The Data Dividend

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Making the most of bigdata means adapting toits unique opportunitiesand challenges

THE DATA DIVIDEND

Max Wind-CowieRohit Lekhi


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Demos is a think-tank focused on power andpolitics. Our unique approach challenges thetraditional, ivory tower model of policymaking by giving a voice to people andcommunities. We work together with the

groups and individuals who are the focus ofour research, including them in citizens juries,deliberative workshops, focus groups andethnographic research. Through our highquality and socially responsible research,Demos has established itself as the leadingindependent think-tank in British politics.

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First published in 2012 Demos. Some rights reserved Magdalen House, 136 Tooley Street, London, SE1 2TU, UK

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THE DATA DIVIDENDMax Wind-CowieRohit Lekhi


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Contents

Acknowledgements

Executive summary

1 Promises and paradoxes

2 Data, knowledge and co-production

3 Data governance and transformation

4 Recommendations

Notes

References


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Acknowledgements

This project would not have been possible wboth financial and intellectual of the teamgrateful to them for their insight and encouparticular thanks is owed to Ian Manocha atheir patience and enthusiasm.

The course of this research included aattended by experts, professionals, analystsis not space here to thank all those who attetheir time and their ideas but I am very gratParticular thanks is owed to Tim Kelsey, thSenior Adviser on Open Data and Transparviews and to Charlie Leadbeater who led a stakeholders and kicked this programme ofinspirational essay.

I am grateful to Rohit Lekhi, my co-awork and dedication and to Daniel Leightoadvice and ideas. At Demos, my colleaguesSophie Duder, Ralph Scott and Beatrice Kaworked tirelessly to make this project whatto them all.

All errors, omissions and mistakes rem

entirely my own.

Max Wind-CowieMarch 2012

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Executive summary

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The transparency agenda is a cornerstone oGovernments ambitions for Britain. It is atto improve efficiency, build trust in governmagencies, and reduce costs overall. Much obeen done on the benefits of transparency othe impact this will have on the public and society to engage with government and to uservice delivery. This is obviously a vitadata transparency, but we must also emphasbe made by exploiting the insight provideddecision-making withinpublic services. Whtransparency agenda is to take root in the cuservices, public servants themselves must bto their work of sharing and using data well

the debate about spending transparency andthe focus has been placed on checking upthis is important, but it must be matched wibenefits for those who are charged with spe


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Radical changes to the way government collects and

collates dataData in the palm of your hand

Frontline public services, such as those for hocare, should learn from experiments in Berlin data collection and access devices. These devi

mobile access to databases, enabling public seunderstand the needs of individuals and familiprevious contact and check for problems and uthat may have been recorded by other agenciepotential massively to enhance the relationshipproviders and clients. But it also has anotherservants are able to record new, fresh, real-timimproving the quality of the data themselves.

Make it modular

Modularity will be key to ensuring that big daproperly by government. The platforms that gcollate, store and make accessible its data are public servants ultimately use those data. Whamodular approach to involving the public in th

public service outcomes is also made possibledynamics of service improvement through datfrom technological and democratic sources. Gbe able to encourage responsibility in public d

Executive summary


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platform through which to publish big data

agencies in the area. This will enable localiengage the civic long tail and will drive learmchair auditing. Overall, government cunitary authority in England and Wales witStore platform for less than 3 million.3

Cross-curriculum data teaching

The UK does not have a sufficient skill basPrimarily this is problematic because of thethe economy, competitiveness and levels ofHowever, it also has a profound restrainingability to make the most of big data and to ctransparency of data. Resolving these issueGovernment must invest in cross-curriculumteaching in schools learning from the SAPathways programme to ensure that youequipped with quantitative reasoning skillscross-subject relevance of these skills.

Commission with data in mindThe very least that public bodies should expcontractors is that all data generated in the with them are shared with public servants.

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potential (many examples of which are describin this report) or run the risk of becoming everredundant to citizens.

There is a vast resource of publicly colleheld data that if put to use both inside and ou

have the potential to drive efficiency, better and fundamentally improve the delivery of pucan effect a radical gear-change and place Britclass footing in the way we understand and imrelationship to the state, but only if we exploitdata we hold.

Coping with big dataTim Kelsey, the Governments open data and tbelieves that big data used well can save liDemos shortly after his appointment, Kelsey cpublishing data on the mortality rates of cardiaa steep, identifiable drop in patient deaths. Thibig data.

But delivering on that promise is fraught

practical, political and ethical. For a start, the lrepresented by fairly straightforward informatmortality rates is by no means representative opicture of data. Much of what we want to kno

Executive summary


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outbreaks of looting over the summer that acan and should be used were heavily divideGovernment threatening to shut down data-such as Twitter and the BlackBerry Messensafeguard the public while many civil liber

to the use of those data to inform criminal j All in all, while the importance of bigand enhancing government and to involvinpolicy by analysing the data they producein to the analytical process is broadly ackwe must take is not. This report, building oengagement with policy-makers, technologand the corporate sector, aims to highlight bopportunities presented by the age of big dathat must be overcome. Despite the potentispite of our scepticism about some of the evand for transparency as catch-all solutions by the potential of data and transparency toservices. But the very best rewards for engaand transparency will only come if the Govthese issues with the objective of transform

improvement they must become part of thnot so as to make better the services we havpart in revolutionising how and what servic

Much has been written about the grow

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1 Promises and paradox

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Many current views of big data conjure up flows of information overcoming individua When the Aspen Institute, a renowned US rheld a conference on this topic last year somgists, entrepreneurs and academics participdata are a tempting seduction best avoidedexpose another concern: some see the forcebe increased storage capacity, not the pursuknowledge. Indeed, the emergence of big das a purely technological change, subject toevolutionary dynamics described by Moore

We put forward a different view. It is increasing ubiquity of technologies such asinternet of things and internet-first services

interaction leaves an increasing large and pHowever, the increasing complexity of our the increasing complexity of lived experienity of the communities and organisations of


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of government to act as a responsible steward simply be addressed by such cursory organisarequiring a senior manager to sign off on transwas the HMRCs initial response. Indeed, the that it is organisations and not systems that mu

challenges of big data, that such a response mthat these challenges are particularly thorny fo

Box 1 Liberating the NHS or transforming health care?

The NHS has been an early adopter adata use, and may be most reliant on the future. The way in which the NHis notable for its problem-oriented apattempted to balance focusing on theorganisational transformation.

Among the most prominent conrapidly ageing population: by 2024 itwill be a two-thirds increase in the nu years of age in the UK population. C significantly more prevalent among t

one in 35 people aged between 65 anand this figure rises to one in 15 for p84, and over one in seven for those agwill put significant strain on NHS buTh i l idl i i

Promises and paradoxes


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the key to better care, better outcothe NHS.7One way in which the intelli

advance this agenda is through pretechniques, used by risk managem

such as property investment. By eanalysis, currently prevalent and pwithin certain demographics can bvisible to clinicians. Specifically, timprovement of workforce health where the risks are, an organisatioaccordingly, as well as target healtorder to mitigate potentially harmf physical as well as mental health, downstream outcomes such as depavoided early on if the risk indicat

However, the problems of da particularly pressing in health careembracing big data may be greatesthe advances in data use have beenenhancing the professional capacit

Subsequently, the ways in which pinterpret data may not always align patients do. Information relevant t for improving the quality of cardia

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NHS has recognised that the organisaof the technology is a vital aspect of more so than the technology itself.9 Indeeenvisages to a patient-led NHS is a which requires a cultural shift in pati

This is partially acknowledged paper, which argues that greater accerelationships between doctors and padiscussion and involvement in an indthis kind of involvement requires knodata, as well as the motivation and abdo so effectively. A more intelligent a sharing of real-time data needs to be A 2010 report from UCL argues that who are involved need more than jusneed to be helped to foster productivthey work towards a shared understanand the goal of accommodation (thouconsensus) between their respective

In the NHS, these questions abodovetail with issues surrounding how

the services mode of operation. Lasthealth called for central targets to be 260,000 information returns received Health to be drastically reduced.11 Howe



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into a service are equally importanof accountability. However, there are signs in t

provision and the business model convergence through data use. The

used to predict future needs can alresponse in areas such as research The use of economic techniques indata may help in following up efferesearch and care by analysing outeffectiveness, adjusted to fit outco Different health services and methassessed to show their effectivenesments in health relative to inputs, decision-making processes behindreport from Deloitte LLP, noting thtrain medical professionals, drew a predictive modelling to anticipate significance of these techniques, aleading NHS divisions, is that morinto account not only the full rang

workforce, but also the effects of poutcomes and quality.

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management as information technology (IT) isclear that the pressing issues of adaptation to aenvironment for public services are strategic isuccessful adaptors in the private sector and inpublic sector have recognised.

The difference between data, informatiosignificant because the need to embrace big dathe drive to reinvent relationships between serusers. Changes in private sector business mod


Table 1The Audit Commissions definitions of data, informaand knowledge

Data Data are numbers, words or images that have yetorganised or analysed to answer a specific ques

Information Produced through processing, manipulating and ordata to answer questions, adding to the knowledreceiver.

Knowledge What is known by a person or persons. Involves in

information received, adding relevance and conthe insights the information contains.

Source: Audit Commission 17

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doesnt have to make the right recommendawhich books to buy. Instead, it can simply pquo people are more likelyto buy books panies have been built on imprecise data mfollow Amazons example.19 Similarly, com

argued that the great expansion of data in loyet to be accompanied by a corresponding mation, and so the much-heralded transforinformation to drive improvements in servifailed to materialize.20

Systems and organisationsOne reason why our thinking on big data shnarrow focus on IT to organisational strateginfrastructure to support a move towards dain many ways exemplary in the UK. The Uadoption of technology, with 70 per cent ofconnected to the internet in 2009, and rapidonline e-government services in the last decGovernment spends a considerably higher a

the USA and many major European countraccounts for 22 per cent of overall public sin Europe. 22

However, this is not to say that this ca

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Promises and parado es


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the infrastructure supporting a shift towards bthere are clear economies of scale. However, tgovernment IT strategy showed encouraging sbetween procurement of systems and adoptionsignalled that the oligopoly of large suppliersits IT provision will be broken down to makeinvolvement of SMEs.27

The language of this new approach bearan approach that combines two different stranIT systems: combining an infrastructural platagile approach. For government, developinginfrastructural platforms is nothing new: openTim OReilly has described the interstate highUSA created after the 1956 Federal-Aid Highwplatform investment that was subsequently buand citizen users to develop, for example, inteThe term IT platform is used to describe a gtechnology that provides particular capabilitieresearch has grown around the fact that the adinnovative IT platform is essentially an investorganizational capability, and such investment

irreversible due to the tight coupling of technoorganization. 29 An agile approach to IT devthat embraces changing requirements, continucollaboration. 30 The Institute for Government


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To hold such a view, however, is to swThere is evidence of both platform and ayears ICT strategy. A standards-based platcontractors to contribute to government-owbasis of a common, interoperable language

complete solutions. This approach will be sapplication of lean and agile methodologieswaste, be more responsive to changing requthe risk of project failure.33 Considering th

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Table 2The Institute for Governments definitions of plaand agile

Platform A system-wide approach to standardising andshared elements of government IT. The aim

basics right by bearing down on costs, reduand providing some standards and rules to sinteroperability.

Agile An approach to IT that emphasises flexibilitto change and innovation. This is achieved and iterative development based on user invfeedback.

Source: adapted from J Stephen et al 32



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Control and value

Considering the resistance faced by governmeto open up IT procurement and implementatiobig data faces great institutional obstacles beccombination of technological and organisationentails. In public services, data pose a politicbecause [they are] the basis on which decisioninterventions from institutions are made. 35 Tbetween the operation of government and poplays out at the wrong level for data. The elecincompatible with the speed of technological edata-driven processes: the time needed to gainis too great, while the window for governancewould permit adaptation is too limited. 36 Indeinitiatives require placing disruption at the heaoperation of government, and this requires amanagement to governance.

These terms are often used interchangeaIT industry, but the latter first gained currencysciences in the 1990s, describing the rights, rand resources that structure political outcomesemerged from a shift in the social sciences in

processes gained emphasis over institutions ansingular actors 38 a response to the same incrcomplexity which makes big data a significan

Reconfiguring the relationships between


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Moreover, the open-ended nature of dantithetical to a management approach. Evaaccounting for the benefits of technology hnotoriously difficult. As economist and NobRobert Solow remarked as early as 1987, Yeverywhere but in the productivity statisticsproductivity paradox identified by Solowshown the ineffectiveness not of technologyapproaches to measuring productivity itseof outputs per inputs. Standard productivityadapted to take into account not just the amproduced, but the value that is created: withquality, timeliness, customization, conveniintangibles.42 These measurement issues hgovernments own information about IT spinadequate, so that it cannot establish benc

of projects.43Perhaps the real paradox for intelligenpublic sector is more efficiency and effectivto result from less control over the outcomerecent study of e-government found that tra

projects those concerned not just to changoperate but to transform the service itself twice as quickly because the investment in organisational changes. Indeed, the more g

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a serious issue. Placing the claimant automated system where they are reqmore information, the report claims, abound when privacy is compromiseThere are further potential risks to prdata are shared with other agencies o More broadly, users of and applicantunaware of where their data go and hthey are in the system. Further, they aa check has been carried out on themwho has authorised it, and the extent data may have been compromised.

A recent case, in which a womawithout consent by three different agcaution to data-sharing initiatives whthe Parliamentary Ombudsman this y

report found that not only a single inpcompounded across agencies, and ea system, but also the network of comthen always locate the source of any concerns have been raised about Dire

Department for Work and Pensions (which would appear to channel welfachannel to support both supportive antowards claimants.

o ses a d pa ado es

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Governments plans in this area foerror in the provision of benefits aThe 190 billion that is paid out inunder severe scrutiny, and the empthe issue of overspend, administraand other forms of waste.49 Howeverissues are to be routinely made avauncovered. While this will increaswill also enable them to take contrthem, mitigating the kind of errors Parliamentary Ombudsmans inve Meanwhile, performance measuredifferent types of performance datrelationship between inputs and ou services. In this way the effectiven providers and their models can be

this form, data become informatioaccountability, on the condition thand open to scrutiny.

How much service providersto the public, and how much the p

information to hold providers to aca framework in which open data a framework will be explored in the


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2 Data, knowledge and production

ParticipationHow technologically-enabled government work together is an area of significant schogreatest potential democratic advantage of the relationships between citizen and state aopen processes, themselves catalysed throucan become pragmatic and problem-orientehighly visible example of how discussion c

both its content-creation and editorial compgradually forms from a mass of divergent vminimal central control. 51 This process is pdeliberative aspects of democratic life. In habout the impact of technology on democra

Habermas was comforted by the observatiotechnological systems, democratic societieswith the practices of communication ratherof control. 52 Habermas insisted that people

Data, knowledge and co-production


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institutions do not penetrate the public, which is autonomous in its operations.54

Similar themes emerge from the recommNestas report Radical Efficiency. It suggests thmust cultivate empathy with users. Having astanding of what users need incentivises accouservice providers, and the resulting effectivenby public services incentivises engagement am

However, governance is a question of whengagement with users is built in to the systemFoundation has argued, Discerning public prenotoriously difficult and there are dangers in runinformed public states about what it wants pcan be a profoundly undemocratic force whentranslate into information and knowledge. The

data, and their varying quality, has led democrrecognise that individuals tune in to a few gattransmitters of information and mould them ininformation-acquisition system.57 In public sepublic preferences must be met in the light of

difficulty of what we are trying to do in the puincreasing boundary problems over who is rmultifaceted social problems. 58 Increased commass of data that results from it therefore po

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exemplary among other medical systems, bfrequent clinical and public criticism. In itsclinical effectiveness and cost of medical tedemocratic responsibilities are to hold the Nthe use of public funds in subsequent invesCriticisms often arise from its inability to rehealth issues of public concern; its decisionexample, were pre-empted by former HealtHewitt in 2005 61 and criticised extensively in 2009. 62 It is charged to act on behalf of umuch of its work is guided by an attempt trespond to national priorities. 63 In an attemand equitable decisions, therefore, it can ovparticular. From the perspective of data, the2007/08 Health Committee are more troublalso responsible for providing guidance to t

profession. Appraisal processes were foundinformed in their comprehensiveness, analybenefits to society and access to informatio

Harnessing the democratic potential orequires two types of governance, reflecting

centralising and decentralising dynamics ofabout by data. First, co-production requiresrelationship between the data that can be coare used to represent the identity of service



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Identity

The private sectors use of data also demonstrdata creates a proxy identity for individuals,been significantly determined by how the techused. As a Demos report has identified, the lobehaviour through the use of customer loyaltyon online behaviour, and tracked responses to campaigns builds trust and business by emphconsent by explicitly emphasising that data coptional means of providing enhanced producthe customer. 67 The simultaneous process of ccustomers is the implicit benefit to the businescategorisation has been hard-wired into the buperhaps most successfully by Tesco. The tradebusiness and consumer is essentially consent texchange for convenience, mediated through apicture of the consumer accurate enough to m

tions on products and services, but not so accuthe consumers sense of identity. As participanConference noted, this technology-driven appyield around 2 per cent of useable data, but alsmarket for intermediaries to prune the data c

Verhulst, chief of research at the technology aoriented Markle Foundation, commented, thethe more need for mediation. 68

In the public sector, the incentive structu

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channels are as likely to be human as they alogical. Service users employers, family antheir behalf are almost as likely to use e-gousers themselves.70 There are also examplesuccessfully reaching out to users through isuch initiatives are placed to deliver the gredriven services. The increasing strain placeservice by an ageing population, noted abovto the UK. In deprived areas of Berlin, civiincreasingly used portable devices connectewhen visiting care homes for the elderly anan ageing population placing increasing strof the health service, data therefore enable organisational adaptations, which would otto implement.

Modularity

If data governance takes into account the rirepresent their identities, the exchanges undand the fact that individual identities are m

systems and other people, the question remthe principles by which individuals are drawNoveck argues, When a policy problem inparts, so that it can be worked on by collab



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open-source operating system Linux, given ebugs are shallow.73 Eric von Hippel takes thisfinding a problem

can be greatly reduced in cost and also made fastit is opened up to a large community of software the information needed to identify and fix some b74

In the health service, for example, the infeedback service Patient Opinion has taken adthat the internet has made it cheap to identifythoughtfully passionate about local servicesof finding such expert users through traditiosurveys and focus groups often derails attempservice users, up to 40 per cent of those using have been willing to be contacted for their ins

this willingness to contribute to service improvrequires building in mechanisms for improvinof data into public services. The NHS Connetechnology programme aimed to support localproviding care for older people. However, the

process used did not allow for input by commreceiving care themselves. In this way, the ascomes to be seen primarily as an external impwith surveillance and control, rather than som

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Framework

Participants at the Aspen Institute conferenon the need for a set of architectural princibe handled and how that handling will be dargued that the role of government in data-dshift towards governance. This requires twocorrespond to the issues of control and valusection Control and value in chapter 1. Fishould shift focus from enforcing a freedomregime to encouraging open, data-enabled pshould move from managing data to regula

From freedom of information to open data

We have taken some steps backwards in thesupport open processes in the UK. If the ethpaper on freedom of information of 1998 h

the Freedom of Information Act, the latter mone of the most expansive freedom of inforworld.81 However, the substance of the act create the culture of routine, proactive andincreased openness that Information Comm

Thomas continued to press for as late as 20Information Commissioner took the role offreedom of information 83 and by extensioof the government as a whole: something th



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decision-making. Section 36 exempts informain the reasonable opinion of a qualified persowould otherwise prejudice, or would be likelyprejudice, the effective conduct of public affaithat as a point of principle the opinion of a govover whether disclosure would have such a prfinal. The dependence on a qualified person with regards to data, the freedom of informatiocreates a single point of failure, as described bIt also rules out informed consideration by theactions of government for the indeterminate ppublic affairs may be prejudiced.

Early advice on how the act should be imthat it relied heavily on the attitude of senior mthat it should be embraced as an opportunity engage more fully with stakeholders and win

understanding for their plans and policies.88

Freedom of Information Act may indeed be thconcept of government policy gained legisladid so in order to exempt information used in developing such policy. 89 As UCLs report for

Commissioners Office shows, government ppractical terms the setting out by Governmenoverview approach to a key area or sector of sinitiatives or interventions aimed at bringing a

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Colleges Admissions Service to the list of trather than opening up the definition of whpublic body. 93 The Government has also caimpressively broad effort to identify best prgovernment data through new government Public Data Corporation, the Local Public DPublic Sector Transparency Board. The forto lead by example in data governance, pioto open access which can set best practice fsector information. The language of its remvery much a platform investment, with ththat it will attract both interest and investm

From data management to data quality regulation

The Audit Commission provided sound adv

governance in 2007 when stating that data and reported once only, on the principle of time.95 This principle was elaborated furthreview of the Department for Culture, MedLifting the Burdens Task Force. The reviewCommissions concern about the effects of in the section Data, information and knowthis paper, but framed these concerns squarthe business of government in other word



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on the local level included the DCLGs Data ILaunched in pilot in April 2008, the hub aimeburden on collecting data for local authorities,local authorities have all the information that ttheir own performance.97 Its effectiveness warecognisable link between data quality and ousupported the Audit Commissions principle ofirst time by reducing multiple data entries, astandardised data format. However, the Coalitcancelled the programme shortly after election

The DCLG has recently taken very positopen data with a recent Draft Code of Recommfor Local Authorities on Data Transparency, wdemand-led system, in which local authoritiedata they hold, what their communities want ain a way that allows the public, developers or

present it in new ways.99

The implicit recogniopenness should be user-led is a decisive step compliance-based Freedom of Information AcThe proposed code also calls local authorities formats in order to maximise value to the pubBerners-Lees one-to-five star rating for the usdata. 100 This is also a positive step, as experiengovernment data released on data.gov.uk showfrequently convert OGD into the formats they

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In this sense, from the perspective of hold local government to account, DCLG iprivilege the usability of data from a technoover their value from a democratic one. Gonecessarily imply pure data. Certainly, weenforced data quality standards are essentiadation of the Governments CommunicatioGroup after the 2007 data breach was that mwere needed across government. However,standards to be constantly updated by busitechnical experts, and independent input froregards to data governance, then, such stanand so mitigate the risks of poor quality datbe standardised to highlight subjective biascomparison across time and space. 105

However, when releasing uniform dat

policy, and such impartial data are expectedengagement in their own right, adaptations will miss the difference between data and inso strictly by technologists themselves. Thiare collected with a view to analysis as oppoutcomes, the loss of contextual informatiomake analysis of the cleansed data less usentangled with the conditions from whichwith them a history or provenance which m



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emphasis on savings and using data t fraudulent claims steers reform awayand citizen-focused orientation. The Research (IPPR) argues that a sector focuses on the needs of employers anthrough training, is more sustainable work-first approach, the main goal ofand abuse of the service itself. A sectwould rely on local knowledge and e sharing of this information among emand users.107

Moreover, the intelligent use ofcan bring more benefits than improveThree initiatives in the USA and Ausdriven innovation on the service user

frontline. The Wisconsin scheme W2

employed a barrier screening tool, whcommissioners with coherent and reldevelop personalised employability p gathered from welfare users through which is responsive to individual ansoverview of the potential barriers thaindividual from finding employment.alcohol and drug abuse, to mental an problems, to psychological traumas a

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Three underlying themes em Data collection and use are aligne

Building up an accurate, real-timeemployment is an essential elemen surmount those barriers.

Data are used to provide mutual beWisconsin Works benefits the wel spent in evaluation and cutting du parts of the system, and benefits umost appropriate service more effi

The mutual benefits to service proeach to provide and maintain good


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3 Data governance andtransformation

Models of data governanceOf all the potential uses of data, the sharingagencies and providers still attracts the mos

public concern. The Government provided detailed response to these concerns in the rsupport framework for data sharing in suppsafety.110 However, recognising the institutiogood data governance requires that we con

institutional response. Demos put forward tgovernance following the high profile data out in table 3.

Regulation and compliance

The UK was relatively quick to adopt legalsupport data protection, passing two acts ofand 1998 for this purpose. Alongside policy

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be retained no longer than necessary for the sppurpose(s);

be processed in ways that respect the data subinclude the right of subject access (the right ofsee information held about him or her);

be subject to appropriate technical and organisto prevent unauthorised and unlawful processiof, destruction of, or damage to the informatio

not be transferred outside the European Econoexcept to countries where levels of data protecdeemed adequate. 111

However, there remains considerable coexact parameters of information sharing betweand agencies, including the level of access graparties.112 This is partly because there is ambig

two principles interact if individuals consentdata collection and use, for how long do they data being used, by which arm of governmentpurposes in particular? These concerns were tthe data protection regulator, empowered by thact, a role that has been modified and renamedthe addition of freedom of information responthe Information Commissioner became the insof data protection.

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Table 3 Three models of data governance

Paternalistic Collective rules and decision-making about perinformation use that provide security, for exagranting security services access to communor decisions about using information about cintervene in family life.

Deregulatory Lack of collective rules on use, allowing the maindividuals to decide the rules of how personused, for example, the Conservative partys review suggestion that the Data Protection Arepealed as a piece of expensive bureaucracymodel, good practice and consumer interestsserved by market forces.

Democratic Collective rules that create the possibility of indnegotiation. When institutions, public or privdecisions based on personal information the

assumption about what sort of people can mabout particular types of behaviour, and whaconsequences of those judgements should befrom whether a security service can access sphone records, to allowing the music industrinformation from internet service providers customers do online to prevent file-sharing.

Source: Bradwell and Gallagher 115



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Markets and Incentives

Certainly, a market-based approach to data gobenefits, and draws on a history of practice thain the section Data and informed governanceof a market-based approach is, first, that contrcould be harmonised with the purposes for whcollected. As Joseph Stiglitz has argued, the avaccurate and relevant information at the right tmarket efficiency.118 A second advantage to magovernance is the alignment of incentives oveuse and sharing that results from deregulation example, personal data stores are currently u

which allow individuals to take charge of theirdata. In this way, individual interest in both thgood quality information and control over howused generates self-regulation by individuals ofootprint. Proponents of the Mydex system ur

initiatives may require minor policy revisionssignificant new legislation or major infrastrucMore sweeping measures towards a deregulatinclude the suggestion that responsible data uscould be linked to other performance measurepayment by results approach to open data. 12

Democratic data governance

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public bodies now have information charteawareness of departmental data assets still disclosures (such as those currently being mDCLG) and the use of freedom of informatindividuals. While the disclosure of data serecent coalition policy, the basic compliancmay yet undermine the effectiveness of proas outlined in the recent white paper on opeThis new right, which will gain statutory foof Freedoms Bill is passed, will ensure thapublish data sets for re-use in an open and s

However, these data sets will be published bodies only in response to requests or thropublication schemes.124

An adequate institutional response to data also requires attention to the human ca

government bodies themselves. A report frGlobal Institute highlights a lack of qualifiegovernment. 125 This concern is echoed in thGovernments suggestion that to address imin government IT, the Government needs toprofessionals.126 It is suggested that improvunderstanding of IT initiatives in central goenable more effective oversight of deliverysuch pragmatic steps do not undermine the



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findings show both the limitations of a regulatdata and the advantages of a democratically ingovernance approach. This is because establisnot just a matter of gaining a democratic manddriven initiatives; such initiatives depend on thpublic for their operational effectiveness and sthe efficiency gains they are expected to gener

Box 4 Data mining, institutions and accountability in the po

Data mining applications are increasi

activities such as tactical crime analyassessment, behavioural analysis of vrecords, and targeted strategies of depSuch applications have been used wiand have been shown to make increa

voluminous data accessible and useaoperational personnel alike, to increawhich data analysis can be driven, anencourage effective dialogue betweencommissioners and expert advisers.129 Momining has been adopted by UK forcSerious Organised Crime Agency hatechniques to analyse patterns of crim

far-reaching criminal networks.130 The P

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or suspicion, records can be acceswhich may then form the basis for place within the bounds of data pr particularly concerning when undebodies such as the Serious OrganisOther concerns over accountability structure of the police. Responsibiby police forces in the UK falls to Improvement Agency (NPIA), an the Home Office and made up of pauthority executives, representativ

and independent members.The NPIA has worked to des Police National Database, which b2011. It replaces the IMPACT Nomhad allowed forces to find out if da

individual around the country in thcustody, crime, domestic violence Joseph Rowntree Reform Trust repincluded soft intelligence such concluding that letting such thinintelligence into that of routine poand some intelligence officers thinout its mandate to provide informa support frontline policing, the NPI



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ones.136 It is worrying from the persp furthermore, that experts have warnethat may result in merging NPIA systSOCA, which will also form part of t However, it should be noted that the of the Police National Database clearchief officers to take responsibility fo place on the system, what informatio system, and what restrictions to applthe information.138

Data and transformational servicesIn the section Control and value in chapter 1empirical research indicating that technologicsupporting a transformation in how a service i

more effective than when it was geared solelyfunctioning of a service itself. These results intechnological change influenced service outcotechnology investment is coupled with other investments, such as organizational re-engineeand redesign.139 As we have indicated in prevdriven initiatives under the previous governmproved ineffective when government has souggood practice in data collection, use or sharing

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transformational aims draw on the transformof data?

Data and collaboration

Institutional arrangements to deliver local aservices currently emphasise connecting paentrepreneurial activities and volunteers wiservices through multi-agency partnershipslonger-term government strategy to includecommunity sector (VCS) in new forms of s

practically and as advisers influencing the as innovators from which the public sector The white paper on open public servi

primary purpose of open data in public servthe information they need to make informe

up standards. The Government data reviewforce Lifting the Burdens of 2007, will audcollections and identify opportunities to redimproving the quality, value and availabilitsuggests in practice that the Government wsector the VCS alongside social enterprisinformation to government bodies in pursuthe service delivery level, while reducing itfor data collection. This is because increasi



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IT projects notes there is an evolutionary proccurve in the relationship between IT providersas reproduced in table 4.

This not only echoes findings on the effegovernment, but also suggests that the potentitechnologies is crucially affected by relationshthey are implemented. Further research from LLondon School of Economics has suggested th

Table 4 The evolutionary process in the relationship betweenproviders and their clients

Cost focus Quality focus I

Client concerns IT as commodity IT underpins IT is pbusinessCritical activity

Supplier concerns Contract Platform Partprofitability development d

Relationship focus Constant Best practice Explo

negotiation IT

Target outcomes Cheaper IT Better IT Bett

Source: Weeks and Feeny 146

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stewards of personal data than other sectorssuggest that public trust over data collectiodepends on what data are used for but cainto structures for data governance?

On the level of data, the focus of currlocalised service delivery and strong accoumay lead to contradictions. First, it is not clperformance data will relate to aggregated individuals or overall outcomes for demogralthough the Government clearly intends tofocusing on disadvantaged sections of the p

National Council for Voluntary Associationconcern that under a sector-neutral approacindividual users only outcomes that can beusers are captured, disregarding such secothe representation of service users. 149

The problem faced by current policy-must address the distinct challenges of impinnovations at the same time as delineatingwith service providers. From the perspectivgovernment agencies currently carry responthreats as:

compromised delivery following new policresulting from inadequate innovation



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the public sector may stand in the way of dataimprovements to outcomes.

Data and informed governanceRisk, regulation and design

We have argued that establishing frameworks use and sharing of data requires attention to thinstitutions. This gains some support from theframework for regulating extremely large-scalinformation-driven systems has been in place

financial regulation. There are three reasons wbetween financial regulation and data governa

the relationship between trust and effectivenespins the financial systems ability to create val

in investor confidence) and the ability of data social problems the importance of systematised controls on da the need for iterative development of governa

financial regulation and data governance

Mary Graham has noted that following tcrash of 1929, President Franklin D Rooseveltfinancial risks centred on the routine disclosur

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Clearly, there have been significant stof financial regulation in recent years. Yet f2008 financial crisis regulators such as the Exchange Commission have been pursuingto disclosure.154 This will include a wholesadocument-based reporting to the use of manstandardised format the eXtensible BusineLanguage (XLBR). The limitations of docuecho many of the concerns of those advocafor linked data. Moreover, the difference beinformation we have presented reappears in

As leading IT consultancy Gartner Inc has document-based systems most of the meanthat provides context for the balance sheet anumbers is buried in the notes section of re

Graham argues that systems for regul

adaptable, as all regulation can lock in incbecome counterproductive as public prioritknowledge, and markets change. 156 What fprovides is a model for adaptation in the reCharles Leadbeater, in a recent think piece Demos, has argued that the public sector iswe need to create spaces in which risk takinin beta, becomes possible.157 A first step increate space for innovation. Current policy



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Box 5 Information-driven service design: drilling down andscaling up In Sunderland, where by 2007 a quar population was not in work, service dethnographic research to uncover theindividuals back to the workplace. Th

sions in which knowledge, as opposewas essential to the success of a progdelivered over 250,000 in savings toand led 276 people into employment

First, the use of ethnographic re

and employment histories of 12 indiv Livework an understanding not only mix of services they engaged with. Tinformation provided a holistic picturrather than a fragmentary record of a This multi-dimensional and longitudimodels of service use, which could thengaging nine specialist partners, addmental health to vocational training. Make It Work programme integratedinto commissioning decisions. The Swas able to provide clear articulationin Sunderland and a shared working f

for commitment to the service deliveN h h M k I W

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importance to risks of events that are easilyignore evidence that contradicts current belwhen confronted with information overloadsection Participation in chapter 2, democrrecognised the selectivity with which indivparticular sources of information. This prevof common knowledge necessary for demomaking, and the possibilities for individuapersonalized information environments aroincreases165 as a result of big data.

To this extent, the 2020 Public Servic

for a public good test for data: in some camay so significantly outweigh individual coprivacy that they lose the right to opt-outuse and sharing. However, this proposal stato the very dynamics that give rise to big danumber of information exchanges that resucomplexity of contemporary lived experienmeans that individuals must be engaged to the often contradictory data that are capturethem. Banks holding increasing amounts ofhas not stopped the rise of first party fraudof false details, which now accounts for slof fraud attempts against credit card compabanks.167 Recognising that there is no info



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wiring the system back up together again.170transfer of responsibility for operational aspecprovision allowed government to assume greagovernance through regulation. This led to a wcrisis in professional authority as a result of thmanagers over professionals, the loss of autonthe burdens of audit and inspection. 171

Even more dispersed responsibility for tpublic services makes it more necessary than capacity of services users to engage professionwhen data are the means with which new, coll

addressing social problems are being articulatengaging the public with the design and deliveservices implies a degree of risk in itself:

The service user has to trust the advice and suppothe professional also has to be prepared to trust thof service users, and the communities in which thto them.172

But trust built up through participation inof systems is indispensable when these systemglobal risks.

The internal dynamics of technological cpose their own challenges. A paper for the For

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blame, which may not serve lasting interereduction. 175 Similarly, despite strong movmaking towards risk-based strategy, serviceevaluation,176 accounting for the effects of prarely an opportunity for reflection and learworld of politics, it is always at risk of degrritual or a blame game that obstructs rathersearch for better governance.177 The Instituhas suggested real-time evaluation of policygenerate messages sent back to policy desitheir assumptions and show how the policy

compared to the intended design.178

The dSubstance Project Reporting System, meandown the focus of evaluation as a whole: iton information that is disjointed from dailythat it should build on data that the organisaas part of its functions.179 The new relationenabled by data, we have argued, now enabopen up the conversation on outcomes in a radical way.

Box 6 Engineering complex data systems to fit compleWhen the risks of data sharing are serve individuals at risk, finding a



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organisation. Mary was clear that she previous experiences with an individrehabilitation service.

Unfortunately, the leader of the(a pseudonym) was released 12 montthe Prostitution Response Programmwould attend group counselling provorganisation addressing Marys neces

There are two dimensions to theThe first is organisational: three sociaresponsibility for Marys interests i

for Derek. From the perspective of thcommissioner and data holder, the puand the preservation of privacy were design. However, the VCS organisatiresulting database to identify vulneramake decisions about whether or not such as Mary on the basis of its relat second is more distinctly technologicintegration of databases by governmeresponse to Marys needs is in direct important need for Mary to have reaboundaries around her trusted relatioby partitioning of the identity informVCS organisation.

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cooperation towards co-produced collection, use and sharing to suppequally depend on informed negot provider and user.


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4 R d ti

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4 Recommendations

Collection We have seen both the potential and the chgovernments adaption to big data and incredata transparency. The potential to deliver t

methods of delivery and the relationship thwith their public is clear. But the dangers public with data, of using data in a way tharather than increase it, and of using data to decisions remain.

Government has no choice but to engbig data. To choose instead to bury its headcontinue operating as though the expectatioof government have not changed, would bewhile it is vital that the Government entrenexpectations and needs of democratic accousector will have to find a way to cope with

The key to doing so is, fundamentallycourse the technologies matter. But far mor

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They must be easy to collect (or people will avto understand and easy to publish and use.

Innovations in the collection of data thacts that lead to big datas existence can be fprivate sector and in public services overseas. Amazon and Facebook do not routinely deman

the part of their customers in producing the dabuild their businesses. Rather, their knowledgeindividuals is built as we navigate our way thrfor our own gain be it to buy groceries and bin contact with our friends. This approach sho

Governments attempts to ensure the quality, tusability of data. Platforms that citizens use tothey want or need from local authority portashould be equipped with the most up to date aanalytics, to generate the kind of everyday datthat companies produce about customers. Thecollection of data in this way relieves both a refearful perception among public servants tha(form-filling in common parlance) becomes ththey work. Nurses want to nurse; the public wthe key is to allow data to be seamlessly generrather than to place new tasks on them in relat

That is not to say that we do not want, orpublic servants to continue acting as data colle

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and social care records when visiting careand hospitals. 183 This allows for quick, realpatient records removing the dread of folland making it easy and relatively painless tdatabase used to allocate resource and predto date as the on-the-ground knowledge of

Furthermore, it serves to utilise big data andservice of delivery. Staff are able to check ihistory, needs and circumstances. The servithe individual stripped of the need to re-ainterrogate needs is improved and the pro

time, the fruits of big data.The Government should look at the pin similar technology for frontline staff in tfor social workers and others dealing with ccomplex needs and multiple points of entryIt would streamline the service offered, heland provision overlap, improve the quality improve the professionalcitizen relationshfrontline staff the benefits of having accurathey carry out their daily work.

Make it modularModularity will be key to ensuring that big

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enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow.184 Erictranslates this to mean that finding problems reduced in cost and also made faster and moreit is opened up to a large community of softwaeach may have the information needed to idensome bugs.185

Thus modularity becomes part of the prouse but also part of the democratisation of pubRather than working against accountability anthe critics of big data often warn this providfor heightened and positive engagement and c

An example of what this modularity meabe found here in the UK, in a public service ofits lack of responsiveness. Patient Opinion hastive low-costs, low-risk and high-density of onidentify people who are thoughtfully passionservices.186 Classic models of user-engagemento focus groups and deliberative citizens jurieprohibitively expensive, onerous to organise ain, and can be damagingly one-way, and it is dthey have adequate representative participatiodents to a survey to give you answers means ythe questions, missing insight and engaging inof one-off conversation that can undermine genuine engagement. 187

h b

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way, the assessment process comes to be sexternal imposition associated with surveillrather than something to support and aid mand professional practice.188

Government will not be able to encoupublic data use by restricting available data

public in those decisions where its perspectimprovements. For example, releasing budglocal councils, as the DCLG has recently prpartially, 189 can enable a dialogue to begincommunity about council budgeting and w

and cannot do.190

Transparency and outputsMuch has been made of transparency as a tmechanism in public policy. It is certainly tdata available as a matter of course could apromote radical change in how public servideliver and what they set out to do. Civil socharities and entrepreneurs can use governminnovative services while the public can usto give context to their anxieties and to demservice. But transparency is also a moral gogenerated in the name of the public should,

Th hi dil i f ld

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The answer to this dilemma is two-fold. practical and necessary steps that public bodiemany instances, already are) take in how they As with our recommendations about the collecensuring that it is easy for public servants to cinformation in readily useable formats so sim

adaptability are key to the publishing of data. bodies will streamline the process from generato such an extent that the manner in which datmakes them instantly useable to public servaninstance and to the public in the event of publi

out both the cost of reformatting and the oft-utime and effort required are disproportionate. An example of how this might work in p

found in the London Data Store (LDS). This wprovide a portal through which citizens, researpolicy-makers and charities could access datathe Greater London Assembly and by public bwithin Greater London. It provides a platformis open to the public and where big data are avformats that allow them to be used. As an exapublic sector, the LDS has many advantages:

It provides a single point of entry for those looon London. This streamlines the process of ide

Th LDS d l h ld b li t d

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The LDS model should be replicated in other areas of the country. The bringing tfrom multiple public bodies enabling citizto see quickly what is available and to crosskey to ensuring that the transformative poterealised. What is more, the LDS model prov

infrastructure for multiple agencies, lowerintion and providing guidance for agencies annot hitherto sought to publish data in the museful format.

By replicating the LDS model for sup

elsewhere in the country, government can sactive transparency on data that it seeks. Thpublic bodies to encourage publication andbarriers to transparency, while helping to endata are released it is useful and dynamic. Tpublic come in the forms of innovations bunew insights generated within public bodiedata. To public bodies, improvements in sercan be found using the multiple data sets avLDS while resentment, cost and fear have bprovision of a central infrastructure and framodel that if replicated across the public both inexpensive and transformational. LDthe start-up costs of their project amounted

in schools in order to build competence and co

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in schools in order to build competence and coUK population. This is important for our econand the competitiveness of our workforce in abut it is (at a much more basic level) also key British citizens are equipped to hold the Gove

The Curriculum Pathway uses an online

interactive learning modules that are integratecurriculum in order to train young people in hthinking skills and data analysis. Britain needsprogrammes such as the Pathway in order to ranalysis skills as part of the broad curriculum

simply a module in the maths curriculum. In dboth up-skill the population and teach young panalysis is useful and pertinent to the broadestof subjects.

Governance and regulationHow we govern big data will determine how wand how we are able to gain from it. The Govmuch store in governance as a means to ensurand will look to ensure that governance is direchanging the presumption over big data from one of openness. But transparency, while impoall and end all of big data governance.

Transparency then may be difficult t

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Transparency, then, may be difficult tprivate companies that deliver public servicthose big data should be a matter of coursepublic bodies should expect from their condata generated in the course of their work wwith public servants. The good news is that

local authorities, primary care trusts and otachieve without relying on central governmis perfectly possible to write such a requirecommissioning guidelines and contracts, ansharing into their ongoing relationships wit

backstop expectation of data sharing shouldcentral government guidance for commissiinto central governments commissioning p

Transformation and big dataThe Government is right to herald the transof both big data and greater openness. Togepowerful trends that should drive the Govebetter services, to develop a new understanperhaps most importantly of all to have mrelationships with citizens.

But we must also be careful. Transpardeliver on these potential shifts it is the ag

big data It means greater openness so that dat

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big data. It means greater openness so that datinnovated with and experimented on by civil sseeing the value of data and ensuring that whefooting the bill the data generated are availablIt means investing in young peoples data skilldont lag behind the developed world and that

their role as active citizens and armchair audithings must be in place if the Government is gabout big data it is the platform on which thmust be built.

Without these changes big data become

disappointment. They will fail to live up to exmight finesse but will never transform. The anBritish public to their collection which they and pointless will increase. Big data can mabut they require transformation not simply tran

Notes

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otes

1 DCLG, Draft Code of Recommended Pra Data Transparency, London: Department foLocal Government, 2011.

2 E Hammond, Data, Transparency and Opfor Public Scrutiny, 2011.

3 C Leadbeater, The Civic Long Tail , London:

4

D Boiler, The Promise and Peril of Big Da, Aspen Institute, 2010.

5 Moores law, named after the cofounder ofthe number of transistors that can be placeintegrated circuit doubles approximately evMoores law has been substantiated by lonlast half-century of computing. It has also similar trends in the growth of processing

9 NHS Confederation, Disruptive innovation

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NHS Confederation, Disruptive innovation mean for the NHS?, debate paper 5, LondonConfederation, 2008.

10 T Greenhalgh et al, The Devils in the Detailindependent evaluation of the Summary Care

Space programmes, London: University Colleg11 Department of Health, Equity and Excellenc.

12 Local Public Data Panel, Local public data phealth white paper, Data.gov.uk Leadership

13 D Garratt et al, Measuring Health Improvem Effectiveness Analysis, Bristol: Economics Netw

14 Deloitte LLP, Insight on tap: improving publdata analytics, Deloitte Analytics Institute, 2www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedKingd20Assets/Documents/Industries/GPS/uk-gps-analytics.pdf (accessed 22 Jan 2012).

15 Audit Commission, Improving Information t Making: Standards for better quality data, LondoCommission, 2007.

20 Wilson et al, New development.

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W , p .

21 C Alldritt et al, Online or In-line: The futucommunication technology in public serv, LServices Trust, 2010.

22 M Hallsworth, G Nellis and M Brass, Instto improve governments use of IT , London: IGovernment, 2010.

23 M Savage, Labours computer blunders c Independent , 19 Jan 2010.

24 N Bloom et al, The distinct effects of infoand communication technology on firm ordiscussion paper 927, London: LSE CentrePerformance, 2009.

25 Cabinet Office, The Chief Information OfCabinet Office, 2010.

26 Hallsworth, Nellis and Brass, Installing N

27 Cabinet Office, Government ICT Strategy, LOffice, 2011.

31 A Maughan, Agile will fail GovIT, says corp

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g , g , y pComputer Weekly Public Sector IT blog, 26 A

32 J Stephen et al, System Error: Fixing the flawLondon: Institute for Government, 2011.

33 Cabinet Office, Government ICT Strategy.34 Public Administration Select Committee, Go

Recipe for Rip-Offs: Time for a new approa, TwSession 201012, HC 715, London: The Stat

35 P Bradwell and N Gallagher, FYI: The new pinformation, London: Demos, 2007, www.demDemos_FYI.pdf?1240939425 (accessed 23 J

36 Public Administration Select Committee, Go Recipe for Rip-Offs.

37 JG March and JP Olsen, Democratic GovernPress, 1995.

38 P Bogason and JA Musso, The democratic pnetwork governance, American Review of Pno 1, 2006.

44 Foley and Alfonso, Egovernment and the

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y gagenda.

45 S Gillinson, M Horne and P Baeck, Radicbetter, lower cost public services, London: Nes

46 R Anderson et al, Database State , York: JosTrust, 2009.

47 Parliamentary and Health Service OmbudsConfidence: A report by the Parliamentaryinvestigation of a complaint about HM ReSupport Agency and the Department for WStationery Office, 2011.

48 Stephen et al, System Error .

49 DWP, Tackling Fraud and Error in the BenSystems, London: Department for Work and

50 Davies, Open Data, Democracy and Publi

51 C Armstrong, Emergent Democracy, London2011.

J H b T d R ti l S i t S

56 R Blaug, L Horner and R Lekhi, Public Valu

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Management: A literature review, London: The 2006.

57 Davies,Open Data, Democracy and Public S

58 G Stoker, New localism, progressive politics Political Quarterly75, 2004.

59 G Osborne, speech at Google Zeitgeist 2011,

60 B Noveck, The single point of failure in D LRuma, (eds), Open Government: Collaborati participation in practice , Sebastopol, CA: OR

61 S Freeman, Hewitt steps in to wonder drugTimes, 8 Nov 2005.

62 A Jack, MPs dub guidelines on drugs as unfa13 May 2009.

63 S Gillinson, Horne and Baeck, Radical Effic

64 Health Committee, National Institute for HeaExcellence, First Report of Session 200708 Th St ti Offi 2011 bli ti

69 Alldritt et al, Online or In-line .

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70 J Millard, eGovernance and eParticipationEurope in promoting inclusion and empowpresented to UN Division for Public AdmiDevelopment Management (DPADM) wor

Participation and E-Government: Understaand Creating the Future, Budapest, Hungarunpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/docuN023685.pdf (accessed 23 Jan 2012).

71 Ibid.

72 Noveck, The single point of failure.

73 ES Raymond, The Cathedral and the BazaOReilly Media, 1999.

74 E von Hippel, Democratizing Innovation, CPress, 2005.

75 P Hodgkin, How the new economics of v

NHS in D Coyle (ed), Reboot Britain: Hodigital age can tackle the challenges we faNesta, 2009.

82 ICO, Commissioner calls for instinctive cult

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press release, Information Commissioners O83 See the www.ico.gov.uk/about_us/plans_and_

mission_and_vision.aspx (accessed 27 Jan 20

84

R Hazell, Commentary on the Freedom of InYour right to know (Cm 3818) , London: UniversConstitution Unit, 1998.

85 ICO, Freedom of Information: Three years o, WInformation Commissioners Office, 2008.

86 Freedom of Information Act 2000, section 36Stationery Office, 2008.


88 S Holsen and J Amos, A Practical Guide to t Information Act 2000, London: University ColConstitution Unit, 2004.

89 P Waller, RM Morris and D Simpson, Under Formulation and Development of Governme FOI , London: University College London Cob h lf f th I f ti C i i Of

94 Cabinet Office, Public Data Corporation t

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and drive innovation, press release, 12 JanCouncil, Government urgently needs to addeterioration, says TUC, press release, 17

95 Audit Commission, Improving Informatio

Making .96 Lifting the Burdens Task Force, Lifting th

Review of the Department for Culture, MLocal Government Association, 2007.

97 DCLG, Data Interchange Hub Guide , LondoCommunities and Local Government, 200


99 DCLG, Draft Code of Recommended Pra Data Transparency.

100 T Berners-Lee, Linked data, World WideDesign Issues Blog, 18 Jun 2009.


H d D t T d O


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107 D Ben-Galim et al, Now its Personal? The nto-work, London: Institute for Public Policy R

108 WDWD, Barrier Screening and Assessment

WI: Wisconsin Department of Workforce Dehttp://dcf.wisconsin.gov/w2/pdf/barrier_evalu(accessed 23 Jan 2012).

109 M Pichla, Growing To Work Enterprise: enempowerment accomplished via innovations to-work program, Innovation Journal 13, no

110 S Chainey, Information Sharing for Communand practice advice , London: Home Office, 20

111 CJ Bennett and CD Raab, The Governance oinstruments in global perspective , Aldershot: As

112 Alldritt et al, Online or In-line ; Database state Database State ; ICO, The Information Comm

to the consultation on Policing in the 21st CeReconnecting police and the people, WilmsCommissioners Office, 2010.

117 Hammond, Data, Transparency and Open

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118 JE Stiglitz, The contributions of the econoto twentieth century economics, Quarterly115, no 4, 2000.

119

Mydex CIC, The Case for Personal Informrise of the personal data store , 2010, http://mycontent/uploads/2010/09/The-Case-for-PerEmpowerment-The-rise-of-the-personal-d White-paper-September-2010-Final-web.p2012).


121 Bradwell and Gallagher, FYI .

122 Performance and Innovation Unit, Privacway forward for public services, London: CabPerformance and Innovation Unit, 2002.

123 CESG, Data Handling Procedures in Gov

124 Minister for Government Policy, Open PuNorwich: The Stationery Office, 2011.

129 C McCue, Data mining and crime analysis in

Notes


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Police Department, executive brief, SPSS Inwww.spss.ch/eupload/File/PDF/Data Mining Analysis in the Richmond Police Departemen Jan 2012).

130

T Young, Soca drills down on crime data, C Analysis, 31 May, 2007.

131 Public Service.co.uk, Joining forces the PoDatabase, 24 Jan 2011, www.publicservice.cstory.asp?id=15689 (accessed 23 Jan 2012).

132 Young, Soca drills down on crime data.

133 Anderson et al, Database State .

134 Ibid.135 Home Office, Policing in the 21st Century: R

the people , Cm 7925, Norwich: The Stationery

136

Home Office, The National Crime Agency: Anational crime-fighting capability, Norwich: Th2011.

141 Minister for Government Policy, Open Pu

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142 L Milbourne and M Cushman, From the tsociety: how changing UK government pothird sector trust, working paper 184, Lonof Economics Information Systems and In

143 HM Treasury and Cabinet Office, The FutSector in Social and Economic RegeneratThe Stationery Office, 2007.

144 Minister for Government Policy, Open Pu

145 Ibid.

146 MR Weeks and D Feeny, Outsourcing: froto innovation and business value, Califor50, no 4, 2008

147 Ibid.

148 LP Willcocks and AS Craig, Step-change

innovate, Reading: Logica with the LondoEconomics Information Systems and Innov

J Cl k P bli S i d th Big S i

152 LD Brandeis, What publicity can do, Harpe

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1913, www.law.louisville.edu/library/collectinode/196 (accessed 23 Jan 2012).

153 Graham, Information as Risk Regulation.

154

US SEC, Toward Greater Transparency: Modand Exchange Commissions disclosure syst, WSecurities and Exchange Commission, 2009.

155 M Smith, B Hostmann and JEV Decker, The Disclosure Initiative Will Reprioritize Your B Performance Management Strategies, Stamford, 2009.

156 Graham, Information as Risk Regulation.

157 Leadbeater, The Civic Long Tail .158 Gillinson, Horne and Baeck, Radical Efficie

159 E Pickles, letter to leaders of local authorities

Oct 2010; Minister for Government Policy, OWhite Paper .

Gilli H d B k R di l Effi i


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167 C-A Taylor, Identity fraud continues to ris2011.



170 D Richards and M Smith, Governance andOxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

171 A Massey and W Hutton, Modernizing G Red Flags, Trust and Professional Power , LonManagement and Policy Association, Char

Public Finance and Accountancy, 2006.172 T Bovaird and J Downe, Innovation in pu

co-production of services, policy paper foCommunities and Local Government, Car

School, 2008.173 S Bullock and D Cliff, Complexity and Em

t L d Offi f S i d T

177 M Bovens, PT Hart and BG Peters, The poli

l i i M M M R i d RE G

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evaluation in M Moran, M Rein and RE Goo Handbook of Public Policy, Oxford: Oxford Un2006.

178 Hallsworth, Parker and Rutter, Policy Makin

179 Nesta and Substance, Whose Story is it Anywand value for better public services, London: Nes

180 R Wilson et al, Re-mixing digital economiescommunity sector? Governing identity informinformation sharing in the mixed economy ofand young people, Social Policy and Society10

181 Ibid.

182 Ibid.183 Millard, eGovernance and eParticipation.

184 Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar .

185 von Hippel, Democratizing Innovation.

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