“The Desire to Soar”Cultivating Healthy Resistance

StrategiesTom Robinson, University of Massachusetts, Boston

Dr. Karl Reid, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Topics Where this study fits within the literature

Healthy resistance models among African American and Chicano/a students

Research Methods & Participants

Findings: In their own words

General implications for practice

Applying the findings to your context

Purpose of this Study Shift focus regarding the achievement gap

Instead identify factors may influence minority student success Offer a strength-based approach to minority student academic

success

Explore the academic experiences of 40 Chicano/a & African American high school seniors

Develop themes that emerge from the student’s essays

In light of the relevant literature, discuss potential implications from the findings

The Math Achievement GapAverage Math NAEP Scores

Gap between Blacks and Whites smaller in 2007 over 2005 Remains relatively unchanged since 1990

Gap between Hispanics and Whites relatively unchanged since 1990

253 248227 222

297 291265 260

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

4th Grade 8th Grade

Asian

White

Latino

Black

National Assessment of Educational Progress: http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2007/2007494.pdf

Educational Pipeline100

80

44

17

3

100

84

26

101

100

72

1450.4

100

52

1040.40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percentage

Asian White Black Latino

Elementary

High School

College

Masters

PhD

Adapted from: Solorzano, Villalpando & Oseguera, 2005

Pipeline: Latinos100

63

21

101.2

100

63

1340.4

100

46

820.2

100

36

620.10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percentage

Cuban PR Chicanos Salv.

Elementary

High School

College

Masters

PhD

Adapted from: Solorzano, Villalpando & Oseguera, 2005

Oppositional Culture Fordham & Ogbu’s (1986) assertions

regarding African American students in urban high school contexts Hundreds of years of oppression developed a

student identity that opposes covert and overt racism, especially within schools

Oppositional attitudes supported by peer group: “Acting White”

African American and Chicano/a students who resist academic engagement within oppressive school settings rewarded with group membership

Research Concerning Resistance Models Ensuing studies often did not verify or challenge Fordham &

Ogbu’s (1986) oppositional model Ainseworth-Darnell and Downey suggest that “it was as if

researchers had presumed that an oppositional culture among blacks existed and so did not see the need for fair tests” of that theory (2002, p. 162)

Fails to explain successful students

More recent studies appear to coalesce broadly around three themes: Reproducing Fordham & Ogbu’s (1986) results Challenges to Fordham & Ogbu’s “Resistance Model” Broadening the Resistance Model concepts

Recent Research Concerning Resistance Models Focus shifts from Ogbu & Fordham’s (1986)

oppositional culture model as an explanation for the achievement gap Racism from White peers and school personnel

(Ainseworth-Darnell & Downey, 2002) High achievers of any race are targets for peer

pressure High achieving African American students no more

likely to be targets of negative peer pressure; instead receive support

Pride in one’s racial/ethnic heritage is a significant motivator for success

Resistance Strategies Numerous studies broaden the definition of

resistance Healthy resistance

Positive resistance strategies develop skills at managing the environment and responding to racism on a student’s own terms

Resistance for Liberation (RfL) and Resistance for Survival (RfS) (Robinson

& Ward, 1991)

Summary: Resistance Strategies

Oppositional Culture Fordham & Ogbu (1986)

Resistance for Liberation,Robinson & Ward(1991)

Resistance for Survival,Robison & Ward (1991)

Primary Questions for Our Study Is there a combination of resistance

strategies that explain academic performance of high achieving African American and Chicano/a HS students?

If so, what can individuals who work with African American and Chicano/a students do to cultivate healthy resistance strategies?

Methods & Respondents Purposeful sampling of 19 African American and 21 Chicano/a high

school seniors identified from a national pool of applicants to a summer STEM program at a research university in the Northeast

Each respondent answered two essays, creating 80 essays for this analysis To what extent has your race or ethnicity influenced your

academic achievement in high school? Please comment on any significant experiences that have

impacted your academic experience.

Pseudonyms used to protect anonymity of respondents

Essays coded using open (emerging themes) and axial coding (theory-based themes)

Validity of coding tested by additional readers (forthcoming)

Results from Our Study Respondents offered very powerful stories of

accomplishment, perseverance and strength

Most common theme was the awareness of negative stereotypes 30 of the 40 respondents mentioned awareness

of stereotypes about their race and/or ethnicity 30 respondents mentioned stereotypes at least

60 times Sources mentioned

From White peers and school personnel Within the media and from politicians

Racial and ethnic isolation within schools discussed by 15 Respondents

Only 6 of the 40 respondents mentioned negative peer pressure

In Their Own Words: Stereotypes“Being a Mexican American isn't easy. I think that if

I was white I could have had more academic

opportunities. There is a stereotype about

Mexicans, which is that we aren't that academically

applied in school. I personally think this is unfair

because each individual is different and capable of

doing his own thing.” -Juan

In Their Own Words: Stereotypes“When I go out with my white friends, I'm subject to ridicule and I’m called "pigmentally challenged" like I shouldn't actually be black, like I should be something else. So I’m faced with a choice, should I "dumb myselfdown", to be an underachiever as is constantly expected of my race or should I perhaps bleach my skin in order to be more socially acceptable?” -Diana

In Their Own Words: Isolation“When people find out that I am of Mexican descent, they often have a surprised expression on their face. As if they think "only gardeners are Mexicans, how can you be in AP Calculus?" Though I'm not embarrassed of my culture and where I come from, I don't want people to think just because of my ethnicity that I'm just like the woman who cleans their house for a living. I am the lone Mexican in Advanced Placement Calculus and AP Physics; I have so much more at stake than my peers.” –Paulina

Results from Our Study Students showing high levels of academic engagement

and motivation Themes of Resistance for Liberation (RfL) & Resistance

for Survival (RfS) clearly present Most students identified a mix of strategies concurrently in use RfL identified among 80% of the essays

RfL discussed more frequently than RfS (158 v. 24) RfS identified among 43% of the essays

A more nuanced RfL strategy emerged Exhibited characteristics of “Resilient Resistors” (Yosso, 2000) Three RfL types emerged

Resistance for Liberation Internal (RfLi) Resistance for Liberation Reactionary (RfLr) Separational Resistance for Liberation (RfLs)

Results from Our Study

Oppositional Culture Fordham & Ogbu (1986)

Resistance for LiberationRobinson & Ward(1991)

Resistance for SurvivalRobison & Ward (1991)

Oppositional Culture Fordham & Ogbu (1986)

Resistance for SurvivalRobison & Ward (1991)

Resistance for LiberationRobinson & Ward(1991)

Separational Resistance

Reactionary & Internal Resistance

Results from Our Study       

  Resistance Type Definition  

 

Resistance for Liberation; Internal: (RfLi)

*Empowerment *Engaging oppressive environment strategically *Naming and critiquing oppression *Choosing battles *Utilizes internal motivation (family, goals, religion, pride) to succeed.  

 

Resistance for Liberation Reactionary: (RfLr)

*Striving academically to disprove stereotypes *Succeed as response to hostile climate *Disproving racism *Show they deserve respect *Academic success not well connected to personal goals *Few expressions of internal motivation  

 

Separational Resistance for Liberation: (RfLs)

*Internalized racism expressed *Critical of own ethnicity/culture *Disconnected from race or culture as a response to negative stereotypes *Disconnected from potential areas of support *Generally accept dominant ideology *Academic success develops despite rejection of one's own community  

 

Resistance for Survival (RfS):

*Avoidance of proactive behavior *Disconnecting from hostile environments and situations *Further internalization of negative self-images *Excessive autonomy and individualism *Decreased academic achievement  

       

In Their Own Words: Internal (RfLi)

“They (African Americans) faced many

obstacles and, through the story of the

hurdles they have faced, I have learned to

have the desire to soar. It is this desire that

is evident in my diligence in school and all

the activities of which I am apart.”

-Stacey

In Their Own Words: Internal (RfLi)“If anything, as an African American I am encouraged. I have a great sense of my history and I know that it is the story of a people who reached mountaintop after mountaintop in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds. It is the knowledge of this history that keeps me encouraged in the predominately white school that I attend.” -Whitney

In Their Own Words: Reactionary (RfLr)“Being black in America has forced me to work harder than anyone else because I know that there are hoards of people waiting for me to fail. They wait for the moment that they can break my spirit with words of hatred, but I will not give them a chance. I refuse to give them a chance.”-Mercedes

In Their Own Words: Separational (RfLs)

“All in all, I would say that my racial identity

has mainly influenced the way that others

look at my academic level of achievement; I

have not let it affect my own personal

outlook. Racial identity should not be a

limiting factor in what one aspires to

achieve in life.”  Victor (African American)

Fostering Healthy Resistance Strategies Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky,

1965) Scaffolding Metaphor (Nakkula & Toshalis, 2006)

Mentors and Role Models helping students reach into their potential Transformational Mentors & Role Models

(Solorzano, 2001) Willingness to engage with students and help them

reach the next level

In Their Own Words: Role Models

“It was a Tuskegee Airman, Mr. Timothy

Smith’s encouragement and inspiring

stories that made me want to do better

academically. It was his past that influenced

my aspirations of becoming an engineer and

helped me to develop academically.”

-Martin (African American)

In Their Own Words: Role Models“Periodically, I have had the opportunity to pick up one of San Antonio's monthly Hispanic magazines and have read about motivated people who have broken free of this mold. They aspired to be something great; and in the same way, I aspire to be a Hispanic who did not let other people's view of my ethnicity block out the light of my dreams.” -Francisco

Fostering Healthy Resistance Strategies

Counter-story telling (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001) “Telling a story that is not often told”

Put a face on a theory and practice Challenge perceived wisdom Open new windows into reality of those at the

margins Combine story and fact to tell an educational

story

Counter-stories developed from four areas Data Existing Literature Our professional experience Our personal experience

Fostering Healthy Resistance Strategies Counter-Stories that emphasize

Family ties Connections with history Lived experiences within school environments Multiple layers of pressure Importance of Role Models and Mentors

Story of Hospital Summer Internship (Robinson & Ward, 1991) Teaching a story; modeling range of resistance strategies Developing reflection on a story that is similar to the lived

experience Infusing story with data, facts and strategic choices as well as

a discussion of their possible consequences

Summary Literature asserts range of causes for the

achievement gap Previous resistance literature may have been

too narrowly focused Current research appears to focus more

precisely upon school racial climate Mentors and role models can support healthy

resistance Counter-stories as a practical tool for teaching

healthy resistance strategies

Questions & Comments?

Thank You!

Tom Robinson, Doctoral Student, University of Massachusetts Bostontom@trobinson.org

Dr. Karl Reid, Associate Dean of Undergraduate Education and Director of the Office of Minority Education

kwreid@mit.edu