The Development of Frog

Oogenesis

Growth of oocytes in the frog Rana pipiens. During the first 3 years of life, three cohorts of oocytes are produced. The drawings follow the growth of the first-generation oocytes. (After Grant 1953.)

In the frog Rana pipiens, oogenesis takes 3 years. During the first 2 years, the oocyte increases its size very gradually. During the third year, however, the rapid accumulation of yolk in the oocyte causes the egg to swell to its characteristically large size. Eggs mature in yearly batches, with the first cohort maturing shortly after metamorphosis; the next group matures a year later.

Spermatogenesis

The spermatogenesis process is very similar among the different groups of vertebrates. The most pronounced differences among them, including anurans, refer to the seminiferous tubules arrangement. Interesting features of the spermatogenesis of frogs were described based on light microscopy of members included in the family Hylidae (Hermosilla et al., 1983; Rastogi et al., 1988; Oliveira et al., 2002; Oliveira et al., 2003).

Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes are rarely seen in histological preparations.

During spermiogenesis, the spermatids begin to grow a tail, and develop a thickened mid-piece, where the mitochondria gather and form an axoneme.

However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon's recently acquired motility.

Embryology

FertilizationEntrance of the sperm initiates a sequence of events:

Meiosis II is completed. The cytoplasm of the egg rotates about 30 degrees relative to the poles. In some amphibians (including Xenopus), this is revealed by the appearance of a

light-colored band, the gray crescent. The gray crescent forms opposite the point where the sperm entered. It foretells the future pattern of the animal: its dorsal (D) and ventral (V) surfaces;

its anterior (A) and posterior (P); its left and right sides. The haploid sperm and egg nuclei fuse to form the diploid zygote nucleus.

CleavageThe zygote nucleus undergoes a series of mitoses, with the resulting daughter nuclei becoming partitioned off, by cytokinesis, in separate, and ever-smaller, cells. The first cleavage occurs shortly after the zygote nucleus forms.

A furrow appears that runs longitudinally through the poles of the egg, passing through the point at which the sperm entered and bisecting the gray crescent.

This divides the egg into two halves forming the 2-cell stage

The second cleavage forms the 4-cell stage. The cleavage furrow again runs through the poles but at right angles to the first furrow.

The furrow in the third cleavage runs horizontally but in a plane closer to the animal than to the vegetal pole. It produces the 8-cell stage.

The next few cleavages also proceed in synchrony, producing a 16-cell and then a 32-cell embryo.

However, as cleavage continues, the cells in the animal pole begin dividing more rapidly than those in the vegetal pole and thus become smaller and more numerous.

By the next day, continued cleavage has produced a hollow ball of thousands of cells called the blastula. A fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel, forms within it.

During this entire process

there has been no growth of the embryo. In fact, because the cells of the blastula are so small, the blastula looks just like the original egg to the unaided eye.

Not until the blastula contains some 4,000 cells is there any transcription of zygote genes. All of the activities up to now have been run by gene products (mRNA and proteins) deposited by the mother when she formed the egg.

GastrulationThe start of gastrulation is marked by the pushing inward ("invagination") of cells in the region of the embryo once occupied by the middle of the gray crescent. This produces:

an opening (the blastopore) that will be the future anus a cluster of cells that develops into the Spemann organizer (named after one of the

German embryologists who discovered its remarkable inductive properties).

As gastrulation continues, three distinct "germ layers" are formed:

ectoderm mesoderm endoderm

The Spemann organizer (mostly mesoderm) will:

develop into the notochord, which is the precursor of the backbone;

induce the ectoderm lying above it to begin to form neural tissue instead of skin.

o This ectoderm grows up into two longitudinal folds, forming the neural folds stage.

o In time the lips of the folds fuse to form the neural tube. o The neural tube eventually develops into the brain and

spinal cord.

Differentiation

Although the various layers of cells in the frog gastrula have definite and different fates in store for them, these are not readily apparent in their structure. Only by probing for different patterns of gene expression (e.g., looking for tissue-specific proteins) can their differences be detected.

In due course, however, the cells of the embryo take on the specialized structures and functions that they have in the tadpole, forming neurons, blood cells, muscle cells, epithelial cells, etc., etc.

GrowthAt the time the tadpole hatches, it is a fully-formed organism. However, it has no more organic matter in it than the original frog egg had. Once able to feed, however, the tadpole can grow. It gains additional molecules with which it can increase the number of cells that make up its various tissues.

The Development of Round Stingray Urolophus halleri

Oogenesis

Oogenesis begins in females of the round stingray when they are still embryos.

Histological examinations show that shortly after birth many small ova are already

present in both ovaries. Only those of the left ovary, however, attain maturity. The

eggs in that organ begin to enlarge about 7 months after birth and six or eight of

them soon surpass all others in size. Growth of the six to eight dominant ova is slow,

and after 6 months the largest of the group has attained a diameter of only 0.7 mm

By the 12th month, one ovum has definitely outgrown the others, reaching a

diameter of over 2.0 mm. Meanwhile the smaller ova begin to degenerate. The

dominant egg now grows more rapidly, soon forming a slight bulge on the ovary

surface; accumulating yolk can be seen through the follicle wall. By the 18th month, the single ovum has reached 5.5 mm and ova in a

second group have begun to enlarge. The last 6 months of egg growth are marked by a nearly constant and maximum rate of diameter

increase (Figure 12). In young females, the single egg ripens and is ovulated at a diameter of about 9.5 mm. By this time, ova of the second

group have reached 2 mm, and one or more of these will ripen about 12 months later. In mature rays, two dominant egg groups are usually

present, as well as many uniformly small ova of about 0.1 mm. At about the time of ovulation, some of these small eggs begin to enlarge

(Figure 12). Oogenesis is therefore a continuous process throughout an animal's reproductive life.

Spermatogenesis (Annual cycle)

The first cycle of spermatogenesis begins in immature males soon after their primary testicular lobules are formed, at about 23 months of

age. Sperm ripen in the secondary lobules approximately 8 months later when the animal is about 31 months old. I used the presence of

ripe sperm as the criterion for determining sexual maturity. Mature males

produce sperm annually.

Five or six large germ cells can normally be seen in an early follicle that has

been sectioned through its center (Figure 36A). Slightly deeper in the

primary lobule, 10 or 12 smaller spermatogonia are found in a single layer

around the lumen (Figure 36B). Still further from the appendage base, 20 to

24 cells are seen in each follicle, at first in a very irregular layer (Figure 36C)

and later forming a single orderly layer around the cavity. In the next

division, the 20 to 24 spermatogonia become encircled by an approximately

equal number of primary spermatocytes (Figure 36D). The manner in which

this occurs is not clear; possibly each spermatogonium divides, and one

daughter cell retains its identity while the other becomes a primary

spermatocyte. The alternative would be that one-half of the 20 to 24

spermatogonia produce daughter cells which are all primary spermatocytes,

while the other 10 or 12 spermatogonia produce daughter cells which are all

spermatogonia.

The next division results in three concentric layers of cells totaling 60 to 72

(Figure 36E); the layer immediately surrounding the cavity still consists of 20

to 24 spermatogonia; it is not known whether the additional 20 to 24

primary spermatocytes are produced by the spermatogonia or by the most peripheral layer of primary spermatocytes. This is the extent of

divisions within the primary lobule.

The beginning of the annual gonadal cycle is marked by formation of additional follicles at the base of each appendage. All previously

formed follicles of a primary lobule now move deeper into the testis and their cells resume divisions. A third concentric row of primary

spermatocytes appears in the outlying follicles so that four rows of cells are arranged around the central cavity (Figure 36F). In this way, the

secondary portion of the testicular lobule is begun.

When the most advanced follicles in the secondary lobules contain cells six layers deep (Figure 36G), the spermatogonia of these follicles

disappear from their position around the cavity. Soon, approximately the same number of Sertoli cells are spaced around the follicle wall.

The large outlying follicles in the secondary lobule now have their full complement of primary spermatocytes, and they begin to undergo

the first meiotic division; this division transforms each cell into two smaller secondary spermatocytes; concurrently the follicle enlarges to

its ultimate diameter (Figure 36H), apparently by a slight growth of each secondary spermatocyte. Soon the second meiotic division occurs

(Figure 36I), producing many noticeably smaller spermatids, arranged in clumps; each clump is associated with a Sertoli cell.

When the entire secondary lobule has shed its sperm and has collapsed, it becomes a narrow band of light staining tissue, marked by dark

masses of spermatozoa. Usually such masses represent follicles that for some reason did not rupture. In other instances, sperm from late-

rupturing follicles appear to be trapped in the collapsed tissue. These masses soon begin to degenerate and large, redstaining phagocytic

cells engulf the remaining debris before the next gonadal cycle begins. The ciliated ducts of a ripe testis contain varying amounts of sperm.

Embryology

The gestation period of U. halleri is about 3 months. Fertilization typically occurs in June, and young are born in September. Following

fertilization, cleavages begin on the surface of the germinal disc. The germinal disc is thickest at its center and tapers toward the

circumference. Viewed from above, it appears as a small, light-colored, circular area on the ovum surface; around its edge is a narrow,

almost transparent border, the zona pellucida. Balfour (1878), in a monographic work, described elasmobranch development. The early

stages are similar in all elasmobranchs and will not be reviewed here.

When an embryo of U. halleri has attained a length of 9 mm, it is removed from the

yolk sac by a stalk, several millimeters long; the eyes and visceral arches are plainly

visible. At a length of 13 mm, rudimentary pectoral fins appear as small lateral flaps just

posterior to the branchial arches; meanwhile two other lateral swellings arise on either

side of the cloaca, forming the pelvic fins. Numerous flattened external gill filaments

extend from between the gill arches. Up to this point, an embryo of U. halleri closely

resembles that of a shark except for the absence of median fins. As development

proceeds, the two forms are separated by a widening gulf.

When an embryo is 16 mm long (Figure 48A), its pectoral fins extend halfway back to

the pelvics, along the lateral body walls to which they are fused. The pectorals still

remain posterior to the branchial arches, however, due to the rapid forward growth of

that region, and their lateral span is only 3 mm.

An embryo of 20 mm (Figure 48B), has a pectoral fin span of about 4 mm. Drawings of the 20 mm stage in dorsal, ventral and lateral view,

show considerably more detail than the photograph. The pectoral fins now extend back almost to the pelvics but still remain posterior to

the branchial region. The incomplete cranial roof between the orbits is visible through the thin covering membrane; that portion of the

cranium housing the mesencephalon is open anteriorly. In the lateral head region, the spiracle can be seen, partially surrounded by a gill

arch; five more well-formed arches lie exposed behind the spiracle.

After 1 month of gestation, the embryo is about 40 mm long and its batoidean characters are unmistakable (Figure 48E). The large pectoral

fins span about 14 mm, and are completely fused to the branchial region and head, but they are not yet joined to the tip of the rostrum.

The ventral gill openings are now quite small; the spiracles, however, are large commensurate with their postnatal function of pumping

water over the gills when the animal lies buried.

At half-term (about 45 days) I have considered the developing ray a fetus. It is now about 46 mm long and there has been a great lateral

expansion of the pectorals to a width of approximately 22 mm (Figure 48F). The external gill filaments have begun to be reabsorbed, and a

cartilaginous structure is visible along the upper margin of each spiracle. One or both spiracles may now be penetrated for a few

millimeters by a clump of trophonemata, but these are unattached and can be easily withdrawn. All trophonemata are deep-red, due to

their intense vascularization. The yolk sac remains surprisingly large, indicating that a good part of the nutrition has been supplied by

histotroph.

A fetus is most often found with its posterior end toward the mother's cloaca. When two young occupy the same uterus, they normally lie

belly to belly, one enfolded within the other's pectorals so that the spiracles of both are against the uterus wall. When three fetuses occupy

one uterus, the animal in the center of the roll has little or no contact with the uterus lining, but is as large and well-formed as the others.

Adequate nutrition is apparently not dependent upon physical contact between fetus and trophonemata. A number of exceptions to the

usual fetal orientation have been observed. Two individuals may be arranged head to tail. Where the female carries young in both uteri,

those of the two sides may be headed in opposite directions. Large females of the round stingray bear more and larger offspring. Newborn

animals vary in disc width from 63 to 80 mm with the average being approximately 75 mm.

The Development of Drosophila

Oogenesis

The formation of 16 interconnected cystocytes in Drosophila. (A) Diagram of adult ovariole, showing sequence of oogenesis as younger germinal cysts mature within the ovariole. (B) Section through center of an ovariole, showing the maturation of the oocyte. Actin is stained green, and the nuclear DNA is stained red. (C) Division of the cystocyte-forming cells (cystoblasts). The cells are represented schematically as dividing in a single plane. The stem cell divides to produce another stem cell plus an oogonium that is committed to forming the cystocytes. When the oogonium divides, the centriole of daughter cystocyte 1 retains the fusome (red), which grows through the ring canal toward its mitotic sister. The arrow shows the polarity, pointing to the cell from which the fusome grew. After three more mitotic divisions, the 16-cell cyst is formed. If intracellular transport is coordinated by the fusome, the transport of mRNAs and proteins would be toward cystocyte 1, which would thus become the oocyte. (A after Ruohola et al. 1991; B courtesy of B. M. Mechler; C after Lin and Spradling 1995.)

Spermatogenesis

Asymmetric partitioning of cellular constituents occurs at three points of the spermatogenesis, as indicated by double-headed red arrows at the red numbers. 1, syncytial pachytene spermatocytes with many FB-MOs bud from the rachis and divide to form secondary spermatocytes (FB-MOs are shown in green); 2, spermatids selectively retain FB-MOs as they bud from the residual body; 3, FB-MOs fuse with the spermatid plasma membrane as a pseudopod extends from the cell body during spermiogenesis. Nuclei are the circles in the center of each cell. Nuclei are patterned with lines to represent stages when chromatin is in condensed meiotic chromosomes or filled (in black) after chromatin forms a single highly condensed sphere.

Embryology

EMBRYO Embryonic development (or time from laying to hatching) typically takes 18-24 h, although if there are no substrates suitable for oviposition, females can retain eggs and lay them in more advanced stages of embryonic development resulting in shortened interval from laying to hatching.

FORMATION Bownes stage 3; nuclear division 9; 70-90 min after fertilization. Polar buds are formed around the nuclei located at the posterior pole of the embryo. The end of this stage is defined by appearance of a clear cytoplasmic rim at the periphery of the embryo.

SYNCYTIAL

BLASTODERM Bownes stage 4; mitotic cycles 10-13; 90-130 min after fertilization. Cellularization occurs by means of the introgression of membrane furrows to separate single blastoderm nuclei. Blastoderm cells around the perimeter of the entire egg at this stage still share cytoplasm, through wide cytoplasmic bridges.

CELLULAR BLASTODERM Bownes stage 5; 130-180 min after fertilization; completion of cellularization of the blastoderm.

GASTRULA

MESO- AND ENDODERM Bownes stage 6; 180-195 min after fertilization; formation of meso- and endoderm.

GERM BAND EXTENTION Bownes stages 7-11; 195-440 min after fertilization; organogenesis and segmentation begin.

GERM BAND

RETRACTION Bownes stages 8-13; 200-620 min after fertilization.

DORSAL CLOSURE Bownes stages 14-15; 620-800 min after fertilization; dorsal closure; head involution; dorsal epidermal segmentation.

ORGANOGENESIS Bownes stages 16-17; 680-900 min after fertilization; final steps of organogenesis.

The Development of Worms Caenorhabditis elegans

Embryology

The nematode's life cycle, from a single-cell egg to an adult, takes about 2 1/2 days at 25°C, and 6 days at 15°C. The total life-span of a worm under the best growth conditions is about 12 to 18 days at 20°C.

C. elegans reproduces predominantly as a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite. Males arise sponteneously at a frequency of 0.1% in hermaphrodite populations by meiotic nondisjunction of the X chromosome, creating XO males that can be propagated by mating with hermaphrodites.

FERTILIZED EGG is laid after being fertilized inside the mother and takes about 15 hours to develop; the worms are self- and cross- fertile; pattern of embryonic development is invariable from worm to worm; every one of the 556 cells that make up the newly-hatched larva develops from a rigid pattern of mitotic division leading back to the zygote

Food Chain

Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants get energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other animals.

A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an ecosystem) to obtain nutrition. A food chain starts with the primary energy source, usually the sun or boiling-hot deep sea vents. The next link in the chain is an organism that make its own food from the primary energy source -- an example is photosynthetic plants that make their own food from sunlight (using a process called photosynthesis) and chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food energy from chemicals in hydrothermal vents. These are called autotrophs or primary producers.

Next come organisms that eat the autotrophs; these organisms are called herbivores or primary consumers -- an example is a rabbit that eats grass.

The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores - these are called secondary consumers -- an example is a snake that eat rabbits.

In turn, these animals are eaten by larger predators -- an example is an owl that eats snakes.

The tertiary consumers are are eaten by quaternary consumers -- an example is a hawk that eats owls. Each food chain end with a top predator, and animal with no natural enemies (like an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy, from the sun or hydrothermal vent to a top predator. As the energy flows from organism to organism, energy is lost at each step. A network of many food chains is called a food web.

Trophic Levels:

The trophic level of an organism is the position it holds in a food chain.

1. Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight and/or chemical energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food chain - these organisms are called autotrophs.

2. Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also called herbivores (plant-eaters).

3. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meat-eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).

4. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.

5. Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers.

6. Food chains "end" with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies.

When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms and crabs) and broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy continues.

Some organisms' position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For example, when a bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer. When a bear eats a plant-eating rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary consumer. When the bear eats salmon, the bear is functioning as a tertiary consumer (this is because salmon is a secondary consumer, since salmon eat herring that eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make their own energy from sunlight). Think about how people's place in the food chain varies - often within a single meal.

Environmental Factor Affecting the Development of an Organism

Climate Change

Climate is one of the most significant factors in the development of any organism. In order to survive,

one organism must be able to adapt to the climate of the environment where it lives. Thus, the significant

changes in the climate these past few decades have drastically contributed to the deteriorating biodiversity of

our ecosystem. Today, most organism are exposed to the danger of extinction due to the changing weather,

the heating of the earth’s surface and other major changes associated with climate change.

The change in our climate is not just a natural occurrence. It has been a product of human technologies

and industrialization. Our continuous usage of fossil fuels has been greatly affecting the composition of our

atmosphere. Usage of coolants also contributed to the fast growing percentage of green house gasses. These

and other major pollutants are causing what we call now as global warming – a type of climate change where

heat is trapped in the earth’s surface.

It indeed have caused so much trouble due to the growing number of organisms considered

endangered or have been extinct. Affecting the biodiversity, It has not only caused the species of our flora and

fauna to depreciate but also hinders to the development of other organisms.

Weather, Temperature and other climate-related factors plays a very important role in the growth of

an organism. In order for specie to produce offspring, it must be in the right environment with the right

temperature and humidity. Another major effect of climate change is mutation. Due to the changing climate,

organisms tend to develop new characteristics which embark new phases in its growth and development.

In general, climate change is not just an issue of environmental changes but also an issue of how

biodiversity is being affected. If humanity will do nothing to address this issue, it is indeed possible that we

might as well go extinct. After all, how can a man live without trees and animals?