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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TASK-BASEDINSTRUCTION METHOD IN TEACHING LISTENING
VIEWED FROM THE STUDENTS’ ANXIETY
(An Experimental Study in the Second Semester Students of STKIP-PGRIPontianak in the Academic Year of 2011/2012)
A Thesis
By
Diah Astriyanti
NIM. S891008016
Written as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for GettingThe Master Degree of English Education Department
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENTGRADUATE SCHOOL
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITYSURAKARTA
2012
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TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE..................................................................................................................... iAPPROVAL........................................................................................................... iiLEGALIZATION OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS .................................. iiiPRONOUNCEMENT ........................................................................................... ivABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... vMOTTO.................................................................................................................. viDEDICATION ....................................................................................................... viiACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................... viiiTABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................ ixLIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ xiiLIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................. xiiiLIST OF APPENDICES ...................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background ............................................................................ 1B. Problem Identification ............................................................. 9C. Problem Limitation.................................................................. 10D. Research Problem.................................................................... 10E. Research Objectives ................................................................ 11F. Benefit of the Study ................................................................. 11
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Listening................................................................................... 131. The Definition of Listening .............................................. 13
a. Listening purposes ......................................................... 16b. Listening Process ... ....................................................... 22c. Micro- and Macroskills of Listening ............................. 24
2. Teaching listening ............................................................. 273. Designing Assessment Tasks in Listening........................ 30
a. Intensive Listening......................................................... 30b. Responsive Listening..................................................... 32c. Selective listening .......................................................... 33
B. Task-Based Instruction ............................................................ 361. The Nature of Task ........................................................... 36
a. Task................................................................................ 36b. Types of Task................................................................. 40c. Task-Based Instruction for Listening Comprehension .. 43
2. The Teaching Steps of Task-Based Instruction ............... 483. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Task-Based
Instruction.......................................................................... 55
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C. Teaching Listening Using Task-Based InstructionCompared to Direct Instruction Method ................................. 56a. General Categories ............................................................. 56b. Context in the Classroom ................................................... 57
D. Direct Instruction Method ....................................................... 601. Definition of Direct Instruction ......................................... 602. Direct Instruction of Teaching Steps .................................. 613. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct
Instruction ......................................................................... 62E. Anxiety ..................................................................................... 65
1. Definition of Anxiety ........................................................ 652. Anxiety and Listening Comprehension .............................. 67
F. Review of Related Research .................................................... 74G. Rationale.................................................................................. 72H. Hypothesis ............................................................................... 77
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Place and Time of the Research .............................................. 84B. Research Design ...................................................................... 85C. Population, Sample, and Sampling.......................................... 86
1. Population.......................................................................... 862. Sample............................................................................... 863. Sampling............................................................................ 86
D. Technique of Collecting Data.................................................. 88E. Data Analysis ........................................................................... 90F. Hypothesis Testing................................................................... 92G. Statistical Hypothesis ............................................................... 96
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
A. Research Findings .................................................................... 971. Data Description.................................................................... 972. Prerequisite Analysis............................................................. 1063. Hypothesis Testing ............................................................... 108
B. The Discussion of Findings. .................................................... 114C. The Weaknesses of the Research.............................................. 122
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion............................................................................... 123B. Implication............................................................................... 124C. Suggestion ............................................................................... 125
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BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 126
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... 130
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 General Categories of Teaching Methods ........................................ 87Table 2.2 The Example of Teaching Techniques in Classroom Context .......... 87Table 3.1 Research Design ................................................................................ 87Table 3.2 Design for ANOVA ........................................................................... 88Table 4.1 The scores of the students who are taught using Task-Based
Instruction (A1)............................................................................. 93Table 4.2 The scores of the students who are taught using Direct Instruction
(A2). .................................................................................................... 94Table 4.3 The scores of the students having high learning anxiety (B1) ........... 95Table 4.4 The scores of the students having low learning anxiety (B2) ............ 96Table 4.5 The scores of the students having high learning anxiety who are
taught using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1) ...................................... 97Table 4.6 The scores of the students having low learning anxiety who are
taught using Task-Based Instruction (A1B2) ...................................... 98Table 4.7 The scores of the students having high learning anxiety who are
taught using Direct Instruction (A2 B1) .............................................. 99Table 4.8 The scores of the students having low learning anxiety who are
taught using Direct Instruction (A2 B2) .............................................. 100Table 4.9 The summary of the normality of the sample distribution................. 101Table 4.10 Data Homogeneity ............................................................................. 102Table 4.11 The summary of ANOVA.................................................................. 103
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1. Histogram and Polygon of A1............................................................. 98Figure 4.2. Histogram and Polygon of A2............................................................. 99Figure 4.3. Histogram and Polygon of B1............................................................. 100Figure 4.4. Histogram and Polygon of B2............................................................. 101Figure 4.5. Histogram and Polygon of A1B1......................................................... 102Figure 4.6. Histogram and Polygon of A1B2......................................................... 103Figure 4.7. Histogram and Polygon of A2B1......................................................... 104Figure 4.8. Histogram and Polygon of A2B2......................................................... 105
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Lesson Plan Experimental Group.................................................... 130
Appendix 2. Lesson Plan Control Group............................................................. 196
Appendix 3. Blueprint of Questionnaire of Students’ Learning Anxiety and
Questionnaire for Try Out .............................................................. 242
Appendix 4. Blueprint of Listening and Listening Test for Try Out .................. 245
Appendix 5. The Try Out Result of Students’ Listening Test ............................. 258
Appendix 6. The Try Out Result of Learning Anxiety........................................ 270
Appendix 7. Listening Test Items........................................................................ 283
Appendix 8. Questionnaire Post Test................................................................... 288
Appendix 9. The Scores of Students’ Learning anxiety ...................................... 291
Appendix 10. The Scores of Students’ Listening Test ........................................ 293
Appendix 11. Descriptive Statistic ...................................................................... 295
Appendix 12. Normality Test .............................................................................. 311
Appendix 13. Homogeneity Test ......................................................................... 323
Appendix 14. Hypothesis Testing ........................................................................ 325
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
B. Background
Listening is the most common communicative activity in daily life:
"we can expect to listen twice as much as we speak, four times more than we
read, and five times more than we write." (Morley, 1991: 82). Listening is
important for obtaining comprehensible input which is necessary for the
language development.
Since 1980s, listening skill has been somewhat neglected in the field
of second language acquisition in many contexts, there has been a growing
concern for developing this ability. Brown’s research in the field of L1
(2000), for instance, showed that oracy should be developed to the same
extent as literacy in schools. Research in both L1 acquisition and second
language acquisition has attached significant importance of listening in
acquiring a given language. Research into L1 acquisition has proved that L1
speakers are listeners before they are speakers. Conversational skills like turn-
taking, paying attention to the listener and focusing the listener’s attention on
the on-going interaction are developed before L1 users can actually talk
(Kaplan, 1969). Indeed, listening underlies the process of acquiring L1.
Under normal circumstances, in their early stages of life, human beings
exposed to their L1 learn to listen as the first step in their unconscious process
of language acquisition.
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Moreover, listening also plays a vital role in the life of human being.
Rivers and Temperley (1978), Oxford (1993), and Celce-Murcia (1995),
among other researchers state that listening takes the greatest part of
communication compared to the other three skills. In fact, 45% corresponds
to listening, 30% to speaking, 16% to reading and 9% to writing (in Hedge,
2005).
Approaches that gave more importance to listening were based on
different ideas. Nord (1980:17) expresses this view clearly:
Some people now believe that learning a language is not just learningto talk, but rather that learning a language is building a map ofmeaning in the mind. These people believe talking may indicate thatthe language was learned, but they do not believe that practice intalking is the best way to build up this “cognitive” map in the mind.To do this, they feel, the best method is to practice meaningfullistening.
Krashen’s (1981) claims that the importance of comprehensible input
that can be translated into a set of learning conditions; that is, conditions that
need to be met for language development through listening. These conditions
are meaningful, interesting, understanding and stress free.
Listening comprehension traditionally has drawn the least attention of
the four skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) in terms of both the
amount of research conducted on the topic and its place in language teaching
methodology (Morley, 1990; Rivers, 1981). This neglect may have stemmed
from the fact that listening is considered a passive skill, and from the belief
that merely exposing the student to the spoken language is sufficient for
listening comprehension. During the time when audiolingualism was the
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prevailing approach in foreign language teaching, it was assumed that
students' listening skill would be enhanced automatically as a result of their
repetition of dialogues and pattern drills. Accordingly, developing the
listening skill per se was allocated very little attention in foreign language
classrooms, and most structured listening practice took place in the language
laboratory (Herron & Seay, 1991).
Obviously, the most pervasive changes to language teaching practice
over the last twenty years are those that can be described as communicative
language teaching (CLT). Chastain (1988: 163) believed that by the
emergence of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in the history of
language teaching and learning, the goal of language teaching and learning
shifted to achieving communicative competence. As far as CLT is concerned,
one can claim that it paid attention to all the four skills of language-reading,
listening, speaking, and writing. Listening was no longer believed to be a
passive skill. CLT and its subsequent branches considered listening as an
active skill. One of CLT’s subsequent divisions has been Task-Based
Language Teaching (TBLT), which is based on using tasks as the core of
language teaching and learning.
As a general rule, exercises for listening comprehension are more
effective if they are constructed around a task. The students should be
"required to do something in response to what they hear that will demonstrate
their understanding" (Dunkel, 1986: 104; Ur, 1984: 25). Examples of tasks
are answering questions appropriate to the learners' comprehension ability,
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taking notes, taking dictation, and expressing agreement or disagreement.
However, Dunkel (1986) and Wing (1986) suggested that listening activities
should require the students to demonstrate listening skills. Consequently,
listening exercises should be dependent upon students' skills in listening,
rather than skills in reading, writing, or speaking.
There are different types of tasks that the students can perform
without speaking, reading, or writing. One is a transferring exercise that
involves "receiving information in one form and transfering the information
or parts of it into another form" (Richards, 1983: 235), such as drawing a
picture or a diagram corresponding to the information given (Dirven &
Oakeshott-Taylor, 1985; Dunkel, 1986; Lund, 1990; Paulston & Bruder,
1976; Richards, 1983; Ur, 1984). Another kind of listening task is a matching
exercise that involves selecting a response from alternatives, such as pictures
and objects, that correspond with what was heard (Lund, 1990; Richards,
1983). Samples of this type of exercise are choosing a picture to match a
situation and placing pictures in a sequence, which matches a story or set of
events (Richards, 1983). The other type of listening task involves physical
movement (Dunkel, 1986; Lund, 1990; Ur, 1984); that is, the students have to
respond physically to oral directions.
Task-based learning provides real life activity and concern on the
meaning. Halliday (1978: 169) explains, communication is more than merely
an exchange of words between parties; it is a “…sociological encounter”
(Halliday, 1978: 139) and through exchange of meanings in the
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communication process, social reality is “created, maintained and modified”
(Halliday, 1978: 169). Such a capacity of language is also evident in Austin’s
(1962) earlier work on speech act theory where, as cited by Clyne (1994: 2),
language and thus communication is an “…instrument of action”.
Brown (1987: 14) informs that the main idea behind a task-based
approach to developing listening is the students become active learners. With
this approach, students are asked to listen to what are described as “authentic”
situations and to “do something” with the information. This may be
completing a diagram or chart, filing in a table, or drawing a picture, for
example. The information is usually transferred from spoken text to a graphic
form. Because the texts are authentic (usually semi-scripted), students cope
with language being spoken at normal speed and with features such as
accents, hesitations, fillers and ellipses.
The result of a task-based activity can be open-ended. For example,
while listening to a short lecture, students may be required to make notes and
draw a simple diagram. Different students will have their own way of
recording the information. The way they do this is not as important as being
able to report the information they have understood. Kumaravadivelu (1991:
100) states that in the context of task-based pedagogy, the learning outcome
is the result of a fairly unpredictable interaction between the task and the task
situation. Therefore, the process students employ in finding a successful
outcome to the task is more important than being able to understand all the
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spoken text presented to them. According to the task-based approach,
students need to use holistic inferential strategies.
Most of the teacher usually spends some time lecturing; then the
teacher guides the students through a complex problem, with the problem
broken down into simple steps; then the students are given, one by one, the
simple steps to carry out on their own; finally, the students are given one or
many sample problems to accomplish on their own or we can call it as Direct
Instruction method. Direct instruction is used to describe a lesson where the
teacher has control.
Direct teaching, sometimes called systematic teaching or active
teaching, is a teacher-centered, skill-building instructional model with the
teacher being a major information provider. The teacher’s role is to pass facts,
rules, or action sequences on to students in the most direct way possible. This
usually takes a presentation with explanations format (modified lecture),
examples, and opportunities for practice and feedback. The direct teaching
format calls for teacher-student interactions involving questions and answers,
review and practice, and the correction of student errors.
In a direct instruction lesson, the teacher usually spends some time
lecturing; then the teacher guides the students through a complex problem.
Direct instruction as an instructional method works for only a small
percentage of students. The students who have other than verbal
“intelligence”, or who come from different cultural world views will fail.
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Unfortunately, listening is the weakest points of most English learners of all
the four skills in my classes. Poor listening ability results from many factors,
such as insufficient emphasis on listening by the whole society, immature
teaching methodologies, ineffective listening strategies, and students’ lack of
vocabulary, but the increasingly important one is anxiety, an affective factor
in listening comprehension, which plays a very important role because the
anticipation of foreign language use in receiving information can provoke
anxiety. Listening comprehension is “highly anxiety-provoking if the
discourse is incomprehensible” (Young, 1992: 562). Therefore, anxiety has
gradually been a focus of research in the area of listening comprehension and
it is a “variable that must be respected in teaching and accounted for in
research” (Young, 1999: 562).
Anxiety is defined and asserted as the emotion that one feels generally
in certain related types of situations (trait anxiety) or in a specific situation
(state anxiety) (Spielberger, 1996). Being stable over time and present in a
variety of situations, trait anxiety is considered as part of a person’s
personality, which represents the likelihood of being anxious in specific types
of situations. Most people experience anxiety that is present only during a
particular situation or incident, which can be considered passing, and ideally
will diminish over time.
Anxiety refers to the subjective feelings of tension, apprehension,
nervousness, and worriness associated with an arousal of the autonomic
nervous system (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986: 174). According to
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Eysenck (1992), anxiety inhibits performance because working memory is
occupied with worriness rather than with task-focused thoughts. MacIntyre
and Gardner (1989) said that anxiety affects learners at every stage of
learning, whether during input, processing, or performance. They also
proposed that anxiety leads to deficits in learning and performance.
Furthermore, they corroborated that anxiety-arousal interferes with a learner’s
cognitive ability to absorb, process, and produce a foreign language
(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991a, 1991b; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994a, 1994b).
Maclntyre and Gardner (1989, 1991a) found that general anxiety is
not necessarily a predictor of language anxiety. A beginning foreign or
second language student encounters many tasks and experiences that may be
difficult including listening comprehension, oral performance, grammar,
writing, etc. if these experiences result in the student becoming concerned
about making mistakes or an understanding that he or she is not doing well,
then state anxiety can occur. However, at this point, he or she may not
connect the anxiety specifically with language learning. Over time, the
students may begin to associate the anxiety with language learning and expect
to feel anxious in the language class and experiences in which the new
language is used. At this point, it is believed that the students are
experiencing language anxiety. Unfortunately, those students who experience
anxiety specifically in language classes, but not in other learning situations,
are not always relieved of this anxiety over time. If students experience
anxiety in the same or similar contexts related to language, the anxiety
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becomes a trait (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). Anxiety as a trait can become
much more of a problem in the long term for the language learner.
In general, listening anxiety has been shown to result in negative
academic effects for the learner. Anxious students have also shown to feel
that they are left behind by fast pace of learning activity in classroom lessons
(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991). Over studying as a compensatory effort for
listening anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1991; Price, 1991) can lead to lower
performance results than could be expected given the time invested. The
opposite can also occur, where the over-anxious students avoid studying, and
even attending the foreign language class, to alleviate their apprehension
(Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope 1991).
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that teaching
listening comprehension must be in active and communicative way which has
to be related with the real life. In this case, this study wants to determine the
effect of Task Based Instruction method and Direct Instruction method in
teaching listening comprehension viewed from the students’ anxiety of the
second semester of English Department students in STKIP-PGRI Pontianak
in the academic year of 2011/2012.
C. Problem Identification
Through the background of the study, there are some problems that can be
identified. The identified problems are (1) Does using Task-based instruction
work best in teaching listening so the students are able to improve their
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listening comprehension?; (2) Does using Direct Instruction method work
best in teaching listening to improve the students listening comprehension?;
(3) Do the students who have high anxiety to learn English better especially
learning listening comprehension?; (4) Is listening a complicated according to
the second semester students of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak?; and (5) Is there any
interaction between the methods used in teaching listening and the students’
anxiety?
D. Problem Limitation
Realizing that there are numbers of the problems that have to be answered,
the writer is concerned only with some of those problems to be investigated.
This limitation, however, is taken because there is not enough ability for the
writer to investigate all of the problems thoroughly. It includes time allotment
and financial allocation. The writer limits the problems of the research which
are supposed to influence the students’ listening skill, namely: the methods
used by the teacher which are using Task-based instruction and Direct
instruction and the students’ anxiety.
E. Research Problem
From the background of the study, problem identification, and problem
limitation above, the writer formulates the problems of the study as follows:
1. Is using Task-based instruction more effective than using Direct
Instruction to teach listening comprehension to the second semester
students of English department in STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the
academic year of 2011/2012?
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2. Do the students who have low anxiety have better listening ability than
those who have high anxiety?
3. Is there any interaction between teaching methods and students’ anxiety in
teaching listening comprehension?
F. Research Objectives
The objective of the research is to find out whether:
1. Using Task-based instruction is more effective than using Direct
instruction to teach listening comprehension to the first semester students
of English department in STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic year of
2011/2012.
2. The students who have low anxiety have better listening ability than those
who have high anxiety.
3. There is an interaction between teaching methods and students’ anxiety in
teaching listening comprehension.
G. The Benefit of the Study
The result of this study can contribute some benefits to students, teachers, and
the other researcher. Here are the benefits:
1. For Students
a. By conducting this research, the writer hopes that this research may
decrease the students’ anxiety in learning listening comprehension
since they will find out that listening comprehension is not
complicated. As a result, it will enrich their skill in listening
comprehension.
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b. It gives students enjoyment in learning listening.
2. For Teachers
For the other teachers, they will get large knowledge about teaching
listening using Task-Based instruction and the result of the research can
be a useful input in English teaching learning process especially for
improving listening comprehension.
3. For the Researcher
a. The result of this study can improve the quality of teaching listening
b. The researcher also gives opportunity for the teachers to conduct an
innovative teaching and learning activity
c. The researcher can overcome the problems especially the students’
listening difficulties
4. For other Researcher
For the other researcher who would like to conduct further research at the
same subject, the result of this research will be beneficial for them as the
stepping stone.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This particular chapter sets out to review the underlying theories of the
present study. It is intended to provide the overview of the related studies as well.
This chapter is finalized with the formulation of the hypotheses.
A. Listening
1. The Definition of Listening
Listening is the first language model that children acquire. It
provides a foundation for all aspects of language and cognitive
development, and it plays a life-long role in the processes of learning and
communication essential to productive participation in life. A study by
Wilt (1950), which found that people listen 45 percent of the time they
spend communicating, is still widely cited (e.g., Martin, 1987; Strother,
1987). Wilt found that 30 percent of communication time was spent
speaking, 16 percent reading, and 9 percent writing. That finding
confirmed what Rankin had found in 1928, that people spent 70 percent
of their waking time communicating and that three-fourths of this time
was spent for listening and speaking.
Rost (2002 cited in http://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/67) defines
listening, in its broadest sense, as a process of receiving what the speaker
actually says (receptive orientation); constructing and representing
meaning (constructive orientation); negotiating meaning with the speaker
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and responding (collaborative orientation); and, creating meaning through
involvement, imagination, and empathy (transformative orientation).
Listening is a complex, active process of interpretation in which listeners
match what they hear with what they already know.
Listening is the language modality that is used most frequently. It has
been estimated that adults spend almost half their communication time
listening, and students may receive as much as 90% of their in
school information through listening to instructors and to one another.
Often, however, language learners do not recognize the level of effort that
goes into developing listening ability.
There are some definitions about listening, such as what is said by
Nunan (2003: 24). He defines that listening is an active, purposeful
process of making sense of what we hear. It means that when people listen
information, they will receive and understand the incoming information.
Nunan also defines that listening is very active. As people listen, they
process not only what they hear but also connect it to other information
they already know.
Underwood (1993: 1) states that listening is the activity of paying
attention to and trying to get meaning from something we hear. It is a
creative skill, not the passive one. The listeners take the raw material of
the words, the arrangements of those words, and the rise and fall of the
voice to create significance in order to comprehend the sounds they are
listening to. Other opinion is also stated by Nation and Newton (2009: 37)
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who state that listening is the natural precursor to speaking; the early
stages of language development in a person’s first language (and in
naturalistic acquisition of other languages) are dependent on listening.
Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners
actively involve themselves in the interpretation of what they hear,
bringing their own background knowledge and linguistic knowledge to
bear on the information contained in the aural text. Not all listening is the
same; casual greetings, for example, require a different sort of listening
capability than do academic lectures. Language learning requires
intentional listening that employs strategies for identifying sounds and
making meaning from them.
Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, television), a
message, and a receiver (the listener). Listeners often must process
messages as they come, even if they are still processing what they have
just heard, without backtracking or looking ahead. In addition, listeners
must cope with the sender's choice of vocabulary, structure, and rate of
delivery. The complexity of the listening process is magnified in second
language contexts, where the receiver also has incomplete control of the
language.
What ‘listening’ really means is ‘listening and understanding
what we hear at the same time’. So, two concurrent actions are demanded
to take place in this process. Besides, according to Rost (1991) in an
article cited in http://www.articlesbase.com/languages-articles/teaching-
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listening-as-an-english-language-skill-367095.html; listening comprises
some component skills which are: (1) discriminating between sounds; (2)
Recognizing words; (3) Identifying grammatical groupings of words; (4)
Identifying expressions and sets of utterances that act to create meaning;
(5) Connecting linguistic cues to non-linguistic and paralinguistic cues;
and (6) Using background knowledge to predict and later to confirm
meaning and recalling important words and ideas.
No doubt, listening is the most common communicative activity
in daily life. According to Morley (1991: 82), “We can expect to listen
twice as much as we speak, four times more than we read, and five times
more than we write.” So, listening, as a skill, is assuming more and more
weight in SL or FL classrooms than ever before. Rost (1994: 141-142),
points out that listening is vital in the language classroom because it
provides input for the learner. Without understanding input at the right
level, any learning simply cannot begin. Listening is thus fundamental to
speaking.
a. Listening Purposes
Listeners do not pay attention to everything; they listen
selectively, according to the purpose of the task. This, in turn,
determines the type of listening required and the way in which
listeners will approach a task. Richards (1990 ) in an article cited in
http://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/67; differentiates between an
interactional and a transactional purpose for communication.
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Interactional use of language is socially oriented, existing largely to
satisfy the social needs of the participants; e.g., small talk and casual
conversations. Therefore, interactional listening is highly
contextualized and two-way, involving interaction with a speaker. A
transactional use of language, on the other hand, is more message-
oriented and is used primarily to communicate information ; e.g.,
news broadcasts and lectures. In contrast with interactional listening,
transactional listening requires accurate comprehension of a message
with no opportunity for clarification with a speaker (one-way
listening). Knowing the communicative purpose of a text or utterance
will help the listener determine what to listen for and, therefore, which
processes to activate. As with the advantages of knowing the context,
knowing the purpose for listening also greatly reduces the burden of
comprehension since listeners know that they need to listen for
something very specific, instead of trying to understand every word.
One should also take into account the fact that every individual
has their own listening strategies and that they may have different
purposes while listening. Lhote (1995 : 70-72) lists them as follows:
1) Listening for hearing2) Listening for detecting3) Listening for selecting4) Listening for identifying5) Listening for recognizing6) Listening for disambiguating7) Listening for reformulating8) Listening for synthesizing9) Listening for doing10) Listening for judging
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She also recognizes other listening purposes such as listening
for reconstructing, guessing, anticipating, transposing, deducting,
revising a judgment, classifying, etc. Billière (1997) suggests that in
an oral exchange, listening is usually for the purpose of understanding
a message. He formulates the process of listening by considering
factors which affect the quality of listening: “SOMEONE listens to
SOMEONE on a GIVEN SUBJECT in a SPECIFIED
FRAMEWORK” where SOMEONE represents the individual with his
cultural, social, psychological and linguistic properties. GIVEN
SUBJECT represents the theme of the exchange. Finally, SPECIFIED
FRAMEWORK is the place and the moment of interaction and
influences the attitude of the interaction.
Listening activities here become varied according to their
purposes and objectives. Four major distinctions include attentive
listening, extensive listening, intensive listening, selective listening,
and interactive listening.
1) Attentive listening:
Both of the ideas are true that attentiveness is a prior
condition for understanding and listener often lapse attention for
various reasons. Losing interest, inability to keep up with, losing
track of goals, less confident are some of them. Teacher can help
the listeners to hold their attention by personalizing the martial,
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using the target language while talking to them to keep flow, and
lessening their stress and motivating by asking oral responses
repeatedly. Activities in this stage would be interesting and easy
including face to face interaction, using visual and tangible topics,
clear description of the listening procedure, minimum use of
written language, and immediate and ongoing responses etc so
that learners can easily keep pace with the text and activity.
Listening to short chunks, music image, personal stories, teacher-
talk, small question- answer, and interview, etc. may be applied in
this stage.
2) Extensive listening:
This type of listening has also a greater ease than other
types as it is concerned to promote overall comprehension of a
text and never requires learners to follow every word and
understand them. Learners need to comprehend the text as a
whole which is called global understanding. Activities in this
section must be chosen in terms with the proficiency level of the
listeners.
At the lower level they may have problems to organize the
information, so some non-verbal forms in responding might be
given such as putting pictures in a right sequence, following
directions on a map, checking of items in a photograph,
completing a grid, chart or timetable, etc.
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At the developed stage, some language-based tasks
requiring constructing meaning, inferring decisions, interpreting
text and understanding gist are usually recommended. Completing
cloze exercises or giving one or two word answers, multiple
choices, predicting the next utterances, forming connected sets of
notes, inferring opinions, or interpreting parts of the text are some
samples.
3) Intensive listening:
‘Hearing clearly’ is also a prime aspect of listening as it
includes accurate perception without which the second phase of
processing meaning becomes very difficult. Listening intensively
is quite important to understand the language form of the text as
we have to understand both the lexical and grammatical units that
lead to form meaning. So, intensive listening requires attention to
specific items of language, sound or factual detail such as words,
phrase, grammatical units, pragmatic units, sound changes (vowel
reduction and consonant assimilation), stress, intonation, and
pauses etc. Feedback on accuracy and repetition on the teacher’s
part promote success here.
Paraphrasing, remembering specific words and sequences,
filling gaps with missing words, identifying numbers and letters,
picking out particular facts, discriminating the pronunciation of
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same phoneme in different positions, replacing words, and finding
stress and boundaries are some good intensive listening practice.
4)Selective listening:
It involves listening to selected part of a text, as it’s name
suggests, to predict information and select ‘cues’ surrounding
information. Thus, the listeners may have an assessment of their
development in listening to authentic language. Here the focus is
on the main parts of the discourse and by noticing these parts
listener construct their understanding of the meaning of whole of
the text through inferring. As the expectation on understanding is
focused and has a purpose, in these activities, listeners have the
chance of second listening to check understanding, and have
feedback repeatedly. Listening to sound sequences, documentary,
story maps, incomplete monologues, conversation cues, and topic
listening are examples of selective listening.
5) Interactive listening:
This is a very advanced stage of listening practice as it
implies social interaction in small groups which is a ‘true test’ of
listening. In interactive listening, learners, either in pairs or in
groups, receive new information, identify them continuously.
Besides, they have to work out the problems of understanding
each other and formulate responses immediately as we are
required to do in real life. So, in spite of calling ‘practice’, this
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goes beyond of it. As this phase involves both comprehension and
production, it directly promotes speaking skill. Teachers have a
central role in this stage. They have to set up specific goals so that
learners can asses their own performance, observe learners’
language in order to provide immediate feedback on their
interaction strategies.
Group survey, self introductions, short speeches, chatting
and discussing, exchanging news and views, interviewing, and
being interviewed etc. might be appropriate here.
b. Listening Process
McDonough and Shaw (1993) and Rost (1991) in an article
cited in http://www.articlesbase.com/languages-articles/teaching-
listening-as-an-english-language-skill-367095.html; explain that a
listener as a processor of language has to go through three processes
using three types of skills:
(a) Processing sound/ Perception skills: As the complete perception
doesn’t emerge from only the source of sound, listeners segment
the stream of sound and detect word boundaries, contracted
forms, vocabulary, sentence and clause boundaries, stress on
longer words and effect on the rest of the words, the significance
of intonation and other language-related features, changes in
pitch, tone and speed of delivery, word order pattern, grammatical
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word classes, key words, basic syntactic patterns, cohesive
devices etc.
(b) Processing meaning/ Analysis skills: It’s a very important stage in
the sense, as researches show, that syntax is lost to memory
within a very short time whereas meaning is retained for much
longer. Richards (1985:191) says that, ‘memory works with
propositions, not with sentences’. While listening, listeners
categorize the received speech into meaningful sections, identify
redundant material, keep hold of chunks of the sentences, think
ahead and use language data to anticipate what a speaker may be
going to say, accumulate information in the memory by
organizing them and avoid too much immediate detail.
(c) Processing knowledge and context/ Synthesis skills: Here,
‘context’ refers to physical setting, the number of listener and
speakers, their roles and their relationship to each other while
‘linguistic knowledge’ refers to their knowledge of the target
language brought to the listening experience. Every context has
its individual frame of reference, social attitude and topics. So,
members of a particular culture have particular rules of spoken
behavior and particular topic which instigate particular
understanding. Listening is thought as ‘interplay’ between
language and brain which requires the “activation of contextual
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information and previous knowledge” where listeners guess,
organize and confirm meaning from the context.
c. Micro- and Macroskills of Listening
A useful way of synthesizing the above two lists is to consider
a finite number of micro- and macroskills implied in the performance
of listening comprehension. Richards (1983: 121) proposes list of
microskills has proven useful in the domain of specifying objectives
for learning and may be even more useful in forcing test makers to
carefully identify specific assessment objectives. In the following box,
the skills are subdivided into what he prefers to think of as microskills
(attending to the smaller bits and chunks of language, in more of a
bottom-up process) and macroskills (focusing on the larger elements
involved in a top-down approach to a listening task). The micro- and
macroskills provide 17 different objectives to assess in listening.
Micro- and macroskills of listening (adapted from Richards, 1983:
121-122)
Microskills
1. Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English2. Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.3. Recognize English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed
positions, rhythmic structure, intonation contours, and their role insignaling information.
4. Recognize reduced forms of words.5. Distinguish word boundaries, recognize a core of words, and interpret
word order patterns and their significance.
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Implied in the taxonomy above is a notion of what makes
many aspects of listening difficult, or why listening is not simply a
linear process of recording strings of language as they are transmitted
into our brains. Developing a sense of which aspects of listening
performance are predictably difficult will help to challenge the
students appropriately and to assign weights to items. Consider the
following list of what makes listening difficult (adapted from
Richards, 1983; Ur, 1984; Dunkel, 1991: 122):
1) Clustering: attending to appropriate “chunks” of language-phrases,clauses, constituents.
6. Process speech at different rates of delivery7. Process speech containing pauses, errors, corrections, and other
performance variables.8. Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), system (e.g.,
tense, agreement pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.9. Detect sentence constituents and distinguish between major and minor
constituents.10. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different
grammatical forms.11. Recognize cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
Macroskills
1. Recognize the communicative functions of utterances, according tosituations, participants, goals.
2. Infer situations, participants, goals using real-world knowledge.3. From events, ideas, and so on, described, predict outcomes, infer links
and connections between events, deduce causes and effects, and detectsuch relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, giveninformation, generalization, and exemplification.
4. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.5. Use facial, kinesis, body language, and other nonverbal clues to decipher
meanings.6. Develop and use a battery of listening strategies, such as detecting key
words, guessing the meaning of words from context, appealing for help,and signaling comprehension or lack theory.
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2) Redundancy: recognizing the kinds of repetitions, rephrasing,elaborations, and interactions that unrehearsed spoke languageoften contains, and benefiting from the recognition
3) Reduced forms: understanding the reduced forms that may not havebeen a part of an English learner past learning experiences inclasses where only format “textbook” language has beenpresented.
4) Performance variables: being able to “weed out” hesitations, falsestarts, pauses, and corrections in natural speech.
5) Colloquial language: comprehending idioms, slang, reducedforms, shared cultural knowledge.
6) Rate of delivery: keeping up with the speed of delivery, processingautomatically as the speaker continues
7) Stress, rhythm, and intonation: correctly understanding prosodicelements of spoken language, which is almost always much moredifficult than understanding the smaller phonological bits andpieces.
8) Interaction: managing the interactive flow of language fromlistening to speaking to listening, etc.
It can be concluded that listening is an interactive, interpretive
process in which listeners use prior knowledge and linguistic
knowledge in understanding messages. The skills are subdivided into
micro and macro skills. Listeners should listen selectively for specific
kinds of information, such as listening for the main idea or the
purpose of the information, predicting, drawing inference, and
listening for specific details like implicit and explicit information.
Listening comprehension covers both micro and macro skills. The
students’ micro skills will be about to retain chunks of language of
different lengths in short-term memory to fill in gaps task, chart,
tables, etc. the other micro skills will be to recognize grammatical
word classes, English stress patterns, and a particular meaning that
may be expressed in different grammatical form. The students’ macro
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skills will be from events, ideas, and so on, describing, predicting
outcomes, infering links and connections between events, deducing
causes and effects, and detect such relation as main idea, supporting
idea, new information, given information, generalization, and
exemplifications. Besides that, to infer situations, participants, goals
using real-world knowledge and distinguish between literal and
implied meaning will be measured to know the students’ listening
comprehension.
From the descriptions above it can be concluded that listening
comprehension is a complex process in which the learners use both
micro and macro skill to comprehend. Listeners must discriminate
between sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical structures.
Listening is a process of receiving what the speaker actually says
through meaningful interpretation involving word meaning, and
finding of main ideas, explicit information, and implicit information.
2. Teaching Listening
Teaching listening should be conducted as effectively as possible.
In the leraning process the learners must be activelly engaging for the
material. It is important for the teacher to make a well preparation before
the teaching and learning process. Good listening lessons go beyond the
main listening task itself with related activities before and after the
listening. The format may be like the following:
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a. Pre-listening Stage
Some activities before listening may serve as preparation or
warm-up for listening in several ways. These function as ‘reference’
and ‘framework’ by giving prior knowledge of listening activities.
Some recommended per-listening activities include:
1) Introducing the topic and assessing their background knowledge
of the topic or content of the material through commenting on a
picture or photograph, activating their existing knowledge
through discussion. Reading through comprehension questions
in advance, working out own opinion on a topic, predicting
content from the title etc. can be done. Clarifying any necessary
contextual information and vocabulary to comprehend the text.
In this regard showing pictures maps or graphs and may be
helpful.
2) Informing them of the type of text, their role, purposes of the
listening, etc. A short reading passage on a similar topic may
help them.
b. While-Listening Stage:
Activities in this stage must follow the learners’ specific needs,
instructional goal, listening purposes and learners’ proficiency level.
listening activities directly relate to the text and listeners are asked to
do these during or immediately after listening. Some specific cares are
required in designing while-listening activities. These are:
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1) If the students are asked to give written information after
listening, they should have chance to listen the text more than
once which make it easier for them to keep concentration while
listening with specific purposes.
2) Writing activities should be to a minimum. As comprehension is
the prime target, writing would make the listening more
demanding.
3) Global activities like getting the main idea, topic, setting,
summary that focus on the content and forms of the text should be
given more so that listeners are guided through the text. Listening
for the gist is such an activity.
4) More questions should be set up in order to focus student’s
attention on the crucial elements that might help to comprehend
the text. Following the rout on a map or searching for specific
clues to meaning, or identify description of the given pictures
might be appropriate here.
5) Attaching predicting activities before listening so that students
can monitor their comprehension as they listen. Listening with
visuals may serve here.
6) Giving immediate feedback to make the students examine their
responses and how it was. Checking off items in a list,
distinguishing between formal and informal registers conducted
by teacher are examples here.
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c. After-listening Stage:
Post listening activities can be used to check comprehension,
valuate listening skill, use of listening strategies and use the
knowledge gained to other contexts. So, these are called listening
exercises at all and defined as ‘follow-up works.’ The features of these
activities are:
(a) Related to pre-listening activities, such as predicting.
(b) It may create a real life situation where students might be asked to
use knowledge gained through listening.
(c) It may extend the topic and help the students remember new
vocabulary.
3. Designing Assessment Tasks in Listening
After we determined objectives, the next step is to design the tasks,
including making decisions about how it will elicit the performance and
how it will expect the test-taker to respond.
a. Intensive Listening
The focus in this section is on the microskills of intensive
listening. A typical form of intensive listening at this level is the
assessment of recognition of phonological and morphological
elements of language. A classic test task gives a spoken stimulus and
asks test-takers to identify the stimulus from two or more choices, as
in the following two examples:
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Phonemic pair, consonants
Phonemic pair, vowels
In both cases above, minimal phonemic distinctions are the
target. If the testing is recognition of morphology, the same format is
used:
Morphological pair, -ed ending
Hearing the past tense morpheme in this sentence challenges
even advanced learners, especially if no context is provided. Stressed
and unstressed words may also be tested with the same rubric. In the
following example, the reduced form (contraction) of cannot is tested:
Stress pattern in can’t
Because they are decontextualized, these kinds of tasks leave
something to be desired in their authenticity but they are a step better
than items that simply provide a one-word stimulus:
One-word stimulus
Test-takers hear: He’s from CaliforniaTest-takers read: (a) He’s from California
(b) She’s from California
Test-takers hear: Is he living?Test-takers read: (a) Is he leaving?
(b) Is he living?
Test-takers hear: I missed you very much.Test-takers read: (a) I missed you very much
(b) I miss u very much
Test-takers hear: My girlfriend can’t go to the partyTest-takers read: (a) My girlfriend can’t go to the party
(b) My girlfriend can go to the party
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b. Responsive Listening
A question-and-answer format can provide some interactivity
in these lower-end-listening tasks. The test-takers response is the
appropriate answer to a question.
Appropriative response to a question
The objective of this item is recognition of the wh-question
how much and its appropriate response. Distracters are chosen to
represent common learner errors: (a) responding to how much vs. how
much longer; (c) confusing how much in reference to time vs. the
more frequent reference to money; (d) confusing a wh-question with
a yes/no question.
None of the tasks so far discussed have to be framed in a
multiple-choice format. They can be offered in a more open-ended
framework in which test-takers writes or speak the response. The
above item would then look like this:
Test-takers hear: VineTest-takers read: (a) Vine
(b) Wine
Test-takers hear: How much time did you take to do your homework?Test-takers read: (a) In about an hour
(b) About an hour(c) About $10(d) Yes, I did
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Open-ended response to a question
If open-ended response formats gain a small amount of
authenticity and creativity, they of course suffer some in their
practically, as teachers must then read students’ responses and judge
their appropriateness, which takes time.
c. Selective Listening
The next type of listening performance is selective listening,
in which the test-taker listens to a limited quantity of aural input and
must discern within it some specific information. A number of
techniques have been used that require selective listening.
1) Listening cloze
Listening cloze tasks (sometimes called cloze dictations
or partial dictations) require the test-taker to listen to a story,
monologue, or conversation and simultaneously read the written
text in which selected words or phrases have been deleted. Cloze
procedure is most commonly associated with reading only. In its
generic form, the test consists of a passage in which every nth
word (typically every seventh word) is deleted and the test-taker is
asked to supply an appropriate word. In listening cloze task, test-
Test-takers hear: How much time did you take to do yourhomework?
Test-takers read: _____________________.
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takers see a transcript of the passage that they are listening to and
fill in the blanks with the words or phrases that they hear.
2) Information Transfer
Information transfer tasks may reflect greater
authenticity by using charts, maps, grids, timetables, and other
artifacts of daily life. Chart-filling tasks increase in difficulty as
the linguistic stimulus material becomes more complex. In one
task described by Ur (1984: 108-112), test takers listen to a very
long description of animals in various cages in a zoo. While they
listen, they can look at a map of the layout of the zoo with
unlabeled cages. Their task is to fill in the correct animal in each
cage, but the complexity of the language used to describe the
positions of cages and their inhabitants is very challenging.
Similarly, Hughes (1989: 138) described a map-marking task in
which test-takers must process around 250 words of colloquial
language in order to complete the tasks of identifying names,
positions, and directions in a car accident scenario on a city street.
3) Sentence Repetition
The task of simply repeating a sentence or a partial
sentence, or sentence repetition, is also used as an assessment of
listening comprehension. As in a dictation, the test-taker must
retain a stretch of language long enough to reproduce it, and then
must respond with an oral repetition of that stimulus. Incorrect
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listening comprehension, whether at the phonemic or discourse
level, may be manifested in the correctness of the repetition. A
miscue in repetition is scored as a miscue in listening. In the case
of somewhat longer sentences, one could argue that the ability to
recognize and retain chunks of language as well as threads of
meaning might be assessed through repetition.
Sentence repetition is far from a flawless listening
assessment task. Buck (2001: 79) noted that such task “are not just
tests of listening, but tests of general oral skills”. Further, this task
may test only recognition of sounds, and it can easily be
contaminated by lack of short-term memory ability, thus
invalidating it as an assessment of comprehension alone. And the
teacher may never be able to distinguish a listening
comprehension error from an oral production error. Therefore,
sentence repetition tasks should be used with caution.
d. Extensive listening
Drawing a clear distinction between any two of the categories
of listening referred to here is problematic, but perhaps the fuzziest
division is between selective and extensive listening. As we gradually
move along the continuum from smaller to larger stretches of
language, and from micro- to macroskills of listening, the probability
of using more extensive listening tasks increases.
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B. Task Based Instruction
1. The Nature of Task
a. Task
The core concept of task-based learning technique is the task.
The definition of a task has evolved over the last 20 years through
empirical research in classroom implementation. There are different
definitions based on everything from the real world to pedagogical
perspective of task. For a balanced view on tasks, here are some
various perspective of task stated by the experts: Long (1985) defines
task as what people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in
between. Breen (1987) state that task is a range of work plans for
exercise and activities in language instruction. Littlejohn (1998) also
proposed their idea about task, which is any proposal within the
materials for action undertaken by the learners to bring up the foreign
language learning. Willis (1996) adds that task is a classroom
undertaking for a communicative purpose to achieve an outcome. Ellis
(2003) also states that task is a work plan that requires learners to
process language pragmatically to achieve an outcome. Moreover,
Nunan (2005) states that tasks are a piece of classroom work to
convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.
Long (1985: 89) introduces the concepts of tasks, defining
(target) task as a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others,
freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a
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fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes,
making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a
driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, making
a hotel reservation, writing a check, finding a street destination and
helping someone cross the road . Long’s tasks (target tasks) here are
very closely related to the real world. Tasks in this definition can be
related to tasks that both use and do not use language. Without
language use, some tasks, such as painting a fence can be achieved.
Nunan (2005) argues that Long’s definition of task does not
necessarily involve language use.
The pedagogical and real worlds are not mutually exclusive.
Indeed, as researchers in the TBLT approach claim, there should be
some connection between the two. However, tasks which are used in
language classrooms need to contribute to developing communicative
abilities. Recently, researchers (breen, 1987; Littlejohn, 1998; Skehan,
1998; Willis & Willis, 2001; Ellis, 2003; Nunan, 2005) have become
interested in the pedagogical tasks which can work in the language
classroom.
From pedagogical perspectives, real world target tasks are
likely to be too difficult for learners to achieve because of potential
semantic, pragmatic, lexical and syntactic difficulties. Thus,
pedagogical tasks should represent a bridge to real world tasks. Breen
(1987: 23) tries to define task from the pedagogical perspective as
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…any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular
objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedures, and a
range of outcomes for those who undertake the task. “Task” is
therefore assumed to refer to a range of work plans which have the
overall purposes of facilitating language learning-from the simple and
brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as
group problem-solving or simulations and decision making.
Breen’s definition of task does not clarify how task is
different from practices or exercises. It is a broad view. According to
Breen, all kinds of activities related to language learning can be tasks.
However, tasks are not synonymous with practices or activities
(Nunan,, 2005). Thus, this definition does not seem to help teachers to
understand what tasks are.
Drawing on Breen’s (1987) definition, Littlejohn (1998: 198)
proposed a broader definition that task refers to any proposal
contained within the materials for action to be undertaken by the
learners which has the direct aim of bringing about the learning of the
foreign language. With this definition, each task can be shown
reflecting the three aspects of process, participation and content.
Process means what teachers and learners go through; classroom
participation concerns whom learners work with in the process.
Content is something that learners focus on (Littlejohn, 1998: 198)
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Skehan (1998: 3) also synthesizes the characteristics of a
task: (1) Meaning is primary; (2) Learners are not given other people’s
meaning to repeat; (3) A task has some connection to the real-world;
(4) Task completion has some priority; and (5) the assessment of the
task is in terms of outcome.
Stressing both meaning and form, Ellis (2003: 16) also
defines task in a pedagogical way. He recently defined task as a work
plan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order
to achieve an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of whether the
correct or appropriate propositional content has been conveyed. To
this end, it requires them to give primary attention to meaning and to
make use of their own linguistic resources, although the design of the
task may predispose them to choose particular forms. A task is
intended to result in language use that bears a resemblance direct or
indirect to the way language is used in the real world. Like other
language activities, a task can engage productive or receptive, and oral
or written skills and also various cognitive processes. Ellis’
definition is very pedagogical because it includes attention to meaning
and engagement with grammar in addition to other major points in
language teaching, such as inclusion of pragmatic properties, use of
authentic language and cognitive process.
Lastly, Nunan (2005: 50) defines task as a piece of classroom
work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,
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producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is
focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to
express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning
rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of
completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its
own right with a beginning; Nunan’s definition emphasizes the
pedagogical tasks’ involvement in communicative language use.
Nunan views tasks as being different from grammatical exercises
because a task involves achieve outcome.
In conclusion, considering the principles of TBLT (i.e.,
authentic, learner-centered, using language, intentional and
interactive), the task is defined as classroom undertakings that are
intended to result in pragmatic language use. Tasks are a central
component of TBLT in language classrooms because they provide a
context that activates learning processes which are related to the real
life situation.
b. Types of Task
(a) Listing
Listing may seem unimaginative, but in practice, listing task
tends to generate a lot of talk as learners explain their ideas. The
processes involved are:
Brainstorming, in which learners draw on their own
knowledge and experience either as a class or in pairs/groups
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Fact-finding, in which learners find things out by asking each
other or other people and referring to books, etc.
The outcome would be the completed list, or possibly a
draft mind map.
(b) Ordering and Sorting
These tasks involve four main processes:
Sequencing items, actions or events in a logical or
chronological order.
Ranking items according to personal values or specified
criteria.
Categorizing items in given groups or grouping them under
given headings
Classifying items in different ways where the categories
themselves are not given
(c) Comparing
Broadly, these tasks involve comparing information of a
similar nature but from different sources or versions in order to
identify common points and/ or differences. The processes
involved are:
Matching to identify specific points and relate them to each
other
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Finding similarities and things in common
Finding differences.
(d) Problem solving
Problem-solving tasks make demand upon people’s
intellectual and reasoning powers, and, though challenging, they
are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The processes and time
scale will vary enormously depending on the type and complexity
of the problem.
Real-life problems may involve expressing hypotheses,
describing experiences, comparing alternatives and evaluating and
agreeing a solution. Completion tasks are often based on short
extracts from texts, where the learners predict the ending or piece
together clues to guess it. The classification ends with case studies,
which are more complex, entail an in-depth consideration of many
criteria, and often involve additional fact-finding and investigating.
(e) Sharing personal experiences
These tasks encourage learners to talk more freely about
themselves and share their experiences with others. The resulting
interaction is closer to casual social conversation in that it is not so
directly goal-oriented as in other tasks. For that vary reasons,
however, these open tasks may be more difficult to get going in the
classroom.
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(f) Creative task
These are often called projects and involve pairs of groups
of learners in some kind of freer creative work. They also tend to
have more stages than other tasks, and can involve combinations of
task types: listing, ordering and sorting, comparing and problem
solving. Out-of-class research is sometimes needed. Organizational
skills and team-work are important in getting the task done. The
outcome can often be appreciated by a wider audience than the
students who produce it.
In real life rehearsals pairs or groups of students predict,
plan and rehearse what they could say in typical real-life situations
(e.g. buying stamps). They then perform their dialogue in front of
the class, and/or record it. Next, they either hear a recording of a
real-life parallel dialogue, or, if they are in an English-speaking
area, they go to the place (e.g. the post office) and take notes of
what people actually say. If possible, they also take part in a similar
situation themselves (e.g. buy the stamps) with another student
taking notes. Finally, students compare the real-life versions with
their own prepared scripts.
c. Task-based Instruction for listening Comprehension
Listening comprehension skill is an important skill to develop
students’ listening ability. An effective listener develops a useful way
of thinking about meaning as they listen. The use of task which
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focuses on meaning in listening develops listener’s listening
comprehension skill. Anderson and Lynch (1997:4) state that
understanding is not something that happens because of what speaker
says that the listener has a crucial part to play in the process, by
activating various types of knowledge, and by applying what he
knows to what he hears and trying to understand what speaker means.
O’ Malley and Chimot (1996:132) state that listening
comprehension entails active and conscious process in which the
listener constructs meaning by using cues from contextual information
and from existing knowledge, while relying upon multiple strategies
resources to fulfill the task requirement. Therefore, learners should
construct their linguistics and non-linguistics competence to guess
meaning of aural language and the listening task to examine their
understanding.
Brown (1987) informs that the main idea behind a task-based
approach to developing listening is the students become active
learners. With this approach, students are asked to listen to what are
described as “authentic” situations and to “do something” with the
information. The information is usually transferred from spoken text
to a graphic form. Because the texts are authentic (usually semi-
scripted), students cope with language being spoken at normal speed
and with features such as accents, hesitations, fillers and ellipses.
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The result of a task-based activity can be open-ended. For
example, while listening to a short lecture, students may be required to
make notes and draw a simple diagram. Different students will have
their own way of recording the information. The way they do this is
not as important as being able to report the information they have
understood. Kumaravadivelu (1991: 100) states that in the context of
task-based pedagogy the learning outcome is the result of a fairly
unpredictable interaction between the task and the task situation.
Therefore, the process students employ in finding a successful
outcome to the task is more important than being able to understand
all the spoken text presented to them. According to the task-based
approach, students need to use holistic inferential strategies.
As a general rule, exercises for listening comprehension are
more effective if they are constructed around a task. The students
should be “required to do something in response to what they hear that
will demonstrate their understanding” (Dunkel, 1986: 104; Ur, 1984:
25). Examples of tasks are answering questions appropriate to the
learners’ comprehension ability, taking notes, taking dictation, and
expressing agreement or disagreement. However, Dunkel (1986: 104)
and Wing (1986) suggested that listening activities should require the
students to demonstrate listening skills. Consequently, listening
exercises should be dependent upon students’ skills in listening, rather
than skills in reading, writing, or speaking.
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There are different types of tasks that the students can
perform without speaking, reading, or writing. One is a transferring
exercise that involves “receiving information in one form and
transferring the information or parts of it into another form”
(Richards, 1983: 235), such as drawing a picture or a diagram
corresponding to the information given (Dirven & Oakeshott-Taylor,
1985; Dunkel, 1986; Lund, 1990; Paulston & Bruder, 1976; Richards,
1983; Ur, 1984). Another kind of listening task is a matching exercise
that involves selecting a response from alternatives, such as pictures
and objects that correspond with what was heard (Lund, 1990;
Richards, 1983). Sample of this type of exercise are choosing a picture
to match a situation and placing pictures in a sequence, which matches
a story or set of events (Richards, 1983). The other type of listening
task involves physical movement (Dunkel, 1986; Lund, 1990; Ur,
1984); that is, the students have to respond physically to oral
directions.
Task-based language teaching has a number of purposes.
Willis (1996: 35–6) identifies eight purposes:
1. To give learners’ confidence in trying out whatever language theyknow;
2. To give learners experience of spontaneous interaction;3. To give learners the chance to benefit from noticing how others
express similar meanings;4. To give learners chances for negotiating turns to speak;5. To engage learners in using language purposefully and
cooperatively;6. To make learners participate in a complete interaction, not just one-
off sentences;
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7. To give learners chances to try out communication strategies; and8. To develop learners’ confidence that they can achieve
communicative goals.
From the quotation above Task based activity assumes can
make the students find the experience to be rewarding, intrinsically
interesting, and educationally beneficial. When they get involved in
the task it is hopefully that they can enjoy and have much confident to
do the tasks, because the tasks will give the feeling of real life
situation.
The aim of communication tasks is to stimulate real
communication in the target language. The task-based framework
takes into account about what we know how people learn languages.
For example, the practice of language forms does not necessarily
make perfect. People cannot learn a language without plenty of
opportunities for real language use. It also important that the language
that they exposed to and that they use reflects the kind of language
they want to learn. It includes spontaneous spoken language which is
very different from planned written language, and that is what they
need to hear to study.
Task-based instruction provides activity for the students to
be active engaging the teaching and learning process. The activities
also have varieties of exercise for the students which are based on the
authentic real life situations. The result of a task-based activity can be
open-ended. The students have freedom to record the information they
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have and it also the same thing while they report the information they
get. The teacher and the students can have enjoyable discussion. In
Task-based instruction the students should be required to do
something in response to what they hear that will demonstrate their
understanding. Here, the students may speak up to express their ideas
or they can draw a picture or a diagram corresponding to the
information given.
The most important thing is Task-based instruction can give
the learners confident to tryout whatever language they know, give
spontaneous interaction, give the learners chance to benefit from
noticing how others express similar meanings, give chances for
negotiating turns to speak, engage the learners in using language
purposefully and cooperatively, make learners participate in a
complete interaction, not just one-off sentences, give learners chances
to try out communication strategies, and to develop learners’
confidence that they can achieve communicative goals.
2. The teaching steps of Task-Based Instruction
Willis (1998: 39-56) describes the use task-based teaching in the
classroom model, that is, before the event, tasks ring, and after the event.
1. Before the event (pre-task)
The introduction of the first tasks of teachers. Preparation
before the event is to ensure a smooth conditions. At this stage, the
main task of teachers is to help students understand the subject and to
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achieve mission objectives, such as through pictures or talking about
personal experiences such as the introduction of the theme; or through
different means to resolve the task of the obstacles that may arise,
such as the provision of certain word or phrase, give the students time
to think, listening to recordings or read text and so on. These activities
can help students to recall studied words, give them time to organize
the content to be expressed is conducive to the completion of the
second phase of the task.
Pre-task activities to explore topic language should actively
involve all learners, give them relevant exposure, and, above all,
create interest in doing a task on the topic. The sample instruction that
the teacher might give to the students are: classifying words and
phrases, matching phrases to pictures, memory challenge,
brainstorming and mind-maps, thinking of questions to ask, or teacher
recounting a similar experience.
Allowing a few minutes for learners to prepare themselves
individually for certain tasks has been shown to result in language use
that is richer in terms of complexity and variety of syntax, breadth of
vocabulary, and in fluency and naturalness.
2. Task ring (task-cycle)
Task cycle is divided into three phases which are task stage,
planning stage and report stage. The task stage is therefore a vital
opportunity for all learners to use whatever language they can master,
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working simultaneously, in pairs or small groups, to achieve the goals
of the task. At this time, they have the opportunity to express ideas
with existing knowledge, content can be related to the main text
around or recording. At the task stage, timing is important. Tasks can
take from one minute to ten or more, depending on the type of task
and its complexity. Set a time limit that is too short rather than too
long – it is easier to extend it than to stop students before the limit is
up. It is better to stop before anyone gets bored, even if some pairs
have not finished. Give a one-minute warning before the end of the
task. Immediately after the task, it is a good idea to take up briefly one
or two points of interest that the teacher heard while monitoring, and
to comment positively on the way students do the task.
In the planning stage, the students can preview the third phase
of drafting or to say or to offer written content. Planning focused on
making the third phase of the report are clear, appropriate, and
orderly. Teachers can look back and forth activities, to provide the
necessary assistance; students can take advantage of this opportunity
to teachers to ask questions. The third phase of Teachers 1-2 pairs /
group of students to report on results, other students can add the
missing content, and then reported by teachers on the content of
comments.
The report stage is the natural conclusion of the task cycle. In
itself it probably presents slightly less of a learning opportunity than
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the planning stage. But without the incentive of the report, the
learning process of planning, drafting and rehearsing would not
happen.
Their reports will not resemble native-speaker language; there
are bound to be strange wordings and grammatical errors. What is of
vital importance is to acknowledge that students are offering them as
the best they can achieve at that moment, given the linguistic
resources and time are available.
3. Task-Based Instruction in teaching Listening
The teacher devised specific strategies for the four tasks
specified to fulfill the indicator of listening comprehension. The
strategies for each task type are listed below:
a. Ordering and sorting
In this task type, the students have to order and sorting the
information or data according to specified criteria. They try to
predict what parts or sections or places might be called in the
recording. The students also have to anticipate how locations or
features might be described. The important thing is they have to
listen carefully to instructions.
From this task type the students are expected to understand
vocabulary and grammatical structures, find the explicit, and
implicit information.
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b. Form-filling
In this activity, the students read the form carefully and think of
how the words will sound when they hear them. The students must
try to predict the information from the recording to fill the form.
The students hopefully can understand vocabulary; discriminate
between sounds, and constructing and representing meaning.
c. Matching
Here, the students have to look carefully at the graphics or pictures
in the time given. They have to think about what they know about
the object in the diagram. Besides that, the students have to
anticipate the vocabulary and ideas they might hear, and identify
the differences between the pictures. In this type the students are
expected to understand vocabulary and grammatical structure, word
meaning, explicit, and implicit information.
d. Sharing personal experiences
The last type is sharing personal experiences. In this type the
students have to describing, explaining and exploring attitudes,
giving opinions, and reactions on the topic given. They have to
anticipate the vocabulary and ideas they might hear, predict what to
listen for to decide the answer, and they are recommended to share
their opinions, reactions that they identify with their friends. This
task type demands the students to find general ideas, explicit
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information, implicit information and understand vocabulary and
grammatical structure.
The teaching steps of those four task type are explained as
follow:
a. While listening to task recordings, it is important for learners to
feel they are managing to understand quite a lot for themselves. If
the pre-task phase has familiarized the class with the task topic
and objectives, learners will have some expectations of the
recording. Before they listen, the teacher should do the following
steps:
a) Introduce the speakers on the cassette
b) Make sure the students realize the speakers are doing a similar
task to the one they will do or have done
c) Make sure the students know why the teacher doesn’t expect
them to understand everything. Tell them it might sound
difficult to start with, but you’ll play it several times
d) Make sure the students know why they’re listening each time
you play the recording, whether it is before or after the task.
e) If the recording and listening purpose is introduced clearly in
the students’ book, encourage students to read this for
themselves. After they have worked out the instruction, ask
them to explain to you what hey are going to hear and listen
for.
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f) The first time students hear the recording, make sure they
have a fairly basic listening purpose.
The basic objective at this stage is to encourage learners to
listen selectively. Setting a different purpose each time they listen,
each slightly more challenging than the last, is a way of grading the
activity. In this way, different parts of the exposure become clearer,
until most of the interaction becomes comprehensible input.
b. During the task phase, in this stage, the students complete a task,
depending on the type of activity. For example, the students get
into groups, pretend order or role-play with each other, and use
their language resources. The teacher is the observer or counselor
in monitoring the tasks. So the methodology is more student-
centered. Then, the students prepare either a written or oral report
to present to the class. They practice the report in their groups. The
instructor takes equations and monitors the students. Finally, the
students present their reports to the class and the teacher or the
other students provide written or oral feedback. Since each students
have a computer and a pair of headset while studying listening it is
necessary for them to have freedom to play the recording by
themselves while they do the task.
c. In the language focus stage, the teacher reviews what happened in
the task, with regards to language and highlights relevant parts for
the students to analyze. It may be language forms used by the
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students, problems that the students had, or forms that need to be
covered more and were not used sufficiently. Then, the teacher
selects language areas to practice, based upon the needs of the
students. Students do practice activities to increase their confidence
and make a note of useful language. In this model the students are
free of language control and they use their language resources to
develop a natural context from their experiences with the language.
They have more exposure to language, lexical phrases,
collocations, patterns and language forms and can spend a lot of
time communicating. They can adjust their language for the report
stage.
3. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Task-Based Instruction
There are advantages and disadvantages of task-based instruction.
The advantages are numerous. First of all, TBI is suitable for all ages and
backgrounds, especially young learners. All children have learned their
L1 in a contextualized setting, learning grammar and structure
inductively. Their focus is on meaning, not form. A special
consideration for these learners is that their language skills are still
developing and teachers must be careful to create appropriate tasks for
their level (Bourke, 2006: 74). Some other advantages of TBI are that it
can be used to teach content as well as language, can be combined with
more traditional teaching methods, can provide motivation due to tasks
being relevant and immediate, and can be a useful method for students
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who don’t do well in more traditional types of classroom learning or
where teachers have little autonomy over their lesson planning (Krahnke,
1987: 74).
As for the disadvantages, a major one is that TBI requires a high
level of creativity and initiative on the part of the teacher. In an EFL
situation, there is a bigger challenge since comprehensible target language
input is limited. However, the use of authentic materials and contact with
native speakers can help. Another difficulty is that teachers will probably
find evaluating students’ performance in TBI challenging unless a
specific rubric for assessment is created (Krahnke, 1987: 74)
C. Teaching Listening Using Task-Based Instruction Compared to Direct
Instruction Method
In comparing the two teaching methods, Task-Based Instruction and
Direct Instruction, there are some general categories and contexts in the
classroom implementation.
a. General Categories
The general categories of both teaching methods are illustrated inTable 2.1. below.
Category Task-Based Instruction Direct Instruction
1) Exposure is to a rich butcomprehensible input ofreal spoken and writtenlanguage in use
is to a directed learning towardteaching academic contentwhich built up in a carefullygraded progression
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2) Student’sdependency
encourages the studentsto be more independent
have low independent
3) Teacher’srole
teacher plays less role teacher dominates the entireactivities
4) Usage focus on meaning focus on form
5) ListeningStrategy
encourages students tobe more active, creativeand initiative
the teachers become moreactive, creative and initiativethan the students
b. Contexts in Classroom
One of the examples of the implementation of both teachingmethods is described in Table 2.2. below.
Table 2.3. The Example of Teaching Techniques in Classroom Context
Institution : STKIP-PGRI Pontianak
Subject : Listening 2
Semester : II
Language skill : Listening
Task type : Matching
Meeting : 1
Time allocation : 2 x 45 minutes (1 meeting)
I. Competency StandardStudents are able to understand the spoken language in daily lifecontext to access the information and complete the task in formof ordering and sorting, form-filling, matching and sharingpersonal experiences.
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II. Basic CompetencyStudents are able to respond the spoken language to getinformation and sharing ideas in daily life context to access theinformation of the task in form of of ordering and sorting, form-filling, matching and sharing personal experiences.
III. Indicator1. Finding the main idea;2. Understand the meaning of words based on the context;3. Understand the explicit information;4. Find the implicit information.
Task-Based Instruction Direct Instruction
1. Introduction of the task.
2. Helping the studentsunderstand the subject andachieve the task objectives
3. Asking the students to callout all the words theyknow connected with thetopic.
4. Giving the students a copyof The Vishna Family andthe Blake family
5. Giving the studentsinstruction to study thepicture and asking them totry to guess the possibilityabout what they will haveto do this time
6. Distributing a set of namecards and a picture to thestudents
7. Giving the students therecording on theircomputers and asking
1. Introducing the topic
2. Giving the students somequestions related to the topic
3. Showing the students apicture by using LCD aboutthe Family and asking thestudents to guess what theyare going to do with thepicture
4. Explaining to the studentsthat they will hear arecording once and they justneed to listen to it carefully.Besides that the teacher alsogives the students someclues about the recordingand the guidance to thestudents about the story inthe recording.
5. At the second play theteacher asks the students tofill in the blank on theirwork sheet from theconversation. The teacherguides the students to fill inthe form and then discuss it
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them to listen bythemselves for about 5minutes
8. Asking the students tomatch the name cards tothe picture according tothe recording
9. Asking the students aboutthe main idea of theconversation.
10. Asking the students toanswer some explicit andimplicit information aboutthe topic.
11. Asking the students to findthe meaning of unfamiliarwords that they’ve heardfrom the recording.
12. Asking the students todiscuss the task giventogether and the studentsare allowed to have somequestions
13. Asking the students tomake a report related tothe task that they have justdone individually.
together with the otherstudents.
6. The teacher will call out thestudents’ name one by oneand then ask them to givetheir answer. If the studentscan’t give their answer thenthe teacher will help themby giving them some cluesto answer.
7. Asking the students to findthe main ideas of therecording, find the meaningof words based on therecording, and then answerthe questions from therecording explicitly, andimplicitly. The teacher willlead the students to do theexercise according to thecontext in the recording.
IV. Evaluation
Ask the students to answer these questions based on theirunderstanding about the recording!
1. What is the topic of the conversations above?2. Where do you think the conversation take place?3. How many speakers do you hear from the recording?4. What do you think about Jame’s family?
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5. Find the meaning of these words based on the recording:a. Familyb. Motherc. Fatherd. Sistere. Grandmother
D. Direct Instruction Method
1. Definition of Direct Instruction
An approach incorporating elements of both expository instruction
and mastery learning is Direct Instruction, which uses a variety of
techniques to keep students continually and actively engaged in learning
and applying classroom subject matter (e.g., Englemann & Carnine, 1982;
R. M Gagné, 1985; Tarver, 1992; Weinert & Helmke, 1995).
Peterson (1999: 231) defines direct method as the similar to
traditional teaching. Generally speaking traditional teaching is directed
toward teaching academic content. It is also characterized by teacher-
centered and teacher-dominated classroom. We can say that it is teacher-
centered method in which the lesson is taught by using English directly.
To some extent, direct instruction is based on behaviorist ideas; it
requires learner to make frequent responses and provides immediate
reinforcement of correct response through teacher feedback. But direct
instruction also considers principles from cognitive psychology, including
the importance of attention and long-term memory storage process in
learning, the limited capacity of working memory, and the value of
learning basic skills to automaticity (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986).
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2. Direct Instruction of Teaching Steps
Different theorists describe and implement direct instruction
somewhat differently. But in general, this approach involves small and
carefully sequenced steps, fast pacing, and a great deal of teacher-student
interaction. Each lesson typically involves most or all of the following
components (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986):
1. Review of previously learned material. The teacher reviews relevant
content from previous lessons, checks homework assignments
involving that content, and re-teaches any information or skills that
students have not yet understand.
2. Statement of the objectives of the lesson. The teacher describes one or
more concepts or skills that students should master in the new lesson.
3. Presentation of new material in small, logical sequenced steps. The
teacher presents a small amount of information or a specific skill,
perhaps through a verbal explanation, modeling, and one or more
examples. The teacher may also provide an advance organizer, ask
questions, or in the other ways scaffold students’ efforts to process
and remember the material.
4. Guided student practice and assessment after each step. Students have
numerous opportunities to practice what they are learning, perhaps by
answering questions, solving problems, or performing modeled
procedures. The teacher gives hints during students’ early responses,
provides immediate feedback about their performance, makes
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suggestions about how to improve, and provides remedial instruction
as needed.
5. Independent Practice. Once students have acquired some mastery
(e.g., by correctly answering 80% of questions), they engage in further
practice either independently or in small cooperative learning groups.
By doing so, they work toward achieving automaticity for the material
in questions.
6. Frequent follow-up reviews. Over the course of the school tear, the
teacher provides opportunities for students to review previously
learned material, perhaps through homework assignments, writing
tasks, or paper-and-pencil quizzes.
The teacher moves back and forth among these steps as necessary
to ensure that all students are truly mastering the subject matter. In a direct
instruction lesson the teacher usually spends some time lecturing then the
teacher guides the students through a complex problem, with the problem
broken down into some steps; then the students are given, one by one, the
simple steps to carry out on their own; finally, the students are given one
or many sample problems to accomplish on their own.
3. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Instruction Method
McVittie in his article about Teaching Science in Elementary
School (Adapted on 15 december 2011) states that Direct instruction is an
instructional method from the Transmission paradigm, and is based on the
learning theories of behaviourism and developmentalism. In a direct
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instruction lesson: the teacher usually spends some time lecturing; then
the teacher guides the students through a complex problem, with the
problem broken down into simple steps; then the students are given, one
by one, the simple steps to carry out on their own; finally, the students are
given one or many sample problems to accomplish on their own.
In his article, McVittie also gives some advantages and
disadvantages of Direct Instruction method, as follows:
The advantages of direct instruction teaching are that:
The teacher has control of the timing of the lesson.
Students are physically easy to monitor.
The teacher has control over what will be learned, and who will
learn. If you want to reward the middle class students, this is the kind
of teaching method to use.
The curriculum can be covered, so the teacher can say that s/he
taught the material.
Some material should be taught this way! Any information for which
there is one right answer, and for which that answer is relatively
simple, can be taught efficiently and honestly by using direct
instruction.
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The disadvantages of direct instruction teaching are that:
It is based on old learning theories: that we must learn simple tasks
before complex ones, and that only measurable learning is
worthwhile.
Students do not have a sense of the overall purpose of the simple
steps.
Teachers cannot assess what the students’ prior knowledge is, so
will be unaware of why particular students cannot learn.
Retention of how to solve the problems is low, because the students
have not struggled with the problem themselves.
Direct instruction as an instructional method works for only a small
percentage of students, not for a great variety. The students who
have other than verbal “intelligence”, or who come from different
cultural world views will fail.
Based on the explanation above it can be concluded that Direct
instruction method is one of methods in teaching listening. Unfortunately, this
method is teacher-centered where the teachers do lecturing activity for the
most hours of teaching and learning activity. Direct instruction method also
makes the students feel worried or inconvenient in learning activity since the
students must master the new lesson only by describing the skill in one or
more concept. The teacher also treats the students in such a way by moving
back and forth just to ensure the students are truly mastering the subject
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matter. This kind of teaching and learning activity makes the students feel
restricted to be active and share their ideas in the subject matter. Then, it will
arouse the student’s anxiety about their ability to the material and depressed
during the teaching and learning process.
E. Anxiety
1. Definition of Anxiety
Language-learning anxiety can be defined as the feeling of tension
and apprehension specifically associated with second-language contexts
(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994b: 284). As reviewed by MacIntyre (1999;
2002), Horwitz (2001), and Dörnyei (2002; 2005), anxiety has established
itself as one of the important variables responsible for individual
differences in the success or failure of second-language learning.
According to the Wikipedia definition (Adapted on December 15th,
2011) anxiety is a complex combination of negative emotions that includes
fear, apprehension, and worrieness, and is often accompanied by physical
sensations such as palpitations, nausea, chest pain and/or shortness of
breath. Another definition provided by Abel and Arkin (1990: 171) that
common symptoms of performance anxiety as excessive physiological
arousal, negative cognition including apprehension and fear of making
mistakes, and decrease of learners performance when practicing second
language learning.
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Anxiety, in general, can be associated with threats to self-efficacy
and appraisals of situations as threatening (Papamihiel, 2002:331) or an
uneasy feeling due to something threatening (Koba, et al., 2000).
Meanwhile, language anxiety refers to the feeling of tension and
apprehension experienced by learners in the foreign language classrooms
(MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994). More specifically, Horwitz, et al. (1986:
128) argue that language anxiety is a distinctive complex of self-
perception, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language
learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process.
Pappamihiel (2002: 120) divides the anxiety into two types: state
anxiety and trait anxiety. State anxiety is a type of anxiety which occurs
because learners are exposed to particular conditions or situations. For
example, there are learners who may feel anxious if they are requested to
speak in front of the class or if they do not understand many of the
teacher’s words during the class. Meanwhile, trait anxiety is a person’s
tendency to feel anxious regardless of the situations to which they are
exposed. In regard to this, Worde (1998) argues that trait anxiety is a part
of somebody’s character and is a permanent disorder.
It is widely accepted that anxiety plays a crucial role while learning
a foreign language. Although anxiety is often associated with fear,
frustration, and negative arousal, second language learning anxiety is
thought to be a unique type of anxiety peculiar to learning a second
language. It has been reported that in language classes students who suffer
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from second language learning anxiety become defensive and offensive,
are frightened by the tests, tend to sit passively in the classroom, are
reluctant to do activities that could improve their language skills and are
unable to use effective learning strategies
From the theories above, it can be summarized that anxiety in
language learning is a complex combination of negative emotions that
include fear, apprehension, and worrieness. Anxiety arises from the
uniqueness of the second language learning process which comprises
worrieness and feelings of fear in making mistakes and tends to make the
students become passively engaging to the teaching and learning process.
2. Anxiety and Listening Comprehension
Anxiety has been rigorously defined and asserted as ‘the emotion
that one feels generally in certain related types of situations (trait anxiety)
or in a specific situation (state anxiety)’ (Spielberger, 1966: 65). Being
stable over time and present in a variety of situations, trait anxiety is
considered as part of a person’s personality, which represents the
likelihood of being anxious in specific types of situations. Most people
experience anxiety that is present only during a particular situation or
incident, which can be considered passing, and ideally will diminish over
time.
According to Chastain (1979: 81-88) listening is a complex skill
students have the fear of understanding the message and interpret it
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correctly. Why many students complain about the difficulties of listening
in FL may also depend on feelings of inadequacies or lack of confidence
(Dunkel, 1991). In this respect, FL listening anxiety may intervene in
successful foreign language learning experience and may cause tension of
fear while listening in FL. Christenberry (2003) underlines the
problematic nature of listening and asserts that it is an incredibly difficult
area to teach properly; thus, is likely to cause anxiety. Furthermore,
Vogely (1999) clearly emphasizes that one of the most ignored but
potentially one of the most debilitating type of anxiety is the anxiety
accompanying listening comprehension.
It has been highlighted that learners may feel anxious while
listening in the target language due to many factors such as the
authenticity of the listening text, incomprehensibility of the listening
material and some external environmental factors like noise and
inaudibility (Samuels, 1984; Bacon, 1992). Whatever the reason is,
uncertainties listening skill imposes track learners back from a successful
listening experience. Although studies on skill specific anxieties such as
listening anxiety are still rare, importance of FL anxiety has been realized
by some researchers in recent years.
Less-focused attention, less effective information processing, and
poorer retrieval of prior knowledge are noticeable features of poor
performance in L2 listening (Arnold, 2000; Vogley, 1998). L2 listeners
cannot manage or control the input and are at the mercy of the delivery of
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speech unless they are skillful enough to request that the input be slowed
down, repeated, or clarified. In other words, they may be overloaded with
unprocessed aural information. Listeners in L2 worry about
misunderstanding or non-understanding, and they fear embarrassing
outcomes (Maclntyre, 1995).
Listening anxiety is a specific anxiety reaction, meaning that an
individual's reactions and feelings are due directly to the scenario of
learning a language. Unlike chronic anxiety sufferers whose anxiety is
caused by a number of variable factors, people with listening
comprehension anxiety may only feel the effects of the anxiety when the
situation is directly related to learning the language. Students who suffer
from listening anxiety may not be able to progress in learning a new
language skill, whether in written, verbal or listening categories. Students
may find it difficult to retain knowledge of vocabulary, grammar and
sentence structure. Furthermore, a student with listening anxiety may be
unable to process information and perform according to given instructions
due to his inability to comprehend the language.
Feelings of anxiety, apprehension, and nervousness are commonly
expressed by second/foreign language learners in learning to listen a
second/foreign language especially English. Less-focused attention, less-
effective information processing, and poorer retrieval of prior knowledge
are noticeable features of poor performance in listening English (Arnold,
2000; Vogely, 1998: 175). The students cannot manage or control the
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input and are at the mercy of the delivery of speech unless they are skillful
enough to request that the input be slowed down, repeated, or clarified. In
other words, they may be overloaded with unprocessed aural information.
The students worry about misunderstanding or non-understanding, and
they fear embarrassing outcomes (MacIntyre, 1995: 175). Anxiety is an
affective factor in listening comprehension, plays a very important role
because the anticipation of foreign language use in receiving information
can provoke anxiety. Listening comprehension is “highly anxiety-
provoking if the discourse is incomprehensible” (Young, 1992: 562).
Horwitz (1986: 127) states that there are three related performance
anxieties: (1) communicative apprehension; (2) test anxiety, and (3) fear or
negative evaluation. As the name suggests, the first aspect refers to
”shyness” experienced when an individual is required to communicate
with others, whether in listening (“receiver anxiety”) or speaking (“oral
communication anxiety”). In the foreign language classroom, a student
may be apprehensive about not being able to control what is happening in
communicative activities and may feel that others are always evaluating
his/her interventions.
The second aspect, test anxiety, arises from a “fear of failure”.
Students who suffer from this kind of anxiety frequently “put unrealistic
demands on themselves and feel that anything less than a perfect test
performance is a failure”.
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The third aspect, fear of negative evaluation, is considered by
Horwitz, et al. (1986: 128) to be “apprehension about others’ evaluations,
avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectations that others would
evaluate oneself negatively”. While fear of negative evaluation is like test
anxiety to some extent, it is more far-reaching in that it applies to any
social evaluative context in which the individual worries about the
possibly unfavorable impression she/he is making on others, such as in the
foreign language classroom, where both teacher and peers may appear to
be never endingly assessing her/his performance.
Krashen (1976; 1980) in Horwitz, et al. (1986: 127) states that
listening or the extracting meaning from messages in second language was
the “primary process in the development of a second language”, and
postulate that anxiety formed an “affective filter” that interfered with an
individual’s capacity to receive and process oral messages successful.
MacIntyre & Gardner (1994a: 284) inform that language anxiety can be
defined as the feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated
with second language contexts, including speaking, listening, and learning.
Horwitz, et al (1986: 126) report that many students were anxious
when listening to second language, and had “difficulties in discriminating
the sounds and structures of a target language message”. Vogely (1998:
67) also reports classroom practices which aroused foreign language
listening comprehension anxiety in students, and to offer solutions that
might alleviate students’ listening anxiety. On a questionnaire, students
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wrote whether or not they experienced anxiety when listening in language
class, what things made them feel anxious during listening exercises, and
what they thought help reduce listening anxiety.
The speed of delivery was the most frequently reported cause of
listening comprehension anxiety, followed by bad diction, variety of
accents, and teachers who spoke too quietly. As to level of difficulty,
exercises that were too complex, unknown vocabulary, difficult syntax and
unfamiliar topics were other sources of language listening comprehension
anxiety. Students were anxious if they did not know what was required
from them in the listening activity or why. Some of them needed the help
of some visual aid to help with listening task. Feeling anxious also
happens if they could only listen to texts twice before having to respond.
According to Scarcella and Oxford (1992: 1710), listening anxiety
occurs when students feel they are faced with a task that is too difficult or
unfamiliar to them. This anxiety is exacerbated if the listeners are under
the false impression that they must understand every word they hear. In
addition Horwitz (1987: 1710) says that many learners believe that in
order to be “good at a language they need perfect pronunciation, massive
amounts of vocabulary, extensive grammar knowledge, overseas
experience, and a natural aptitude for language before they even opens
their mouths. As a result, the anxiety that arises during the listening
activity comes from a negative “listening self-concept,” that is, a low level
of self-confidence in the area of listening (Joiner 1986).
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Vogely (1998: 67-70) reports the sources of anxiety in foreign
language listening comprehension anxiety in four principal categories: “(a)
listening comprehension anxiety associated with characteristics of foreign
language input; (b) listening comprehension anxiety associated with
processing-related aspects of foreign language; (c) listening
comprehension anxiety associated with instructional factors; and (d)
listening comprehension anxiety associated with attributes of the teacher
or learner”.
Kim (2000: 141-143) reported that there was a statistically
significant and negative correlation between proficiency in English
language listening and listening anxiety. Principal components analysis
produced two factors: 1) tension and worry over English listening, and 2)
lack of confidence in listening activity was the most significant predictor
of listening proficiency level”. Kim also revealed that learners were
nervous about the following: (a) the listening text (“speed, pronunciation,
intonation, acoustic conditions, length of a listening text, level of
vocabulary; (b) the interlocutors (gender or number of speakers, previous
knowledge, learning style of the listener); and (c) the process of listening
(the effectiveness or choice of listening strategies)”. Kim also found that
learners were sensitive to both the type of listening passages and kinds of
tasks.
From the theories above it can be concluded that language anxiety
can be defined as the feeling of tension and apprehension experienced by
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learners in the foreign language classrooms specifically associated with the
second language contexts, including speaking, listening and learning.
Anxiety in listening skill is a feeling of tension and worries over English
listening, apprehension about other’s evaluations, worry about
misunderstanding or non-understanding, had difficulties in discriminating
the sounds and structures of a target language, and lack of confidence in
listening activities.
F. Review of Related Research
To support this research, it is considered necessary to review several
studies related to the research. There are some previous researches related to
the Task-Based Instruction.
First, David Nunan (1991) in his research article entitled:
“Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum” provided a selective
overview of the development of Task-Based language teaching. He tried to
show that, while it had its genesis in mainstream education, Task-Based
teaching has become a powerful influence in language education. At a
conceptual level, the approach has been supported by changing conceptions
of the nature of language and learning-captured under the rubric of
communication language teaching.
Second, Albert Weideman (2006) in his research article entitled:
“Assessing Academic Literacy in a Task-Based Approach”, has concluded by
suggesting a number of possible alternative task types that may achieve a
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closer alignment with the goals embodied in the construct. Various
developmental, contextual, administrative and logistical constraints appear,
however, to affect the level of resemblance to academic discourse of the test
task types.
Third, McDonough (2007) in his research article entitled: Teachers’
and Learners’ Reactions to a Task-Based EFL Course in Thailand” has
investigated Task-Based courses as opposed to individual tasks. His study has
made a modest contribution to understanding teachers’ and learners’
impressions of a Task-Based EFL course, but considerable research is still
necessary to create a robust empirical base that L2 teachers can draw on when
creating, implementing, and revising Task-Based courses.
Fourth, M. M Rahman (2010) in his research article entitled:
“Teaching Oral Communication Skills: A Task-Based Approach” has
described that the majority of the learners found the experience to be
rewarding, intrinsically interesting, and educationally beneficial. They got
involved in the task, because the tasks were giving the feeling of real life
situation. Their final performance was impressively polished and much
improved.
Fifth, Mahan Attar and S. S. Chopra (2010) in their research article
entitled, “Task-Based Language Teaching in India” has proved that Task-
Based teaching that combines the best insights from communicative language
teaching, offers a change from the traditional method which learners may
have failed to learn to communicate. It creates a real purpose for language use
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and provides a natural context for language study. This kind of teaching helps
teachers to maximize opportunities for learners to put their limited language
to genuine use and creates a more effective learning environment.
Sixth, Siros Izadpanah (2010) in his research article entitled: “A Study
on Task-Based Language Teaching: From Theory to Practice” has concluded
that Since TBLT is a new approach requiring a change in methodological
focus rather than a new method requiring the wholesale learning of new
teaching techniques, a text based on a structural/functional syllabus can
provide some activities out of which Task-Based frameworks can be
constructed. While a variety of design changes and changes in how the
materials are used will typically be required, the biggest challenge for a
designer involves redesigning grammar practice exercises into post-task
language analysis activities and coming up with tasks intensive enough to
allow for comparative analysis.
From those previous studies related to Task-Based Instruction as the
teaching methods, there are some similarities compared to the methods used
for this research:
1. Task-Based Instruction can create more creative learning environment.
2. Task-Based Instruction gives the feeling of real life situations.
3. Task-Based Instruction can be use to improve the students learning
achievement.
4. Task-Based Instruction creates a real purpose for language use and
provides a natural context for language study.
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Besides, those similarities above, several differences are also can be
concluded from those previous related studies. They are as follow:
1. The research conducted by Albert Weideman (2006) was observing
about using Task-Based Approach to assess academic literacy and
examines the construct of the test as well as its task types in light of
various current discussions about authenticity. Meanwhile, in this
research, the researcher used task types to improve the students’
listening skill.
2. The research conducted by McDonough (2007) was focusing about the
understanding of teachers’ and learners’ impression about Task-Based
courses. Meanwhile, in this research, the researcher used task-Based
Instruction in order to reduce the students’ learning anxiety.
G. Rationale
Based on the reviewed theories above, the writer proposes the basic
assumption to develop hypothesis as follows:
1. The differences between Task-Based Instruction Method and Direct
Instruction Method
In direct instructional model the teacher becomes the decision
maker, the teacher will be engaged in many planning decisions, such as
deciding what the teacher would like to teach and the teacher wishes to
teach. The activity is teacher-centered. The students have lack of
opportunities to share their ideas in the classroom. The students just
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follow and depend on the teacher during the teaching and learning
process and usually work individually. Students can be mainly passive
and the attention span of students may be limited.
On the contrary, Task-based instruction requires different way in
teaching learning process especially in listening activity. Task-based
instruction provides activity for the students to be actively engaging in
the teaching and learning process. The activities also have varieties of
exercises for the students which are based on the authentic real life
situations. In the context of task-based instruction the learning outcome is
the result of a fairly unpredictable interaction between the task and the
task situation. Therefore, the students’ activity in finding a successful
outcome is more important than being able to understand all the spoken
text presented to them. In Task-based instruction activity the students
will be actively engaging in teaching learning process.
The process of Task-based instruction will be conducted in
three-phase; pre-task, task cycle, post-task (language focus) process. The
pre-task phase has two basic functions: (1) To introduce and create
interest in doing a task on the chosen topic; (2) To activate topic-related
words, phrases and target sentences that will be useful in carrying out the
task and in the real world; and (3) Optional function is the inclusion of an
enabling task to help students communicate as smoothly as possible
during the task cycle.
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The task cycle consists of the task(s) plus planning and report
phases in which students present spoken or written reports of the work
done in the task(s). During the task phase, students work in pairs or
groups and use whatever linguistic resources they possess to achieve the
goals of the task. Then, to avoid the risk of developing fluency at the
expense of accuracy, they work with the teacher to improve their
language while planning their reports of the task.
The final phase in the framework is the language focus which
provides an opportunity for form-focused work. In this phase, some of
the specific features of the language, which occur naturally during the
task, are identified and analyzed. Among the possible starting points for
analysis activities are functions, syntax, words or parts of words,
categories of meaning or use, and phonological features. Following the
analysis activities, this phase may also contain a practice stage in which
the teacher conducts practice of the new word, phrases or patterns, which
occur in the analysis activities, the task text or the report phase. Thus, it
can be assumed that Task-Based Instruction is more effective to teach
listening for higher level students.
2. The difference between the students who have low anxiety and the
students who have high anxiety in listening.
A small amount of anxiety often improves performance: it is
known as facilitating anxiety. Facilitating anxiety, as the name suggests,
is thought to be a kind of anxiety that improves learning and
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performance. A little anxiety spurs students into action. For instance, it
can make them go to class, read the text book, do assignments, and study
for exams. It also leads students to approach their class work carefully
and to think carefully before making a response.
Students with small amount of foreign language anxiety tend to
be more active during teaching and learning process. They have no
hesitation in dealing with the task and their performance. They also have
confidence that they will not make any mistake while the teacher gives
them task or to do some assignment. Students who have low anxiety
usually have a good background knowledge about second language
learning. It is different from the students who have high foreign language
learning anxiety, the students with facilitating anxiety will help them to
do better during the lesson or examination.
In contrast, a great deal of anxiety usually interferes with
effective performance: it is known as debilitating anxiety. Excessive
anxiety distracts learners and interferes with their attention to the task at
hand. Despite the common nature, foreign language anxiety can pose
potential problems to learners in their foreign language learning (Chen
and Chang, 2004). For example, when feeling anxious, learners may find
their study become less enjoyable or they may experience problems such
as reduced word production and difficulty in understanding the spoken
instructions. Anxious learners may also find it difficult to respond to their
own errors effectively. In short, foreign language anxiety can impact
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negatively on students foreign language learning. Thus, the achievement
of the students who have low anxiety in learning listening comprehension
is better than the students who have high anxiety in learning listening
comprehension.
3. Interaction between teaching methods and learning anxiety in
teaching listening
The teaching method which will be used by the teacher in the
teaching and learning activities hopefully can give big influence for the
success of listening activities. In listening activities, the teacher is
expected to use suitable method that will decrease the students’ anxiety.
Task-based instruction is expected to be effective for the students who
have high learning anxiety. The students will enjoy the teaching and
learning process without hesitation or worried to fail in comprehending
the material given. The students also have freedom to record the
information given and express it by reporting what they already
understand.
Task-based instruction gives the students opportunity to explore
they prior knowledge related to the material given. It is because in Task-
based instruction the material given contain of daily life and another
creative task. It will make the students less anxious since they feel that
the material familiar with them. Besides, Task-based instruction allow
the students to express their ideas freely, this condition will support the
students to learn how to express what is in their mind without any
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hesitation and fear to make mistakes. This method will be very effective
for the students who have low anxiety in learning listening skill.
Anxiety brings a big influence to the students in learning
English especially in listening comprehension. If the students have low
level of anxiety they will have high ability in listening comprehension.
They can do the exercise confidently without any hesitation or fear of
being mistake. They will be active in joining the listening activity
because they have low level anxiety.
In contrast, Direct instruction method seems make the students
to have high tension in teaching and learning activity. The students also
tend to have feeling afraid of making mistake or fail in examination. As
the result, the students feel less confident, worried, and hesitate to do the
task given. That is why direct instruction method is supposed to be more
effective for the students who have high level of anxiety toward the
students’ listening comprehension. The teacher will spend some time
lecturing then the teacher guides the students through a complex
problem. The problem will broken down into simple steps then the
students are given, one by one, the simple steps to carry out on their own.
Finally, the teacher will give the students one or many sample problems
to accomplish on their own. So it can be concluded that Direct instruction
is more effective than Task-based instruction for the learners who have
low anxiety in learning listening skill.
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From the explanation above, it is assumed that there will be an
interaction between teaching methods and students’ anxiety in teaching
listening.
H. Hypothesis
Based on the theoretical description and the rationale above, the
hypothesis can be formulated as follows:
1. Task-based instruction method is more effective than Direct instruction
method to teach listening comprehension at the second semester students
of English Department STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic year of
2011/2012.
2. The students who have low level of anxiety have better listening skill than
the students who have high level of anxiety at the second semester
students of English department STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic
year of 2011/2012.
3. There is an interaction effect between teaching methods and students’
anxiety in teaching listening comprehension at the second semester
students of English department STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic
year of 2011/2012.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Place and Time of Research
This experimental research was carried out at STKIP-PGRI
Pontianak, which is located in Jl. Ilham, Pontianak. This Institution is
strategically located for the teaching and learning process since it is near the
main street. It also has large area and surrounded by the green field and trees.
To sustain and aid the learning activities, STKIP-PGRI Pontianak
has complete facilities that support the teaching and learning activities. The
facilitation consists of 12 classrooms completed with LCD and 4 language
laboratories. Each laboratory consists of 40 computers for the students and 1
computer for the teacher. The laboratories are also provided with the listening
devices such as headsets for each student and for the teacher, sound systems,
and tape recorder. Our English laboratories also have Davitech program to
support the teaching and learning process especially for teaching and learning
listening.
There are 12 classes in STKIP-PGRI Pontianak. Each semester
consists of four classes which are A and B class for morning class and
afternoon class. There are about 30 students for each class. Most of the
students are from outside the Pontianak region. Consequently, most of them
still lack of experience in listening task and with English laboratory devices.
Many of them still have difficulties in learning process and feel anxious
whether they can understand the recording or not.
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In this case, this experimental research conducted in thirteen
months from June 2011 up to July 2012. The schedule of this research is as
follows:
d. Preparing research proposal : June 2011
e. Seminar on Research Proposal : December 2011
f. Conducting Research : March-April 2012
g. Writing Research Report : May 2012 - July 2012
B. Research Design
The design of this research is Simple Factorial Design (Sugiyono,
2008: 77-79). It is a kind of Nonequivalent Control Group Design. It is
similar with Posttest Only Control Design. It is aimed at studying the
independent variable, Task-Based Instruction technique and observes the
effect on dependent variable, Listening comprehension. In this research, there
were two groups-experimental group and control group. Every group was
given a questionnaire to classify them into two categories-the students with
low English learning anxiety and the ones with high English learning anxiety.
In the teaching and learning process, the topics of the listening task which
was taught to both groups are the same. In the experimental group, the
students were taught by using Task-Based Instruction method, while in the
control group, the students were taught by using Direct instruction method.
After the treatment, both groups were given a posttest to measure the
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improvement of the learners’ listening skill. The scores of the posttest was the
data to analyze.
C. Population, Sample, and Sampling
1. Population
The population of this research was taken from the students of
the second semester of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in 2011/2012 academic
year. The students have already studied listening comprehension for one
semester. There are four classes and each class consists of 30 students.
2. Sample
The accessible sample of this study was the students of class A
Morning and B Morning of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak. In this research, the
total number of sample was 60 students. They were grouped into two
classes. One was the experimental class and the other was control class.
The experimental class was class A morning which consists of 30
students while the control class was class B morning which also consists
of 30 students. Every group classified based on the result of
questionnaire into the students with low learning anxiety and the ones
with high learning anxiety.
3. Sampling
This research used a cluster random sampling to choose the
sample of the research. Cluster random sampling should be used only
when it is economically justified–when reduced costs can be used to
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overcome losses in precision. This is most likely to occur in the
following situations:
a. Constructing a complete list of population elements is difficult,
costly, or impossible. For example, it may not be possible to list all
of the students of a class of the institution. However, it would be
possible to randomly select a subject of classes and then interview a
random sample of students who are in the class.
b. The population is concentrated in “natural” clusters (city blocks,
schools, class, hospitals, etc.) for example, to conduct personal
interviews of classes; it might make sense to randomly select a
sample of schools and then interview all of the classes that
institution. Using cluster sampling, the interviewer could conduct
many interviews in a single day at a single institution. Simple
random sampling, in contrast, might require the interviewer to spend
all day traveling to conduct a single interview at a single institution.
After the sample of two classes obtained by using cluster
random sampling, then the two classes were divided into two groups
randomly. The two groups were experimental group and control group.
After that the questionaire distributed to the students and the data
analyzed to know who have high learning anxiety and who have low
learning anxiety.
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D. Technique of Collecting Data
The data needed in this research were the scores of students learning
anxiety and the scores of the students listening, so the instruments used in this
research were questionnaire and a set of listening test items. The
questionnaire was used to get scores (data) related to the students’ anxiety in
studying English. Based on the data obtained, the students from both
experimental and control group were classified into students with low English
learning anxiety and the ones with high English learning anxiety. The second
instrument was a set of listening task. It was used to collect data related to the
students’ achievement after the treatment was given to both groups.
Before the instrument was used in the real test, there was a try-out of
the instrument. The aim of conducting the try-out test was to get information
dealing with the characteristics of the test. A good test must guarantee the
validity and reliability of the result because these aspects influence the
accuracy and dependability of the instrument. Ary (1976: 60) says that
reliability and validity are the most important characteristics of measuring
instruments. Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures
whatever it measures.
The score from the try out was analyzed in term of their validity and
reliability. In this research, the kinds of validity and reliability being analyzed
were internal validity and internal reliability. The analysis of validity and
reliability was as follows:
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1. Validity of listening test items
Listening Test Items:
r =
Where
1) =
2) =
3) = -
To know whether the instrument is valid or not ri is compared
with rt. When ri is higher than rt then the item is valid.
2. Validity Analysis of Questionnaire Items:
Where
1) Ʃ = Ʃ
2) Ʃ = Ʃ
3) Ʃ = Ʃ
To know whether the instrument is valid or not ri is compared
with rt. When ri is higher than rt then the item is valid
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3. Reliability of listening test items:
=
where
1) k = The number of valid items
2) =
To know whether the instrument is reliable or not is
compared with . When is higher than rt then the
instrument is reliable.
4. Reliability of questionnaire
rkk =
where
1) k = the number of valid items
2)
3)
To know whether the instrument is reliable or not is compared
with . When is higher than rt then the instrument is reliable.
E. Data Analysis
The data of listening test were arranged and then classified into some
categories to make the frequency distribution table, histogram, and polygons.
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After knowing the histogram and polygon, the data were analyzed the mean,
median and, the standard deviation then it was continued to analyze the
normality and homogeneity of the data as follows:
1. Normality of the sample distribution:
a. s =
b.z1=
c. F(z1)=0.5-(TableE)
d.s(z1) =
e. Lo = F(z1)-s(z1)
2. Data Homogeneity
a. s12=
b.s22=
c. s32=
d.s42=
e. s2={Ʃ(ni-1)si2/Ʃ (ni-1)}
f. logs2 = …
g.B =( logs2)Ʃ(ni-1)
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h.x2 = (In10){B – Ʃ (ni-1)logsi2}
F. Hypothesis Testing
This research was used Factorial ANOVA. The used type of the
factorial ANOVA is the 2x2 design. The tables are shown as follows:
Table 3.1 Research Design
Method
Anxiety
Task-based Instruction
(A1)
Direct Instruction
(A2)
High Anxiety (B1) First group of students
(A1B1)
Second group of the
students (A2B1)
Low Anxiety (B2) Third group of the
students (A1B2)
Fourth group of the
Students (A2B2)
(A1) (A2)
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Table 3.2 Design for ANOVA
1st effect
2nd effect
Task-based
Instruction
(A1)
Direct
Instruction
(A2)
Total
High Anxiety
group 1 group 2
Low Anxiety
group 3 Group 4
r2
Total
Then the steps used to calculate 2 x 2 ANOVA are as follows:
The formulas of ANOVA test are as follows:
1. The total sum of the square
2. The sum of squares between groups
= + + + -
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3. The sum of squares within groups
4. The between-columns sum of squares
= + -
5. The between-rows sum of squares
= –
6. The sum of squares interaction
= -
7. The number of degrees of freedom associated with each source of
variation
df for between-columns sum of squares = C-1
df for between-rows sum of squares = R-1
df for interaction = (C-1)(R-1)
df for between-groups sum of squares = G-1
df for within-groups sum of squares =
df for total sum of squares = N-1
where
C = the number of columns
R = the number of rows
G = the number of groups
n = the number of subjects in one group
N = the number of subjects in all groups
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Tukey Test
1. Task-Based Instruction method compared with Direct Instruction
Method
2. Students with Low learning anxiety compared with students with High
learning anxiety
3. Task-Based Instruction method compared with Direct Instruction
Method for the students having high anxiety
4. Task-Based Instruction method compared with Direct Instruction
Method for the students having low anxiety
or
q =
the analysis of the result of the computation is (1) is compared with
, if ˃ , the difference is significant; and (2) to know which one is
better, the means are compared.
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G. Statistical Hypothesis
In this study the writer proposed three hypothesis. These hypothesis
were based on the formulation of the problems presented in the previous
chapter and was illustrated through null hypothesis.
1. The difference between Task-Based Instruction ( ) and Direct Instruction
( ) in teaching listening to the second semester students of STKIP-PGRI
Pontianak in the academic year of 2011/2012.
a. Ho : µ A1 = µ A2
b. Ha : µ A1 > µ A2
2. The difference between the students who have high learning anxiety (
and those who have low learning anxiety .
a. Ho : µ B1 = µ B2
b. Ha : µ B1 > µ B2
3. Interaction between teaching methods used (Task-Based Instruction and
Direct Instruction) (A) and learning anxiety (B) in teaching listening to the
second semester students of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic year
of 2011/2012.
a. Ho : A X B = 0
b. Ha : A X B > 0
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CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A. Research Findings
1. Data Description
The students’ scores are divided into eight categories: (1) The scores of
the students who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1); (2) the
scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction (A2); (3) the
scores of the students who have high listening anxiety (B1); (4) the scores of
the students who have low listening anxiety (B2); (5) the scores of the students
having high listening anxiety who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction
(A1B1); (6) the scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are
taught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B2); (7) the scores of the students
having high listening anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction
(A2B1); and (8) the scores of the students having low listening anxiety who
are taught by using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
The scores of students’ listening test can be described as follows:
a. The scores of the students who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction
(A1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score who are taught by using
Task-Based Instruction, the highest score achieved by the students is 84
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and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up
to 84. The mean is 47.5, the mode is 73.055, the median is 60, and the
standard deviation is 16.7332. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.1. The scores of the students who are taught by using Task-Based
Instruction (A1).
class limitclass
boundariesmid point frequency Percentage
28-3738-4748-5758-6768-7778-87
27.5-37.537.5-47.547.5-57.557.5-67.567.5-77.577.5-87.5
32.542.552.562.572.582.5
456384
13,3316,6720,0010,0026,6713,33
30 100
Figure 4.1. Histogram and Polygon of Scores of A1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
27.5 37.5 47.5 57.5 67.5 77.5 87.5
98
and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up
to 84. The mean is 47.5, the mode is 73.055, the median is 60, and the
standard deviation is 16.7332. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.1. The scores of the students who are taught by using Task-Based
Instruction (A1).
class limitclass
boundariesmid point frequency Percentage
28-3738-4748-5758-6768-7778-87
27.5-37.537.5-47.547.5-57.557.5-67.567.5-77.577.5-87.5
32.542.552.562.572.582.5
456384
13,3316,6720,0010,0026,6713,33
30 100
Figure 4.1. Histogram and Polygon of Scores of A1
27.5 37.5 47.5 57.5 67.5 77.5 87.5
98
and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up
to 84. The mean is 47.5, the mode is 73.055, the median is 60, and the
standard deviation is 16.7332. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.1. The scores of the students who are taught by using Task-Based
Instruction (A1).
class limitclass
boundariesmid point frequency Percentage
28-3738-4748-5758-6768-7778-87
27.5-37.537.5-47.547.5-57.557.5-67.567.5-77.577.5-87.5
32.542.552.562.572.582.5
456384
13,3316,6720,0010,0026,6713,33
30 100
Figure 4.1. Histogram and Polygon of Scores of A1
27.5 37.5 47.5 57.5 67.5 77.5 87.5
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b. The scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction (A2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score who are taught by using
Direct Instruction, the highest score achieved by the students is 72 and the
lowest one is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up to 72.
The mean is 49.1, the mode is 41, the median is 47.5, and the standard
deviation is 11.95855 (see appendix 11)
Table 4.2. The scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction
(A2).
class limit class boundaries mid point frequency percentage
28-3536-4344-5152-5960-6768-75
27.5-35.535.5-43.543.5-51.551.5-59.559.5-67.567.5-75.5
31.539.547.555.563.571.5
396633
103020201010
30 100
Figure 4.2. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2
0
2
4
6
8
10
27.5 35.5 43.5 51.5 59.5 67.5 75.5
99
b. The scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction (A2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score who are taught by using
Direct Instruction, the highest score achieved by the students is 72 and the
lowest one is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up to 72.
The mean is 49.1, the mode is 41, the median is 47.5, and the standard
deviation is 11.95855 (see appendix 11)
Table 4.2. The scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction
(A2).
class limit class boundaries mid point frequency percentage
28-3536-4344-5152-5960-6768-75
27.5-35.535.5-43.543.5-51.551.5-59.559.5-67.567.5-75.5
31.539.547.555.563.571.5
396633
103020201010
30 100
Figure 4.2. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2
27.5 35.5 43.5 51.5 59.5 67.5 75.5
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b. The scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction (A2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score who are taught by using
Direct Instruction, the highest score achieved by the students is 72 and the
lowest one is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up to 72.
The mean is 49.1, the mode is 41, the median is 47.5, and the standard
deviation is 11.95855 (see appendix 11)
Table 4.2. The scores of the students who are taught by using Direct Instruction
(A2).
class limit class boundaries mid point frequency percentage
28-3536-4344-5152-5960-6768-75
27.5-35.535.5-43.543.5-51.551.5-59.559.5-67.567.5-75.5
31.539.547.555.563.571.5
396633
103020201010
30 100
Figure 4.2. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2
27.5 35.5 43.5 51.5 59.5 67.5 75.5
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c. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety (B1)
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety, the highest score achieved by the students is 56 and the lowest one
is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up to 56. The mean is
46.6333 the mode is 38.26, the median is 45, and the standard deviation is
10.6689. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.3. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety (B1).
class limit class boundaries mid point frequency Percentage28-3435-4142-4849-55
56-6263-69
27.5-34.534.5-41.541.5-48.548.5-55.5
55.5-62.562.5-69.5
31384552
5966
3104562
1033.3333313.3333316.66667
206.666667
330 100
Figure 4.3. Histogram and Polygon of Scores B1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5 55.5 62.5 69.5
100
c. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety (B1)
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety, the highest score achieved by the students is 56 and the lowest one
is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up to 56. The mean is
46.6333 the mode is 38.26, the median is 45, and the standard deviation is
10.6689. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.3. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety (B1).
class limit class boundaries mid point frequency Percentage28-3435-4142-4849-55
56-6263-69
27.5-34.534.5-41.541.5-48.548.5-55.5
55.5-62.562.5-69.5
31384552
5966
3104562
1033.3333313.3333316.66667
206.666667
330 100
Figure 4.3. Histogram and Polygon of Scores B1
27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5 55.5 62.5 69.5
100
c. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety (B1)
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety, the highest score achieved by the students is 56 and the lowest one
is 28. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 28 up to 56. The mean is
46.6333 the mode is 38.26, the median is 45, and the standard deviation is
10.6689. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.3. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety (B1).
class limit class boundaries mid point frequency Percentage28-3435-4142-4849-55
56-6263-69
27.5-34.534.5-41.541.5-48.548.5-55.5
55.5-62.562.5-69.5
31384552
5966
3104562
1033.3333313.3333316.66667
206.666667
330 100
Figure 4.3. Histogram and Polygon of Scores B1
27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5 55.5 62.5 69.5
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d. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety (B2)
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety, the highest score achieved by the students is 84 and the lowest one
is 32. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 48 up to 84. The mean is
81, the mode is 72, the median is 63, and the standard deviation is 16.6680.
(see appendix 11)
Table 4.4. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety (B2).
class limit class boundaries mid point Frequency percentage
32-4041-4950-5859-6768-7677-85
30.5-40.540.5-49.5
49.5-58.558.5-67.567.5-76.576.5-85.5
3645
54637281
742494
23.3333313.33333
6.66666713.33333
3013.33333
30 100
Figure 4.4. Histogram and Polygon of Scores (B2).
0123456789
10
30.5 40.5 49.5 58.5 67.5 76.5 85.5
101
d. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety (B2)
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety, the highest score achieved by the students is 84 and the lowest one
is 32. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 48 up to 84. The mean is
81, the mode is 72, the median is 63, and the standard deviation is 16.6680.
(see appendix 11)
Table 4.4. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety (B2).
class limit class boundaries mid point Frequency percentage
32-4041-4950-5859-6768-7677-85
30.5-40.540.5-49.5
49.5-58.558.5-67.567.5-76.576.5-85.5
3645
54637281
742494
23.3333313.33333
6.66666713.33333
3013.33333
30 100
Figure 4.4. Histogram and Polygon of Scores (B2).
30.5 40.5 49.5 58.5 67.5 76.5 85.5
101
d. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety (B2)
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety, the highest score achieved by the students is 84 and the lowest one
is 32. It can be seen that the range of the scores is 48 up to 84. The mean is
81, the mode is 72, the median is 63, and the standard deviation is 16.6680.
(see appendix 11)
Table 4.4. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety (B2).
class limit class boundaries mid point Frequency percentage
32-4041-4950-5859-6768-7677-85
30.5-40.540.5-49.5
49.5-58.558.5-67.567.5-76.576.5-85.5
3645
54637281
742494
23.3333313.33333
6.66666713.33333
3013.33333
30 100
Figure 4.4. Histogram and Polygon of Scores (B2).
30.5 40.5 49.5 58.5 67.5 76.5 85.5
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e. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who are taught by
using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 60 and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 28 up to 60. The mean is 44.0667, the mode is
38.3, the median is 41, and the standard deviation is 8.72. (see appendix
11)
Table 4.5. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who weretaught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1).
class limitclass
boundariesmid point Frequency percentage
28-3435-4142-4849-5556-62
27.5-34.534.5-41.541.5-48.548.5-55.555.5-62.5
3138455259
17232
6.66666746.6666713.33333
2013.33333
30 100
Figure 4.5. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A1B1
0
2
4
6
8
27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5 55.5 62.5
102
e. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who are taught by
using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 60 and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 28 up to 60. The mean is 44.0667, the mode is
38.3, the median is 41, and the standard deviation is 8.72. (see appendix
11)
Table 4.5. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who weretaught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1).
class limitclass
boundariesmid point Frequency percentage
28-3435-4142-4849-5556-62
27.5-34.534.5-41.541.5-48.548.5-55.555.5-62.5
3138455259
17232
6.66666746.6666713.33333
2013.33333
30 100
Figure 4.5. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A1B1
27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5 55.5 62.5
102
e. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who are taught by
using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 60 and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 28 up to 60. The mean is 44.0667, the mode is
38.3, the median is 41, and the standard deviation is 8.72. (see appendix
11)
Table 4.5. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who weretaught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B1).
class limitclass
boundariesmid point Frequency percentage
28-3435-4142-4849-5556-62
27.5-34.534.5-41.541.5-48.548.5-55.555.5-62.5
3138455259
17232
6.66666746.6666713.33333
2013.33333
30 100
Figure 4.5. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A1B1
27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5 55.5 62.5
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f. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction method (A1B2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 84 and the lowest one is 52. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 52 up to 84. The mean is 71.8, the mode is 69, the
median is 70.75, and the standard deviation is 8.69483. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.6. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who were
taught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B2).
class limit class boundaries Midpoint frequency percentage52-5859-6566-7273-7980-86
51.5-58.558.5-65.565.5-72.572.5-79.579.5-86.5
5562697683
12624
6.66666713.33333
4013.3333326.66667
15 100
Figure 4.6. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A1 B2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
51.5 58.5 65.5 72.5 79.5 86.5
103
f. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction method (A1B2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 84 and the lowest one is 52. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 52 up to 84. The mean is 71.8, the mode is 69, the
median is 70.75, and the standard deviation is 8.69483. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.6. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who were
taught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B2).
class limit class boundaries Midpoint frequency percentage52-5859-6566-7273-7980-86
51.5-58.558.5-65.565.5-72.572.5-79.579.5-86.5
5562697683
12624
6.66666713.33333
4013.3333326.66667
15 100
Figure 4.6. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A1 B2
51.5 58.5 65.5 72.5 79.5 86.5
103
f. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction method (A1B2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 84 and the lowest one is 52. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 52 up to 84. The mean is 71.8, the mode is 69, the
median is 70.75, and the standard deviation is 8.69483. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.6. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who were
taught by using Task-Based Instruction (A1B2).
class limit class boundaries Midpoint frequency percentage52-5859-6566-7273-7980-86
51.5-58.558.5-65.565.5-72.572.5-79.579.5-86.5
5562697683
12624
6.66666713.33333
4013.3333326.66667
15 100
Figure 4.6. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A1 B2
51.5 58.5 65.5 72.5 79.5 86.5
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104
g. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 68 and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 28 up to 68. The mean is 49.6333, the mode is
60.3, the median is 56.3, and the standard deviation is 11.0961. (see
appendix 11)
Table 4.7. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who were
taught by using Direct Instruction (A2B1).
class limitClass
boundariesmidpoint frequency percentage
28-3536-4344-5152-5960-68
27.5-35.535.5-43.543.5-51.551.5-59.559.5-68.5
31.539.547.555.563.5
23253
13,3333320
13,3333333,33333
20
15 100
Figure 4.7. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2B1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
27.5 35.5 43.5 51.5 59.5 68.5
104
g. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 68 and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 28 up to 68. The mean is 49.6333, the mode is
60.3, the median is 56.3, and the standard deviation is 11.0961. (see
appendix 11)
Table 4.7. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who were
taught by using Direct Instruction (A2B1).
class limitClass
boundariesmidpoint frequency percentage
28-3536-4344-5152-5960-68
27.5-35.535.5-43.543.5-51.551.5-59.559.5-68.5
31.539.547.555.563.5
23253
13,3333320
13,3333333,33333
20
15 100
Figure 4.7. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2B1
27.5 35.5 43.5 51.5 59.5 68.5
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g. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B1).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having high listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 68 and the lowest one is 28. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 28 up to 68. The mean is 49.6333, the mode is
60.3, the median is 56.3, and the standard deviation is 11.0961. (see
appendix 11)
Table 4.7. The scores of the students having high listening anxiety who were
taught by using Direct Instruction (A2B1).
class limitClass
boundariesmidpoint frequency percentage
28-3536-4344-5152-5960-68
27.5-35.535.5-43.543.5-51.551.5-59.559.5-68.5
31.539.547.555.563.5
23253
13,3333320
13,3333333,33333
20
15 100
Figure 4.7. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2B1
27.5 35.5 43.5 51.5 59.5 68.5
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h. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 72 and the lowest one is 32. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 32 up to 72. The mean is 48.8, the mode is 37.9,
the median is 52.5, and the standard deviation is 11.2. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.8. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
class limitClass
boundaries midpoint frequency percentage
32-3940-4748-5556-6364-72
31.5-39.539.5-47.547.5-55.555.5-63.563.5-72.5
35.543.551.559.567.5
43422
26.666720
26.666713.333313.3333
15 100
Figure 4.8. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2B2
0
1
2
3
4
5
31.5 39.5 47.5 55.5 63.5 72.5
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h. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 72 and the lowest one is 32. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 32 up to 72. The mean is 48.8, the mode is 37.9,
the median is 52.5, and the standard deviation is 11.2. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.8. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
class limitClass
boundaries midpoint frequency percentage
32-3940-4748-5556-6364-72
31.5-39.539.5-47.547.5-55.555.5-63.563.5-72.5
35.543.551.559.567.5
43422
26.666720
26.666713.333313.3333
15 100
Figure 4.8. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2B2
31.5 39.5 47.5 55.5 63.5 72.5
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h. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety who are taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
Based on the computation of the students’ score having low listening
anxiety who are taught by using Direct Instruction, the highest score
achieved by the students is 72 and the lowest one is 32. It can be seen that
the range of the scores is 32 up to 72. The mean is 48.8, the mode is 37.9,
the median is 52.5, and the standard deviation is 11.2. (see appendix 11)
Table 4.8. The scores of the students having low listening anxiety taught by
using Direct Instruction (A2B2).
class limitClass
boundaries midpoint frequency percentage
32-3940-4748-5556-6364-72
31.5-39.539.5-47.547.5-55.555.5-63.563.5-72.5
35.543.551.559.567.5
43422
26.666720
26.666713.333313.3333
15 100
Figure 4.8. Histogram and Polygon of Scores A2B2
31.5 39.5 47.5 55.5 63.5 72.5
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2. Prerequisite Analysis
1. Normality
Before analyzing the data for testing the hypotheses, the researcher
analyzed the normality and homogeneity of the data. The following is the
summary of normality. (see appendix 12)
Table 4.9. The summary of normality of the sample distribution.
DataNumber of
Sample Lo Lt α Distributionof Sample
A1 30 0.126 0.161 0.05 Normal
A2 30 0.158 0.161 0.05 Normal
B1 30 0.135 0.161 0.05 Normal
B2 30 0.124 0.161 0.05 Normal
A1B1 15 0.203 0.220 0.05 Normal
A1B2 15 0.092 0.220 0.05 Normal
A2B1 15 0.121 0.220 0.05 Normal
A2B2 15 0.197 0.220 0.05 Normal
2. Homogeneity
After analyzing the normality of the sample distribution, the researcher
analyzed the homogeneity of the data. Homogeneity test was conducted to
know whether the data were homogeneous. The following is the analysis of
the data homogeneity. (see appendix 13)
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Table 4.10. Data Homogeneity.
NO X1 X12 X2 X2
2 X3 X32 X4 X4
2
1 28 784 52 2704 28 784 32 10242 36 1296 64 4096 32 1024 36 12963 36 1296 64 4096 40 1600 36 12964 36 1296 68 4624 40 1600 36 12965 40 1600 68 4624 40 1600 40 16006 40 1600 68 4624 48 2304 40 16007 40 1600 72 5184 48 2304 40 16008 40 1600 72 5184 52 2704 48 23049 44 1936 72 5184 52 2704 48 230410 48 2304 76 5776 56 3136 48 230411 52 2704 76 5776 56 3136 48 230412 52 2704 80 6400 56 3136 56 313613 52 2704 80 6400 60 3600 60 360014 56 3136 80 6400 68 4624 64 409615 60 3600 84 7056 68 4624 72 5184Σ 660 30160 1076 78128 744 38880 704 34944
435600 1157776 553536 495616
= ( 10) − ( − 1)= (2.3026)(113.4477– 112.2065) = 2.858012
Based on the data above, it can be seen that = 2.858012. Because
(2.858012) is lower than ( )( ) (7.81), it can be concluded that the data
are homogeneous.
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3. Hypothesis Testing
a. ANNOVA Test (Multifactor Analysis of Variance)
The computation of hypotheses test which is conducted by ANNOVA
Test can be seen in the following table.
Table 4.11. The Summary of ANOVA
Sourceof
Variance
SS df MS F F (. ) F (. )Betweencolumns(methods)
Between rows(Anxiety)
Columns byrows(interaction)
1382.4
2356,267
3465.6
1
1
1
1382.4
2356,267
3465.6
13.02512
22.20101
32.7
4.08 7.31
Between groups
Within groups
7204.267
5943.467
3
56
2401.422
106.1333
From the summary of a 2 x 2 Multifactor Analysis of Variance, it can be
concluded that:
1) F0 between columns (13.02512) is higher than Ft(0.5) (4.08) and Ft(0.1)
(7.31), so the difference between columns is significant. Therefore, Ho
which states that there is no difference between Task-Based Instruction
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and Direct Instruction to teach listening is rejected. It means that teaching
listening using Task-Based Instruction to the second semester students of
STKIP-PGRI Pontianak is significantly different from the one using
Direct Instruction. Based on the computation result, the mean score of the
students who are taught using Task-Based Instruction (57.86667) is higher
than that of those who were taught using Direct Instruction (48.26667).
Thus, it can be concluded that Task-Based Instruction is more effective
than Direct Instruction to teach listening.
2) F0 between rows (22.2010) is higher than Ft(0.5) (4.08) and Ft(0.1) (7.31), so
the difference between columns is significant. Therefore, Ho which states
that there is no difference between students having low learning anxiety
and students having high learning anxiety is rejected. It means that the
students having low listening anxiety are significantly different from those
having high anxiety. Based on the computation result, the mean score of
the students who have high listening anxiety (48.6667) is higher than that
of the students who have low listening anxiety (57.46667). Thus, it can be
concluded that the students having low listening anxiety have better
listening skill than the students having high listening anxiety.
3) F0 interaction (32.7) is higher than Ft(0.5) (4.08) and Ft(0.1) (7.31), there is
interaction between the two variables, and therefore Ho which states that
there is no interaction between teaching methods and learning anxiety in
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teaching listening is rejected. It means that the effect of teaching methods
on the students’ listening comprehension depends on the students’ anxiety.
b. Tukey’s Test
The formula of Tukey’s Test is as follows:
1. Comparing two means from two groups (A1 and A2)
Task-Based Instruction is compared to Direct Instruction (between
columns)
q = /=
. – .. /=
. .= 7.22
Because q0 between columns (7.22) is higher than q ( ) (2.83), the
difference between columns is significant. It means that teaching listening
using Task-Based Instruction to the second semester students of STKIP-
PGRI Pontianak is significantly different from the one using Direct
Instruction. Based on the computation result, the mean score of the students
who are taught using Task-Based Instruction (57.86667) is higher than that
of those who are taught using Direct Instruction (48.2667). Thus, it can be
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concluded that Task-Based Instruction is more effective than Direct
Instruction to teach listening.
2. Comparing two means from two groups (B1 and B2)
Students having low anxiety are compared to students having high anxiety
(between rows)
q = /=
. .. /=
..= 6.62
Because q0 between rows (6.62) is higher than q ( ) (2.83), the difference
of listening comprehension between the students having low listening
anxiety and those having high listening anxiety is significant. Based on the
computation result, the mean score of the students who have low listening
anxiety (57.46667) is higher than that of the students who have high
listening anxiety (48.66667). Thus, it can be concluded that the students
having low listening anxiety have better listening skill than the students
having high listening anxiety.
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3. Comparing two means between A2B1 and A2B1
Direct Instruction is compared to Task-Based Instruction to teach listening
to the students having high listening anxiety
q = /=
. . /=
..= 2.98
Because q0 between columns (2.98) is higher than q ( ) (2.89), it can be
concluded that there is a significant difference on the students’ listening
comprehension between those who have high listening anxiety who are
taught using Direct Instruction and those who are taught using Task-Based
Instruction. Based on the computation result, the mean score of students
having high listening anxiety who are taught using Task-Based Instruction
(44) is higher than the mean score of students having high listening anxiety
who are taught using Direct Instruction (49.6). Thus, it can be concluded
that Direct Instruction is more effective than Task-Based Instruction to
teach listening to the students who have high listening anxiety.
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4. Comparing two means between A1B2 and A2B2
Task-Based Instruction is compared with Direct Instruction to teach
listening to the students having low listening anxiety
q = /=
. .. /=
..= 13.2
Because q0 between columns (13.2) is higher than q ( ) (2.89), it can be
concluded that there is a significant difference on the students’ listening
comprehension between those who have low listening anxiety who are
taught using Task-Based Instruction and those who have low listening
anxiety who are taught using Direct Instruction. Based on the computation
result, the mean score of students having low listening anxiety who are
taught using Task-Based Instruction (71.7333) is higher than the mean
score of students having low listening anxiety who are taught using Direct
Instruction (46.93333). Thus, it can be concluded that Task-Based
Instruction is more effective than Direct Instruction to teach students who
have low listening anxiety.
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Based on the result of number 3 and 4, Task-Based Instruction is more
effective than Direct Instruction to teach listening to the students who have low
listening anxiety and Direct Instruction is more effective than Task-Based
Instruction to teach listening to the students who have high listening anxiety, so it
can be concluded that there is an interaction between teaching methods and
students’ listening anxiety to teach listening.
B. The Discussion of Findings
Based on the computation result of research finding, it can be discussed as
follows:
1. Task-Based Instruction is more effective than Direct Instruction method in
teaching listening.
Task-Based Instruction is a method of learning which provides a
context that activates learning processes which are related to the real life
situation. Task-Based Instruction provides activities for the students to be
more active engaging in the teaching and learning process. In Task-Based
Instruction activities the students also become more confident to give
spontaneous interaction so they can achieve the communicative goal. Ellis
(2003: 16) states a task is intended to result in language use that bears a
resemblance direct or indirect to the way language is used in the real world.
Like other language activities, a task can engage productive or receptive, and
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oral or written skills and also various cognitive processes. Moreover, the use of
Task Based Instruction can also create variety of learning activities, such as
labeling a diagram, form filling, matching, and selecting. These learning
activities can make the students more active in teaching and learning process.
Otherwise, Direct Instruction is used to describe a lesson where the
teacher has control in teaching and learning activity. In Direct Instruction
lesson, the teacher usually spends some time lecturing, and then the teacher
guides the students through a complex problem. Since the activity is teacher-
centered the teacher cannot assess the students’ prior knowledge. Moreover, at
the end of the lesson the teacher will give the students some sort of assignment
to measure how the students achieved the goal of the lesson that the students
have learned that day. Carmine (2000: 5-6) states that Direct Instruction is
skills-oriented, and the teaching practices implies teacher-directed. It
emphasizes the use of small group discussion, face-to-face instruction by the
teachers and carefully articulated lessons in which cognitive skills are broken
down into small units, sequenced deliberately, and taught explicitly.
Based on the explanation above, the difference between Task-Based
Instruction and Direct Instruction can be seen from the learning activities and
the process of the students’ to be active learners. In Task-Based Instruction the
teacher is a facilitator while in Direct Instruction the teacher has the main role
to give stimulus to the students in order to make the students more active in the
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teaching and learning process. So, it can be concluded that Task-Based
Instruction is more effective than Direct Instruction method to teach listening
skill.
2. Students having low anxiety have better achievement than the students having
high anxiety.
In teaching and learning process, students’ listening anxiety is very
important because students’ listening anxiety influences their achievement in
learning. The students become blank before exam, freezing, and feeling
reticence about entering the classroom. They have difficulty concentrating,
become forgetful, sweat, and have palpitation. Horwitz, et al. (1986: 128)
define language classroom anxiety as a distinct complex of self-perceptions,
beliefs, feelings, and behavior related to classroom language learning arising
from uniqueness of the language learning process. That is, the more anxious
student tends to avoid attempting difficult or personal messages in the target
language. The students having high learning anxiety always have
apprehension, worry, and even dread. They have difficulty concentrating,
become forgetful, sweat, and have palpitation.
On the contrary, students who have low anxiety seem to have better
achievement in listening skill. The differences could be seen from the students’
performance and grades. The students who have low anxiety tend to be more
active in the discussion by giving their ideas or thoughts freely. They have less
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hesitation in answering the teachers’ questions and have high self-confidence
in doing the tasks. Ganschow, et al. (1994: 49) in a study about relationship
between foreign language classroom anxiety and the original aspect of native
oral and written language, state that low-anxiety learners were seen to have
both better native language competence and foreign language aptitude.
Moreover, Nagle and Sanders (1986: 100) state that when listeners have more
successful experiences of comprehensible input, they will become more
confident in themselves, in their listening ability, and hold less negative
feelings toward listening. Regarding a low anxiety environment, Oxford (1993:
100) states that the climate of listening classroom should be non-threatening.
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that the students who
have low anxiety have better listening skill than the students who have high
level of anxiety.
3. There is interaction between teaching methods and listening anxiety to teach
listening.
Task Based Instruction activities, such as labeling a diagram of a
family member, form filling of certain information, matching a picture with the
information, selecting appropriate information related to the topic given, etc,
are teaching activities to take into consideration. Task-Based Instruction
contains a real example of language use in the daily life. When Task Based
Instruction activities are applied in teaching and learning process in the
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classroom, the students will be more interested and active in the learning
process, because they feel what they study in the classroom is common thing
that they usually have in their daily activities. In addition, Task-Based
Instruction can employ tasks that are communication-oriented, create a
balanced proportion of use between communication and form-oriented tasks,
employ various interesting tasks which are relevant to the learners’
characteristics. Task-Based Instruction could keep learning activities
interesting, and thus sustain motivation when the task have the right level of
difficulty, every task can give an experience of success to every learner.
Cameron (2001: 12) states that as the tasks are communicative-oriented, the
learners are not too burdened with language accuracy which often discourages
them.
In conclusion, Task-Based Instruction contains real-life situation and
daily life examples. In Task-Based activities the students become more
interested and active in the discussion, and it is communicative-oriented. That
is why the students become highly motivated and have high self-confidence in
engaging the teaching and learning process. The students having low learning
anxiety who are taught by using Task-Based Instruction will have higher
achievement in their listening skill. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 352- 354)
state that there are seven latent variables which have correlation and causal
paths which influence on how well students learn English which measured
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language anxiety, language aptitude, attitudes and motivation, and self-
confidence. Language Attitudes is seen to cause motivation. Motivation causes
both self-confidence and language learning strategies, and motivation,
language aptitude and language learning strategies cause language
achievement. From that explanation there were not only motivation and
achievement appearing to cause self-confidence, but self-confidence in its turn
appears to be associated with low levels of language anxiety.
Task-Based Instruction is an effective method to encourage the
students’ activeness during the discussion in teaching listening. Kohonen
(1992:12) states that Task-Based Instruction encourage the students to have
self-directed rather than teacher-directed learning. Task-Based Instruction also
emphasizes process rather than product, learning how to learn, self-inquiry,
social and communication skills. The learning process initiates and encourages
the students to bring in their personal contributions and experiences. In
conclusion, Task-Based instruction is more effective to teach listening skill for
the students who have low anxiety.
Direct Instruction method is a teacher-centered, the students have to
listen and pay attention to the teacher lecturing. This kind of activity makes the
students feel bored and lost their interest to the material. Then, the next step
the teacher will guide the students through a complex problem, so the students
must follow the steps which after that they have to carry out on their own. In
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this activity the students find out that they must fulfill the teacher’s instruction
and do the task based on the guidance given. Rosenshine and Stevans (1986)
state that Direct Instruction is teaching in small steps with student practice
after each step, guiding students during initial practice, and ensuring that all
students experienced a high level of successful practice. As the result, The
students lost their self-confidence because they were worried that their answers
are not suitable to the teacher’s expectation. They also tend to keep silent
during the discussion since the activity is teacher-centered, and they have no
freedom to share their ideas and thoughts. Based on those explanations their
anxiety becomes high and their achievement in listening skill is decreased.
According to Scarcella and Oxford (1992: 1710), listening anxiety occurs
when students feel they are faced with a task that is too difficult or unfamiliar
to them. This anxiety is exacerbated if the students are under the false
impression that they must understand every word they hear.
Based on the explanation above, Direct Instruction is provoking high
anxiety for the students in listening skill because of the activities which are
teacher-centered. The teacher is lecturing in most of the time and also
demanding successful in completing the task. As the result, the students are
worried whether they can achieve what the teacher asks them to do or not, they
also have small chance to communicate their ideas and thoughts to the teacher
or their friends during the discussion, and they have no freedom in completing
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the task since they have to follow the steps or the guidelines that their teacher
asks them to do.
In direct Instruction activity many students have no motivation to
study because all the teaching and learning processes are already programmed
by the teacher, they have small chance to do the speaking activities and they
have to understand most of the instruction that the teacher asks them to do.
Worde (2003: 3-4) describes that possible causes of language anxiety are non-
comprehension, speaking activities, pedagogical and instructional practices,
error correction and native speakers. Non-comprehension means that the
students feel nervous when they could not understand what the teachers said
through delivery that was too rapid or through English. Concerning speaking
activities, the students were worried about the opinions of peers and the
teacher, and about being asked to speak in class. Concerning pedagogical and
instructional practices, oral and listening tests are often stated as sources of
anxiety.
Direct Instruction is appropriate in teaching listening for the students
who have high learning anxiety. Direct Instruction works only in a small
percentage of students, not for a great variety. Direct Instruction is often
contrasted with tutorials, participatory laboratory classes, discussion,
observation, case study, and active learning (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Direct_Instruction). Brown, et al. (2001: 11) state that in Direct
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Instruction, the teacher becomes decision maker. Teacher will engage in many
planning decisions, such as deciding materials that the teacher would like to
teach, how the teacher wants the students do the task, and to decide the result
that the students must achieve in listening tasks. That is why Direct Instruction
is more effective to teach the students who have high learning anxiety in
listening skill. It can be concluded that there is interaction between teaching
methods and students learning anxiety.
C. The Weakness of the Research
It is a certain thing that in every research there is a weakness. There are
some weaknesses in conducting this research; first, the second semester students
of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak have different knowledge background especially in
listening. The second, it is difficult to find appropriate materials which are
suitable to the level of all students’ knowledge. The third, the students are
allowed to play the recording by themselves during the discussion, so it’s
consuming most of the time to explain and to teach them how to use the devices
in the language laboratory rather than to do the discussion. The last, it took more
time to explain to the students about the procedure and to accustom the teaching
method to the students. Based on the problem, to build the communicative
learning is difficult.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
Based on a systematic and thorough discussion in Chapter IV, the
research findings are stated below:
1. Task-Based Instruction is more effective than Direct Instruction to teach
listening skill for the second semester students of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak
in the academic year 2011/2012.
2. Students having low listening anxiety have better listening achievement
than the students who have high listening anxiety in the second semester
students of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic year 2011/2012.
3. There is interaction between teaching methods and listening anxiety in
teaching listening for the second semester students of STKIP-PGRI
Pontianak in the academic year 2011/2012.
Based on the research findings, the conclusion is that Task-Based
Instruction is an effective teaching method to teach listening to the second
semester students of STKIP-PGRI Pontianak in the academic year 2011/2012.
It implies that in order to achieve the optimal result of teaching listening skill
by using Task-Based Instruction to the second semester students of STKIP-
PGRI Pontianak in the academic year 2011/2012, the teacher should apply this
method in ideal process. The steps should be appropriate with the tasks and the
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students’ ability in listening skills. The tasks must consist of creative activities
to encourage the students’ activeness during the lesson.
B. Implication
The result of the research implies that the use of Task-Based Instruction
can affect the students listening skill of the second semester students of
STKIP-PGRI Pontianak. It is better to apply Task-Based Instruction in
teaching learning process because the use of Task-Based Instruction can
encourage the students to participate actively in teaching and learning process.
If the use of Task-Based Instruction can decrease the students’ listening
anxiety, it will also improve students listening competence.
To achieve the optimum achievement in teaching listening
comprehension by using Task-Based Instruction the teacher should follow the
appropriate teaching steps. The first is the introduction of the tasks, it is
important for the teacher to make the students understand about what they are
going to discuss and to achieve the mission objectives. The teacher can
provide picture or talk about their personal experience about the topic, so it
will arise the students’ basic knowledge about the topic. The second steps is
asking the students to form pairs or groups in doing the task, it is necessary for
the students to have pair or friends to discuss in their first meeting, so they
will be more active to do the interaction amongst them. They also have to
prepare their report about the topic given. The last steps, together with the
teacher they discuss about the vocabulary or expression that they don’t
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understand. This step will make the students have courage to express the
difficulties they have during the discussion.
C. Suggestion
Based on the research findings, the writer proposes some suggestions as
follows:
1. For teachers
In order to improve the students listening competence, teachers can
apply Task-Based Instruction in their class. It is suggested that English
teachers must be creative and selective in choosing relevant tasks from
various sources when they want to apply Task-Based Instruction as a
teaching method in the class.
2. For students
It is suggested to students to keep practicing their listening. By doing
some creative tasks related to their daily activities in their listening
activity, they can improve their ability in listening. Besides, they have to
decrease their fear in making mistakes, because making mistakes is a part
of learning.
3. For future researcher
For future researchers who intend to conduct the same research, the
writer hopes that this research can be used as references and the result of
this research can give some benefits to future researcher or as starting
point in conducting the research with different problems.
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