In consequence, they have abdicated
their strategic responsibilities. (Hayes and Abernathy 1980, p. 67 p. 68)
Hayes and Abernathy further contend that the general level of innovative
product and market development, and thus long-term competitive
advantage, is severely impeded by “market-driven strategies” and ROI-
oriented control systems. Moreover, they recognize that at the strategic
level, no problem will be exclusively of production, finance or marketing.
The StratMark perspective is based on this distinction: strategic marketing
is focused on the top management’s long-term vision for competitive
advantage through product innovation, other “functions” being fully
subservient to this process.
John A. Howard (1983, p. 90) describes structures the intellectual
foundations of marketing theory in a four-celled table (Table 1). Two
dichotomies are presented. The first is a descriptive-prescriptive
dichotomy of concept purposes; of goal phenomena and concepts
interfaces for indirect study and influence of those. The second dichotomy
is based on differences in the logical and philosophical foundations.
Howard focuses on developing a framework of normative descriptive
methods. As a benchmark, he refers to the well-established axiomatic
descriptive theory of competition in the field of industrial engineering.
The wide range of prescriptive concepts, both empirical and axiomatic, is
recognized. Howard’s concern is with widening the scope of marketing to
a theory-of-the-firm level: “The logic of marketing would be much surer if
an axiomatic approach so well-exemplified by economic theory were
available.” (Howard 1983, p. 90 p. 91)
14
Table 1. The intellectual foundations of marketing theory. Adapted from Howard (1983).
Purpose Descriptive Prescriptive
Empirical, normative, deductive
Customers Marketing Organization Financial Manufacturing R&D
Logical foundation
Axiomatic, positive, inductive
Competition Contribution Present value
Howard presents his “marketing theory of the firm” as consisting of four
descriptive concepts (demand and supply cycle, product hierarchy,
competitive structure, customer decision model) that input information to
prescriptive concepts in order to establish actionable strategic plans. Three
basic premises are long-term success are presented. The first is the
importance of being customer-driven instead of competition-driven in the
sense of e.g. Porter (1980). The next premise states, that process
innovation is requisite for successful product innovation. Thirdly, Howard
states that the underlying theory must be against what strategic plans are
evaluated against, as well as a part of the evaluation process itself.
Reflecting on Howard’s first premise of being “customer-driven” – or
“market-driven” to follow the terminology of Hayes and Abernathy –
clarifies StratMark’s position. Customers are at the core of all thinking, yet
the market should, in a sense, be allowed to dictate management actions
as little as management can dictate market responses (cf. the earlier
production concept and marketing concept). Innovation can stem from
the market; it must stem from the company. The second premise connects
well with this; StratMark holds it to imply the core role of innovation as
well as that of coherent, strategic, marketing-based thought that
pervades the entire organization from sales to the factory floor. Howard’s
third premise is retained as-is in the StratMark perspective.
15
1.4.4 Discourse
Discourse refers formal discussion of a topic. In a linguistic sense, discourse
is a connected series of utterances, reconstructed in terms of a larger unit
(van Dijk 1977 p. 3). Discourse in turn can be studied by deconstructing it
to macro-structures. Macro-structures are semantic characterizations –
compound sentences and discourse sequences – that can be accounted for
using notions like theme and topic. Dijk further argues (Ibid, 6-7), that
macro-structures are the result of cognitive processes of comprehension,
grounded in generalization, abstraction and reducing the discourse of
irrelevant information: “What is important information not only depends
on the semantic structure of the text but also on the pragmatic functions
of the discourse.” (Ibid, 243-4) This, of course, in parts justifies some
degree of subjectivity in analysis. As the focus of the conceptual analysis is
in determining the topics in a range of passages and discourses, all of
which use a grammatically similar but semantically different vocabulary,
establishing systematic relations between the semantic representations of
the passages and discourses and an assigned topic is left to creating
categories and comparing the attributes of the various sources to each
other.
Parker (1992) approaches discourse on a less linguistic level, with
somewhat different terminology: “a system of statements which
constructs an object”. Establishing the limitation of formal discourse to
written works that are not expressions of individuals’ opinions, discourse
(system of statements) would consist of specific concepts dubbed objects.
For scientific discourse, this would include both published (journal articles,
books, dissertations etc.) and unpublished (working papers, research notes
etc.) works. For the sake of this study, the range of discourse will include,
in the conceptual analysis stage, less academic material aimed at
managers. This is important, since the study rests on the premise that
more than one implicit and explicit definition for the studied terms will
16
exist. The limits of the greater discourse – what academic research and
teaching considers “strategic marketing” as well as what managers
consider “strategic marketing” – are difficult to establish.
In this study, usage of discourse will take advantage of both these
structural viewpoints. In conceptual analysis, discourse will have at it’s
core academic textbooks related to the subject, supplemented by popular
management literature and academic articles directly related to the
corresponding research questions. Relevant parts of these three types
comprise the texts (Dijk) or statements (Parker). The outcomes of the
analysis will be the range of semantic topics of discourse (Dijk) or systems
of statements (Parker) covered under the named linguistic topic (object)
of “strategic marketing”.
1.4.5 Antecedents
An antecedent refers to a reason, an explanation for a phenomenon. The
phenomenon in turn is often linked to an outcome. In this study,
antecedents refer to the reasons behind an action within the discourse
being studied, the original motivation behind the research. In the case of
an article discussing the performance implications of market-orientation
in an export context, for example, antecedents would thus include not
only discussion on market-orientation and international marketing but
also the outcome of the text being studied. While performance is certainly
an outcome or phenomenon within the context of the article, in
discussing the standing of the work in the general discourse, performance
would be the key underlying motivation for the research in question –
and thus a research antecedent. In wider usage in this study, an
antecedent can also refer to past research as a motivation behind a
temporally later object in the discourse.
17
1.4.6 Citations and References
The methodology used in this study involves extensive use of the concepts
of reference and citation. If a publication references another, this means
only that the work is somehow noted in the other, be it as source or
background material, suggested reading or an entry in the bibliography.
A citation, however, involves much more detail and depth, and specifically
requires that additional information beyond a mere reference is included.
This information would communicate to the reader what the relationship
between the two works is – if the newer publication draws on the
previous research, supports an idea, or is opposed to it. Small (1973, p.
265) proposed a technique known as co-citation coupling to address the
issue of co-occurrence of “opposed” work to some extent. According to
Shaw (1979), a citation “establishes a relation among authors which is a
measure of the extent to which they communicate through literature.”
Osareh (1996) defines the cited publication as a source of information in
support of a specific idea or fact. Egghe (1996), however, somewhat blurs
the distinction: an entry in a list of referenced indicates that a relationship
exists between the two documents. While certainly true, the definition
takes no stand on the nature of the relationship. As the mainstream (if
one can be said to exist) of bibliometric research focuses heavily on
analysis based on electronic citation data, the notion of specific citation
context is often lost. This is certainly the case with this study. The usage of
the two terms in this study is elaborated on in section 4.1.1.
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The research questions and preceding sections on objectives and key
concepts set the basic scope of the study. This section expands on those
themes to explicitly state the operational scope of the thesis, and
18
elaborate on research orientations and perspectives chosen for the study.
Furthermore, the limitations of the chosen scope are discussed.
As has been discussed, the definitions and discourses of strategy,
marketing and strategic marketing are overlapping and, at times, disjoint
even within themselves. Fortunately, this structure is the focus of the
study. The bibliographic data gathered for the study (on basis of a
keyword search) will thus reflect a multitude of understandings. The
bibliographic analysis considers the discourse employing the term
strategic marketing and its derivatives. Semantically, this means limiting
the scope to the intersection of strategy and marketing. Including other
keywords would no doubt serve the goals of the project in understanding
the structure of the wider discourse. This effort, however, is beyond the
practical scope of the thesis.
As for the perspective chosen for the study, it is primarily that of the
marketing scholar. This is due to the fact that the study is a preliminary
component in a wider assessment of the state and nature of marketing,
and will serve as a starting point for further research and influencing the
discourse. Since the wider goals of the StratMark project are in affecting
managerial practices and ways of thinking, the managerial perspective is
also important. While managerial practice and past academic discourse
are antecedents to the studied phenomena (the results and conclusions of
the study), to achieve its own goals, it must be possible to draw links
between the analyzed phenomena and the planned outcomes of the
StratMark project – in other words, influencing practice. Managerial
relevance must be present to justify further research. As the StratMark
research group rests on the premise of marketing encompassing the
entire value-adding process, phenomena in organization theory,
psychology, communications, product development and so on are within
scope. Similarly, no limits are imposed on the fields of practical
application of the results, or geographical scope.
19
The unit of analysis in this study is an object in the discourse; an individual
piece of scientific research. The object may in practice be a peer-reviewed
journal article, working paper, book, or a comparable publication. The
object consists of two parts: a contribution and an interface other objects.
The contribution is the actual substance of the publication, the
contribution it makes to the discourse by introducing new ideas and data,
or recombining previous research. The interface is directed towards the
temporally preceding objects that the work cites in the form of citations
and references.
Several criteria were set to limit the range on units of analysis. The
reasons behind the limitations are not only practical but serve to maintain
the focus on the study. The criteria for selecting the units of analysis can
be summarized as follows:
(i) Only articles published in high quality journals (to form an
accessible, internally consistent and academically relevant data set)
(ii) Articles that are satisfactorily related to strategic marketing, not
only in keyword but also substance
(iii) All established journals within the marketing discourse are
included
These reasons are elaborated on in Chapter 2. No theoretical limitations
were set on the results of bibliometric analysis (cited publications), but
practical issues excluded incomplete and ambiguous references from the
database, such as personal communication and articles in most of the
general and business periodical press.
The original data set of articles used as the source material for the
bibliometric analysis is not in fact a sample, but the entire population of
articles matching the defined characteristics and definitions. When the set
20
is later reduced via a classification scheme, these subsets still represent the
complete population of objects for a given relevancy level.
The temporal scope of the study was chosen as a combination of wanting
to reflect the present state of the discourse, as well as practical
considerations. The year 2005 was chosen as the upper limit for article
data, as this was the most recent year for which complete data was
available in the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) database. The lower
limit was set at the earliest possible year available in the SSCI database,
1986. However, as research progressed, it was noticed that the data from
prior to 1990 was entirely incomplete for assessment purposes. The lower
limit thus rose to 1990. The time period under observation was therefore
the 16 years from 1990 to 2005. It was felt that this scope provided
enough insight into the present state of the discourse as well as a large
enough set of data for analysis. The temporal scope used is somewhat
wider than that used in similar studies (Mattsson 2003;Parvinen 2003).
However, the size of the original data set nevertheless remains
proportionally and absolutely much smaller than in the referenced
studies. No temporal limit was imposed on the results of analysis into
linkages into past research.
1.6 Methodology
Meta-analytical bibliometric research used to address the research
questions. This section first presents an overview of the general research
approach, considering both meta-analytical research and bibliometric
methodology, and then discusses the bibliometric approaches used:
descriptive analysis, citation analysis, co-citation cluster analysis and
network centrality analysis.
21
Meta-analytical and Bibliometric Research
As the aims of the study are in influencing discourse and practice, an
understanding of the conceptual roots of the area of study is seen an
essential first step. Traditionally, such investigations have taken
advantage of meta-theoretical approaches, most often conceptual
analysis. Conceptual structures are approached perhaps most conveniently
(and traditionally) with a literature review, where judgment is used to
discover some general meaningful patterns. Discourse analysis, in turn,
investigates the selected types of communication in more detail. These,
and most other related methods rely heavily on qualitative judgment-
based assessment of the material. Statistical analysis of the discourse can,
however contribute much to meta-analytical research, in the form of a
quantitative and less subjective approach. (Parvinen 2003 p. 15)
Bibliometric research represents a newer form of meta-analytical research.
Bibliometric analysis has been applied in the social sciences to discover
“qualities which have been seen to have significance in the field.” (Puro
1996 p. 54) Discovering these qualities allows evaluation of the
philosophical backgrounds of the central influential theories.
Bibliometric analysis can rarely be fully valid or reliable. As in all social
sciences, there is a persistent subjective element to any assessment.
Bibliometric analysis will never by itself produce interpreted explanations
for the stated and structures of the discourse being analyzed.
Furthermore, there are practical limitations to performing exhaustive
analysis, originating from the requirement for a compromise between
scope and information technology flexibility. These limitations are
discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
22
Descriptive Analysis
Bibliometric descriptive analysis uses standard straightforward statistical
techniques for describing the data set. Discrete distributions of data across
journals, author activity as well as temporal and geographical dimensions
are examined. This aims at providing a structured reference frame on solid
ground for further reflection.
Citation Analysis
The next part of the bibliometric analysis focuses on citation data. Again,
distributions are drawn on the temporal profile of citations as well as
most cited works, first authors and journals.
Co-Citation Analysis
Co-citation analysis expands on basic citation analysis to discover
relationships between the key objects in the discourse. The method is
built on seminal work by Henry Small (1973), who first presented co-
citation analysis as a useful and highly objective technique for modeling
the structure of scientific discourse. Within co-citation analysis, cluster and
network centrality analyses are performed on the most cited works in the
bibliometric data set.
Co-citation cluster analysis in this study takes advantage of the model for
hierarchical clustering presented by Johnson (1967, p. 241): Given a
symmetric n by n matrix indicating the degree of similarity (co-citation
strength) between each of a set of n objects (articles), the hierarchical
clustering algorithm seeks nested partitions among the relationships.
Given the set of partitions, an identity partition is identified in which all
items are in different clusters. The two most similar items are then joined
to form a single entity. Next, the most similar pair of the remaining items
is picked out and similarly joined. The algorithm runs until all items have
23
been hierarchically joined into a single cluster. (Borgatti, Everett, and
Freeman 2002;Johnson 1967, p. 241)
There are a number of methods for combining the items and clusters into
new clusters. Two are used in this study. The average-link approach
calculates the similarity between cluster members by using the average
similarity between the members of those clusters. The complete-link
approach defines the between-cluster similarity instead based on the
maximum similarity between members of possible clusters. (Borgatti,
Everett, and Freeman 2002)
Measures of network centrality are indicators of the positions of theories
and antecedents in a discourse (Oliver and Ebers 1998, p. 549). Network
centrality analysis in co-citation analysis rests on the premise that a valued
graph can be formed from co-citation data represented as an n by n
matrix of co-citation strengths (Borgatti, Everett, and Freeman 2002). The
valued graph is then a network, where the objects of analysis correspond
to nodes and the co-citation strengths between them are inversely
proportional to the distance between nodes (Subhash 1996). Two kinds of
mathematical algorithms are applied in this study to measure network
centrality within the co-citation data:
(i) Bonacich Eigenvector Centrality – The measure of centrality used is
the eigenvector of the largest positive eigenvalue. The centrality of
a concept thus equals the sum of its connections to other concepts.
This measure, scaled to [0,1], reveals which nodes (concepts) are at
the core of the network. (Bonacich 1972, p. 113–120;Borgatti,
Everett, and Freeman 2002)
(ii) Freeman Betweenness Centrality – This measure tells the degree to
which a focal concept is located on the shortest connecting path
between any other concepts. Bridging ability refers to the ability
24
to connect to other nodes in the network that cannot connect
directly and thus indicates high betweenness centrality. A high
betweenness centrality means that a concept links two other
concepts that are disconnected individually. (Freeman 1979, p. 215)
Network centrality analysis allows assessing the interlinkages within the
co-citation network: Bonacich eigenvector centrality will indicate relative
importance, and betweenness centrality the degree of bridging a unit of
study achieves (the “relative cross-fertilizing ability”, according to
Parvinen). (Freeman 1979, p. 215;Parvinen 2003 p. 27-8)
The practical specifics of the nontrivial analysis methods are discussed in
detail as they are presented in conjunction with the practical data analysis
in section 4.2.
1.7 Research Progress and Structure of the Thesis
This section summarizes the process of research and the structure of the
thesis.
First, the study reviews the selection and organization of data for
descriptive and bibliometric analysis (Chapter 2). The justifications for and
practicalities in journal selection, article selection and classification, as
well as technical questions of data coding, management and analysis are
addressed. The chapter discusses the prerequisites for analysis of the
“streams” of strategic marketing discourse in terms if their internal
structure; for comparing and contrasting what the postulated different
schools of thought consider “strategic marketing”.
Next, bibliometric analysis techniques are applied on a comprehensive
selection of peer-referred journal articles to further, more systematically
and objectively, structure the discourse. This phase begins by a descriptive
25
analysis of the discourse, followed by citation analysis to point out the
intellectual bases and underlying research streams. Finally, co-citation
analysis techniques are employed to draw out the structures and
interlinkages in past research, that are reflected in the present state of
the strategic marketing discourse.
The role of the bibliometric analysis is to address the research questions.
Question 1, on the antecendents that have contributed to the present
discourse on “strategic marketing” is directly addressed by reflecting the
results of the bibliometric citation and co-citation analyses on the
structure of discourse at the present. The second research question, on the
roles that are attributed to “strategic marketing” is approached with
discussion of what the thoeretical antecedents to the discussion imply
about such roles.
Ultimately, the study will provide the StratMark project with a starting
point for developing a refined, sound theoretical and terminological base
and recommendations for further research within the group’s
understanding of strategic marketing. This is addressed with the final
research question, through subjective assesment of the discovered
antecedents to the discourse.
Chapter 1 sets the objectives and presents the wider context of the study.
The case for approaching the question set with the chosen methodologies
is made and these methods described.
Chapters 2 through 4 are devoted to bibliometric analysis. Chapter 2
describes the selection process and criteria of journals and articles,
followed by descriptive, citation and co-citation analyses in subsequent
chapters.
Chapter 5 draws together the results and discusses implications.
Correspondences and points of difference are discussed to form an overall
26
image of the validity of the results with respect to the research questions
and objectives. Chapter 6 addresses the issues of reliability and validity of
the research. Chapter 7 conclude the thesis with evaluation of the
contribution of the thesis to research in the topic area and assessment of
possible avenues for further research in the area both within the study’s
immediate context as well as in related fields of study.
27
2 Data Organization
This chapter explains the processes related to selecting the journals from
which to select the data for bibliometric analysis; the process of selecting
and retrieving the article data; classifying the article data by relevancy;
and, finally, how the data was coded, managed and analyzed from a
technical perspective.
2.1 Journal Selection
The first step in defining the data set used in bibliometric analysis is the
selection of journals from which articles are then considered for inclusion.
The selection journals as a first step allows us to efficiently set a clear
focus for the research and set first limits for topic areas with potential for
answering the set research questions. Selecting journals is in many ways a
more fully objective step, as there exists wide consensus (on an aggregate
level) in the scientific community as to which journals represent quality
research. Furthermore, relying on established criteria in assessing journal
impact the quality of the articles is efficiently controlled to the required
extent.
The fact being that the research questions aim at discovering the different
streams of thought that attribute themselves under “strategic marketing”
means that a broad selection of journals, however, must be taken into
consideration. Given the goals and framing of the research, it is essential
that any discourse that attributes strategy to marketing, semantically or
otherwise, be included in the sample. In a business context, it is impossible
28
and irrelevant for a manager to distinguish between different contexts
and terminology. Terminology itself should, of course, be largely
irrelevant. However, clear abstractions do seem to be at the core of
successful management (Vassinen 2006).
Preliminary general study of the most influential journals and periodicals3
indicated that the discussion on the relative rankings of journals within
the marketing scholar community is very much well and alive.
Consequently, articles analyzing the influence of marketing-related
journals provide a convenient and efficient basis for journal selection.
Bibliometric analysis of a field of study is firmly related to analysis of the
influence of different sources. Quite naturally, there is a range of journals
that bear a proportionally much larger influence on the discourse at large.
A study of streams of thought and research will require a restricted
sample set. Baumgartner and Pieters (2003, p. 123–39) present and apply a
thorough reasoning and a methodology for this.
The cross-sectional as well as longitudinal study of structure of influence
in a discipline is important for forming a systematic representation. Little
literature directly addresses this; some applying work exists nevertheless
in the field of marketing: Franke et al (1990, p. 243–253), Lukka and
Kasanen (1996, p. 755), Zinkhan et al (1992, p. 282). Baumgartner and
Pieters address the question of journal selection from the point of view of
3 Mainly, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Business Research, Management Science,
Harvard Business Review, Industrial Marketing Management and Marketing Science;
selected on basis of professional opinion. H. Tikkanen, Professor, Department of
Marketing, Helsinki School of Economics, Finland. Personal communication (2006):
29
citation analysis requirements. While their method builds on Salancik’s
proposed index of structural influence (1986, p. 194), the process of
journal selection is solid and applicable for the much-related purposes of
this study. Instead of assessing the structural influence of various journals,
our aim is to focus instead on a subset of the discourse that comprises that
network of influence exchange.
The journal selection method of Baumgartner and Pieters relies on the
most popular citation-based measure of journal influence, the annual
Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI). The SSCI assigns to each journal an
impact factor measuring the number of citations an average article in that
journal has received during a period of two years after publication. Thus,
journals rated high in the SSCI form a convenient base for constructing a
data set for analysis.
Baumgartner and Pieters’ study includes a total of 49 marketing and
marketing-related journals and periodicals, 26 of which were listed in the
SSCI at the time (2003, p. 123–39). The authors consider that, for their
purposes, assessing the importance of journals in the marketing discipline,
a journal base wider than that delimited by the SSCI was more relevant. In
the first stage of their selection process, Baumgartner and Pieters sampled
the top 40 marketing journals from the study by Hult, Neese and Bashaw
(1997, p. 37). Hult et al conducted a survey of 309 marketing faculty
members asking for their top ten journals. Answering was aided by a list
of 63 examples. As two journals were tied for the 40th place, Baumgartner
and Pieters included 41 journals in their sample set in the first stage of
selection (Table 2: group 1).
In the second stage of their journal selection process, Baumgartner and
Pieters added three further sets of journals: First, three journals
constituting the intersection of the Hult et al list of 63 journals and the
SSCI were added (Table 2: group 2a). Next, the authors looked at the top
30
listings Hult et al had attributed to different subgroups of respondents.
Four journals that appeared on these top 40 lists were added (Table 2:
group 2b). Finally, the Journal of Consumer Policy was added as it had
been included in an earlier study (Zinkhan, Roth, and Saxton 1992, p. 282)
(Table 2: group 2c).
In the three years since Baumgartner and Pieters’ study was published, a
further three journals from the set of 49 have been added to the SSCI, to
a total of 52. As this thesis is concerned with the content of the discourse
that is considered influential, rather than the distribution of that
influence, it is deemed justifiable to limit the scope of the Bibliometric
study to the 37 journals found in the SSCI. This limitation is further
justified by the convenience it allows in gathering and processing
bibliometric and citation data. The gathering and processing of the data
can be, to a large extent, automated, as it is available in a common
format ready for entering into analysis software. This process is described
in section 2.2.
For reasons of practicality analogous to journal selection, the bibliometric
sources used in this study are restricted to the time period of 1986 to
2005, or less in cases where a journal’s publication history is shorter. It is
deemed that this range is more than sufficient for avoiding instability due
to short-term fluctuations in discourse. Table 2 lists the journals selected
for this study.
Table 2. Journals and periodicals selected for bibliometric analysis.
# Journal Source Group
1 Advances in Consumer Research 2c 2 Business Horizons 1 3 California Management Review 1 4 Decision Sciences 1 5 European Journal of Marketing 1 6 Harvard Business Review 1 7 Industrial Marketing Management 1 8 International Journal of Research in Marketing 1
31
9 Journal of Advertising 1 10 Journal of Advertising Research 1 11 Journal of Business 1 12 Journal of Business Ethics 1 13 Journal of Business Research 1 14 Journal of Consumer Affairs 2a 15 Journal of Consumer Marketing 1 16 Journal of Consumer Policy 1 17 Journal of Consumer Psychology 1 18 Journal of Consumer Research 1 19 Journal of Economic Psychology 2a 20 Journal of Global Marketing 1 21 Journal of Health Care Marketing 1 22 Journal of International Business Studies 1 23 Journal of International Marketing 1 24 Journal of Marketing 1 25 Journal of Marketing Research 1 26 Journal of Product Innovation Management 1 27 Journal of Public Policy Marketing 1 28 Journal of Public Policy Marketing 1 29 Journal of Retailing 1 30 Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 1 31 Journal of the Market Research Society 2a 32 Management Science 1 33 Marketing Letters 1 34 Marketing Management 1 35 Marketing Science 1 36 Psychology Marketing 1 37 Sloan Management Review 1
2.2 Database Queries
Following the selection of journals, the next step was to query the ISI SSCI
online database for the actual data. The ISI Web of Science service4 allows
convenient polling of article data from journals in the SSCI from 1986 to
4 http://isiknowledge.com/
32
the present. Searches can be effectively narrowed according to temporal,
source and other criteria using the advanced search mechanism.
For the purposes of this study, the source journal set was defined as
required by the listing in the previous section. At this point, the temporal
constraint was set to include all matching articles for 1986 to 2005. To
draw out as wide as possible a range of discussion that might be relevant,
the search phrase was set as “marketing strateg* OR strategic market* OR
marketing's strateg*”, including all data of an entry in the search. The
search results from the ISI SSCI database consist of article entries, an
exemplar of which is presented in Table 3. The search query matched
every article, within the given constraints, that contained any of the three
search phrases in any of the fields listed in Table 3.
Table 3. ISI SSCI article data output (example).
Author(s): Neill, S; Rose, GM Title: The effect of strategic complexity on marketing strategy
and organizational performance Source: JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, 59 (1): 1-10 JAN 2006 Language: English Document Type: Article Author Keywords: marketing strategy; organizational cognition;
performance; strategic complexity Keywords Plus: DECISION-MAKING; MEASUREMENT ERROR;
ORIENTATION; MODEL; DIVERSITY; QUALITY; SYSTEMS; IMPLEMENTATION; PERSPECTIVE; ENVIRONMENT
Abstract: While researchers have examined many antecedents of marketing strategy, there is scant research assessing the effect of organizational cognition. In this study, organizational cognition is examined in terms of the firm's strategic complexity, which is its capacity to integrate multiple environmental dimensions during marketing strategy making. The results from a sample of wholesale distributors reveal four strategic groups that differ based upon their degree of strategic complexity. Results support the proposition that strategic complexity is an organizational capability that enables more effective strategy making and produces superior firm performance. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Addresses: Univ Washington, Milgard Sch Business, Tacoma, WA 98402 USA
33
Reprint Address: Rose, GM, Univ Washington, Milgard Sch Business, 1900 Commerce St, Tacoma, WA 98402 USA.
E-mail Address: [email protected]; [email protected] Cited References: *FISTR RES ED FDN, 1998, FAC FORC CHANG 4 TRE.
AAKER DA, 2001, STRATEGIC MARKET M E, V6. ANDREWS J, 1996, J MARKETING RES, V33, P174. ASHBY WR, 1956, INTRO CYBERNETICS. BARR PS, 1998, ORGAN SCI, V9, P644. BOISOT M, 1999, ORGAN SCI, V10, P237. BOULDING W, 1994, MARKET LETT, V5, P413. CLARK LA, 1995, PSYCHOL ASSESSMENT, V7, P309. DAFT RL, 1984, ACAD MANAGE REV, V9, P284. DAY GS, 1988, J MARKETING, V52, P1. DAY GS, 1994, J MARKETING, V58, P31. DAY GS, 1994, J MARKETING, V58, P37. DESHPANDE R, 1993, J MARKETING, V57, P23. DESHPANDE R, 1994, MARKET LETT, V5, P271. DRIVER MJ, 1969, ADM SCI Q, V14, P272. FORNELL C, 1981, J MARKETING RES, V18, P39. GATIGNON H, 1997, J MARKETING RES, V34, P77. GREENLEY GE, 1997, J MANAGE STUD, V34, P259. HAIR JH, 1998, MULTIVARIATE DATA AN. HUBER GP, 1991, ORGAN SCI, V2, P88. JACOBSON R, 1987, J MARKETING, V51, P31. KOHLI AK, 1993, J MARKETING RES, V30, P467. LUSCH RF, 1996, J MARKETING, V60, P19. LYLES MA, 1992, J MANAGE STUD, V29, P155. MCGILL AR, 1994, PSYCHOL REP, V75, P1451. MENON A, 1999, J MARKETING, V63, P18. MILLER CC, 1998, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V19, P39. MILLIGAN GW, 1987, APPLIED PSYCHOL MEAS, V11, P329. MILLIKEN FJ, 1996, ACAD MANAGE REV, V21, P402. MINTZBERG H, 1976, ADM SCI Q, V21, P246. MOORMAN C, 1998, J MARKETING, V62, P1. MORGAN NA, 1998, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V26, P190. NAMAN JL, 1993, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V14, P137. NARVER JC, 1990, J MARKETING, V54, P20. NEGEMEYER RG, 2003, PROCEDURES ISSUES AP. NEISSER U, 1976, COGNITION REALITY. NOBLE CH, 2002, J MARKETING, V66, P25. PARASURAMAN A, 1985, J MARKETING, V49, P41. PHILLIPS LW, 1981, J MARKETING RES, V18, P395. PIERCY NF, 1998, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V26, P222. PRAHALAD CK, 1986, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V7, P485. RAYKOV T, 1995, STRUCTURAL EQUATION, V2, P289. SCHWENK CR, 1984, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V5, P111. SCHWENK CR, 1988, J MANAGE STUD, V25, P41. SIGUAW JA, 1998, J MARKETING, V62, P99.
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SINKULA JM, 1994, J MARKETING, V58, P35. STREUFERT S, 1986, COMPLEXITY MANAGERS. STREUFERT S, 1989, INT REV IND ORG PSYC, P93. URBANY JE, 1998, MARKET LETT, V9, P285. VARADARAJAN PR, 1999, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V27, P120. VOSS GB, 2000, J MARKETING, V64, P67. WALKER OC, 1987, J MARKETING, V51, P15. WALLY S, 1994, ACAD MANAGE J, V37, P932. WALSH JP, 1988, ACAD MANAGE J, V31, P873. WALSH JP, 1995, ORGAN SCI, V6, P280. WEICK KE, 1983, ORG EFFECTIVENESS CO, P71. WEICK KE, 1995, SENSEMAKING ORG. WRIGHT P, 1991, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V19, P245.
Cited Reference Count: 58 Times Cited: 0 Publisher: ELSEVIER SCIENCE INC Publisher Address: 360 PARK AVE SOUTH, NEW YORK, NY 10010-1710 USA ISSN: 0148-2963 29-char Source Abbrev.: J BUS RES ISO Source Abbrev.: J. Bus. Res. Source Item Page Count: 10 Subject Category: Business ISI Document Delivery No.:
987DN
In total, the search yielded a set of 423 articles. A number of factors,
including but not limited to “keyword noise” – for example, articles from
an unrelated discussion flagged with “marketing strategy” – resulted in a
data set where only a certain part of the articles would directly contribute
to the analysis. A manual selection procedure to extract articles that are
relevant to the discourse would be required.
2.3 Article Selection
Given the set of 423 articles yielded by querying the ISI Web of Science
with the selected keywords, journal set and temporal restrictions, an
article-level assessment was necessary to ensure a data set appropriate for
addressing the research questions. The journal selection process addressed
the criteria of temporal scope, disciplinary coverage, source publication
quality and appropriate initial sample size. However, given the general
35
nature of the keywords, it was to be expected that they appear on a wide
range of articles, some of which would contribute little to an
understanding of the structure of the discourse. Furthermore, the
database queries yielded a number of articles for which complete data
was not available, usually in the form of missing abstracts. Also, the search
results included a number of duplicate entries that had to be removed.
To deal with these issues, a manual scanning of all 423 articles that
resulted from the keyword search was carried out. The manual scanning
process relied exclusively on the data for each article that was included in
the ISI SSCI listing. In cases of unclear or less specific information in the
result data, steps were not taken to, for example, retrieve the original
article in its entirety to aid in deciding about that article’s inclusion in the
data set. Likewise, articles (typically the older ones) and article-like
academic book reviews lacked an abstract in some cases. These, too, were
excluded without additional steps. It was reasoned that (i) if an article is
relevant to the discussion, or handles “strategic marketing” in a way that
would contribute to a general understanding, this would be apparent in
the title or abstract, and (ii) assessing some articles based exclusively on
SSCI data and some on a far more comprehensive level would to some
extent compromise the reliability of the method.
It was conjectured, that in examining terminology use and content
structure in a field of study, three general levels of relevancy in source
material might be distinguished. Firstly, any material that is meta-
theoretical in nature, or directly addresses the themes in question,
comprises the core theoretical foundation and direct antecedent material
of the study. A second stratum consists of articles that show some
disposition towards one or more, new or old, interpretations of the
subject matter. It is within these articles that streams of understanding
and discussion may be identified. The final set of material would include
articles that (a) present no assessable angle towards the subject matter,
36
(b) focus heavily on some technical or non-relevant subtopic, or (c) use the
terminology in conjunction with some modifiers5 that essentially shift the
focus away from what would be a contribution to the study.
The practical application of the three-level classification method begun
with a rapid assessment of circa half of the material. For each article, the
SSCI data was examined and note was made of a proposed classification in
one of the three levels. It soon became apparent, however, that this
procedure would yield little more than a rigid “approve or reject”
classification. Furthermore, several types of article and discussion were
notoriously difficult for making a decision on whether there was enough
discussion pertaining to “marketing strategy” for acceptance into the
final data set.
Thus, the framework was developed further. The initial assessment
indicated that six distinct levels would provide greater accuracy and ease
of classification. This way, more subtle themes might be included in the
classification criteria. Also, a larger number of levels would provide more
flexibility in further analysis, as there would be a wider range of cut-off
points to select articles by. The classification levels and criteria for
inclusion are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Classification levels and criteria for article assessment.
Classification level
Criteria for inclusion
-2 Duplicate entries, abstract missing or not at all relevant
5 For example, an article focusing on ”channel marketing strategy” would match the
database query in question here, but given the explicitly modified scope, be excluded from
analysis.
37
-1 Some possible orientation towards a discussion stream on some issues, but with little general relevance, or composite terms with modifying scope as keywords
+0 Some possible orientation towards and potentially shared sources with a discussion stream
+1 Distinct perspective to “strategic marketing”
+2 Discussion of “strategic marketing’s” role in organization, or discussion of a process resembling strategic commercialization
+3 Strategic marketing or marketing discussion meta-theory
In a second round of assessment, the articles were classified either to one
of the six levels, or as borderline cases. As the assessment progressed, the
criteria were further refined, the final result being those presented in
Table 4. Once the criteria were fixed, the SSCI data was given a third and
final read-through to push borderline cases into one or the other
classification level and ensure that the classification had been constant
during the second round. Less than twenty (5%) of articles had their
classification changed to an adjacent level, and none to a nonadjacent
level. Table 5 presents the final total numbers of articles classified under
each level.
Articles that received a “-2” classification either missed an abstract or
were completely out of the scope of the study. The majority of cases were
those of missing abstracts. These can be subdivided into articles for which
there never existed an abstract, and older articles for which the abstract
had not been entered in the SSCI database. Articles without abstracts
were mostly book reviews. An interesting case of duplicate entries
combined with missing abstracts was the inclusion in the SSCI database of
several independent books reviews for a certain title6. Reviews of the
6 Zaichkowsky, J.L. (1995) “Defending Your Brand Against Imitation: Consumer Behavior,
Marketing Strategies, and Legal Issues” Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
38
book appeared in 1996-1998 in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing
(Simonson 1998, p. 143), the Journal of Marketing (Zinkhan 1997, p. 99),
and the Journal of Consumer Affairs (Garkey 1996, p. 505). All three
entries were classified “-2” despite the possible relevance of the work so
thoroughly scrutinized in quality publications. The majority of level “-2”
classifications consist, however, of articles published before circa 1990.
Although the SSCI database extends to 1986, few of the earlier entries
include an abstract in the SSCI data. Since they, however, do include
complete citation data; they are still useful in some analyses. Furthermore,
some articles were deemed to stray too far from the discourse to be
considered for inclusion under any circumstances. Indeed, it was
altogether interesting that these articles had had a “strategic marketing”
keyword attached to their publication information. One such article
examined changes in labor force ethnic diversity (Friedman and DiTomaso
1996, p. 54). Finally, one article was given a “-2” classification since the
keywords appeared only as a part of a list of terms, separated by a
comma: “Marketing, strategic planning, international business, and
business law were the four key learning issues […].” A total of 97 articles
were classified in the “-2” category.
The “-1” level included articles that were to some extent related to the
conjectured streams of strategic marketing discourse, but that focused on
a limited, specific sub-area, or used some derivative term modifying or
limiting the scope of the work. Firstly, some articles were outright outside
the bounds of the discourse the study focused on. For example, “A global
code of business ethics” by Payne et al discusses moral and ethical codes
to be developed and applied within multinational companies (Payne,
Raiborn, and Askvik 1997, p. 1727). While the theme is certainly within
the fields of both strategy and marketing, it is prohibitively difficult to
place such discussion in any specific core stream of strategic marketing
discourse. Another such example is Frazier and Lassar’s “Determinants of
39
distribution intensity” (1996, p. 39): although the article discusses a
generally recognized aspect of marketing strategy – agency theory in
combination with brand strategy and channel practices – it is difficult to
establish an implicit, reliable link between the authors’ construct and any
specific perspective on the role and scope of strategic marketing. The
second category of articles classified under “-1” differs, in the end, very
little from the first. The Moreau et al article “The manufacturer-retailer-
consumer triad: Differing perceptions regarding price promotions” (2001,
p. 547)discusses the effectiveness of promotional strategies. While the
article could be associated with a possible strategic marketing discourse
stream, the authors dissociate the work from direct references to the
general scope of strategic marketing by using modifiers such as “channel
marketing strategy”. Johnson’s “From understanding consumer behavior
to testing category structures” was likewise classified under “-1”; it
focused on “purchase marketing strategy” (Johnson 1999, p. 259).
Deciding whether an article was to be given a “-2” or a “-1” classification
was straightforward enough in most cases. The distinction between levels
“-1” and “+0” was, however, often finer. The Moreau et al article was one
such case; another example would be Luo et al’s “Entrepreneurial firms in
the context of China's transition economy: an integrative framework and
empirical examination”, which considered “strategic market factors” as a
component of their framework (Luo, Zhou, and Liu 2005, p. 277). The
framework itself, however, fell out of the scope of this study. Altogether
50 articles received a “-1” classification.
Classification level “+0” received the most entries of the six levels. Indeed,
in the classification process it acted as the starting point from where an
article was either “demoted” or “promoted” based on the relevance of
the available SSCI information to strategic marketing discourse. Articles
that were classified in the “+0” category represented a recognizable
contribution or perspective to the discourse. There had to be some
40
implicit indication that the authors were taking some stand on the role
and scope of “strategic marketing” – the nature of their perspective,
naturally, played no part in the selection process. Articles classified under
“+0” typically displayed their take on “strategic marketing” in one
implicit form or another; articles where the role of strategic marketing
was approached more directly, not to mention explicitly, were classified in
levels 1 through 3. In all, for inclusion in the “+0” category an article
would have to be potentially relevant to the issues being considered,
share a lowest common denominator with the discourse. Prior to actual
bibliometric citation analysis, one justification for including articles in the
“+0” category, that might not have qualified based solely on the abstract
and keywords, were the articles’ potential antecedents. That is, if an
article was seen as potentially sharing a substantial corpus of referenced
works with one or more conjectured streams of discourse, it was included
in the “+0” category. It was reasoned, that such articles might be placed
in a stream of discourse in bibliometric analysis later on. Distinguishing
these potentially relevant articles from those with little potential (and
classified under “-1”) was not always a straightforward task. Assessing the
degree of meta-theoretical approach outlined in the abstract to the
article offered one way to make this distinction. Taylor’s “Moving
international advertising research forward – a new research agenda”
(2005, p. 7) was one such case. Although that article’s focus was heavily on
advertising research, one could reason that an “examination of the
content of […] papers published in the journal of Advertising during the
past ten years” would be relevant to the scope of our study. Since the
focus, however, was not expressly on strategic marketing, level “+0” was
deemed the correct category for the article. In another case,
“International market segmentation: issues and perspectives” by
Steenkamp and Ter Hofstede (2002, p. 185), was initially considered for a
“-1” classification. However, although the abstract does not mention
“strategic marketing” as such, the article is essentially strategic marketing
41
meta-theory, reviewing segmentation literature and assessing past work
in the field. Thus, it was seen as potentially relevant to understanding the
general structure of strategic marketing discourse.
Articles for which the SSCI information indicated a distinct perspective to
“strategic marketing” were classified into category “+1” – whatever the
understanding of or perspective to strategic marketing was. The articles,
typically, discussed a component of strategic marketing, past research into
such components, or referred to some distinct company actions as
manifestations or components of “marketing strategy”. The distinction
between classification levels “+0” and “+1” was often along a very fine
line; these constituted the majority of the hardest decisions as well as
third-round classification level changes. A typical example of a “+1” level
article would be Palmer and Miller’s “Segmentation: Identification,
intuition, and implementation”. The article discusses the implementation
of segmentation in a business-to-business context as a component of
marketing strategy (Palmer and Millier 2004, p. 779). Another example of
a level “+1” article classification is article by Forgas and Ciarrochi, which
asserts that “many marketing strategies rely on assertive manipulations to
influence a desire of ownership” (Forgas and Ciarrochi 2001, p. 239). Here,
the scope and nature of “strategic marketing” are presented somewhat
differently, yet distinctively. As for the set of articles where difficulties
were encountered in making a decision between levels 0 and 1, the article
“A taxonomy of differences between consumers for market
segmentation” by Bock and Uncles serves as an example. The article
certainly discusses themes pertinent to strategic marketing – forming,
appraising and optimizing segments – but takes no clear stance on the
relationship with or implications for strategic decision-making (Bock and
Uncles 2002, p. 215). Thus, the article was demoted from an original “+1”
classification to “+0” during the third review round for sake of
consistency. In all, 117 articles were classified under “+1”.
42
In order for an article to be elevated to a “+2” classification level, there
had to be explicit evidence of discussion of the role of strategic marketing
in an organization, or discussion explicitly focusing on themes prevalent in
the StratMark research group’s perspective on strategic marketing – that
is, the process of strategic commercialization. To be included in the first of
these subcategories, an article had to address the theme of the study
directly: What is the role of strategic marketing? What are its
components? Who in the organization is responsible for strategic
marketing? Whereas an implicit link to a perspective on “strategic
marketing” was sufficient for a level “+1” article, here the authors had to
be explicit. Stoelhorst and van Raaij’s 2004 piece “On explaining
performance differentials: Marketing and the managerial theory of the
firm” is a typical category “+2” article. It discusses a framework to
integrate performance differential understandings in managerial,
organizational and marketing theory, and how marketing can contribute
to the success of a firm (Stoelhorst and van Raaij 2004, p. 462). Similarly,
Zou and Cavusgil’s “The GMS: A broad conceptualization of global
marketing strategy and its effect on firm performance” is a clear-cut
category “+2” article, as it directly addresses the components of a global
marketing strategy and performance links therein (Zou and Cavusgil 2002,
p. 40). In most cases, articles falling into this category were very easily
identified. The second subcategory, articles that focus on what might be
considered strategic commercialization, accounted for less than half of
level “+2” articles. They were, however, just as readily identified. One
article, for example, that closely echoes the StratMark perspective to
strategic commercialization is “Seller-buyer interactions during the
commercialization of technological process innovations” by Athaide et al:
“[a] clear understanding of the buyer’s needs and environment is essential
thoughout the seller’s organization, not just in the sales and marketing
departments” (Athaide, Meyers, and Wilemon 1996, p. 406). In all, 33
articles were in the “+2” category.
43
The final classification level, “+3”, was instantiated as a way to make a
note of the few level “+2” articles that not only were relevant for
examining strategic marketing discourse, but in fact addressed the
research questions of our study. The four articles assigned the highest
relevancy level were:
(i) Wilkinson and Young: “Marketing theory in the next millennium -
Looking backwards and forwards” (2002, p. 81)
(ii) Varadarajan and Jayachandran: “Marketing strategy: An
assessment of the state of the field and outlook” (1999, p. 120)
(iii) Hunt and Menon: “Metaphors and competitive advantage -
evaluating the use of metaphors theories of competitive strategy”
(1995, p. 81)
(iv) Varadarajan and Clark: “Delineating the scope of corporate,
business, and marketing strategy” (1994, p. 93)
The final tallies of for the number of articles included in each relevancy
category are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Final article classification category counts.
Relevancy level # articles Cumulative total
3 4 4
2 33 37
1 117 154
0 122 276
-1 50 326
-2 97 423
The method of article selection presented here is relatively subjective. The
reliability and validity of the method are therefore questionable to some
extent. Manually selecting the articles, however, is likely the most reliable
and valid method that there is available, as selection criterain cannot be
44
numerical alone: above, we encountered multiple series and types of
articles, that justifiably were discarded, even though the objective
database queries indicated that they might comprise valid material.
Similarly, it it highly likely that some stream of thought is severy under-
represented, or even omitted, in this study due to its appearing under
completely different terminology in the general marketing discourse. The
method used, however, represents standard qualitative methodology,
widely accepted in the social sciences. The reliability and validity of the
method are elaborated on in Chaper 6. The presented compromise
between harder and softer criteria, however, serves the purposes of this
study with sufficient scientific integrity.
2.4 Data Coding, Management And Analysis
As described in the previous section, article data was retrieved from the
SSCI online database. The WWW interface of the service allowed for
complete data to be exported in a plain text file. This text file was
converted to two formats: a Microsoft Excel worksheet for rapid access
and descriptive analysis, and a Microsoft Access database for performing
the majority of the analyses.
The SSCI database dump was imported to Microsoft Access using a
bibliometric analysis software tool called Sitkis (Schildt 2002). Sitkis is a
Java-based toolkit designed for use with a Microsoft Access database
master. SSCI data is automatically parsed and transferred to the database
by Sitkis, after which analyses can be performed within Sitkis or Microsoft
Access. From Microsoft Access, data can be retrieved in virtually any
combination using Structured Query Language (SQL) and proprietary
commands with Visual Basic for Applications. Sitkis also allows analysis
results to be exported in a format compatible with the UCINET VI social
network analysis software package (Borgatti, Everett, and Freeman 2002).
45
The analyses in this study all used Microsoft Excel, except for the co-
citation analyses, which were carried out with Sitkis and UCINET VI.
All Microsoft software used was version XP; the version of Sitkis used was
1.6. All analyses were performed on the Microsoft Windows platform.
The SSCI data required a series of manual cleanup steps before analyses
could be performed. The steps taken to, for example, standardize
spellings and cited references, are discussed in conjunction with the
relevant analyses.
46
3 Descriptive Analysis
This chapter describes the structure of the data and techniques used for
the descriptive analysis. Basic descriptive techniques are applied, in the
form of standard statistical methods. The analyses carried out include
publication activity, authorship, distribution of publication outlets, and
the temporal publication pattern of the selected articles.
3.1 Publication Activity
The SSCI database search yielded 423 articles to do with strategic
marketing published in the selected journals in 1986 to 2005. This sample
size is quite small compared to similar studies. Although it is difficult to
compare publication activity or intensity directly with another discourse,
Parvinen’s bibliometric study of the structure of the mergers and
acquisitions (M&A) discourse consisted of 567 articles published in 65
journals during 1991–2001 (Parvinen 2003). Compared to that number,
the similar method employed here identified only approximately half that
number, when taking into account the wider temporal range. A similar
construct to Parvinen and the one used in this study polled the SSCI
database for articles on software development (Mathiassen et al. 2004, p.
9). The Mathiassen et al study limited the search to 68 leading journals
and a temporal constraint of 1990 to 2004. This resulted in 4,320 articles,
of which 97 were considered relevant by the authors.
Since articles classified in the “-2” level, as described in section 2.3, were
discarded as completely irrelevant, the publication activity changes
47
somewhat, although not as dramatically as in the Mathiassen et al study.
Furthermore, many of the discarded articles were from the earliest years,
in practice limiting the temporal range of the data set to circa 1991 –
2005. A total of 326 articles were classified “-1” or higher, the earliest of
these being from 1990. Compared to the M&A publication intensity that
Parvinen identified, this is less than half the number of articles per year.
However, the intensity of relevant article publication activity exceeds that
found in the Mathiassen et al study.
The SSCI index lists 32,240 articles published during the selected time
period in the selected journals. The 423 articles represent 1.3% of the
total. Taking into account the discarded articles classified under “-2” and
the consequently implied temporal range of 1990 to 2005, we are dealing
with 326 articles out of a potential set of 26,052 – again, approximately
1.3%. Limiting the search results with the keyword “marketing” limits the
number of article matches in 1990 to 2005 to 3,644. Our selection of 326
articles thus represents 8.9% of the discourse classified under marketing, a
far more reasonable estimate of the scope of the sample than the
preceding calculations including, for example, all articles published in the
Journal of Business Ethics.
The discourse included for consideration in this study represents but a
fraction of the overall marketing discourse. Marketing, however, is a wide
and varied discipline with a multitude of sub-fields and practitioners.
Strategic marketing, as the authors understand it, is one of those sub-
fields; one that is not very clearly delineated. Much material reached with
the given database query is directly relevant, but the nature of the study
and our definition of strategic marketing imply that there is plentiful
material within the scope of strategic marketing that is not included in
the article data. This is due to the fact that a wider understanding of
strategic marketing incorporates material from discourses that have
traditionally been outside the bounds of marketing: supply and demand
48
network management, organizational theory and governance, to mention
a few. Despite these shortcomings, it is felt that the apparent publication
activity closely represents that of an active implicit discourse, covering a
wide range of approaches and research topics, all with shared ground in
how the strategic role of marketing is approached.
3.2 Authorship
Each article was attributed to one or more authors in the SSCI database,
with the majority listing two or three people as authors. For each article
classification level, author data was extracted from the data corpus in
Microsoft Access and exported to Microsoft Excel for further analysis.
Before total authorship tallies could be formed, author names had to be
standardized. For example, an article by Sundar G. Bharadwaj appeared
with author name “Bharadwaj, S” whereas others were correctly labeled
as “Bharadwaj, SG”. A total of nine entries out of 326 were thus
corrected. Once this had been done, separate tables were formed for each
classification level. It should be noted, that this authorship analysis, as
well as all other unless otherwise stated, regard “classification level n”
articles as the union of all articles in that level n, and those in any levels
with a higher numerical distinction. The total number of articles is
therefore cumulative. The classification levels allow for a cut-off point to
be set where desired. Later, it will be demonstrated where the cut-off
point in actuality should lie for the clearest simplified representation of
the streams within the discourse: lower-level articles may provide deeper
insight in to more subtle undertones and articles classified higher might
over-simplify and disregard certain facets of the discourse.
For the base set of 326 articles, that included classification levels “-1” and
up, there were altogether 599 authors. This suggests a degree of
definition in the structure of the discourse the data samples. Naturally this
49
is to be expected, as the group of scholars actively publishing in
marketing journals is a limited set. As classification criteria are tightened,
authorship does not diverge to any meaningful extent: for articles
classified level “+2” and up, for example, a total of 37 articles carry 71
different author names. The author count totals and theoretical (non-
attributable) articles-per-author relationships are presented in Table 6.
Were it so that (given reasonably distributed data) the articles per author
ratio grew considerably as we moved up the levels, we could conclude
solely on that basis that a distinct group of scholars was focusing on the
issues at hand. However, as this was not the case, further investigation
was mandatory: a large number of authors are clearly involved in strategic
marketing discourse on all its levels from passing implication to direct
meta-theory.
Table 6. Author counts and relevancy levels.
Relevancy level
# articles Cumulative total
# authors involved
Articles-per-author
3 4 4 7 0,57
2 33 37 71 0,52
1 117 154 293 0,53
0 122 276 500 0,55
-1 50 326 599 0,54
-2 97 423 n/a n/a
For articles classified into relevancy levels “-1” through “2”, the most
published authors were extracted. Level “-2” was omitted as it contained
irrelevant and incomplete material. Level “3” was also not under special
scrutiny at this point as it contained only four articles and was more
effectively studied as a subset of level “2”.
Within each category, author rankings were drawn based first on the
number of publications as first author and then on the number of
publications as any author. There were some cases where a person’s
50
standing in the index jumped considerably between the two indices. For
example, in relevancy level “1”, S. Tamer Cavusgil places 14th with one
first-authorship and four other articles. When ranked by total number of
contributions, Cavusgil is second in the category. A more dramatic
example of a shift is that of the likes of James C. Ward in the “-1”
relevancy class. Ward has three publications to his name, but none are as
first author. This places him 294th. Were authors ranked by the total
number of appearances, he would stand in 15th place. For the most part,
however, this made no real difference. The top of the list invariably
contained familiar names. For each of the four relevancy classes
examined, the top twenty authors are presented in Table 7.
As can quickly be observed, no single person or persons dominate the
sampled discourse. P. Rajan Varadarajan heads the list on all relevancy
levels, followed by five to ten recurring scholars in varying order. In all,
these authors, although clearly central to the discussion, only account for
a maximum of around 20% of the discussion, the rest being spread out
quite evenly among the rest of the population. Varadarajan could at this
point be clearly identified as a key author. As for the others, not much
definite could be said until further analysis. A noteworthy tangent of the
relatively low numbers of articles needed to reach a high position in the
list is that given a field of concrete specialization, an aspiring marketing
scholar would inarguably be at the forefront of academic strategic
marketing research with but a handful of articles in key journals in a 15-
year period.
The placement of S. Tamer Cavusgil, as mentioned, was interesting to
observe: Cavusgil places high within the lower relevency level classes, but
gradually slides down the list from second place in the “-1” relevancy class
to 34th in level “2” (not shown on listing). Drawing on this notion, one
might presume that Cavusgil’s contribution to the discourse might be
characterized as somewhat significant, yet more implicit than explicit. The
51
analysis would seem to indicate, that he is fairly often involved in
discussion of “strategic marketing” but that his contribution does not
address the role of “strategic marketing” explicitly. Indeed, a check of
Cavusgil’s articles confirms this: papers such as “The framework of a
global company: A conceptualization and preliminary validation”
(Cavusgil, Yeniyurt, and Townsend 2004, p. 711) and “Exploring the
marketing program antecedents of performance in a global company”
(Townsend et al. 2004, p. 1) are both very much into the discourse this
study is concerned with. The first presents a conceptual framework, in
which marketing is given a role; the second discusses the key
phenomenon of marketing as a performance driver. Thus, both articles
are relevant to the discourse but neither addresses the issue of the explicit
role of “strategic marketing” in an organization. Based on this, our
passing hypothesis cannot be rejected upfront: the proposed relevancy
level classifications for articles in the discourse serve the aims of the study
set earlier in centering in on the main themes within the discourse.
Table 7. Authors with most published articles in the article population.
LEVEL -1 LEVEL 1
Author #1st #other #total Author #1st #other #total
VARADARAJAN PR 4 5 9 VARADARAJAN PR 3 4 7
CAVUSGIL ST 3 4 7 BHARADWAJ SG 2 2 4
SHARMA A 3 3 6 MENON A 2 2 4
CLARK T 2 3 5 ATHAIDE GA 2 1 3
SHOHAM A 3 1 4 FRANKWICK GL 2 0 2
MENON A 2 2 4 KNIGHT GA 2 0 2
COOPER LG 2 2 4 LUKAS BA 2 0 2
BHARADWAJ SG 2 2 4 PERRY ML 2 0 2
MOORMAN C 2 1 3 ROBERTS JH 2 0 2
GOOD DJ 2 1 3 SASHITTAL HC 2 0 2
BALASUBRAMANIAN S 2 1 3 SHOHAM A 2 0 2
BALACHANDER S 2 1 3 SMITH GE 2 0 2
ATHAIDE GA 2 1 3 WEERAWARDENA J 2 0 2
JAYACHANDRAN S 1 2 3 CAVUSGIL ST 1 4 5
WARD JC 0 3 3 CLARK T 1 2 3
WALKER BA 0 3 3 JAYACHANDRAN S 1 2 3
REINGEN PH 0 3 3 SHARMA A 1 2 3
LILIEN GL 0 3 3 ALLENBY GM 1 1 2
52
WEERAHANDI S 2 0 2 CONANT JS 1 1 2
ULAGA W 2 0 2 DICKSON PR 1 1 2
LEVEL 0 LEVEL 2
Author #1st #other #total Author #1st #other #total
VARADARAJAN PR 4 5 9 VARADARAJAN PR 3 1 4
SHARMA A 3 2 5 FRANKWICK GL 2 0 2
SHOHAM A 3 1 4 LUKAS BA 2 0 2
CAVUSGIL ST 2 4 6 BHARADWAJ SG 1 1 2
CLARK T 2 3 5 DICKSON PR 1 1 2
MENON A 2 2 4 HUNT SD 1 1 2
COOPER LG 2 2 4 MENON A 1 1 2
BHARADWAJ SG 2 2 4 ATHAIDE GA 1 0 1
MOORMAN C 2 1 3 ATUAHENE-GIMA K 1 0 1
GOOD DJ 2 1 3 CHIMHANZI J 1 0 1
ATHAIDE GA 2 1 3 CLAYCOMB C 1 0 1
PERRY ML 2 0 2 FLINT DJ 1 0 1
FRANKWICK GL 2 0 2 GATIGNON H 1 0 1
COUPEY E 2 0 2 HARKER M 1 0 1
CALANTONE RJ 2 0 2 HIGGINS SH 1 0 1
BHATTACHARYA CB 2 0 2 HOUSTON MB 1 0 1
BALASUBRAMANIAN S 2 0 2 JARRATT D 1 0 1
ATUAHENE-GIMA K 2 0 2 MALTER AJ 1 0 1
JAYACHANDRAN S 1 2 3 MANU FA 1 0 1
ZOU SM 1 1 2 MCCULLOUGH WR 1 0 1
3.3 Distribution Among Publication Outlets
As described in section 2.1, a total of 34 journals were selected for
inclusion in the bibliometric study. As with authorship in the previous
section, articles were tallied per publication, per classification level. The
counts are presented in Figure 3.
53
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER POLICY
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY
JOURNAL OF HEALTH CARE MARKETING
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS
BUSINESS HORIZONS
EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MARKETING
DECISION SCIENCES
MARKETING LETTERS
CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW
JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC PSYCHOLOGY
JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS STUDIES
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF PUBLIC POLICY MARKETING
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING
SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW
JOURNAL OF THE MARKET RESEARCH SOCIETY
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF RETAILING
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MARKETING
ADVANCES IN CONSUMER RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS ETHICS
HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW
MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH
PSYCHOLOGY MARKETING
JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF MARKETING SCIENCE
MARKETING SCIENCE
JOURNAL OF MARKETING
JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL MARKETING
INDUSTRIAL MARKETING MANAGEMENT
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
level -1
level 0
level 1
level 2
level 3
Figure 3. Distribution of articles across publication outlets.
54
The six most often used publications stand out rather clearly, with 20 to
48 articles of level “-1” or higher each, representing 61% of the 326
articles in the category. These are followed by a series of nine journals
with approximately ten articles contributed each, representing 30% of
total volume. The remaining 9% are spread out across 11 journals,
whereas eight journals yielded no articles at all with the given keyword
search and article rejection process.
As for the distribution of different relevance classes of articles coming
from the selection of journals, there would seem to be a reasonable
correlation between the total volume of articles from a single source and
the proportion of those that are classified under different relevancy
levels, across the board.
As each article represents a discrete unit of scientific research, deemed
worthy in a peer-review or similarly vigorous process, the plain article
counts given here directly represent contributions to the discourse.
Whether those contributions are deemed worthy is an issue that will only
be resolved in time. Chapter 4 will approach the past discourse referenced
by these articles to evaluate the impact those works have had. A similar
study in ten year’s time could clarify differences in influence due to
publication outlet that are not apparent here.
It is interesting to note, that three of the articles flagged “+3” appear in
the top source publication, the Journal of Business Research. Furthermore,
the Journal of Business Research is, indeed, an interesting publication to
hold the first place in the outlet activity index, as it is not a marketing but
a more general business research journal.
Being that the sample set in this study was limited to marketing journals,
the results are not conclusive on publication outlet activity. A search of
the SSCI database with the same keywords but no journal constraints
55
matches 1,359 articles. In this result set, the top journals are nearly
identical, with the exception that International Marketing Review is
included in third place. This would indicate that in strategy journals, the
issues pertaining to our understanding of marketing strategy – and they
do figure heavily there – are addressed with different terminology.
Combined with the role of the Journal of Business Research, this notion of
the role of general strategy journals is fascinating. It may well be, that
more distinct differences in addressing the role of marketing might be
found in a wider assessment of journals, with focus on general
management instead of solely marketing itself. The perspective of how
marketing is handled in management and strategy discourse is one that
should be investigated further in subsequent research.
3.4 Temporal publication pattern
Figure 4 presents the publication activity of the entire source article set,
divided by year of publication. Again, all relevancy levels are combined
into the same figure, with the “-2” level outmost. The articles classified
under “-2” weigh heavily on the first five years, as was to be expected.
After 1991, the only year with a more significant portion of “-2” level
articles is 1997. The remainder of the years, from 1992 onwards, display a
fairly homogenous distribution of articles in all classification levels.
Although some increase in publication activity towards the present is
apparent on the diagram, the shortness on the temporal scope does not
allow a conclusion of statistical significance. Key factors to be considered
are the overall number of articles being published and the number of
journals actively publishing the said material. Both increase yearly.
What can be said for certain is that the discourse is very much alive and
shows no signs of decline. The most recent years all contain articles
directly addressing the role of strategic marketing and “strategic
56
commercialization” (relevancy level “2”), as well as articles classified
under levels “1” and “0”. Further bibliometric assessment in the form of
citation analysis will likely provide deeper insight into the temporal
publication activity in a wider context.
3.5 Summary
This section summarizes the key results of the chapter on descriptive
analysis of the article population.
The publication activity in the discourse has been relatively high, in terms
of articles published. However, this activity represents only a small
percentage of the total publication activity in the studied journal under
the period of observation. There may be a trend in increasing publication
activity of strategic marketing material, as demonstrated by the
comparably active final years.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
19
85
19
86
19
87
19
88
19
89
19
90
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
Year
Nu
mb
er o
f a
rti
cle
s
level -2
level -1
level 0
level 1
level 2
level 3
Figure 4. Temporal publication pattern of all 423 articles.
57
The classification scheme used to sort articles by their relevance with
respect to the StratMark perspective was found to be a useful tool for
structuring the discourse and selecting articles for citation analysis. The
temporal distribution of articles in all levels across the temporal scope was
relatively even. The same can be said of the distribution of different
relevancy levels across different publication outlets.
A number of authors are strongly represented in the article population.
The set of top authors becomes more distinct and clearly formulated as
lower relevance levels are dropped from the data set.
The top journals are chiefly journals in marketing with the notable
exception of the Journal of Business Management (ranked first). Eight of
the selected journals yielded no articles at all on any relevancy level. The
absolute majority of the article population came from only six journals.
This represents a fairly normal Gaussian distribution. The most prominent
author is Rajan Varadarajan, who tops the list on all relevancy levels.
The basic descriptive analysis gave a basic understanding of the state of
the discourse at the present and nature of the article population. Just as
importantly, the relevancy classifications gave a solid base to use as the
article population for citation analysis and co-citation analysis.
58
4 Citation Analysis
Citation analysis aims at developing an understanding of the structure of
the discourse underlying its most obvious manifestations in the present.
Citation analysis aims to identify the main contributors and contributions
that have most influenced and shaped the discourse we are interested in.
In essence, citation analysis performs the same descriptive analyses on
articles and books cited in the selected works as were performed on the
works themselves in the previous chapter. The set of articled drawn from
academic journals, therefore, acts as a starting point from where it is
possible to approach and dive deeper into “strategic marketing”
discourse, without significant temporal constraints. The following sections
first outline the theory behind citation analysis and then present the
results of descriptive analyses on the citation data: temporal publication
patterns, most cited articles and books, and most cited first authors and
journals. This descriptive analysis aims at uncovering which sources have
contributed most to the state of strategic marketing discourse as it stands
today. Finally, co-citation strength is examined via cluster and centrality
analyses of the citation data. Co-citation analysis aims at showing how
units of research are interlinked: the entire body of literature can be seen
as a set of nodes, which are linked together into a network by citations
and references. It is hoped, that uncovering and studying these networks
will contribute towards and understanding of the structure of strategic
marketing discourse and address the research questions of whether
distinct streams of thought can be identified within the discourse flagged
“strategic marketing”. After presenting the findings of the co-citation
analysis, the chapter ends with a summary of our findings.
59
4.1 Theoretical background
This section presents an overview of the theoretical background as well as
various practical issues underlying citation analysis and co-citation analysis
as bibliometric research methodologies.
4.1.1 Citation analysis
Virgil Diodato’s Dictionary of Bibliometrics (1994) defines citation analysis
as a major method in bibliometrics, concerned with citation to and from
documents. Leo Egghe (1990) extend the definition to define the
application areas of citation analysis: (i) quantitative and qualitative
analysis of scholars, publication outlets and scientific institutions, (ii)
modeling the historical development of science and technology, and (iii)
information search and retrieval. Citation analysis aims at identifying the
key contributors and contributions to the discourse (COLE and COLE
1973). The aim is reached by combining descriptive analyses of most-
published authors, the temporal profile of articles published and
publication outlet pattern of articles published with descriptive analysis of
most-cited first authors, most-cited texts (books and articles), temporal
pattern of articles cited, and publication outlet pattern of articles cited
(Parvinen 2003).
In extending descriptive analysis to citation data, the issues of first-
authorship versus other contribution to an article are no longer a practical
complication: the citation data that is readily available to us only includes
the first authors of any publication. Thus, tallying most-cited authors will
only take into account the first author. Although it is common in the
scientific community to list the main contributor to an article as the first,
alphabetic or rotational schemes are not unheard of. Since most-cited
author data will thus potentially understate the contribution of some
60
second or third authors. This raises some questions as to the reliability of
author citation data and subsequent analysis results.
Analysis of most-cited references is as important as identifying the main
contributors to strategic marketing discourse. If there, indeed, exist
seminal articles to which specific streams of thought can be traced back to
along the citation network, assessing the associated disciplinary traditions
and outlook towards our research agenda along the citation path can
provide valuable insight. Identifying individual articles, therefore, is
essential. At the single-article level, identification of key theoretical
messages and contributions becomes much more straightforward and
meaningful.
On an aggregate level, many publications lean towards some clear
disciplinary tradition, discourse or intellectual approach. Finding out what
outlets are behind which facets of the discourse can provide much insight
into the structure and origins of the said facets. Likewise, the temporal
pattern of the cited references can provide further insight. However, the
conclusions that can be drawn from temporal profiling can be limited. It is
generally known that an article’s cited references tend to emphasize the
5-6 years preceding publication (Parvinen 2003). Therefore, there a
complete backward profile will rarely be formed.
The issue of terminology also needs to be addressed. Section 1.4.6
discussed the distinction between “references” and “citations” in some
length. In bibliometric literature, the term “citation analysis” is used to
refer to analysis that is preformed on the references listed in
bibliographies and other reference sections of academic publications.
Actual citation analysis, taking into account the entire context that a
reference appears is, is rare – using reference analysis would usually be
more accurate. As it is the aim of this study to concentrate on changing
61
the world one term at a time, “citation analysis” is performed on
reference data due to well-established precedent. (Mattsson 2003)
4.1.2 Co-citation analysis
Henry Small (1973, p. 265) distinguishes between a number of types of
bibliographic citations. In addition to direct citations (citing of an earlier
document by a new document), these include bibliographic coupling, the
sharing of one or more references by two documents, and co-citation
coupling. Co-citation is “the frequency with which two items of earlier
literature are cited together by the later literature”. In order for a strong
co-citation coupling to exist, a large number of authors must cite the two
earlier works. Thus, co-citation patterns change as new literature is
published, unlike bibliographic coupling which is a fixed and permanent
relationship.
Small defines the strength of a co-citation link as the discrete number of
times that two works are cited together. Garfield extends the definition
of co-citation strength by taking into account the number of total
citations to both papers individually. Co-citation link strength S(A, B)
between papers A and B is thus given by:
!
S(A,B) =a" b
a + b # a" b,
where a represents the number of citations to document A, b the number
of citations to document B, and
!
a" b the number of co-citations of A and
B (non-normalized co-citation strength, as used by Small). (Garfield 1980,
p. 5–12;He and Hui;Small 1973, p. 265)
It is generally well accepted, that frequently cited individual works
portray key concepts within a discourse. If two documents are frequently
co-cited, it is practically prerequisite that they are also both frequently
cited as individual documents. Co-citation patterns can be used to map in
62
detail the links between key ideas or streams of thought. In addition,
changes in co-citation patterns allow an understanding of how the
discourse has developed or is developing (Small 1973, p. 265). Co-citation
analysis can readily be extended to author co-citation analysis for
examining how often given authors are cited together in literature.
Co-citation analysis shows great potential for assessing the structure of a
complex discourse. As Small concludes,
The pattern of linkages among key papers establishes a structure or map
for the specialty, which may then be observed to change over time.
Though the study of these changing structures, co-citation provides a tool
for monitoring the development of scientific fields, and for assessing the
degree of interrelationship among specialties. (Small 1973, p. 265)
Since the objective of this study is to assess the structure of strategic
marketing discourse and distinguish possible streams of thought within it,
co-citation analysis was seen as a well-justified tool for analyzing the data.
4.2 Citation Analysis of Strategic Marketing Discourse
This section presents the process and results of citation analysis on the
selected set of strategic marketing related articles. First, most-cited first
authors are analyzed, followed by the most cited journals. These two form
the core of the direct descriptive analysis, and are complemented by
analyses of the temporal profile of the cited works and an analysis of the
most cited journals. Lastly, the focus is shifted to analysis of co-citation
strength within the discourse, carried out by attempting to form clusters
in the literature of related works and centrality analyses of most cited
documents.
63
At this point, the decision was made to base citation analysis on data
contained in articles with a relevancy classification of “0” or above.
Articles classified under “-2” were considered unacceptable from the
beginning, and the criteria for inclusion in level “-1” (see section 2.3) were
felt to widen the scope to too many irrelevant articles. As was seen in the
analysis of top authors in the different levels, by level “0” the set of core
authors was already taking shape. This, combined with the criteria for
inclusion in level “0” (“some possible orientation towards and potentially
shared sources with a discussion stream”), gave enough assurance for
citation analysis to be based on this selection of 276 articles.
4.2.1 Most Cited Articles and Books
Before the actual analyses could be carried out, a source of error for
citation counts needed to be addressed. In some instances, the data in the
SSCI database is not entirely accurate: author names vary in spelling (often
in incomplete or mistyped initials), journal names can be corrupted,
journal years, volume and page numbers missing or mistyped. For
example, the entries for Michael Porter appeared in the citation database
as shown in Figure 5.
Given the large amount of data, it is impossible to rectify all such
instances, as in many cases this would mean having to gain access to the
original document or journal. Schildt ((2002)) recommends, that the
rectification process be carried out for articles by the top ranking authors.
In our case, the most cited authors were identified via a simple database
query. According to Schildt, correcting the citation data for the top 20-50
authors is sufficient for reliable and usable results. To be sure, we checked
the data for the 52 most cited authors, using 25 citations as a cut-off
point. Figure 6 illustrates a typical situation where citation data was
corrected. The entry with ID 7624 misspells the title of Porter’s book as
64
“Competitive Strategi”. Manually altering this rectifies the citation count
for that work.
Figure 7 illustrates another typical example where a correction was made.
There, a presumably less diligent author or database filler has mistakenly
given the volume number of Harvard Business Review in 1977 as 77,
volume 55 being correctly cited by others. Again, this manual change
allowed citations with identical data to be understood as the same
document when carrying our database queries. A total of circa 300
database entries were changed to a single uniform notation.
In all, after the corrections, the data set of 276 articles contained
references to 8,936 articles and books by 5,439 first authors. Table 8
presents the 28 most cited articles and books, the cut-off point being set
at 13 received citation
Figure 5. Inaccurate information in the citation database.
65
Figure 6. "Competitive Strategi" by Michael Porter.
Figure 7. Incorrect volume number for Harvard Business Review in 1977.
66
Table 8. Most cited articles and books.
Rank Author Journal Year Vol. # citations
1 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE STRATEGY 1980 [book] 45
2 DAY GS J MARKETING 1994 58 38
3 DAY GS J MARKETING 1988 52 30
4 KOHLI AK J MARKETING 1990 54 28
5 JAWORSKI BJ J MARKETING 1993 57 27
6 ARMSTRONG JS J MARKETING RES 1977 14 26
6 NARVER JC J MARKETING 1990 54 26
8 BARNEY JB J MANAGE 1991 17 23
8 BUZZELL RD PIMS PRINCIPLES 1987 [book] 23
9 CAVUSGIL ST J MARKETING 1994 58 21
10 WALKER OC J MARKETING 1987 51 20
11 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG 1985 [book] 19
11 WEBSTER FE J MARKETING 1992 56 19
13 DICKSON PR J MARKETING 1992 56 18
13 JAIN SC J MARKETING 1989 53 18
13 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1993 57 18
16 FORNELL C J MARKETING RES 1981 18 17
16 LEVITT T HARVARD BUS REV 1983 61 17
16 CHURCHILL GA J MARKETING RES 1979 16 17
16 SZYMANSKI DM J MARKETING 1993 57 17
20 SLATER SF J MARKETING 1995 59 16
21 HUNT SD J MARKETING 1995 59 15
22 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1989 53 14
22 RUEKERT RW J MARKETING 1987 51 14
22 PRAHALAD CK HARVARD BUS REV 1990 68 14
25 DESS GG STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT 1984 5 13
25 SAMIEE S J MARKETING 1992 56 13
25 WIND Y J MARKETING 1983 47 13
28 MORGAN RM J MARKETING 1994 58 12
28 DAY GS MARKET DRIVEN STRATE 1990 [book] 12
28 DAY GS J ACADEMY MARKETING 1992 20 12
28 VARADARAJAN PR J ACAD MARKET SCI 1999 27 12
28 SRIVASTAVA RK J MARKETING 1998 62 12
28 TEECE DJ STRATEGIC MANAGE J 1997 18 12
Next, we present an overview of the contents of some of the most cited
documents.
67
The document with overwhelmingly most received citations is Michel
Porter’s 1980 classic “Competitive Strategy”. Porter took his lead from the
industrial organization field of economics, presenting the “five forces”
model of competitive analysis. Furthermore, he stated that firms must
choose between two mutually exclusive strategies for achieving above-
average performance: cost leadership and differentiation. Combining
these with a focus of the scope of the desired competitive target. The
1980 preceded Porter’s 1985 book “Competitive Advantage”, which
expanded on these themes and presented the seminal value chain
framework. “Competitive Advantage” places 11th among most cited
works, and represents an angle on marketing that does not fit well with
our perception of the role of strategic marketing. The generic value chain
isolates “marketing and sales” in one of the five main functional primary
activities of a company. The value chain model was widely popularized
and continues to be actively referred to in most discussion of company
organization, operation and management. Although later research into
internal marketing and customer orientation has operated to some extent
outside this rigid context, Porter’s generic value chain in its incessant and
wide application seems one of the greatest impediments to transforming
the role of marketing in business and society. (Mintzberg, Lampel, and
Ahlstrand 1998;Porter 1980;Porter 1985)
George Day is another prominent figure on the list of most cited
documents. “The Capabilities of Market-Driven Organizations” (1994, p.
37) and “Assessing Advantage: A Framework for Diagnosing Competitive”
written with Robin Wensley (Day and Wensley 1988, p. 1). The first article
examines how an organizational orientation – more specifically, a market
driven orientation – can be achieved and sustained. Significantly, from our
perspective, Day presents a restructured and relabeled “value chain” of
customer order fulfillment, a chain of outside-in and inside-out
capabilities that would now be considered relationship-based (Tikkanen
68
2006). The second article presents a framework for connecting customer
perceived value to a company’s skill and resource base, in order to
introduce a more balanced competitive strategy consisting of both
customer and competitor perspectives.
Kohli and Jaworski also appear twice on the list in Table 8, demonstrating
the stated difficulty with citation data only including the first author:
“Market Orientation: The Construct, Research Propositions, and
Managerial Implications” (1990, p. 1) has Kohli credited as first author;
“Market Orientation: Antecedents and Consequences” (1993, p. 53) has
Jaworski. The articles reflect on previous literature on market orientation
to establish an integrated framework for market orientation. The
antecedents in their framework are internal and organizatorial, the
consequences both internal and external (business performance, mediated
by external factors).
Armstrong’s “Estimating Nonresponse Bias in Mail Surveys” (1977, p. 396)
is an example of an often-cited document that is a “standard
methodological reference” for many papers dealing with survey data
analysis. Fornell and Larcker’s “Evaluating Structural Equation Models
with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error” (1981, p. 39) is a
similar case, focusing on structural equations widely used in marketing
research. A third methodological article that is cited heavily is “A
Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs” by
Gilbert A. Churchill (1979, p. 64).
Narver and Slater have three articles that appear among the most cited.
The first (Narver and Slater 1990, p. 20) uses empirical findings to
demonstrate that market orientation has a substantial, positive effect on
business performance. Company culture is a factor in the orientation
process. The next article, “Does Competitive Environment Moderate the
Market Orientation-Performance Relationship?” (Slater and Narver 1994,
69
p. 46) addresses other researchers’ suggestions of the competitive
environment as a moderating factor between market orientation and
profitability. The authors debunk environmental conditions as transient,
emphasizing the long-term cost-effectiveness of a market orientation. The
finals article expands on a learning organization as a basis for competitive
advantage in a market orientation, echoing Kohli and Jaworski (Jaworski
and Kohli 1993, p. 53;Slater and Narver 1995, p. 63).
Jay Barney developed the resource-based view (RBV) of strategy
formation into a full-fledged theorey. The 1991 article “Firm resources
and sustained competitive advantage” appears among the most cited in
our study. The resource-based view is an internal prespective, playing on
the value, rareness, inimitability and sustainability of any and all physical
and nonphysical resources for creating a sustainable competitive
advantage. (Barney 1991, p. 99;Mintzberg, Lampel, and Ahlstrand 1998)
Prahalad and Hamel are also linked with organizational capabilities. “The
core competence of the corporation” (1990, p. 79) is one of their seminal
papers, considering strategic management a “collective learning process”.
The authors focus on core competencies, explicitly rejecting a product
focus and emphasizing the integrated functionality of a company.
Buzzell’s “PIMS Principles: Linking Strategy to Performance” (1987)
presented a framework for understanding and predicting the effects on
performance of strategic choices and market conditions. The PIMS, or
“Profit Impact of Market Strategy” system allowed managers to
essentially compare their company’s position with that of others using a
wide range of variables. Heavy on the external, PIMS has attracted some
criticism: “PIMS [seems] unable to distinguish ‘getting there’ from ‘being
there.’” (Mintzberg, Lampel, and Ahlstrand 1998 p. 99)
70
Cavusgil and Zou’s article “Marketing Strategy-Performance Relationship:
An Investigation of the Empirical Link in Export Market Ventures” (1994,
p. 1) is another document that explores the performance link. The
approach, however, is on an aggregate level, taking into account both
internal and external factors as marketing strategy antecedents. The role
of marketing within the company at large is not directly approached.
The two articles by Walker and Ruekert address the themes of this study
head-on. The first describes how and why marketing personnel interact
with personnel from other functional areas, building on social systems
theory and resource dependence models. Although the paper explores
linkages and shuns functional isolation, the scope of marketing is
implicitly functional (Walker Jr and Ruekert 1987, p. 15). The second
article by the co-authors focuses on the relationship between marketing
activity performance and overall business performance. The presented
typology of business strategy is based on Porter (1980). The role of
marketing is approached from a perspective of fit between marketing
programs and business strategy (Ruekert and Walker Jr 1987, p. 1).
Peter Dickson’s “Toward a General Theory of Competitive Rationality”
(1992, p. 69) presented a new proposition – based on information
economics, economic psychology and Austrian economics – in that “it is
competition that forces a customer or market orientation,” departing
from the discussion of a competition versus customer focus.
The article “Standardization of International Marketing Strategy: Some
Research Hypotheses” by Subhash C. Jain (1989, p. 70) proposes a series of
new research hypotheses in both external and internal sectors. Perhaps
most significantly in light of our research question, Jain advances the idea
of a marketing process (versus program), as introduced by Sorenson and
Wiechmann (1975, p. 38).
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Deshpande, Farley and Webster’s “Corporate Culture, Customer
Orientation, and Innovativeness in Japanese Firms: A Quadrad Analysis”
(1993, p. 23) found a positive correlation between flexibility in an
innovative company and business performance. A “market culture” was
seen as conducive. The second article with Deshpanade as first author,
“Organizational Culture and Marketing: Defining the Research Agenda”
(Deshpande and Webster Jr 1989, p. 3) preceded the first, aims explicitly
at paving the way for research into marketing that is centered on
organizational culture: “Contemporary work on marketing management
is grounded implicitly in a structural functionalist or contingency
perspective of organizatorial functioning.” The paper set a research
agenda in organizatorial context with marketing research implications. A
third article, by Webster alone, discusses “The Changing Role of
Marketing in the Corporation” (1992, p. 1). It presents marketing from a
relationship point of view, explicitly distinguishing strategic marketing
from operational-level marketing, stating culture and top management as
the foci of the former and 4P-type tactics as that of the latter.
Theodor Levitt, of Marketing Myopia fame, places among the most cited
instead with “The Globalization of Markets” (1983, p. 92). The article
attempts to remind managers of paying heed to the globally varying
consumer preferences, focusing on creating and keeping customers and
“shaping the vectors of technology and globalization into [the global
company’s] great strategic fecundicity.” The perspective is that of the
external environment.
An article in the Journal of Marketing, crediting David Szymanski as the
first author, places among the most cited. However, the trio Szymanski,
Bharadwaj and Varadarajan actually has articles in both the July and
October issues of the same year. Furthermore, being that they both also
begin on page 1, it is impossible to distinguish between the two given the
available citation data. For the purposes of this study, we will have to
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assume that the authors did not fundamentally change their perspective
on marketing during the summer months. The first of the two articles “An
Analysis of the Market Share-Profitability Relationship” (1993a, p. 1)
presents profitability as a function of market share, shaped by a variety of
largely internal 4P-type variables. The second article, “Standardization
versus Adaptation of International Marketing Strategy: An Empirical
Investigation” (1993b, p. 1) focus on the external environment. Neither
article provides a very distinctive take on the role of strategic marketing
in general.
Hunt and Morgan’s “The Comparative Advantage Theory of Competition”
(1995, p. 1) argues, that a new theory of competition better explains key
micro and macro level phenomena. This is evaluated by applying the
construct into assessing market orientation as a source of competitive
advantage. Market orientation, thus is viewed as a resource in the RBV
sense. The paper is fundamentally meta-theoretical in relation to
marketing theory, and provides a take on managing the marketing
process that is quite different from many others.
Dess and Robinson examine the usefulness of subjective performance
measures in “Measuring organizational performance in the absence of
objective measures: the case of the privately held firm and conglomerate
business unit” (1984, p. 265). While a common citation in general
performance discussion, the article does not as such address the role of
marketing, strategic or otherwise.
Samiee and Roth’s “The Influence of Global Marketing Standardization on
Performance” (1992, p. 1) continues the discussion of performance
implications of standardization, contributed to by the likes of Jain and
Buzzell. The perspective is that of competition and focuses noticeably on
the operational tasks attributed to marketing.
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The final article that is reviewed here out of the to citation recipients,
“Marketing Strategy: New Directions for Theory and Research” by Yoram
Wind and Thomas S. Robertson (1983, p. 12), presents an integrated
strategic marketing planning approach. Wind considered, as most
contemporary works, marketing to be a business function. However,
emphasis is placed on the linkages between marketing and other
functions as well as taking into account considerations from other
functions when developing marketing decision models. Wind and
Robertson explicitly consider a short-run focus as a key problem in
marketing practice.
4.2.2 Most Cited First Authors
Table 9 presents the citation profiles for the top 35 most cited first
authors in the article population. As discussed in the previous sub-section,
the tally is not entirely accurate in all senses: there clearly exist several
collaborating scolars, such as Narver and Slater, who both happen to place
highly on the list despite their cycling first-authorship. Were data readily
available on all authors for the cited references, such collarorators might
place even higher. One further source of error is the self-citing practiced
by some active authors. It is questionable whether such citations should
be included, if a reliable way was discovered for pinting them out. Due to
these problems, an exhaustive analysis of most cited first author data was
seen as unnecessary.
Table 9. Most cited first authors.
Rank Author # citations
1 DAY GS 153
2 PORTER ME 99
3 KOTLER P 59
4 DESHPANDE R 51
5 CAVUSGIL ST 50
6 HUNT SD 49
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7 SLATER SF 47
8 AAKER DA 46
8 MINTZBERG H 46
10 GATIGNON H 42
10 BUZZELL RD 42
12 KOHLI AK 40
12 JAWORSKI BJ 40
12 WEBSTER FE 40
15 DICKSON PR 39
16 DOUGLAS SP 38
16 DESS GG 38
18 BAGOZZI RP 37
19 ANDERSON JC 36
20 VARADARAJAN PR 35
20 BARNEY JB 35
20 WIND Y 35
23 FORNELL C 33
24 MOORMAN C 32
25 MILLER D 30
25 ARMSTRONG JS 30
25 LEVITT T 30
25 TEECE DJ 30
29 JAIN SC 29
30 WALKER OC 28
30 SHETH JN 28
30 WILLIAMSON OE 28
33 NARVER JC 27
34 RUEKERT RW 26
34 BONOMA TV 26
4.2.3 Most Cited Journals
The publication outlets that received most citations were identified. The
Journal of Marketing came clearly out on top with 1,286 received
citations. The runner-up was the Journal of Marketing Research with 679
citations. Other journals received 350 citations or less. This reflects the
dominant position of the two journals in the discipline. The third and
fourth ranking journals were the Strategic Management Journal and
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Harvard Business Review. This illustrates how the discourse into strategic
marketing also draws directly on business strategy research and business
management topics.
An interesting observation is that Porter’s Competitive Strategy comes
quite close to making it to the list of most cited journals, with 45 citations
to its name.
Table 10. Most cited journals.
Rank Journal # citations
1 J MARKETING 1286
2 J MARKETING RES 679
3 STRATEGIC MANAGE J 350
4 HARVARD BUS REV 291
5 MARKET SCI 289
6 IND MARKET MANAG 281
7 J CONSUM RES 264
8 MANAGE SCI 225
9 ACAD MANAGE REV 192
10 ACAD MANAGE J 179
11 J ACAD MARKET SCI 172
12 J BUS RES 152
13 J INT BUS STUD 146
14 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT 87
15 INT J RES MARK 86
16 ADMIN SCI QUART 85
17 J ADVERTISING RES 82
18 SLOAN MANAGE REV 79
19 J MANAGE 71
19 AM ECON REV 71
21 ORGAN SCI 68
22 ADV CONSUM RES 67
22 J PROD INNOVAT MANAG 67
22 EUR J MARKETING 67
25 INT MARKET REV 66
26 ADM SCI Q 64
27 J RETAILING 59
28 J PERS SOC PSYCHOL 58
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29 ECONOMETRICA 57
30 J MANAGE STUD 56
4.2.4 Temporal Profile of Cited References
Figure 8 presents the temporal distribution of the reference data. The
most often cited data is from the years circa ten years before the present.
While it is natural that the most cited research is the recent research, the
peak of the graphical representation does precede the predicted six-to-
eight year lag by several years. Interestingly, many of the most cited
works in the discourse are from that specific period that shows as the
peak of activity.
The peak of the distribution falls rapidly after around 1997. Naturally,
present studies cannot have gathered as many citations that older ones
have.
Figure 8. The temporal distribution of cited articles and books.
4.2.5 Co-citation Analysis
The Sitkis software package by Henri Schildt (2002) was used to facilitate
co-citation analysis. Given that the data set of 276 had 11,608 individual
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citations to references, including all of them in a cluster analysis would
have been impossible. A threshold level for inclusion, therefore, had to be
set. Sitkis allows two types of threshold to be set when exporting co-
citation networks. First, a minimum number of citations to references can
be set. Setting this threshold at 18, for example, would include in the
network all articles that have received 12 or more citations – the 15
publications with ranks 13 and up in Table 8. There is no firm guidance
from literature for selecting a threshold value. The author of the Sitkis
package suggests finding a level, where incrementing the threshold value
does not significantly decrease the number of works included in the
network. Furthermore, Schild states that networks with more than thirty
nodes are difficult to work with. The second threshold value that Sitkis
allows to be set is the minimum number of citations to the citing articles.
This number is included in the data originally downloaded from the SSCI
database. Sitkis also allows constraining the temporal profile of the citing
articles at network export time. (Schildt and Sillanpää 2004;Schildt 2002)
Observing the most cited books and articles list in Table 8, setting the
threshold for minimum citations to references at 13 would limit the
number of books and articles in the co-citation network to 28. This is in
line with Schildt’s (2004) recommendation, that references that are cited
by at least 1% to 10% of all articles should be included, as well as the
practical guideline of a thirty-node maximum.
Since Small’s seminal article (1973) rests that co-citation strength
correlates with individual article significance, the “minimum number of
citations to citing articles” field was set at zero, in order to include all of
the top 28 most cited references. Since the temporal profile was already
constrained beforehand to 1990 – 2005, the default settings for
publication dates of citing articles (1900 – 2005) were acceptable. The
articles and books included in the analysis are those in Table 8 of rank 25
and above.
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Some issues relating to the reliability of co-citation analysis remain. Co-
citation strength is a measure of how often articles or books are cited
together. However, analysis often frames co-citation strength as a
measure of how similar two works are. A co-citation network is formed of
nodes representing individual articles and books, with the distance
between nodes representing co-citation strength. Co-citation strength in
this network perspective is easily associated with content similarity and
centrality within the network with centrality of the article in the
discourse. This is not entirely accurate in all cases. With respect to co-
citation strength, documents may often cite two works together because
they, for example, represent two conflicting perspectives. As for network
centrality, there may be a habit in the discourse of citing some standard
methodological paper or early seminal article that is no longer relevant to
the key themes. In this study, however, co-citation strength is assumed to
be a sufficient measure of subject similarity and co-citation network
centrality of centrality in the discourse, as numerous other studies have
arrived at useful results following this approach. (Mattsson 2003;Parvinen
2003)
Cluster Analysis
Figure 9 and Figure 10 present the hierarchical cluster dendrograms for
the co-citation networks formed by the 28 most cited documents (Johnson
1967, p. 241). Figure 9 uses the average link approach and Figure 10 the
complete link approach. Co-citation strength as defined by Garfield (1980,
p. 5–12) was used as the basis for measuring similarity. The strength values
are, therefore, normalized using the Jaccard method to produce values in
the range [0.0, 1.0]. The co-citation strength matrix, giving the co-citation
strength between each pair of articles, is given in appendix B.
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Figure 9. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, average link method.
Figure 10. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, complete link method.
Extracting the clusters from the dendrograms was quite straightforward.
The documents are listed along the y-axis, while co-citation strength
decreases along the x-axis. The clusters had to be extracted manually from
the graphical representations, taking any major branch of the diagram as
a separate cluster. Given the somewhat trivial and flexible nature of the
task, no systematic criterion was applied with respect to a co-citation
strength threshold for cluster formation (Mattsson 2003 p. 62). In practice,
the major clusters for the complete link method all diverged at S=0.0, and
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for the average link method at S=0.06 to S=0.14. (Appendix C includes
both dendrograms in ASCII format, with co-citation strengths in a more
reader-friendly format.) In the average link case, one cluster was further
divided into two sub-clusters, at threshold level S=0.23 (clusters A3a and
A3b). In the complete link method clustering, all clusters were divided to
two or three sub-clusters at threshold values ranging from S=0.05 (clusters
C2a&b and C2c) to S=0.26 (clusters C3a and C3b). The clusters were
assigned codes for ease of discussion and analysis. Cluster C2a, for
example, refers to complete link method cluster 2, sub-cluster a; cluster A4
similarly refers to cluster 4 in the average link method dendrograms,
which has no sub-clusters. Table 11 lists the clusters attributed to each
document in the co-citation network.
Table 11. Co-citation clusters for the 28 most cited documents.
Although the two dendrograms seem quite different at first glance, the
clusters produced by both methods are in fact highly similar. This can
ID Author journal year volume #citations avg link cluster complete link cluster
6 ARMSTRONG JS J MARKETING RES 1977 14 26 A1 C1a
18 FORNELL C J MARKETING RES 1981 18 17 A1 C1a
17 CHURCHILL GA J MARKETING RES 1979 16 17 A1 C1b
26 DESS GG STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT 1984 5 13 A1 C1b
10 CAVUSGIL ST J MARKETING 1994 58 21 A2 C3a
20 SZYMANSKI DM J MARKETING 1993 57 17 A2 C3a
27 SAMIEE S J MARKETING 1992 56 13 A2 C3a
16 JAIN SC J MARKETING 1989 53 18 A2 C3b
19 LEVITT T HARVARD BUS REV 1983 61 17 A2 C3b
8 BARNEY JB J MANAGE 1991 17 23 A3a C2a
24 PRAHALAD CK HARVARD BUS REV 1990 68 14 A3a C2a
21 SLATER SF J MARKETING 1995 59 16 A3b C2a
2 DAY GS J MARKETING 1994 58 38 A3b C4a
4 KOHLI AK J MARKETING 1990 54 28 A3b C4a
5 JAWORSKI BJ J MARKETING 1993 57 27 A3b C4a
7 NARVER JC J MARKETING 1990 54 26 A3b C4a
14 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1993 57 18 A3b C4b
23 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1989 53 14 A3b C4b
1 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE STRATEGY 1980 0 45 A4 C2b
9 BUZZELL RD PIMS PRINCIPLES 1987 0 23 A4 C2b
12 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG 1985 0 19 A4 C2b
3 DAY GS J MARKETING 1988 52 30 A5 C2c
15 DICKSON PR J MARKETING 1992 56 18 A5 C2c
22 HUNT SD J MARKETING 1995 59 15 A5 C2c
28 WIND Y J MARKETING 1983 47 13 A5 C2c
11 WALKER OC J MARKETING 1987 51 20 A6 C4c
13 WEBSTER FE J MARKETING 1992 56 19 A6 C4c
25 RUEKERT RW J MARKETING 1987 51 14 A6 C4c
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readily be seen by observing the cluster denotations in Table 12, with
clusters separated by thick horizontal lines and sub-clusters by thin
horizontal lines. The clusters represent arguably represent distinct
research fields within the strategic marketing discourse. Each cluster is
characterized by an intellectual base, upon which we will expound next. It
should also be noted, that concerns over often-cited methodological
papers possibly being ballast (as discussed in the preface to this section),
are reflected in those papers being neatly sorted into a cluster of their
own. Table 12 presents the clusters with general overviews of the material
contained in each cluster.
Table 12. Descriptions of clusters formed by average link and complete link methods from co-citation data.
Clusters Brief description Articles A1, C1a
6 (Armstrong) 18 (Fornell&Lacker)
A1, C1b
The “standard” methodological references. The C1a part of the cluster emphasizes rigid methodology, while C1b leans concentrates on developing measures for marketing constructs and organizational performance.
17 (Churchill) 26 (Dess&Robinson)
A2, C3a
10 (Cavusgil&Zou) 20 (Szymanski&al) 27 (Samiee&Roth)
A2, C3b
All five articles deal with marketing performance and standardization in an export context. In sub-cluster C3a marketing is approached as an operational tool; C3b articles are more general discussion.
16 (Jain) 19 (Levitt)
A3a, C2a 8 (Barney) 24 (Prahalad&Hamel)
A3b, C2a
The A3a cluster contains the two seminal works on resources and capabilities. Slater&Narver is loosely connected but carries a conflicting perspective.
21 (Slater&Narver)
A3b, (C2a,) C4a
21 (Slater&Narver) 2 (Day 1994) 4 (Kohli&Jaworski) 5 (Jaworksi&Kohli) 7 (Narver&Slater)
A3b, C4b
Cluster A3b outlines the seminal discourse on market orientation and its connection with business performance. The articles in sub-cluster C4b focus more heavily of culture.
14 (Deshpanade&al) 23 (Deshpanade&Webster)
A4, C2b The industrial environment perspective to (marketing) strategy.
1 (Porter 1980) 9 (Buzzell) 12 (Porter 1985)
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A5, C2c New customer-oriented frameworks for marketing organization and implementation.
3 (Day 1988) 15 (Dickson) 22 (Hunt&Morgan) 28 (Wind)
A6, C4c The role and strategic level of marketing in an organization: Webster’s typology conflicts Walker&Ruekert’s functional prespective.
11 (Walker&Ruekert) 13 (Webster) 25 (Ruekert&Walker)
Network Centrality Analysis
To address network centrality, Bonacich eigenvector centrality analysis
(Bonacich 1972, p. 113–120) and Freeman betweenness centrality
(Freeman 1979, p. 215) were conducted on the set of 28 most cited
documents. The results, showing the top twenty documents for each
analysis method, are presented in Table 13. The complete results are
included in Appendix D.
An immediate observation is the difference between the two lists. The
reason for this is in the difference between the methods in defining
assessing centrality. Eigenvector centality is a measure of how strongly a
document is linked to other documents as measured by co-citation
strengths between pairs. Betweenness centrality, in turn, describes
bridging ablitity, or how well the document form linkages in the co-
citation network between otherwise disjoint documents.
Table 13. Network centrality analyses.
Bonacich eigenvector centrality Freeman betweenness centrality
Rank ID Author Rank ID Author
1 7 DAY 1994 1 1 ARMSTRONG
2 2 BARNEY 2 2 BARNEY
3 15 JAWORSKI 3 3 BUZZELL
4 16 KOHLI 4 25 SZYMANSKI
5 24 SLATER 5 19 PORTER 1985
6 18 NARVER 6 6 DAY 1988
7 9 DESHPANDE 1993 7 7 DAY 1994
8 6 DAY 1988 8 28 WIND
9 21 PRAHALAD 9 26 WALKER
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10 20 PORTER 1980 10 20 PORTER 1980
11 26 WALKER 11 8 DESHPANDE 1989
12 19 PORTER 1985 12 12 FORNELL
13 1 ARMSTRONG 13 21 PRAHALAD
14 8 DESHPANDE 1989 14 4 CAVUSGIL
15 13 HUNT 15 5 CHURCHILL
16 25 SZYMANSKI 16 16 KOHLI
17 12 FORNELL 17 18 NARVER
18 11 DICKSON 18 23 SAMIEE
19 4 CAVUSGIL 19 22 RUEKERT
20 28 WIND 20 11 DICKSON
The eigenvector centrality ranking puts forth Day’s 1994 piece as the most
central document (and, referring to the numerical data in appendix D, by
a considerable margin). The most important observation to draw from the
eigenvector centrality ranking is the prominence of documents relating to
market orientation (Day 1994, Jaworski, Kohli, Slater, Narver). The central
role of these articles is pleasing, but seemingly contradictory with the
results of citations analysis: perhaps, then, market orientation is indeed
the established core of the strategic marketing discourse, but with other
works (Porter et al) being heavily represented as basic frames of
reference?
The rankings for betweenness centrality differ much from eigenvector
centrality. Here, the top spot is held by a document that is a
methodological reference – as was predicted. However, seminal works (in
their own areas) also feature high on the list, such as Day’s two articles,
the PIMS book and Michael Porter’s both books. The explanation for the
high bridging ability of these would lie in them being the strandard works
to refer to when entering the discourse.
4.3 Summary
This section summarizes the key results of the chapter on citation analysis.
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The analysis included a total of 11,608 citations to 8,936 sources by 5,439
first authors. These were found by analyzing a selection of 276 articles
drawn from the initial population of 423 articles by a relevancy
classification scheme.
The most cited books and articles were identified (Table 8), and the top
ranking works reviewed. The top ranking articles could be seen to reflect
several distinct fields and perspectives, including export marketing, the
resource-based view, the industrial environment / competition
perspective, and a selection of standard methodological references.
The most cited authors were identified. The list bore some similarities to
that of the most cited references. George Day was clearly the most cited
author, followed by Michael Porter and Philip Kotler, and then by
Deshpandé, Cavusgil, Hunt, Slater, Aaker and Mintzberg. Of these, Kotler,
Aaker and Mintzberg were prominent omission from the list of most cited
works, being well-known authors. There exist several problems with the
reliability of first author data.
Temporal analysis of the citation data was evidence for the natural
pattern of citing the most recent research, as well as that of the
formation, development and expansion of the marketing discipline.
However, a temporal scope limited to the most recent years was not
applicable to the most cited articles and books.
The publication outlets that received most citations were identified. The
Journal of Marketing came clearly out on top with 1,286 received
citations. The runner-up was the Journal of Marketing Research with 679
citations.
The co-citation strengths were calculated for the 28 most cited
documents. A hierarchical clustering algorithm was run over this data to
suggest a grouping of these documents into clusters. This was based on
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the premise that articles often cited together will be topically close, with
the intention that this would allow us to objectively identify the
structures built on by subsequent research. Four to seven clusters were
identified using alternative linking methods, suggesting the following key
bases in the discourse: operational marketing performance and
international growth; the resource-based view; market orientation and
performance; the industry environment perspective; customer-oriented
marketing frameworks; the role and strategic level of marketing.
Network centrality was assessed via two different measures. Market
orientation texts took a noticeably prominent position in Bonacich
centrality ranking, while methodological references and individual
seminal works featured high in their bridging ability as measured by
betweenness centrality.
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5 Discussion
The aim of this study is to provide insight into the structure of the
strategic marketing discourse, and thus advance the progress of the
overall StratMark research project. The main research question set asked,
where the origins of the present understandings of strategic marketing
lie. This question was divided into three subquestions for thorough
addressing. In carrying out the analysis to answer the subquestions, an
article population spanning 16 years and 423 individual documents was
first manually assessed for relevance, after which systematic biblimetric
analyses were performed on the data. Citation data was extracted and a
co-citation network formed to gain deeper insight in furtehr analysis.
This chapter attempts to synthesize the key findings by directly addressing
the research questions presented in section 1.3 in conjuction with
discussing the relationship of the answer to the objectives of the
StratMark project.
(1) What are the antecedents that have contributed to the present state
of the discourse on “strategic marketing”?
Generally, the range of precedents to the present state of discourse boils
down to four distinct groups of antecedents. The groups, identified via
descriptive citation analysis and co-citation clustering, are:
(A) The competitive environment
(B) Operational marketing performance and international growth
(C) The resource-based view
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(D) Market orientation and performance
The first of the groups embodies focus on the external competitive
environment that is commonly and widely dubbed “Porterian”. The key
concepts and frameworks in the discussion are those originationg from
Porter’s seminal, fabulously influential 1980 and 1985 books: the genaric
value chain and the “five forces” model of the industry environment.
While valuable tools for business analysis, they can both be seen as
detrimental towards our goals. In all their influence, it seems the models
and associated discourses have managed to instate a near-monopoly as
the groundwork of managerial thought. Although there certainly are
success stories, the frame of reference itself contradicts two fundamental
postulates of the StratMark vision: (a) the role and scope of marketing is
explicitly funtional instead of a continuous core process, and (b) focus is
overly on the competition instead of the customer. Group A type
antecedents are, thus, seen a fundamental but flawed component of the
present state of strategic marketing discourse.
The discussion reflected in antecedent group B is, out of the four, the
most adjacent to the Porterian perspective is the one an international
marketing context where marketing is, by implication, given an
operational scope with clearly defined business performance outcomes.
While an operational scope is often evident is usage today, the invariable
connection with export operations within the group of objects came as a
surprise. The connection is in the form of the standardization versus
adaptation debate, which understandably gives rise to operational
questions. However, since this is still pitched under the rubrik of “strategic
marketing”, we may presume that the usage, even in this limited context,
has had an effect on definitions and understandings in the more recent
discourse.
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The third group of antecedent to the discourse, C, included the seminal
works putting forth the resource-based view of the company. The
thinking behind the view is reflected in much of thee discourse one
encounters today, although not often in a very explicit manner. The view
can easily be apllied to the StratMark perspective, the networked
resources of a company being combined to form sustainable marketing
competence.
The fourth and final group of antecedents outlines the seminal discourse
on market orientation and its connection with business performance.
Issues of corporate culture as they relate to marketing are also laid the
groundwork for. This stream within the discourse is one that appears as a
disctinct undercurrent: it is also the key background behind the StratMark
understanding of stratgic marketing.
In addition to these four fields within the discourse, two clusters of
methodological research featured prominently: framework-building
(chiefly customer-oriented marketing frameworks) and sociological
practical marketing research (the shared research and analysis methods).
Finally, antecedents dealing directly with the role and strategic level of
marketing could be identified.
(2) What roles, organizational activities, processes and levels of decision-
making are attributed to “strategic marketing” in literature?
Strategic marketing is sometimes seen in a functional context, at other
times as a more all-encompassing process or phenomenon. In the
functional scope, as is reflected in and by the previously chracterized
antecedent groups A and B, “strategic marketing” is an operational
activity, with either a specific stage in the value-adding process, or tactical
nature attached to it. In a wider context, as reflected in and by
antecedent groups C and D, strategic marketing is seen as a merket
oriented, long-term process, attributed to a higher level of busines
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planning, management, and organizatory structure than is the case with
the other viewpoint. Again, the latter attributions correspond more
closely with the perspective of the StratMark research group.
This, of course, is an overt simplification of the nature and structure of the
discourse. Oftentimes, objects in the discourse move somewhere in
between, sometimes not taking a stance at all – and at others, mmoving
between perspectives more or less easily.
(3) What antecedents might prove useful starting points for framing
further research within the StratMark project?
The last research question concretely related the study to its objectives as
a component of the StratMark research project. Pointing out what
antecedents represent similar and conflicting views to the StratMark
perspective will provide a starting point for further reaserch and disocurse
influencing within the field of study.
The points of view and research fields that most closely corresponded
with the StratMark perspective were the ones reflected and originating in
the antecedent groups C and D described above. In further bibliometric
and conceptual analysis of the themes raised in this study, attention
should be paid to how the apparent dichotomy in the discourse can best
be taken advantage of. The view represented by antecedent groups A and
B is well justified in another managerial context. It is also very well
established in current management thinking and practice, and proven a
useful set of tools. The other stream of thought is seen differently and
often shunned. The reasons behind this phenomenon need to be
investigated. Analyzing the academic discourse as well as managerial
thought and practice in light of the dichotomy and theoretical stances
that can be drawn from it can provide a fruitful path for future research
into the area and towards the goals of the research project at large.
90
6 On Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity have been intermittently addressed in the study as
methodology was presented and analysis carried out. This chapter aims to
provide a more comprehesive discussion of these issues. First, the process
of selecting journals and selecting and classifying articles is addressed.
Then, the analysis methods and processes themselves are reflected on in
terms of reliability and validity.
6.1 Data Selection
The journal selection process was a compromise between the practical
limits of material that could be dealt with and the breadth of analysis.
Only journals clearly found to be within the scope of what is generally
understood to be marketing discourse were included. The methodology
used for selecting the journals combined a thoroughly and rigorously
peer-reviewed selection process presented by Baumgartner and Pieters
(2003, p. 123–39) – the scientific quality of which is sufficietly
demonstrated by its publication in the Journal of Marketing, generally
considered the leading journal in the field. For the sake of making it
possible to carry out the bibliometric research, the Baumgartner and
Pieters approach was combined with convenience sampling, selectiong
only those journals from their set for which article data was available in
the SSCI. A more comprehensive picture of the state of the discourse
would have been achieved by including other forms of scientific
publications in the analysis, including books, doctoral dissrtations and
working papers. Finding and selecting these would, however, have been a
91
massive task, if at all possible in light of subsequent validity. Therefore,
the limited but justified approach used was selected. The number of
journals was deliberately fairly high, as well as the temporal scope. These
both serve to increase validity by reducing the likelihood of excluding
some major field of research from the analysis. While the chosen selection
of journals may not reflect the fullest extent of marketing discourse, it is
sufficiently valid and allows for maximally reliable analysis within it.
The article selection process within the study offers another chance to
assess reliability – validity is not an issue, since we were dealing with the
entire population referred to by the research questions and limited only
by the selection of journals. The key issue in article selection reliability is
the relevancy classification process described in section 2.3. Manual
assessment of the material was absolutely necessary. The raw population
could be seen to include articles that had nothing to do with the theme of
“stratgic marketing” or roles attributed to it. Reasons for rejecting articles
(categories “-2” and “-1”), consisted of:
• Duplicate entries or incomplete SSCI data
• Complete relevance, such as with false matches
• Little general relevance, or composite terms with modifying
scope as keywords
Subjective but structured subjective assessment of qualitative data is a
normal practice in social sciences research. The classification scheme used
for assessing article relevance is felt well fall within this definition and
practice. While it could certainly be improved by, for example,
systematical assessment of the same material by different researchers
employing identical agreed-upon criteria, the article selection process is
deemed reliable enough for the purposes of this study.
92
6.2 Analyses
The study involved a number of descriptive statistical techniques and a
range of bibliometric analyses, using both citation and co-citation data.
The metohds used are, for the most part, very basic, supplemented by
some established and widely employed, more complex network analyses.
In general, it can be asserted that the statistical methodology used in this
study poses no concerns when it comes to reliability and validity. It should
be notes, that since the article sample used in the study is infact the entire
article population, there is no need or meaningfulness for tests of
statistical significance.
Several points relating to the analyses need, however, to be briefly
approached. Firstly, the issue of co-citation strength: the problematics
associated with co-citation strength as a measure of similarity were
discussed in Chapter 4. Co-citation strength is not a direct measure of
similarity, but only a proxy. Futhermore, the fact that two documents
often cited together might even represent completely opposing
viewpoints must be remembered. These notions do not, however,
undermine the results of the study, as the effects were known and
allowed for appropriate interpretation of the results of, for example, the
cluster analysis.
It can, thus, be concluded that the analyses performed in this study are, in
general, sufficiently valid and reliable.
93
7 Conclusions
It may be concluded, that the research questions and objectives set in
section 1.3 have been properly addressed in this study. The analyses
performed on the data, not to mention the process of familiariazation
with and classification of the article base, provided many insights into the
state, nature and antecedents of the wide and varied discourse cundunted
under the label of “strategic marketing”.
This study has contributed to the body of knowledge by systematically,
objectively and reliably revealing
(i) The manifestation of the discourse in a structured form
(ii) The origins of prevalent facets in the discourse
(iii) The configurations and interlinkages of key theories and
antecedents in the discourse
(iv) Practical paths for subsequent research
It is argued that light has been shed on both areas in the discourse that
are well-explored, as well as those not yet exposed. This has been done in
a reliable and valid manner, paying respect to the philosophy of scientific
research.
Reflecting on the objectives set for the research in section 1.3.1 (p. 8), the
study aimed firstly to identify “what the world means by strategic
marketing.” This, it is argued, is successfully demonstared in the acedemic
context, under the proxy that academic discussion eventally filters
94
through to the deomain of management via universities and other
educational insitutions. The second objective required directions to be set
for further research, enabling the wider StratMark research project to
eventually move along the “stage-gate” progress structure presented in
Figure 1. This has been achieved by identifying a key dichotomy in the
discourse. This enables linkages to be made to both of the adjacent
research stages of international benchmarking (i.e. what to benchmark,
what perspectives to take into account) and the evaluation and definition
of the strategic role of marketing (by pointing to a substructure in the
discourse that would form the basis for formally and structurally defining
strategic marketing in an operational context). The third and final
objective set was that of maintaining focus on the overall goals of the
StratMark project and the eventual practical manegerial applicability of
the results. By paying heed to those wider objective througout the data
gathering, assessment and analysis processes, and successfully fulfilling
the other two research objectives, the third can also be argued to have
been successfully addressed.
Finally, directions for subsequent research in the scope of the first
element of working package 1 (p. 2) as well as linkages to the other
elements in the overall construction are briefly looked into. First of all, a
more detailed image of the temporal chages and developments in the
discourse would be attained by expanding the bibliometric analysis to
include any of the following: a wider range of journals; conceptual
network analysis of theories, methods and facets; a structured,
comprehensive review of management and marketing education
literature; and a review of actual management communication around
the phenomena in question. Some or all of this research is upcoming
within the StratMark project. The subsequent research topics in the
project will include assessment of the themes in a practical perspective.
The discourse in strategic marketing is as varied and wide as its practice.
95
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Appendix A: The article population and relevancy classifications
This appendix lists the 423 documents used as the base journal article population.
The integer preceding each entry indicates the relevancy level the article was
classified with (see section 2.3).
[1] Abratt R, Cowan D (1999) 'Client-agency perspectives of information needs for media planning'. Journal of Advertising Research 39(6).
[0] Agarwal MK (2003) 'Developing global segments and forecasting market shares: A simultaneous approach using survey data'. Journal of International Marketing 11(4).
[1] Albaum G, Tse DK (2001) 'Adaptation of international marketing strategy components, competitive advantage, and firm performance: A study of Hong Kong exporters'. Journal of International Marketing 9(4).
[1] Allenby GM, Arora N, Ginter JL (1998) 'On the heterogeneity of demand'. Journal of Marketing Research 35(3).
[-2] Amine LS, Cavusgil ST (1986) 'Export marketing strategies in the british clothing industry'. European Journal of Marketing 20(7).
[-2] Andrus DL (1997) 'Inside the Tornado: Marketing strategies from Silicon Valley's cutting edge - Moore,GA'. Journal of Marketing 61(2).
[-1] Arnett DB, Laverie DA, Meiers A (2003) 'Developing parsimonious retailer equity indexes using partial least squares analysis: a method and applications'. Journal of Retailing 79(3).
[1] Arnold D (2000) 'Seven rules of international distribution'. Harvard Business Review 78(6).
[0] Arnold KA, Bianchi C (2001) 'Relationship marketing, gender, and culture: Implications for consumer behavior'. Advances in Consumer Research 28(0).
[0] Arnould EJ, Wallendorf M (1994) 'Market-oriented ethnography - interpretation building and marketing strategy formulation'. Journal of Marketing Research 31(4).
[2] Athaide GA, Meyers PW, Wilemon DL (1996) 'Seller-buyer interactions during the commercialization of technological process
innovations'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 13(5).
[1] Athaide GA, Stump RL (1999) 'A taxonomy of relationship approaches during product development in technology-based, industrial markets'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 16(5).
[0] Atuahenegima K (1993) 'Determinants of inward technology licensing intentions - an empirical-analysis of australian engineering firms'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 10(3).
[2] Atuahene-gima K, Murray JY (2004) 'Antecedents and outcomes of marketing strategy comprehensiveness'. Journal of Marketing 68(4).
[0] Avlonitis GJ, Karayanni DA (2000) 'The impact of Internet use on business-to-business marketing - Examples from American and European companies'. Industrial Marketing Management 29(5).
[0] Baker WE, Sinkula JM (2005) 'Environmental marketing strategy and firm performance: Effects on new product performance and market share'. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 33(4).
[-1] Balachander S (2001) 'Warranty signalling and reputation'. Management Science 47(9).
[0] Balachander S, Srinivasan K (1994) 'Selection of product line qualities and prices to signal competitive advantage'. Management Science 40(7).
[1] Balasubramanian S, Bhardwaj P (2004) 'When not all conflict is bad: Manufacturing-marketing conflict and strategic incentive design'. Management Science 50(4).
[0] Balasubramanian S, Konana P, Menon NM (2003) 'Customer satisfaction in virtual environments: A study of online investing'. Management Science 49(7).
106
[0] Baldauf A, Dockner EJ, Reisinger H (2000) 'The effects of long-term debt on a firm's new product pricing policy in duopolistic markets'. Journal of Business Research 50(2).
[0] Banerjee B, Mckeage K (1994) 'How green is my value - exploring the relationship between environmentalism and materialism'. Advances in Consumer Research 21(0).
[-1] Bang HK, Ellinger AE, Hadjimarcou J, Traichal PA (2000) 'Consumer concern, knowledge, belief, and attitude toward renewable energy: An application of the reasoned action theory'. Psychology & Marketing 17(6).
[-2] Banks S (1987) 'Toward better media marketing strategies'. Journal of Advertising Research 27(1).
[0] Batra R (1997) 'Executive insights: Marketing issues and challenges in transitional economies'. Journal of International Marketing 5(4).
[0] Bayus BL (1992) 'Brand loyalty and marketing strategy - an application to home appliances'. Marketing Science 11(1).
[1] Bei LT, Simpson EM (1995) 'The determinants of consumers' purchase decisions for recycled products: An application of acquisition-transaction utility theory'. Advances in Consumer Research 22(0).
[-2] Bernhardt KL (1986) 'Legal-aspects of marketing strategy - antitrust and consumer-protection issues - stern,lw, eovaldi,tl'. Journal of Marketing 50(3).
[1] Bharadwaj S, Clark T, Kulviwat S (2005) 'Marketing, market growth, and endogenous growth theory: An inquiry into the causes of market growth'. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 33(3).
[2] Bharadwaj SG, Varadarajan PR, Fahy J (1993) 'Sustainable competitive advantage in-service industries - a conceptual-model and research propositions'. Journal of Marketing 57(4).
[0] Bhattacharya CB, Rao H, Glynn MA (1995) 'Understanding the bond of identification - an investigation of its correlates among art-museum members'. Journal of Marketing 59(4).
[1] Bhattacharya CB, Smith NC, Vogel D (2004) 'Integrating social responsibility and marketing strategy: An introduction'. California Management Review 47(1).
[0] Bock T, Uncles M (2002) 'A taxonomy of differences between consumers for market segmentation'. International Journal of Research in Marketing 19(3).
[0] Bolton RN, Bronkhorst TM (1995) 'The relationship between customer complaints to the firm and subsequent exit behavior'. Advances in Consumer Research 22(0).
[1] Bowman D, Gatignon H (1996) 'Order of entry as a moderator of the effect of the marketing mix on market share'. Marketing Science 15(3).
[0] Bradley F, Gannon M (2000) 'Does the firm's technology and marketing profile affect foreign market entry?'. Journal of International Marketing 8(4).
[0] Brookes R (1995) 'Recent changes in the retailing of fresh produce - strategic implications for fresh produce suppliers'. Journal of Business Research 32(2).
[-1] Brouthers LE, Werner S, Matulich E (2000) 'The influence of Triad nations' environments on price-quality product strategies and MNC performance'. Journal of International Business Studies 31(1).
[1] Calantone RJ, Cavusgil ST, Schmidt JB, Shin GC (2004) 'Internationalization and the dynamics of product adaptation an empirical investigation'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 21(3).
[-2] Calantone RJ, Dibenedetto CA (1990) 'Defensive industrial marketing strategies'. Industrial Marketing Management 19(3).
[0] Calantone RJ, Schatzel KE (2000) 'Strategic foretelling: Communication-based antecedents of a firm's propensity to preannounce'. Journal of Marketing 64(1).
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119
Appendix B: Co-citation coupling strengths
CO
-CIT
AT
ION
ST
RE
NG
TH
MA
TR
IX
N=
28,
T=
13,
S=
276
Outp
ut
data
type:
Real
716
19
23
513
918
15
28
23
122
4
AR
MS
TB
AR
NE
BU
ZZ
EC
AV
US
CH
UR
CD
AY
GD
AY
GD
ES
HP
DE
SH
PD
ES
SD
ICK
SF
OR
NE
HU
NT
----
---
---
----
---
---
----
---
---
----
---
---
----
---
---
----
---
---
----
---
---
----
-
7A
RM
ST
RO
NG
0.0
00
0.1
95
0.1
11
0.2
05
0.2
29
0.1
00
0.2
98
0.1
11
0.1
03
0.1
47
0.0
48
0.2
73
0.0
77
0.1
28
0.1
78
16
BA
RN
EY
0.1
95
0.0
00
0.1
75
0.1
28
0.0
53
0.3
00
0.3
81
0.1
94
0.2
50
0.1
61
0.2
42
0.1
82
0.2
19
0.0
79
0.2
82
19
BU
ZZ
ELL
0.1
11
0.1
75
0.0
43
0.2
16
0.0
51
0.1
04
0.0
93
0.0
27
0.0
51
0.0
28
0.0
77
0.0
53
0.0
53
0.1
35
0.0
85
23
CA
VU
SG
IL0.2
05
0.1
28
0.2
16
0.0
00
0.0
56
0.1
11
0.1
20
0.0
29
0.0
00
0.1
33
0.0
26
0.1
21
0.0
28
0.3
00
0.0
43
5C
HU
RC
HIL
L0.2
29
0.0
53
0.0
51
0.0
56
0.0
00
0.0
45
0.1
30
0.1
07
0.0
97
0.1
54
0.0
00
0.1
00
0.0
00
0.0
29
0.1
28
13
DA
Y0.1
00
0.3
00
0.1
04
0.1
11
0.0
45
0.0
71
0.3
33
0.1
03
0.0
70
0.1
35
0.1
46
0.1
25
0.2
86
0.0
68
0.1
91
9D
AY
0.2
98
0.3
81
0.0
93
0.1
20
0.1
30
0.3
33
0.2
22
0.1
95
0.4
44
0.0
91
0.1
78
0.2
75
0.1
59
0.0
39
0.6
76
18
DE
SH
PA
ND
E0.1
11
0.1
94
0.0
27
0.0
29
0.1
07
0.1
03
0.1
95
0.0
00
0.2
92
0.0
80
0.1
03
0.0
00
0.1
11
0.0
32
0.2
06
15
DE
SH
PA
ND
E0.1
03
0.2
50
0.0
51
0.0
00
0.0
97
0.0
70
0.4
44
0.2
92
0.0
00
0.0
34
0.0
94
0.1
00
0.1
00
0.0
00
0.2
57
28
DE
SS
0.1
47
0.1
61
0.0
28
0.1
33
0.1
54
0.1
35
0.0
91
0.0
80
0.0
34
0.0
00
0.0
69
0.1
15
0.0
74
0.0
33
0.0
81
2D
ICK
SO
N0.0
48
0.2
42
0.0
77
0.0
26
0.0
00
0.1
46
0.1
78
0.1
03
0.0
94
0.0
69
0.0
00
0.0
97
0.2
59
0.0
29
0.1
25
3F
OR
NE
LL
0.2
73
0.1
82
0.0
53
0.1
21
0.1
00
0.1
25
0.2
75
0.0
00
0.1
00
0.1
15
0.0
97
0.0
00
0.1
03
0.0
63
0.1
32
1H
UN
T0.0
77
0.2
19
0.0
53
0.0
28
0.0
00
0.2
86
0.1
59
0.1
11
0.1
00
0.0
74
0.2
59
0.1
03
0.0
00
0.0
00
0.1
03
22
JA
IN0.1
28
0.0
79
0.1
35
0.3
00
0.0
29
0.0
68
0.0
39
0.0
32
0.0
00
0.0
33
0.0
29
0.0
63
0.0
00
0.0
00
0.0
00
4JA
WO
RS
KI
0.1
78
0.2
82
0.0
85
0.0
43
0.1
28
0.1
91
0.6
76
0.2
06
0.2
57
0.0
81
0.1
25
0.1
32
0.1
03
0.0
00
0.0
00
17
KO
HLI
0.1
04
0.1
90
0.0
41
0.0
67
0.0
73
0.1
91
0.5
12
0.2
42
0.3
75
0.0
26
0.1
25
0.0
49
0.1
32
0.0
00
0.3
50
27
LE
VIT
T0.1
00
0.0
51
0.1
35
0.2
58
0.0
29
0.0
44
0.0
19
0.0
32
0.0
00
0.0
00
0.0
00
0.0
30
0.0
00
0.5
65
0.0
00
14
NA
RV
ER
0.1
33
0.2
63
0.0
65
0.0
70
0.1
05
0.1
74
0.3
64
0.1
47
0.3
13
0.0
86
0.1
32
0.1
08
0.1
39
0.0
00
0.3
33
12
PO
RT
ER
0.0
71
0.2
00
0.1
94
0.1
11
0.0
29
0.1
43
0.2
27
0.1
00
0.2
00
0.0
67
0.1
21
0.0
61
0.2
07
0.0
88
0.1
50
21
PO
RT
ER
0.1
45
0.2
14
0.2
11
0.1
38
0.1
07
0.1
56
0.2
31
0.0
93
0.1
27
0.0
94
0.1
05
0.1
30
0.0
89
0.0
68
0.2
00
6P
RA
HA
LA
D0.1
43
0.3
70
0.1
18
0.0
61
0.0
33
0.1
94
0.2
56
0.0
77
0.1
92
0.0
00
0.1
43
0.1
54
0.1
54
0.0
67
0.1
08
26
RU
EK
ER
T0.0
81
0.0
88
0.0
56
0.0
61
0.0
33
0.1
03
0.0
89
0.1
20
0.0
69
0.0
00
0.0
32
0.0
34
0.0
00
0.0
32
0.1
08
10
SA
MIE
E0.1
14
0.1
25
0.1
21
0.4
17
0.0
34
0.0
77
0.0
67
0.0
38
0.0
00
0.0
83
0.0
69
0.0
74
0.0
36
0.5
50
0.0
26
11
SLA
TE
R0.1
08
0.2
67
0.0
83
0.0
59
0.0
67
0.1
89
0.4
71
0.1
60
0.2
31
0.0
37
0.0
65
0.0
69
0.1
48
0.0
00
0.2
35
25
SZ
YM
AN
SK
I0.1
62
0.2
12
0.2
42
0.3
57
0.0
30
0.0
70
0.1
30
0.0
33
0.0
30
0.0
71
0.0
61
0.1
00
0.0
65
0.3
46
0.1
00
8W
ALK
ER
0.2
16
0.1
67
0.0
49
0.1
11
0.1
61
0.1
71
0.2
86
0.1
79
0.1
25
0.1
03
0.0
88
0.1
29
0.0
61
0.0
28
0.3
14
20
WE
BS
TE
R0.0
23
0.0
50
0.0
75
0.0
26
0.0
29
0.1
43
0.0
80
0.1
00
0.0
59
0.0
00
0.1
21
0.0
00
0.0
94
0.0
28
0.0
95
24
WIN
D0.0
26
0.1
25
0.1
21
0.0
30
0.0
34
0.2
35
0.1
16
0.0
80
0.0
71
0.1
30
0.1
48
0.0
74
0.1
60
0.0
69
0.1
43
120
17
27
14
12
21
626
10
11
25
820
24
JAIN
JAWORKOHLILEVIT
NARVEPORTEPORTEPRAHARUEKESAMIE
SLATESZYMAWALKE
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
7ARMSTRONG
0.104
0.100
0.133
0.071
0.145
0.143
0.081
0.114
0.108
0.162
0.216
0.023
0.026
16BARNEY
0.190
0.051
0.263
0.200
0.214
0.370
0.088
0.125
0.267
0.212
0.167
0.050
0.125
19BUZZELL
0.041
0.135
0.065
0.194
0.211
0.118
0.056
0.121
0.083
0.242
0.049
0.075
0.121
23CAVUSGIL
0.067
0.258
0.070
0.111
0.138
0.061
0.061
0.417
0.059
0.357
0.111
0.026
0.030
5CHURCHILL
0.073
0.029
0.105
0.029
0.107
0.033
0.033
0.034
0.067
0.030
0.161
0.029
0.034
13DAY
0.191
0.044
0.174
0.143
0.156
0.194
0.103
0.077
0.189
0.070
0.171
0.143
0.235
9DAY
0.512
0.019
0.364
0.227
0.231
0.256
0.089
0.067
0.471
0.130
0.286
0.080
0.116
18DESHPANDE
0.242
0.032
0.147
0.100
0.093
0.077
0.120
0.038
0.160
0.033
0.179
0.100
0.080
15DESHPANDE
0.375
0.000
0.313
0.200
0.127
0.192
0.069
0.000
0.231
0.030
0.125
0.059
0.071
28DESS
0.026
0.000
0.086
0.067
0.094
0.000
0.000
0.083
0.037
0.071
0.103
0.000
0.130
2DICKSON
0.125
0.000
0.132
0.121
0.105
0.143
0.032
0.069
0.065
0.061
0.088
0.121
0.148
3FORNELL
0.049
0.030
0.108
0.061
0.130
0.154
0.034
0.074
0.069
0.100
0.129
0.000
0.074
1HUNT
0.132
0.000
0.139
0.207
0.089
0.154
0.000
0.036
0.148
0.065
0.061
0.094
0.160
22JAIN
0.000
0.565
0.000
0.088
0.068
0.067
0.032
0.550
0.000
0.346
0.028
0.028
0.069
4JAWORSKI
0.350
0.000
0.333
0.150
0.200
0.108
0.108
0.026
0.235
0.100
0.314
0.095
0.143
17KOHLI
0.000
0.023
0.405
0.150
0.143
0.171
0.108
0.026
0.355
0.048
0.150
0.150
0.111
27LEVITT
0.023
0.000
0.024
0.057
0.068
0.032
0.032
0.409
0.000
0.296
0.028
0.000
0.033
14NARVER
0.405
0.024
0.000
0.100
0.129
0.114
0.083
0.027
0.212
0.077
0.158
0.100
0.056
12PORTER
0.150
0.057
0.100
0.000
0.280
0.222
0.031
0.103
0.172
0.091
0.086
0.086
0.185
21PORTER
0.143
0.068
0.129
0.280
0.000
0.157
0.073
0.074
0.176
0.148
0.143
0.085
0.137
6PRAHALAD
0.171
0.032
0.114
0.222
0.157
0.000
0.037
0.080
0.261
0.069
0.100
0.100
0.125
26RUEKERT
0.108
0.032
0.083
0.031
0.073
0.037
0.000
0.038
0.115
0.033
0.222
0.222
0.038
10SAMIEE
0.026
0.409
0.027
0.103
0.074
0.080
0.038
0.000
0.000
0.429
0.067
0.032
0.040
11SLATER
0.355
0.000
0.212
0.172
0.176
0.261
0.115
0.000
0.000
0.067
0.063
0.172
0.077
25SZYMANSKI
0.048
0.296
0.077
0.091
0.148
0.069
0.033
0.429
0.067
0.000
0.091
0.029
0.034
8WALKER
0.150
0.028
0.158
0.086
0.143
0.100
0.222
0.067
0.063
0.091
0.000
0.118
0.143
20WEBSTER
0.150
0.000
0.100
0.086
0.085
0.100
0.222
0.032
0.172
0.029
0.118
0.000
0.103
24WIND
0.111
0.033
0.056
0.185
0.137
0.125
0.038
0.040
0.077
0.034
0.143
0.103
0.080
121
Appendix C: Co-citation cluster analysis results Method: AVERAGE Type of Data: Similarities HIERARCHICAL CLUSTERING C D A F C J L S S R W W B P P D B P D D J K N S D D H W H E R O A A E A Z U A E U O O E A R E A A O A L I A U I U S M R V I V M Y E L B Z R R S R A S Y W H R A C Y N N R S S N U N I I M K K S Z T T H N H H O L V T K T D C T E S T E A E E T E E E P E A P G R I E E S G H G R L G S T E N R R E L R R A Y L A S S R R O S S Y I G O L I C S T R L N A N - K A N - D - L - N L - T S K O M M D J D D J I K J S J - J L S G C J - - I R C F R E E E B E - C F P J T - S H J W - E D - - - C M B J - - R M M G R J J T M A D - J - - C C R J K R A J J J - A M A A A S - A R M M J J P O O - - - R - M J R A R - T - M J R V A - M I M M J M H J K J A M M K R K J E J A K A R J M A M M P P A A E R A A M E K E G R M E R K A R A S E E M N R M T M K R R A T E T 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 Level 5 0 1 2 4 4 7 3 5 2 6 7 3 9 0 8 2 1 9 7 5 6 8 4 1 6 3 8 ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6757 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . 0.5652 . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . 0.4561 . . . . . XXXXX . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . 0.4054 . . . . . XXXXX . . . . . . . . . . . XXX XXX . . . . . 0.3823 . . . . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . . . . . XXX XXX . . . . . 0.3704 . . . . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX . XXX XXX . . . . . 0.3636 . . . . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX . XXXXXXX . . . . . 0.3579 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX . XXXXXXX . . . . . 0.3287 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . . 0.2857 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . XXX . 0.2800 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . XXX . 0.2727 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . XXX . 0.2699 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXX XXXXXXXXXXX . XXX . 0.2285 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX . XXX . 0.2222 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . . XXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX . XXX . 0.2216 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . . XXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX . 0.2052 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX . 0.1759 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1672 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1538 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1525 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1417 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1316 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1172 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.1074 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0942 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0609 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
122
Method: COMPLETE_LINK Type of Data: Similarities HIERARCHICAL CLUSTERING C D A F J L C S S D D J D K N R W W B P P B P S D D H W H E R O A E A A Z E E A A O A U A E U O O A R L I A U I U S M R I V V M Y S S W Y H R E L B Z R R R A A C Y N N R S S N N I U I M H H O L V K K S Z T T N H T K T D C T E T S E A P P R G I E E E T E E E E A E S G H G R L S T G E N A A S S R R R E L R R Y L R O S S Y I G O L C I S N N K - A T R L A N - D - L - N - T L S K D D I J K J O M M J D S J - J L S G C J - - I E E - C R C F R E E B F P J T - H S J B M J - W - E D - - - C - R M M G R J J M A T D R R J A J - J - - C C J K J - A M A A A S A R - M M - - - R M J J P O O - J R A R - T - M R V J A - J J J K A M M I M M M H M K R K J E J A K A R J E R A M A M M P P A A A M E K E G R E R M K M M M T K R A R A S E E N R R A T E T 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 Level 5 0 1 2 4 7 4 3 5 8 9 5 7 6 8 2 6 7 3 9 0 2 1 4 1 6 3 8 ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6757 . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5652 . . . . XXX . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4286 . . . . XXX . XXX . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4054 . . . . XXX . XXX . . XXX XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3704 . . . . XXX . XXX . . XXX XXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.3571 . . . . XXX XXXXX . . XXX XXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.3333 . . . . XXX XXXXX . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.2917 . . . . XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.2857 . . . . XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . . . XXX . . XXX . 0.2800 . . . . XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXX . . XXX . 0.2727 . . XXX XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXX . . XXX . 0.2609 . . XXX XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.2581 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.2222 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . . XXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.1944 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.1600 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXXXX 0.1538 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXXXX 0.1471 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXXXX 0.1463 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1176 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1000 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX 0.0833 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.0588 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.0526 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0000 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
123
Appendix D: Co-citation network centrality analysis results BONACICH CENTRALITY ------------------------------------------------------------ Method: Slow Bonacich Eigenvector Centralities 1 2 Eigenvec nEigenvec --------- --------- 1 ARMSTRONG JS-J MARKETING RES-1977 0.187 26.399 2 BARNEY JB-J MANAGE-1991 0.276 38.962 3 BUZZELL RD-PIMS PRINCIPLES-1987 0.136 19.279 4 CAVUSGIL ST-J MARKETING-1994 0.146 20.676 5 CHURCHILL GA-J MARKETING RES-1979 0.104 14.680 6 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1988 0.219 31.017 7 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1994 0.368 52.065 8 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1989 0.167 23.673 9 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1993 0.223 31.501 10 DESS GG-STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT-1984 0.104 14.751 11 DICKSON PR-J MARKETING-1992 0.148 20.899 12 FORNELL C-J MARKETING RES-1981 0.151 21.375 13 HUNT SD-J MARKETING-1995 0.158 22.274 14 JAIN SC-J MARKETING-1989 0.109 15.422 15 JAWORSKI BJ-J MARKETING-1993 0.275 38.825 16 KOHLI AK-J MARKETING-1990 0.255 36.054 17 LEVITT T-HARVARD BUS REV-1983 0.090 12.781 18 NARVER JC-J MARKETING-1990 0.228 32.311 19 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG-1985 0.188 26.556 20 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE STRATEGY-1980 0.195 27.615 21 PRAHALAD CK-HARVARD BUS REV-1990 0.198 28.005 22 RUEKERT RW-J MARKETING-1987 0.102 14.480 23 SAMIEE S-J MARKETING-1992 0.130 18.318 24 SLATER SF-J MARKETING-1995 0.229 32.360 25 SZYMANSKI DM-J MARKETING-1993 0.155 21.990 26 WALKER OC-J MARKETING-1987 0.190 26.834 27 WEBSTER FE-J MARKETING-1992 0.110 15.621 28 WIND Y-J MARKETING-1983 0.140 19.819 FREEMAN BETWEENNESS CENTRALITY ------------------------------------------------------------------ Un-normalized centralization: 8.998 1 2 Betweenness nBetweenness ------------ ------------ 1 ARMSTRONG JS-J MARKETING RES-1977 1.178 0.336 2 BARNEY JB-J MANAGE-1991 1.178 0.336 3 BUZZELL RD-PIMS PRINCIPLES-1987 1.178 0.336 25 SZYMANSKI DM-J MARKETING-1993 1.178 0.336 19 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG-1985 1.178 0.336 6 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1988 1.178 0.336 7 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1994 1.178 0.336 28 WIND Y-J MARKETING-1983 1.178 0.336 26 WALKER OC-J MARKETING-1987 1.178 0.336 20 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE STRATEGY-1980 1.178 0.336 8 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1989 1.095 0.312 12 FORNELL C-J MARKETING RES-1981 0.997 0.284 21 PRAHALAD CK-HARVARD BUS REV-1990 0.989 0.282 4 CAVUSGIL ST-J MARKETING-1994 0.975 0.278 5 CHURCHILL GA-J MARKETING RES-1979 0.879 0.250 16 KOHLI AK-J MARKETING-1990 0.870 0.248 18 NARVER JC-J MARKETING-1990 0.870 0.248 23 SAMIEE S-J MARKETING-1992 0.824 0.235 22 RUEKERT RW-J MARKETING-1987 0.783 0.223 11 DICKSON PR-J MARKETING-1992 0.705 0.201 27 WEBSTER FE-J MARKETING-1992 0.574 0.164 10 DESS GG-STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT-1984 0.569 0.162 15 JAWORSKI BJ-J MARKETING-1993 0.483 0.138 14 JAIN SC-J MARKETING-1989 0.420 0.120 24 SLATER SF-J MARKETING-1995 0.394 0.112 9 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1993 0.350 0.100 13 HUNT SD-J MARKETING-1995 0.305 0.087 17 LEVITT T-HARVARD BUS REV-1983 0.135 0.039