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“The Earth Belongs in Usufruct to the Living” : Thomas Jefferson on Property Rights and Intergenerational Justice

MORIMURA, Susumu

Thomas Jefferson’s famous letter to James Madison from Paris dated September

6, 1789 contains a number of surprisingly radical proposals on such diverse topics as

land ownership, inheritance, and temporally limited validity of public debt,

constitutions and laws, which are all derived from the basic thesis that “the earth

belongs in usufruct to the living.” In this article, I discuss this and three other letters

of Jefferson concerning those and related topics and Madison’s reply to that letter, and

examine the two men’s arguments from the perspectives of intellectual history, moral

philosophy, democratic theory and constitutional jurisprudence. I emphasize the

overall coherence of Jefferson’s claims notwithstanding the implausibility of some of

his basic beliefs. This article also includes a critical appraisal of the “Precommitment

Theory” of constitutional self-constraint as developed by Japanese constitutional law

scholar Koji Aikyo.

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Issues on Right to Autonomous Legislation in Ethnic Autonomous Regions in China

Manglaifu

The guarantee of the right of ethnic groups to autonomy is the core of their regional

autonomy. Chinese Law on Autonomy in Regions of Ethnic Groups prescribes many

rights to autonomy in a region such as that on legislation, personnel management,

economic administration, the use of natural resources, financial administration, education

and the use of their own languages. However, it pronounces them only as an abstract

principle. Ethnic groups in the autonomous region should make these rights take

concrete shape by enacting their own Autonomous Regulation and their ordinance in

consideration of the situation in their region. With the development of the market

economy, above all, the exploitation in the western regions is making it difficult for

ethnic groups to realize their important right to autonomy on legislation. In this

paper, I consider issues on the right to autonomous legislation in ethnic autonomous

regions in China in detail drawing on my experience as a member of an ethnic group,

that is, as a Mongolian.

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Japan’s Position in the Postwar World

TAKASE, Hirofumi

This paper examines Japanese exports to the United States in the early postwar years

to demonstrate how postwar Japanese leaders redefined the position and the role of the

state in the postwar world.

At a result of Japan’s defeat in the Second World War in 1945, Japan had destroyed

its relations with the United States and Asian countries, exhausted national resources, and

lost credibility in the world. Therefore, to achieve economic and trade recovery of postwar

Japan, Japanese leaders had to make an all out effort to redefine the position and the role

of Japan in the postwar world that they recognized was dominated by the United States.

By focusing on Japanese exports to the United States in this important era that Japanese

leaders had emphasized as being one of economic recovery, this study shows one of the

patterns of Japanese diplomacy to the United States in the postwar world.

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Parallel Trade and the Antimonopoly Law: Lessons from Swiss Competition Law

TODA, Naoko

Switzerland and Japan, two of the world’s highest priced countries, assail banning

parallel importing in the hope of lowering the prices of imported products. Although

the amendment of the Swiss competition law in 2003 strengthened the regulations on

the restraints on parallel imports, the Swiss Competition Commission sets limits to its

application to allow multinational corporations ban parallel importing from countries

that are economically and legally not equivalent to Switzerland. It also permits them

to eliminate parallel importing during the product introduction phase, in other words,

free riding on their marketing costs of new product diffusion.

On the contrary, the Japan Fair Trade Commission condemns practices hampering

parallel trade “in pursuit of sustaining price”. Since parallel trade inevitably affects

price, any practice hampering it can be “in pursuit of sustaining price”, hence, illegal.

This ambiguous test promotes vertical integration of foreign manufactures to avoid the

application of the law and raises the barriers of entry to Japanese markets. This article

sets forth an alternative test that ensures international market players pro-competitive

price setting strategies to enhance global economic welfare.

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Diskriminierungsverbot für Durchleitungsfälle in Energierecht und Kartellrecht

KAWAHARA, Katsumi

In dieser Abhandlung handelt es sich um Diskriminierungsverbot und

Gleichbehandlungspflicht für Durchleitungsfälle.

Umstritten ist zuerst, ob bei anderweitiger Auslastung des Netzes ein gesetzlicher

Vorrang für die Nutzung durch den Netzeigentümer besteht. Das Bundeskartellamt und

Teile der Literatur lehnen einen Vorrang der Eigennutzung ab.

Der zweite Gegenstand der Diskussion ist die Frage, inwieweit bestehende

Lieferverträge eine Durchleitungsverweigerung rechtfertigen können.

Ein weiteres Problem stellt sich bei der Verteilung der freien Kapazitäten,

wenn diese nicht für alle Durchleitungsinteressenten ausreicht. Grundsätzlich

bestehen zwei Lösungsansätz: Zum einen quotenmäßige Durchleitungsgewährung

für alle Interessenten, zum anderen die Auswahl einiger Interessenten bis an die

Kapazitätsgrenze, wobei diese dann ihren gesamten Durchleitungsanspruch

gewährt bekommen.

Ein weiteres Problem ist, ob eine dauerhaft erfolgende Nachfrage über die Kapazität

hinaus den Netzeigentümer verpflichtet, durch zusätzliche Investition in den Netzausbau

mittelfristig für eine Bedienung aller Durchleitungsinteressenten zu sorgen.

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The Choice of Law Rules Applicable to Consumer Contracts and Individual Contracts of Employment

MURAKAMI, Ai

The new Japanese private international law includes special provisions on

consumer contracts and individual contracts of employment. Articles 11 and 12 ensure

that no consumer or employee is deprived of the protection provided by the mandatory

rules of the country in which the consumer is habitually resident (article 11) or an

employee habitually carries out his work (article 12). According to traditional Japanese

notions, there are two categories of mandatory rules: (1) mandatory rules that apply as

part of applicable law, and (2) mandatory rules that apply directly to the contract

(overriding rules). Articles 11 and 12 seem to introduce the third category of mandatory

rules. This paper examines the relationship between these three categories and specifies

the meaning of ‘mandatory rules’ in articles 11 and 12.

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Taxation of Intangible Assets and Intellectual Property

OIWA, Rieko

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, taxpayers and the Internal

Revenue Service (IRS) have struggled over whether customer-based intangibles can

be amortized over the life of assets. In interpreting the law, courts had tended to hold

that an asset may not be amortized if it is closely linked to goodwill. In early 1993,

the United States Supreme Court decided Newark Morning Ledger v. United States,

which constituted the principle that an intangible asset may be amortized if certain

factual requirements are met. Finally, in a bold initiative to provide certainty and

predictability in this very important field, Congress enacted section 197 as part of the

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 (“OBRA’93”). Under section 197, the

cost of most intangible assets, including goodwill and going concern value, is

amortizable ratably over a fifteen-year period.

This Article is intended to review the historic tax treatment of intangible assets

and the detailed analysis of the statutory provisions of section 197. Part IV provides

a background for understanding the necessary piece of intangibles legislation. Part II

brings out an overview of intangible assets and intellectual property in the United

States. Part III describes an outline of major intellectual property transactions having

tax consequences.

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Rethinking Public-Private Distinctions in the State Action Doctrine

MIYASHITA, Hiroshi

The most controversial case of state action doctrine, Shelley v. Kraemer, raises the

difficulties of a public-private distinction.

The jurisprudence of state action explores the essential dichotomy between the

private sphere and the public sphere, with all its attendant constitutional obligations.

The Court in Shelley unanimously held that the judicial enforcement of a private racially

restrictive covenant is to be regarded as a state action for equal protection clause. Shelley

remains controversial because ultimately everything can be made state action; if any

decision by a state court represents state action, then ultimately all private actions must

comply with the Constitution.

Shelley was born along with the transition of the baseline of public-private

distinction from Lochner constitutionalism to New Deal constitutionalism. Under

Lochner constitutionalism, the doctrine of “freedom of contract” prevailed so that

private action was beyond the reach of the Constitution as Corrigan v. Buckley indicated.

On the contrary, the naturalness of the public-private distinction under New Deal

constitutionalism is untenable because state action is always present as claimed by legal

realists. Thus, Shelley reflects the premise of New Deal constitutionalism and of legal

realism.

As long as we believe that the Constitution binds only governmental action, the

lesson of Shelley invokes how we should restructure a public-private distinction in

theory, although state action may always be present in reality.

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Le refus de soins et le respect de la vie : Esquisse d’un droit de patient en droit médical français

NAKASHIMA, Hiroshi

Le droit de patient d’accepter ou refuser tout acte médical reconnu par différents

droits internes et internationaux, dont le noyau est le consentement préalable aux

interventions médicales ainsi que l’information éclairée, vient d’être ancré dans la

société française.

Face à la volonté de refus de soins exprimée par le patient, le droit médical français

cherchant dans l’obscurité « la troisième voie » avec un juste équilibre entre le modèle

paternaliste traditionnel français et le modèle autonome pluraliste anglo-saxon, a

baptisé le droit de patient comme une liberté fondamentale fondée sur l’inviolabilité du

corps humain provenant le principe constitutionnel de la sauvegarde de la personne

humaine et de la liberté individuelle, mais n’a pas oublié d’ajouter une réserve du respect

de la vie.

Dans la société contemporaine où la légitimité médicale sous une tutelle de l’État

est ébranlée, le droit de patient serait bien « le droit en construction » et enfin, l’État

républicain serait forcé de continuer à délimiter la frontière entre autonomie et

protection.

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Rules of Private Law in Electronic Financial Transactions– A Study on the Electronic Financial Transactions Act of Korea –

SEO, Heeseok

As IT has developed in Korea, new laws have been enacted in order to cope with

the ensuing legal problems in transactions. These laws include the Electronic

Transaction Fundamental Act of 1999, the Electronic Signature Act of 1999, the

Consumer Protection in Electronic Commerce Act of 2002, and the Electronic

Promissory Note Act of 2004. New legislation is also forthcoming, the Electronic

Financial Transaction Act of 2006, has been enacted and will be enforced beginning

January 1, 2007. This act applies to all retail financial transactions processed within the

electronic system, and can be evaluated in terms of the previous electronic transaction

laws mentioned above.

The object of this act is to clearly define the legal relationships between the

parties involved in electronic financial transactions, and to regulate electronic

financial business (Article 1). This paper examines the former, rules of private law,

specifically, the right to request correction of a mistake, the rule of liability in the case

of an accident within the electronic financial transaction, the legal position of the

electronic financial sub-agency (system provider, operator of the electronic fund

transfer [EFT] system, VAN business, etc), and the effects of an EFT contract, an

Electronic Money and an Electronic Credit. In this paper, these rules have been

reconstituted into the three sections noted below, and considered within a theoretical

context.

The result of the consideration is as follows: First, the legal effect of an EFT

contract is related to the technological characteristics of an electronic transaction. That

is, the electronic record made when a payer transfers money to a payee reaches the

payee’s bank system instantaneously (in real-time). Therefore, the legal obligation of

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the payer’s bank is to post and record the payer’s electronic transaction to the payee’s

bank system at the time the payment is made (Article 12). Second, as the electronic

financial transaction is processed by computer and network systems, there is always the

danger of equipment malfunctions or input misses. This act acknowledges a user’s right

to request the correction of a mistake caused by an equipment malfunction (Article 8).

However if a user makes an input mistake, the bank cannot be held accountable for the

correction of the user’s mistake. Third, this act rules that when a card, ID number, etc.

used to access the system is forged, or if the system has been hacked into, unless the

user had knowledge of this, or was guilty of gross negligence, the financial institute

must pay for any incurring damages (Article 9). We may consider the character of

liability here as the liability of the party providing, maintaining, or managing the

system (system liability).

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The Regional Ethnic Autonomy Right to Ethnic Group Education in China

– The Regional Ethnic Autonomy of Ethnic Group Education of Languages and Writings –

Gerile

This report focuses on the use of language characters and the contents of ethnic

group education. Language education of ethic groups has not been respected, and the

content of Chinese education of ethnic groups is ambiguous. After analyzing the

present situation of ethnic group education, I propose regional ethnic autonomy of

ethnic group education as a solution to these two problems.

The regional ethnic autonomy right to ethnic group education is one of the most

important rights among regional ethnic autonomy rights. As a first step, the right to

ethnic group education should be enforced and a department should be established to

clarify educational contents.

Ethnic group education plays an important role in the continuation of ethnic

group culture and tradition. However, under current ethnic group education, language

education and the contents of education have ignored ethnic aspects. This kind of

education may retard the development of ethic groups, and it is necessary to consider

these problems in the field of regional ethnic autonomy of ethnic group education.

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Zur Entfaltung der Idee vom „integrierten Umweltschutz“ im deutschen Umweltrecht

– Anhand des Anlagengenehmigungssystems des Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes –

KAWAI, Toshiki

Diese Arbeit versucht eine Seite des deutschen Umweltrechts dadurch zu klären,

die Einflußnahme von einem seit den 80er Jahren entwickelten Reformkonzept, nämlich

vom „integrierten Umweltschutz“, auf das deutsche Anlagengenehmigungssystem

nach dem Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes (BImSchG) zu zeigen.

Als ein diesen neuen Gedanken konkretisierendes typisches Beispiel gibt es die

EG-Richtlinie des Rates vom 24. 9. 1996 über die integrierte Vermeidung und

Verminderung der Umweltverschmutzungen (IVU-Richtlinie). Die IVU-Richtlinie

verpflitet die EG-Mitgliedsstaaten, ein „integriertes Konzept“ für die

Genehmigungssystem umweltbelastender Industrieanlagen (und Deponien)

einzuführen. Auch in Deutschland wurde in 2001 die IVU-Richtlinie ins nationale

Recht umgesetzt und BImSchG geändert.

Es ist die Hauptthema dieser Untersuchung, die Anforderungen der IVU-

Richtlinie und ihre Rezeption ins Anlagengenehmigungssystem des BImSchG zu

analysieren.

Dieser Aufsatz ist wie folgend in sechs Kapitel gegliedert. Nach der kurzen

Einleitung (I) wird mit einigen konkreten Beispielen und Argumenten erklärt, wie die

Leitidee vom integrierten Umweltschutz gebildet worden ist (II). Das folgende Kapitel

behandelt das ehemalige BImSchG-Anlagengenehmigungsystem unter dem

Gesichtspunkt seiner Reichweite (III). Dann werden der Inhalt der IVU-Richtlinie

sowie vielfältige Argumente um ihre Annahme ins BImSchG-Anlagengenehmigungs

system dargestellt (IV). Anschließend wird die Änderung des BImSchG aufgrund der

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Umsetzung der IVU-Richtlinie juristisch analysiert und eingeschätzt (V).

Zusammenfassend werden im letzten Kapitel auf einige Punkte hingewiesen, die auch

die Vorschläge zu den Ratschläge für das japanische Umweltrecht enthalten (VI).

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Capacity, Power, and Reputation:Compliance with Decisions of the WTO Dispute Settlement System

CHIBA, Daina

This paper focuses on state compliance with international agreements. Drawing on

all cases of trade conflicts that have been submitted to the dispute settlement body of the

World Trade Organization (WTO) from 1995 through 2003, I empirically explore the

factors that motivate the losing defendant states to comply with the ruling. Specifically,

three alternative theories have been tested. Each of these three models presents distinctive

explanations for the success or failure of state compliance with the WTO’s ruling. The

managerial school emphasizes the capacity limitation of the defendant state to fully

comply with the verdict. The enforcement theorists highlight the importance of the

complainant’s power to generate a credible threat in assuring the defendant that

retaliation is likely unless it complies. The reputational theory implies that the variance

in state compliance is explained by the reputational concerns of each state and that

international institutions have facilitated the development and diffusion of reputation.

To test the robustness of each hypothesis, I employed Heckman’s two-step probit

analysis to address the selection effect of trade dispute escalation. The statistical findings

suggest that the reputational factors explain patterns of state behavior, although state

power is also an important determinant. The results undermine the realists’ assertion that

institutional factors have a low impact on international politics.

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La démocratisation de la sphère familiale et ses influences sur la protection sociale en France

SAITO, Emiko

Le libéralisme triomphant du droit de la famille est un acquis irréversible dans les

pays développés occidendaux. Il s’agit des égalités entre les époux ou entre les filiations, la

libéralisation du divorce ou encore la reconnaissance des couples de même sexe. Mais ces

changements portent avant tout sur le droit civil de la famille qui légifère sur les droits et

les obligations inter-familiaux. Quelles sont alors les conséquences de cette libéralisation

sur le droit public de la famille qui régit la relation entre l’Etat et la famille ? Dans cette

analyse, nous allons chercher à comprendre les enjeux du droit social de la famille dans

une période de la démocratisation de la sphère familiale.

Dans un premier temps, nous allons retracer l’histoire de la politique de la famille

pour constater que le familialisme est bel et bien enraciné dans la protection sociale

française. Ensuite, nous mettrons en lumière les droits sociaux accordés aux couples hors

mariage par une des réformes d’inspiration égalitaire d’aujourd’hui, à savoir la

reconnaissance du couple de même sexe. Or, en étendant les droits dérivés aux couples

hors mariage, celle-ci en a provoqué une critique avancée dans la mesure où elle ne remet

pas en question le mécanisme même des droits dérivés. Enfin, nous terminerons par

présenter des projets sur l’individualisation des droits sociaux, fondés sur la critique des

droits sociaux familialisés et la cohérence des droits politico-civils et socio-économiques.

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