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The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manual:
Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives
Editors
Mark SmithDoug WarmoltsDennis ThoneyRobert Hueter
Published byOhio Biological Survey, Inc.
Columbus, Ohio 43221-0370 2004
ii
Ohio Biological Survey
Special Publication
ISBN-13: 978-0-86727-152-3ISBN-10: 0-86727-152-3Library of Congress Number: 2004115835
Publication Director
Brian J. Armitage
Editorial Committee
Barbara K. Andreas, Ph. D., Cuyahoga Community College & Kent State UniversityBrian J. Armitage, Ph. D., Ohio Biological Survey
Benjamin A. Foote, Ph. D., Kent State University (Emeritus)Jane L. Forsyth, Ph. D., Bowling Green State University (Emeritus)
Eric H. Metzler, B.S., The Ohio LepidopteristsScott M. Moody, Ph. D., Ohio University
David H. Stansbery, Ph. D., The Ohio State University (Emeritus)Ronald L. Stuckey, Ph. D., The Ohio State University (Emeritus)
Elliot J. Tramer, Ph. D., The University of Toledo
Literature Citation
Smith, M., D. Warmolts, D. Thoney, and R. Hueter (editors). 2004. The Elasmobranch HusbandryManual: Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives. Special Publication of the Ohio BiologicalSurvey. xv + 589 p.
Cover and Title PageIllustration by Rolf Williams, The National Marine Aquarium, Rope Walk, Coxside, Plymouth, PL4 0LF UnitedKingdom
DistributorOhio Biological Survey, P.O. Box 21370, Columbus, Ohio 43221-0370 U.S.A.
Copyright© 2004 by the Ohio Biological Survey
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a computerized system, or pub-lished in any form or in any manner, including electronic, mechanical, reprographic, or photographic, withoutprior written permission from the publishers, Ohio Biological Survey, P.O. Box 21370, Columbus, Ohio 43221-0370 U.S.A.
Layout and Design: Brian J. Armitage, Ohio Biological SurveyPrinting: The Ohio State University, Printing Services, Columbus, Ohio
Ohio Biological SurveyP.O. Box 21370
Columbus, OH 43221-0370<[email protected]>
www.ohiobiologicalsurvey.org
11-2004—1.5M
105
Chapter 8
Elasmobranch Transport Techniques and Equipment
MARK F. L. SMITH
Oceanário de Lisboa,Esplanada D. Carlos I - Doca dos Olivais,
1990-005, Lisboa, Portugal.E-mail: [email protected]
ALLAN MARSHALL
Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium,One Wild Place,
Pittsburgh, PA 15206, USA.E-mail: [email protected]
JOÃO P. CORREIA
Oceanário de Lisboa,Esplanada D. Carlos I - Doca dos Olivais,
1990-005, Lisboa, Portugal.E-mail: [email protected]
JOHN RUPP
Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium,5400 North Pearl St,
Tacoma, WA 98407, USA.E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Elasmobranchs are delicate animals and appropriate care should be observedduring their transport or permanent damage and even death can result. Key considerationsinclude risk of physical injury, elevated energy expenditure, impaired gas exchange,compromised systemic circulation, hypoglycemia, blood acidosis, hyperkalemia,accumulation of metabolic toxins, and declining water quality. Carefully planned logistics,appropriate staging facilities, minimal handling, suitable equipment, an appropriate transportregime, adequate oxygenation, comprehensive water treatment, and careful monitoringwill all greatly increase the chances of a successful transport. In special cases the use ofanesthesia and corrective therapy may be merited.
The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manual: Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives, pages 105-131.© 2004 Ohio Biological Survey
Despite common perception to the contrary,sharks and rays are delicate animals. Thisdelicate nature is nowhere more evident thanduring the difficult process of capturing andtransporting these animals from their naturalhabitat to a place of study or display. If sufficientcare is not used, i t is not uncommon for
elasmobranchs to perish during transport orshortly thereafter (Essapian, 1962; Clark, 1963;Gohar and Mazhar, 1964; Gruber, 1980).
Any elasmobranch transport regime should takeinto account a number of considerations relatedto species biology and transport logistics. A list of
106
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
Ampullae of Lorenzini
Elasmobranchs detect weak electromagneticfields using a specialized sensory organ calledthe Ampullae of Lorenzini, allowing them to detectelectrical signatures produced by potential prey.They are sensitive to electrochemical cellsinduced by metals immersed in seawater andintolerant of dissolved heavy metall ic ions(especially copper) (Gruber, 1980).
Optimal swimming velocity
An elasmobranch has achieved optimal swimmingvelocity when its energy expenditure per unitdistance traveled, or total cost of transport (TCT),is minimized (Parsons, 1990; Carlson et al.,1999). If the elasmobranch swims slower or fasterthan this speed it will consume more energy.Carlson et al. (1999) observed that the optimalswimming veloci ty for blacknose sharks(Carcharhinus acronotus) was at speeds of 36-39 cm s-1 where TCT was 0.9-1.0 cal g-1 km-1. Ifthe sharks slowed down to 25 cm s-1, then energyexpenditure increased to 1.7 cal g-1 km-1.
Negative buoyancy
Elasmobranchs have no swim bladder and arenegatively buoyant (Bigelow and Schroeder,1948). Sharks maintain or increase their verticalposition within the water column by using theircaudal fin to provide thrust and their rigid pectoralfins and snout to generate lift.
One technique negatively buoyant fishes use toconserve energy is to powerlessly glide at anoblique angle, gradually increasing depth, thenreturn to the original depth by actively swimmingupward. An energy saving in excess of 50% hasbeen calculated for animals that adopt thisstrategy referred to as the swim-glide hypothesis(Weihs, 1973; Klay, 1977). An uninterruptedhorizontal distance is required for the completionof the glide phase of this swimming strategy. Ifthis minimum horizontal distance is not availablethe fish will consume excess energy through themuscular contractions required to turn. In the caseof extreme interruptions the fish may stall andconsume valuable energy reserves as it attemptsto regain its position within the water column andre-attain a near-optimal swimming velocity. If thissituation persists, the animal can becomeexhausted and ultimately die (Klay, 1977; Gruberand Keyes, 1981; Stoskopf, 1993).
these considerations has been outlined in Table8.1 and each will be covered in this chapter orelsewhere in this volume.
1. Elasmobranch biology2. Species selection (refer chapter 2)3. Legislation and permitting (refer chapter 3)4. Logistics and equipment preparation5. Specimen acquisition (refer chapter 7)6. Handling and physical activity7. Staging8. Oxygenation, ventilation and circulation9. Transport regime
10. Water treatment11. Anesthesia (see also chapter 21)12. Corrective therapy13. Monitoring14. Acclimation and recovery15. Quarantine (refer chapter 10)16. Specimen introduction (refer chapter 11)
Table 8.1. Important issues to consider whenformulating an elasmobranch transport.
ELASMOBRANCH BIOLOGY
Before discussing elasmobranch transporttechniques it is important to understand the basicsof elasmobranch biology as they pertain tocapture, restraint, and handling.
Cartilaginous skeleton
Unlike teleosts (i.e., bony fishes), sharks and rayshave a skeleton made of cartilage and lack ribs.This characteristic means that the internal organsand musculature of elasmobranchs are poorlyprotected and susceptible to damage withouthorizontal support (Clark, 1963; Gruber andKeyes, 1981; Murru, 1990).
Integument
Like other fishes elasmobranch skin is delicateand susceptible to abrasions especially on thesnout and distal section of the fins (Howe, 1988).
Lateral line
Elasmobranchs detect low-frequency vibrations andpressure changes using a sensory organ called thelateral line (Boord and Campbell, 1977).
107
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Anaerobic metabolism
Many sedentary elasmobranchs have a lowaerobic capacity relying heavily on the anaerobicmetabolism of white muscle to support activity(Bennett, 1978). This strategy provides a greatopportunity for sudden bursts of activity butimplies long periods of immobility during recovery.Conversely, pelagic elasmobranchs have anincreased commitment to the aerobic red musclemore suitable for their constantly cruising lifestyle.If oxygen (O
2) demand increases to a point where
an insufficient supply feeds the working tissueaerobic red muscle will also start to metabolizeanaerobically.
The veloci ty beyond which a swimmingelasmobranch starts to metabolize anaerobicallyis referred to as U
crit or the maximum aerobically
sustainable swimming speed (Lowe, 1996). TheU
crit for leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) has
been measured at 1.6 L s-1 for 30-50 cm TLspecimens (where L = a distance equivalent to onebody length and TL = total length of the specimen).U
crit was found to vary inversely with body size; 120
cm TL sharks exhibit a Ucrit
of 0.6 L s-1 (Graham etal., 1990). It is believed that less-active sharks havea lower U
crit than species adapted to a cruising
pelagic lifestyle (Lowe, 1996).
Once an elasmobranch starts to metabolizeanaerobically, be it benthic or pelagic, it produceslactic acid as a byproduct (Bennett, 1978).
Ventilation
Elasmobranchs have a small gill surface and theirblood has a low oxygen-carrying capacity (Gruberand Keyes, 1981). Most demersal and benthicspecies ventilate gas-exchange surfaces usingmovements of the mouth to actively pump wateracross their gills. Pelagic species often use ramventilation (i.e., forward motion and induced headpressure to force water into their mouth and outacross their gill surfaces) to improve their abilityto extract oxygen from the water. Species that areobl iged to swim forward for effect ive gasexchange are referred to as obl igate ramventilators (Hughs and Umezawa, 1968; Clarkand Kabasawa, 1977; Gruber and Keyes, 1981;Hewitt, 1984; Graham et al., 1990; Lowe, 1996;Carlson et al., 1999). An increased dependenceon ram ventilation by pelagic species is possiblyrelated to their increased reliance on oxygenatedred swimming muscle.
Muscular pumping and systemic circulation
Elasmobranchs have limited cardiac capacity, lowblood pressure, and low vascular flow rates. Theyrely on vascular valves and muscular contractionsto aid systemic circulation. Optimal oxygenation ofmusculature and removal of toxic metabolitestherefore occurs while swimming rather than at rest(Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Murru, 1984; Baldwin andWells, 1990; Lowe, 1996). Muscular-assistedcirculation is particularly important for pelagic andsome demersal elasmobranchs because theiraerobic swimming muscle requires constantoxygenation (Hewitt, pers. com.; Powell, pers. com.).
Hypoglycemia
During hyperactivity blood-glucose concentrationstend to rise as liver glycogen stores are mobilized(Mazeaud et al., 1977; Cliff and Thurman, 1984;Jones and Andrews, 1990). Cliff and Thurman(1984) observed an increase in the blood-glucoseconcentration of dusky sharks (Carcharhinusobscurus) from 5 to 10 mmol l-1 following 70 minutesof hyperactivity. Blood-glucose concentrationsremained at 10 mmol l-1 for three hours and thencontinued to rise to a level in excess of 15 mmol l-1
over the next 24 hours. Glucose enters muscle cellswhere it supplies energy and raw material to restoreglycogen reserves. If hyperactivity is prolongedblood-glucose elevation can be followed by adecline as liver glycogen reserves becomeexhausted (Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Hewitt, 1984;Jones and Andrews, 1990; Wood, 1991; Wells etal., 1986). Cliff and Thurman (1984) observed adecrease in blood-glucose concentrations to 2.9mmol l-1 and 5.7 mmol l-1 in two dusky sharks thathad struggled to the point of death.
Acidosis
Blood acid becomes elevated (i.e., pH declines)during hyperactivity. Acidosis is the result of twoprocesses: increased plasma carbon dioxide (CO
2)
concentration, and anaerobic metabolism and lacticacid production (Piiper and Baumgarten, 1969;Holeton and Heisler, 1978; Cliff and Thurman, 1984).
When CO2 production in the muscles exceeds
excret ion via the gi l ls, blood pH decl ines(Murdaugh and Robin, 1967; Albers, 1970). ThispH decline happens because CO
2 reacts with H
2O
according to Equation 8.1. This process is fast,happening within minutes of hyperactivity (Piiper
108
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
and Baumgarten, 1969; Cliff and Thurman, 1984;Lai et al., 1990; Wood, 1991). Cliff and Thurman(1984) observed a sharp blood-pH decline in adusky shark from 7.29 to 7.12 within 10 minutesof hyperactivity. This decline is equivalent to aneffective 57% increase in hydrogen ions (H+).
Lactic acid produced during anaerobic metabolismdissociates into lactate and H+ further lowering bloodpH (Piiper and Baumgarten, 1969; Albers, 1970;Piiper et al., 1972; Bennett, 1978; Martini, 1978;Holeton and Heisler, 1978; Wardle, 1981; Holetonand Heisler, 1983; Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Wood,1991). Cliff and Thurman (1984) observed that bloodpH continued to decline during hyperactivity in adusky shark from 7.12 at 10 minutes to 6.96 by the70th minute. This slow decline, following an initialCO
2-induced decline, was attributed to the formation
of lactic acid, and thus, H+.
It has been suggested that only 20% of H+
produced during anaerobic metabol ism isreleased from the cells. Therefore, extracellularacidosis may be indicative of a more profoundintracellular acidosis (Wood et al., 1983).
Hyperkalemia
Hyperactivity and blood acidosis can result inelevated serum electrolytes—in part icularpotassium ion (K+) concentration—through theeffusion of cellular electrolytes into the bloodserum (Wood et al., 1983; Cliff and Thurman,1984; Wells et al., 1986; Jones and Andrews,1990; Wood, 1991). Cliff and Thurman (1984)observed an increase in plasma K+ concentrationfrom 3.3 mmol l-1 to 5.3 mmol l-1 in a dusky sharkduring hyperactivity.
Increased plasma K+ concentration can disruptcardiac function and promote muscular tetanus,augmenting anaerobic metabolism and promotingacidosis (Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Wells et al., 1986).
Excretion of metabolites
Elasmobranchs excrete many biochemicalmetabolites into the surrounding environment viatheir gills. Amongst others CO
2, H+, and ammonia
ion (NH4
+) are excreted during normal metabolism
(Robin et al., 1965; Murdaugh and Robin, 1967;Albers, 1970). Unless they are diluted or removedenvironmental accumulation of these metaboliteswill become toxic. As elasmobranchs are hyper-osmotic to their environment an elevated NH
4+
concentration may induce or further promoteacidosis (Murru, 1990).
Transport mortality
Although mortality during and after elasmobranchtransport is not fully understood it appears to bedue, at least in part, to: depletion of blood-glucoseconcentrations and starvation of muscle tissue;blood acidosis, circulatory disruption, and centralnervous system damage; elevated plasma K+
concentrat ion and cardiac dysfunct ion;accumulation of toxic metabolites within theimmediate environment; or a combination of allthese factors (Mazeaud et al., 1977; Bennett, 1978;Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Wood et al., 1983; Cliffand Thurman, 1984; Hewitt, 1984; Murru, 1984;Wells et al., 1986; Dunn and Koester, 1990; Stoskopf,1993). The effect of these processes may not alwaysbe immediately obvious and their contribution to post-transport mortality may be overlooked orunderestimated (Gruber and Keyes, 1981).
In conclusion the following challenges need to beconsidered during the transport of elasmobranchs:(1) risk of injury to internal organs, delicate skin,and sensitive sensory organs; (2) increased turningfrequency and elevated energy expenditure; (3)impaired ventilation and compromised systemicoxygenation; (4) decreased muscular pumpingresulting in reduced vascular circulation, reducedmuscular oxygenation, and reduced metaboliteelimination; (5) hypoglycemia; (6) blood acidosis;(7) hyperkalemia; and (8) the excretion andenvironmental accumulation of CO
2 , H+ and NH
4+.
An overview of these challenges and possiblesolutions has been outlined in Table 8.2.
LOGISTICS AND EQUIPMENT PREPARATION
A fundamental aspect of any elasmobranchtransport, determining ultimate success or failure,is logistical planning and equipment preparation.Equipment malfunction, vehicular breakdowns,
Equation 8.1
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ CO3
2- + 2H+
Carbon Water Carbonic Bicarbonate Hydrogen Carbonate Hydrogendioxide acid ion ion
→← →← →←
109
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
8.1 Where possible, transport specimens in 'free-swimming' mode to allow natural muscular pumping.
8.2 When transporting in 'restrained' mode periodically flex the trunk of the specimen to stimulate muscular pumping.
9.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).9.2 Consider use of IV- or IP-administered glucose supplementation.
10.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).10.2 Maximize O2 and CO2 exchange by facilitating ventilation (as per 7.1 and 7.2),
degassing transport water (as per 15.2), and oxygenating transport water (as per 12.2 and 12.3).
10.3 Minimize blood [CO2] and [H+] increase by facilitating systemic circulation (as per 8.1 and 8.2).
10.4 Consider use of IV- or IP-administered bicarbonate or acetate to buffer the blood.11.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).11.2 Minimize blood acidosis (as per 10.1 - 10.4).12.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).12.2 Maximize dissolved oxygen concentration within transport vessel by supplementing
with pure O2 at ~120-200% saturation.
12.3 Maximize dissolved oxygen concentration within transport vessel by degassing transport water and liberating excess CO2.
13.1 Mitigate temperature fluctuations by insulating transport vessel.13.2 Ensure vessel is transported and staged in temperature-controlled environments.13.3 Modify temperature as required using bagged ice, immersion heaters, etc.14.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).14.2 Minimize waste accumulation by applying water exchanges, mechanical filtration,
adsorption or chemical filtration, and foam fractionation to transport water.
15.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).15.2 Minimize pH decline by degassing transport water and liberating excess CO2.
15.3 Minimize pH decline by buffering transport water with bicarbonate, carbonate, or Tris-amino®.
16.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).16.2 Minimize [NH3 / NH4
+] accumulation by performing periodic water exchanges, using ammonia sponges (e.g., AmQuel), and applying adsorption or chemical filtration (as per 14.2).
Carbon dioxide (CO2) buildup and pH decline
Nutrient buildup
Hyperkalemia
Acidosis
Muscular pumping and systemic circulation
Hypoglycemia
Temperature fluctuation
Oxygen (O2) depletion
Excreted particulates and 'organics'
Biological characteristics Solutions
1.1 While handling, ensure horizontal support using water-filled plastic bags for small specimens or stretchers for large specimens.
1.2 Always transport in a water-filled vessel.2.1 Use plastic bags or soft knot-less nets when catching specimens, and flexible
plastic stretchers when restraining them.2.2 Minimize handling and use sterilized plastic gloves if handling is absolutely
necessary.2.3 Minimize obstructions to natural swimming patterns within transport tank.2.4 Construct transport tank from non-abrasive material.2.5 In extreme cases, consider the use of sedation to minimize handling time and
reduce physical injury.Lateral line 3.1 Minimize external physical impacts to the transport tank.
4.1 Avoid using metallic objects, especially within transport tank.4.2 Avoid using copper as a chemico-therapeutic.4.3 Where possible minimize electric currents in and around the transport vessel.5.1 Generate gentle current in transport tank to facilitate hydrodynamic lift, maintain
specimen buoyancy, and simulate swimming behavior.5.2 Minimize turning frequency by transporting small specimens and reducing
obstructions within transport tank (e.g., LSS equipment, conspecifics, etc.).6.1 Minimize hyperactivity by catching and restraining specimens quickly and calmly.6.2 Minimize transport duration.6.3 In extreme cases, consider the use of anesthesia to slow metabolic rate and to
reduce O2 consumption and metabolic waste production.
6.4 Maximize dissolved O2 concentration (as per 12.2 and 12.3)
6.5 Maximize ventilation and systemic circulation (as per 7 and 8)7.1 Where possible, transport specimens in 'free-swimming' mode to allow natural
ventilation.7.2 When transporting in 'restrained' mode simulate natural ventilation by directing a
current of oxygenated water into the mouth of the specimen.
Optimal swimming velocity and negative buoyancy
Anaerobic metabolism
Ventilation
Table 8.2. Biological characteristics of elasmobranchs and possible strategies to mitigate negative effects during transport.
Cartilaginous skeleton
Ampullae of Lorenzini
Integument
110
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
Table 8.3. Basic logistics and equipment preparation required for a typical intercontinental elasmobranch transport. Thisbasic model may be adapted and used as a checklist for any transport.
Research 1.1 Information is power! Research as much as possible about the chosen species - appropriateness fordisplay, special requirements, reliable sources (e.g., collection sites / professional collectors / otheraquaria), transportability, etc.
1.2 Obtain references for professional collectors. Inspect collector's facilities. Finalize species list and fixagreement with professional collector (i.e., fees, dates, responsibilities, etc.). Ensure that both you and thecollector have appropriate permits.
1.3 Determine shipment routes, dates, and times. Obtain references for haulers, carriers, airports, etc. Ensureshipment route is as direct as possible, secure, and requires minimal cargo handling. Have a freight agentnegotiate with carriers to determine the best routes, minimize costs, and handle paperwork. Strive for non-peak times and working days when customs / quarantine staff are readily available.
1.4 Clarify available transport conditions: Is climate control available throughout? Can staff easily enter cargoareas? Can animals be accompanied and checked in-flight? What are the plane loading and unloadingrestrictions (e.g., door dimensions, lifting equipment, etc.) at both the origin and destination?
Plan 2.1 Think your way through the entire transport process considering all equipment, transport, and infrastructurerequirements (e.g., forklifts, pallet jacks, power supplies, water exchanges, etc.). Ensure that transporttanks and ancillary equipment will fit on trucks, airplanes, forklifts, and through all doors and corridors.Consider urban restrictions between staging facility, airports, and destination aquarium. Verify your planwith an individual experienced in the type of transport you are undertaking. Formulate final plan and reviewwith all parties.
2.2 Make a manifest of all required equipment and transport tanks (refer Table 8.4). Ensure that all equipmentconforms to regulation (e.g., HazMat of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and theInternational Air Transport Association (IATA)) and understand any possible restrictions. Calculate requiredamount of consumables (e.g. oxygen, batteries, water conditioners, etc.).
2.3 Make a comprehensive list of all required permits and other documentation for exportation and importation(e.g., conservation certification (federal, state, etc.), health certification, HazMat documentation, way-bills,customs declarations, insurance policies, passports, visas, etc.).
2.4 Make a comprehensive list of all tasks with completion dates / times and individuals responsible. Establishteams of people for every task (e.g., catching specimens, handling specimens, transporting specimens,receiving and acclimatization, post-transport monitoring, etc.). Ensure that the plan is clearly understood byeveryone. Build in critical ‘mileposts’ for ‘go’ / ‘no-go’ decisions (e.g., carrier confirmed landed = commenceloading animals into transport tanks, etc.). Be reasonable with timing estimates for each step and build inextra time.
Contingency 3.1 Ensure suitable infrastructure is available at all points throughout the transport route (e.g., lifting equipment,power supplies, climate control, water for exchanges, security, police escorts, etc.). Identify areas of riskand ensure suitable contingencies are in place.
3.2 Adapt! You have a clear plan but be prepared to change the plan if it is simply not workable. Ensure anychanges to the plan are communicated to everyone.
Communicate 4.1 Establish clear channels of communication with all parties and make a comprehensive contact list. Circulateplan, equipment manifest, required documentation, task list, and contact sheet to appropriate parties.These will include, but may not be limited to: husbandry staff, local security, public relations staff, localconstabulary, freight agent, hauler, hazmat specialist, airport cargo handlers, carrier administration, carriercargo handlers, customs officials, US Fish and Wildlife Service (or equivalent), Department of Agriculture(or equivalent), Department of Transport (or equivalent) and Immigration. Appoint the freight agent, or otherappropriate party, to be the primary liaison with transport personnel. Using one spokesperson will minimizeomissions and conflicting information.
Educate 5.1 Be prepared to be a teacher! Educate all personnel along the route of the transport (as per list detailed in4.1 above). Airport officials are always interested in a transport and will cooperate if they are correctly andpolitely apprised of the situation. Ensure that all are aware of the need for expeditious processing of anydocuments and loading of cargo, etc. Likewise, local constabulary, security guards, and company PRpersonnel will be more sympathetic if everything is explained clearly and politely.
Prepare 6.1 Acquire all equipment on manifest (as per 2.2 above) and ensure it functions correctly.6.2 Acquire required permits (as per 2.3 above). Carry originals and copies throughout transport.6.3 Collect specimens and allow to recuperate in staging facility.6.4 Fast specimens (48 - 72 hours) if appropriate and verify that they are healthy and ready for transport.6.5 Prepare equipment, double-checking the manifest (as per 2.2 above) to ensure you have everything -
remember permits! Include backups. Include tools for every pump, filter, battery, oxygen bottle, bolt, nut,screw, fastener, etc. Wash filtration media and pack filters. Test all batteries and pumps. Check oxygensupplies. Ensure transport tanks are robust, leak-proof, and have no pipes protruding where they could besheared off. Calculate required quantities of water conditioners (e.g., AmQuel®, etc.) and prepare inadvance. Ensure all loose equipment is stored in robust waterproof boxes.
6.6 Pack tanks and ancillary equipment on trucks so they form discrete self-contained units for ease ofmovement with forklifts, pallet jacks, etc. Orientate and securely strap down tanks to minimize surge andallow ease of access to all equipment.
6.7 Allocate specimens to specific tanks and make a check-list for final loading.6.8 Final check! On the day before the transport ensure EVERYTHING is prepared! Ensure all contingencies
are in place. Review tasks and timing with team members adjusting where necessary. Get some rest!
Execute 7.1 Verify that all team members and infrastructures are ready.7.2 Start and verify that all LSSs (life support systems) are functioning (i.e., oxygen supplies, pumps,
mechanical filtration, directed water currents, etc.).7.3 Capture and transfer specimens to transport tanks quickly and calmly. Have extra personnel available to lift
and carry.7.4 When all specimens and equipment is loaded re-check LSSs. If all is OK transport specimens to airport for
processing.7.5 At the airport ensure tanks are secure throughout processing and be prepared to perform water exchanges
and equipment repairs before loading. Pack tanks in aircraft securely (as per 6.6). Pack tanks on the finalpallet spaces so they are the first off the aircraft on arrival.
7.6 Monitor specimens, LSSs, and water quality throughout transport and make appropriate adjustments (e.g.,adjust oxygen regulators, add water conditioners, etc.).
7.7 On landing re-check LSSs and water quality. Perform water exchanges if necessary. Expedite customs andairport processing.
7.8 Load tanks on truck(s) (as per 6.6) and transfer to destination aquaria.7.9 On arrival off-load tanks and commence specimen acclimation. Apply prophylactic measures as
appropriate. Transfer specimens to quarantine tanks.
111
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
belligerent officials, and replacement resources(e.g., water, filtration media, spares, etc.) shouldbe taken into account and cont ingenciespreviewed (Young, pers. com.). Use a competentfreight agent to handle negotiations, transportbureaucracy, hazardous material documentation,and logistics communication (McHugh, pers. com.).Logistical planning and equipment preparation fora typical elasmobranch transport can be divided intoseven basic steps. These steps have been outlinedin Table 8.3 and a corresponding equipmentmanifest detailed in Table 8.4.
HANDLING AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
When initially restraining a specimen it is oftennecessary to use a net made of soft knot-lessnylon to prevent abrasions (Powell, pers. com.).Some sharks, in particular the sand tiger shark(Carcharias taurus), are prone to catching theirteeth in nets. Care should be taken to minimizetooth entanglement as permanent damage to theupper jaw may result (Mohan, pers. com.).
Another consideration for the sand tiger shark is itsunique ability to swallow air and store it in its stomachto assist buoyancy (Hussain, 1989). If a portion ofthe air is not removed before transport the sand tigershark may float upside-down in the transport tank. Itis preferable to induce the sand tiger to expel someof the air before transport commences.
At no stage should the body of an elasmobranchbe allowed to hang loosely from the head or tail.Sharks and rays should always be maintained ina horizontal position (Clark, 1963; Gruber andKeyes, 1981; Andrews and Jones, 1990; Stoskopf,1993). When lifting and moving large specimens
a stretcher has been employed (Clark, 1963;Davies et al., 1963; Murru, 1984; Smith, 1992;Visser, 1996). A stretcher consists of a flexiblereinforced vinyl or canvas sheet stretchedbetween two parallel poles. The shark is lifted outof the water while lying in a horizontal positionwithin the bag formed by the sheet (Figure 8.1).
Table 8.3 (continued). Basic logistics and equipment preparation required for a typical intercontinental elasmobranchtransport. This basic model may be adapted and used as a checklist for any transport.
Figure 8.1. Flexible vinyl stretcher used to maintain sharks ina horizontal position while handling.
For small sharks horizontal support can beachieved by using a strong, rip-resistant, plastic
bag. The water provides support while the flexibleand smooth walls of the bag allow the specimento move without damaging i tsel f . Theelasmobranch remains submerged and cancontinue to respire (Marshall, 1999; Ross andRoss, 1999). Double bagging provides securityagainst breakage. Rays require support for theirpectoral fins. Support can be achieved by usinga vinyl or canvas sheet stretched within a rigid,circular, exterior hoop (Figure 8.2).
When handling elasmobranchs the use of sterileplastic gloves is recommended (Gruber, 1980;
112
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
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rical
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atte
ries
(12V
) (s
eale
d)D
rill -
scr
ewdr
iver
fitti
ngs
Ele
ctric
al -
cab
les
+ c
onne
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s +
fusi
ble
links
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l (el
ectr
ical
and
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tery
ope
rate
d)E
lect
rical
- in
vert
er (
DC
12V
to A
C?)
Ele
ctric
al e
xten
sion
flex
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ctric
al -
tran
sfor
mer
(A
C?
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DC
12V
)F
aste
ners
, nai
ls, s
crew
s &
glu
es (
asso
rted
)F
ilter
(ca
rtrid
ge)
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echa
nica
l / c
hem
ical
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shlig
hts
(+ b
atte
ries)
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er (
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ridge
) -
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ia -
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ivat
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(ca
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edia
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leat
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aper
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mer
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aw (
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tric
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m r
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nfor
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to a
void
kin
ks)
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ker
pens
(pe
rman
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e cl
amps
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ti-m
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box
+ ic
e pa
cks
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rsM
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rted
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et (
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(w
ood)
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ark
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gen
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r +
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+ r
egul
ator
+ m
anifo
lds
Spo
nges
Oxy
gen
- di
ffuse
rs +
wei
ght
Sta
inle
ss n
uts
+ b
olts
+ w
ashe
rsO
xyge
n -
spar
e cy
linde
r(s)
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e (e
lect
rical
, thr
ead,
duc
t)P
alle
t jac
kT
ie d
own
stra
psP
alle
ts (
allo
w a
cces
s by
fork
lift /
pal
let j
ack)
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Wire
Slin
gs (
liftin
g)T
ool b
oxS
tret
cher
s (s
hark
+ r
ay)
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els
Sub
mer
sibl
e pu
mp
(12V
) -
circ
ulat
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e gr
ips
Sub
mer
sibl
e pu
mp
(12V
) -
wat
er e
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nges
Wire
cut
ters
Tra
nspo
rt ta
nks(
s) +
life
sup
port
sys
tem
Wre
nch
(adj
usta
ble)
Wre
nche
s (a
ssor
ted)
Med
ical
eq
uip
men
t +
Wat
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nal
yses
Aci
dosi
s th
erap
y (e
.g. B
icar
bona
te)
Am
mon
ia s
pong
e (e
.g.,
Am
quel
)A
nest
hetic
- IM
(e.
g., K
etam
ine,
Xyl
azin
e, Y
ohim
bine
)A
nest
hetic
- Im
mer
sion
(e.
g. M
S-2
22)
Ane
sthe
tic -
Loc
al (
e.g.
Lig
noca
ine)
Ant
i-ble
ed th
erap
y -
IM (
Vita
min
K)
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isep
tic -
Top
ical
(e.
g., B
etad
ine,
Mer
curo
chro
me)
Ant
i-sho
ck th
erap
y (e
.g.,
Dex
amet
haso
ne)
Car
diac
stim
ulan
t - (
e.g.
, Adr
enal
ine)
Cat
hete
rs (
14, 1
6, 1
8, 2
1G)
Dis
sect
ion
kit
Hyp
ogly
cem
ia th
erap
y (e
.g.,
Glu
cose
IV in
fusi
on)
IV a
dmin
istr
atio
n lin
es
Mag
nify
ing
glas
sM
easu
ring
vial
sN
eedl
es (
14, 1
8, 2
1, 2
2 an
d 24
G)
Res
pira
tory
stim
ulan
t (e.
g., D
oxap
ram
)S
ampl
e ja
rsS
calp
el b
lade
sS
calp
el h
andl
esS
edat
ive
- IM
(e.
g. V
aliu
m)
Sta
inle
ss c
lam
ps (
e.g.
, hem
osta
t)S
tapl
e gu
n +
sta
ples
Ste
rile
swab
sS
utur
es (
nylo
n, s
tain
less
)S
utur
ing
need
les
Syr
inge
s (1
, 2, 5
, 10,
50
ml)
Tw
eeze
rsW
ater
pH
buf
fer
(e.g
., T
ris-A
min
o, B
icar
bona
te)
Lab
was
h bo
ttles
(fo
r an
esth
etic
adm
inis
trat
ion)
Am
mon
ia te
st k
itO
xyge
n m
eter
pH te
st k
itR
efra
ctom
eter
The
rmom
eter
(+
spar
es)
Tab
le 8
.4.
Com
preh
ensi
ve li
st o
f eq
uipm
ent
cons
ider
ed n
eces
sary
for
the
pre
para
tion
and
exec
utio
n of
a la
rge-
scal
e, lo
ng-d
urat
ion
elas
mob
ranc
htr
ansp
ort.
Sho
rt-t
erm
tran
spor
ts m
ay b
e le
ss d
eman
ding
of r
esou
rces
and
onl
y re
quire
som
e of
the
equi
pmen
t lis
ted.
113
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Young et al., 2002). Sterile gloves will help preventthe development of post-handling infections of theskin. To minimize struggling during restraint it ispossible to induce a trance-like state in manyshark species by holding them in an upside-downposition for a few minutes. This phenomenon isreferred to as tonic immobility (Watsky andGruber, 1990; Henningsen, 1994).
Throughout specimen restraint and transportphysical activity must be minimized to reduceadverse biochemical reactions and the risk ofspecimens abrading their delicate snout and fintips (Murru, 1990; Smith, 1992). A transport tankwith smooth walls and a dark interior will reducephysical injury. Physical injury will be furtherreduced by the minimization of external stimuliand a reduction of surge by thoughtful design andpositioning of the transport tank (i.e., placementof a rectangular tank transversely across thetransport vehicle) (Smith, 1992; Arai, 1997).
STAGING
Staging refers to the process of temporarilymaintaining a specimen in a large secure recoveryenclosure close to the collection site. This processis important, as the biochemical changes inducedduring elasmobranch capture are often profound.Staging a specimen for at least 24 hours beforetransport commences will dramatically increasethe chances of success (Cliff and Thurman, 1984;Murru, 1984; Wisner, 1987; Andrews and Jones,1990; Arai, 1997; Young et al., 2002). It is criticalthat the staging facility has sufficient dimensionsand water parameters to adequately maintain thespecimen(s). If not, you will simply compound thealready damaging biochemical changes.
A typical temporary staging facility comprises aplastic-lined pool supplied with raw seawater viaan offshore intake and pumping system. A securefence, for security from onlookers, and roofing tocut down radiant energy is beneficial (Visser,1996). Water parameters, especially oxygen,temperature, pH, and nitrogenous wastes becomea critical issue if water is not being constantlyreplenished. A re-circulating water treatmentsystem capable of maintaining optimal waterparameters is then required.
OXYGENATION, VENTILATION ANDCIRCULATION
Oxygenation
The importance of oxygenation cannot be over-emphasized. Fishes consume up to three timestheir normal oxygen requirement under transportconditions. Exhausted fishes may consume asmuch as 5-10 times their normal requirement(Wardle, 1981; Froese, 1988). The greater acommitment to aerobic respiration, the moreimportant an unimpeded oxygen supply (Wardle,1981). This increasing demand for oxygen isillustrated by adjusted oxygen consumption ratesfor increasingly pelagic elasmobranchs (i.e., 296,395 and 849 mg of O
2 kg-1 h-1 for Sphyrna tiburo,
Carcharhinus acronotus, and Isurus oxyrinchus,respectively) (Parsons, 1990; Graham et al.,1990; Carlson et al., 1999).
The ability of elasmobranch blood to carry oxygento the tissues, as demonstrated in the white shark(Carcharodon carcharias), is determined by: (1)the amount of oxygen transferred across the gills;(2) the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood; and(3) the ability of the circulatory system to deliveroxygen to the tissues (Emery, 1985). Theserestrictions emphasize the importance of a steadysupply of dissolved oxygen, adequate gi l lventilation, and unimpaired systemic circulationto achieve normal metabolic respiration (Butlerand Taylor, 1975; Wardle, 1981; Cliff and Thurman1984; Lai et al., 1990; Smith, 1992).
Dissolved oxygen concentrations of 120-160%saturation have been reported as appropriate forthe transport of elasmobranchs (Thoney, pers.com.). Other workers recommend concentrationsas high as 200% saturation (i.e., 15 mg l-1 at 20°C)(Stoskopf, 1993). It has been suggested thathigher concentrations may cause neurologicaldamage or may be responsible for burning or
Figure 8.2. Rigid vinyl stretcher used to maintain rays in ahorizontal position while handling.
114
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
oxidizing the gills (Stoskopf, 1993). However otherworkers have supersaturated transport water to30 mg l-1 and observed no apparent adversereactions (Hewitt, pers. com.; Powell, pers. com.).Regardless, caution should be exercised as hyper-oxygenation may depress respiration and reduceoffloading of CO
2 at the gill surface. This process
will induce acidosis, one of the biochemical changesthat oxygenation is intended to reduce.
Ventilation
Water flow across the gills is normally quite high inthe shark. In the dogfish (Squalus acanthias) waterflow across the gills can equal half the body weightof the animal every minute (Murdaugh and Robin,1967). Water movement within the transport tankenhances ventilation and helps reduce anaerobicrespiration by allowing the specimen to takeadvantage of the oxygen-rich environment. Bydirecting currents so they flush across the gills of astationary shark, it is possible to approximate ramventilation (Ballard, 1989; Smith, 1992).
Circulation
When an elasmobranch is prevented from normallocomotion, muscular pumping of blood andlymphatic vessels can be impaired. If restraint is
prolonged, lack of systemic circulation may resultin both anaerobic metabolism and a buildup oftoxic metabolites. Increased concentrations ofmetabolites can be associated with an increasedrigidity progressing forward from the caudal regionalong the length of an animal. Another sign of thiscondition may be a reddening of the skin on theventral surface (Powell, pers. com.). In extremecases the animal can become completelyimmobile and die (Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Cliffand Thurman, 1984; Stoskopf, 1993).
When transport ing non-sedentary elasmo-branchs, in a restrained manner, considerationshould be given to gent ly massaging themusculature by flexing the caudal peduncle andstroking the dorsal surface (Gruber and Keyes,1981; Dunn and Koester, 1990; Powell, pers.com.; Young, pers. com.). Care should beexercised during this operation to repeat theprocess regular ly. Delays may al low theaccumulation of toxic metabolites that could beinadvertently introduced into systemic circulation ina single bolus dose (Smith, 1992; Stoskopf, 1993).
TRANSPORT REGIME
Transport regimes may be grouped into threebasic types: (1) sealed bag and insulated box;(2) free-swimming; and (3) restrained.
Figure 8.3. Sealed bag and insulated box transport regime.
115
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Sealed bag and insulated box
One of the simplest means to transportelasmobranchs is using the sealed bag andinsulated box technique (Figure 8.3) (Gruber andKeyes, 1981; Wisner, 1987; Froese, 1988;Stoskopf, 1993; Ross and Ross, 1999). Thisoption is appropriate for small benthic and somesmall demersal species (i.e., < 1 m TL).
The specimen is placed in a large, tough, plasticbag (e.g., 0.25 mm polyethylene) half filled withseawater. The dimensions of the bag should preventthe specimen from turning and getting wedged inan awkward position, or alternatively, be sufficientlylarge that it may swim gently (Gruber and Keyes,1981). Double or triple bagging is preferred as itwill help prevent leaks due to tearing. The upperhalf of the bag is filled with pure oxygen and sealed.The specimen remains in the bottom-half of the bag,covered with water, while the void above is filledwith oxygen. Oxygen slowly diffuses into the waterthroughout the transport. The bagged shark or rayis placed into an insulated box (e.g., Styrofoamicebox) providing thermal isolation and protectionagainst physical and visual stimuli. It is possible toinclude a basic water treatment system in the formof an ammonia scrubber (e.g., Poly-Filter®, Poly-Bio-Marine®, USA) and microwave heat beads or icepacks to maintain an appropriate temperature(Wisner, 1987).
Prepared in this manner a small elasmobranchcan travel for 24-48 hours. An advantage of thistechnique is that specimens can be movedunattended, allowing a greater range of transportoptions and reduced expense.
Free-swimming
The second transport option, used principally forsmaller pelagic elasmobranchs, is the free-swimming technique (Figure 8.4) (Hiruda et al.,1997; Marshall, 1999; Young et al., 2002). Thistechnique consists of a circular, smooth-walled,plastic or fiber-reinforced polyester tank (e.g., 2.5m diameter x 1 m deep) within which theelasmobranchs are free to move. The animals areoften encouraged to swim against a gentle currentgenerated by a 12 Volt submersible pump. Ingeneral, the pump should be capable of movingwater equivalent to the volume of the tank everyhour. In the example detai led above thisrequirement would necessitate a pump capableof moving 5 m3 hour-1 (e.g., Model 02, Rule ITTIndustries, USA). Pumped water is sent to a watertreatment system and returned to the transporttank via a directed line. The transport vehicle maysupply energy for the pump, however, it is wise tohave an independent and portable supply ofenergy (e.g., 12 Volt deep-cycle battery, Model800-S, Optima, USA). This alternative supply
Figure 8.4. Free-swimming transport regime.
116
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
provides an energy source during transfersbetween vehicles and can be used as a backupin emergencies.
The submersible pump is usually suspended fromthe underside of the transport tank lid, keeping itoff the floor where it could disrupt the swimmingpattern of the specimens. It is possible to have apump mounted externally, with the intake linedraining from the side of the tank. If such is thecase, care must be exercised to ensure the intakeline is flush with the interior wall of the tank andcovered with a large, smooth, protective meshmanifold. This manifold prevents animals frombecoming trapped by the suction of the intake line.Care must be taken to ensure that external pipesand fittings cannot be sheared off in transit.
The water treatment system typically consists ofa canister f i l ter f i l led with mechanical andadsorption media (see below). Once the water isfiltered, it is returned above the surface to facilitategas exchange (i.e., O
2 dissolution and CO
2
liberation) and drive the gentle current. Duringlong transports it may be necessary to useadditional diffusers (i.e., air-stones) to eliminateaccumulated CO
2. Monitoring pH will give an
indicat ion of changes in dissolved CO2
concentration (Thoney, pers. com.). Dissolvedoxygen is increased using bottled O
2, a reliable
regulator, and a diffuser situated in the center ofthe tank (Smith, 1992). Oxygen may be introduceddirectly into the suction line of the submersiblepump for better dissolution (Powell, pers. com.).
The transport tank should be leak-proof but allowventilation for the elimination of excess CO
2.
Ventilation can be achieved with both breather holesand a centrally located access hatch. The hatch maybe opened periodically to flush out CO
2 and to
manipulate equipment or animals as required. Arobust side-mounted inspection window is useful.The entire top of the tank should be strong enoughto withstand the weight of a person and provide agood seal against leaks. The top of the tank shouldbe easy to remove for effective handling ofspecimens on arrival at the final destination.
The free-swimming technique is preferred forthose species that are rel iant on aerobicrespiration, ram ventilation, and muscular-assisted vascular return. When formulating a free-swimming transport regime it is important toconsider: (1) swimming behavior; (2) specimensize; (3) specimen number; (4) tank shape; (5)tank size; and (6) the number of obstructionswithin the tank (Young et al., 2002). These factors
will determine the number of interactions withobstructions or conspecifics, turning frequency, andtherefore energy expenditure. The less encumberedan environment, the lower the consumption of vitalenergy reserves, the lower the production of toxins,and the lower the risk of metabolic shock. Anexample of a transport regime with a good safetymargin would be three 0.5 m TL scallopedhammerheads (Sphyrna lewini), transported for 48hours, in a tank of dimensions 2.5 m diameter x0.65 m deep (Young et al., 2002).
Some workers have found that circular tanks workwell for short-duration, free-swimming transportswhere specimens potentially impacting the walls isof primary concern (Wisner, 1987; Marshall, 1999).However for long-term transports, where biochemicalchanges become increasingly important, thecontinuous turning required to negotiate a circulartank may be too energetically challenging (Powell,pers. com.). It has been equated to the energeticinefficiency of a constantly turning aircraft (Klay,1977; Gruber and Keyes, 1981). It has beensuggested that a larger rectangular tank, allowinganimals to swim normally for short distances andthen opt for discrete turns, will be less energeticallychallenging during long-term transports.
Restrained
Some elasmobranchs are simply too large totransport free-swimming. In such cases it may bepossible to transport them in a restrained manner(Gruber, 1980; Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Hewitt,1984; Ballard, 1989; Andrews and Jones, 1990;Murru, 1990; Smith, 1992). This techniqueconsists of a smooth-walled rectangular plasticor fiber-reinforced polyester transport tank, onlyslightly larger than the specimen to be transported(Figure 8.5). A typical tank size would be 2.5 m x0.5 m x 0.5 m. The dimensions should be suchthat the animal cannot turn easily and lies in thesame position throughout the transport. Theinterior, especial ly the wall in front of thespecimen’s snout, may be padded with a softflexible material (e.g., neoprene). Degassing andwater treatment are performed in a similar mannerto that described for the free-swimming technique.A pump is often employed to drive oxygenatedwater from the rear to the front of the tank, whereit is gently jetted into the mouth of the specimen.This water circulation system is referred to as araceway and is designed to approximate ramventilation. In some cases a custom-designedharness has been employed to maintain theposition of the shark relative to both the tank and
117
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Figure 8.5. Restrained transport regime.
water flow (Hewitt, 1984; Andrews and Jones,1990; Jones and Andrews, 1990; Murru, 1990).
Table 8.5 details a list of elasmobranch speciesthat have been transported successfully using thethree techniques described. Quoted durations arenot a guarantee of survival. Capture technique,specimen size, handling technique, and waterquality will all impact the success of the transport.Minimizing transport times should be the ultimategoal of any transport regime.
It is important to note that many workers reportedlimited success transporting the following species:thresher sharks (Alopias spp.), white sharks,mako sharks, porbeagle sharks (Lamna nasus), andblue sharks. Transport of these species should onlybe attempted by very experienced personnel.
WATER TREATMENT
Elasmobranchs cont inual ly excrete wasteproducts that contaminate water in a transporttank. Decreasing water quality may be responsiblefor more losses during transport than any other
factor (Murru, 1990). For a successful transport,water quality must be monitored closely andadjusted where necessary.
Before start ing, transport tanks should bescrubbed thoroughly with seawater. Ensure thatall traces of possible contaminants are removed.Transport water should be clean and preferablyfrom the same source as the specimens to betransported. When transporting animals from astaging facility it is preferable to fast them for 48-72 hours beforehand. Referred to as conditioning,this process reduces water contamination viaregurgitation and defecation in transit (Stoskopf,1993; Sabalones, 1995; Ross and Ross, 1999).Once specimens are loaded and settled into thetransport tank, a comprehensive water exchange(i.e., >75%) is recommended before transportcommences. The water exchange will dilute stress-related metabolites and other contaminants, andgreatly extend the period of time before waterquality starts to decline (James, pers. com.). Iftransporting by boat there may be access to acontinuous supply of fresh seawater; precludingthe need to treat the water further. Land and airtransports, on the other hand, may require a water
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imm
ing
Res
trai
ned
Du
rati
on
(h
)R
efer
ence
12 -
30
(j)T
hom
as; V
iole
tta; Y
oung
21 -
56
Hen
ning
sen;
Tho
mas
; Vio
letta
; You
ng; M
arsh
all
7H
enni
ngse
n24
- 4
8M
cEw
an26
Hiru
da e
t al.,
199
72
Kin
nune
n6
Kin
nune
n3
Tho
mas
3T
hom
as1
Kin
nune
n1
Kin
nune
n24
(j)
You
ng10
- 5
4H
enni
ngse
n; V
iole
tta; Y
oung
; You
ng e
t al.,
200
11
Chr
istie
12P
owel
l2.
5K
innu
nen
1K
innu
nen
24 -
48
McE
wan
26 -
30
You
ng; Y
oung
et a
l., 2
001
2C
hris
tie4
- 36
Gru
ber
and
Key
es, 1
981;
Bal
lard
, 198
9; S
mith
, 199
2; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta8
- 56
Tho
mas
; You
ng e
t al.,
200
1; C
hris
tie; V
iole
tta1
Chr
istie
64E
zcur
ra14
- 3
5 (j)
Wis
ner,
198
7; J
ames
; McE
wan
; Rom
ero;
Vio
letta
5 -
56B
arth
elem
y; H
enni
ngse
n; J
anse
; Mar
shal
l2
Kin
nune
n6
- 8
Clif
f and
Thu
rman
, 198
4; B
alla
rd, 1
990;
Ste
slow
1 -
2S
abal
ones
, 199
5; C
hris
tie16
- 3
0 (j)
Hen
ning
sen;
Jam
es; Y
oung
3 -
47B
arth
elem
y; C
horo
man
ski;
Hen
ning
sen;
Jam
es; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta; Y
oung
4 -
40G
rube
r an
d K
eyes
, 198
1; A
ndre
ws
and
Jone
s, 1
990;
Cho
rom
ansk
i; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta;
5 -
15M
arte
l Bou
rbon
3 -
48H
iruda
et a
l., 1
997;
Cho
rom
ansk
i; F
arqu
ar; H
enni
ngse
n; K
innu
nen;
Tho
mas
; Vio
letta
2 -
84S
mith
, 199
2; C
horo
man
ski;
Hen
nin g
sen;
Rom
ero;
Tho
mas
; Vio
letta
; Mar
shal
l2
Kin
nune
n16
- 2
4G
rube
r an
d K
eyes
, 198
1; H
ewitt
, 198
57
Kin
nune
n12
- 3
6H
owar
d; T
hom
as; M
arsh
all
40T
hom
as20
- 2
4C
hris
tie; V
iole
tta24
Chr
istie
12 -
36
Hen
ning
sen;
Tho
mas
; Vio
letta
; You
ng10
- 7
0H
enni
ngse
n; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta; Y
oung
54M
arsh
all
2 (t
)K
innu
nen
26H
iruda
et a
l., 1
997
118
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
Tab
le 8
.5.
Suc
cess
fully
tran
spor
ted
elas
mob
ranc
hs, s
how
ing
tech
niqu
e an
d du
ratio
n of
tran
spor
t; (j)
refe
rs to
juve
nile
and
(t) r
efer
s to
a to
wed
sea
-cag
e. If
mor
e th
an o
nere
fere
nce
is a
vaila
ble,
dur
atio
ns a
re g
iven
as
a ra
nge
show
ing
min
imum
s an
d m
axim
ums.
All
refe
renc
es w
ere
pers
onal
com
mun
icat
ions
unl
ess
othe
rwis
e in
dica
ted
by a
date
of p
ublic
atio
n.
Sp
ecie
s n
ame
Co
mm
on
nam
eT
ech
niq
ue
Du
rati
on
(h
)
Das
yatis
bre
vis
Whi
ptai
l stin
gray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
3D
asya
tis c
entr
oura
Rou
ghta
il st
ingr
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x30
Res
trai
ned
28D
asya
tis c
hrys
onot
a
Res
trai
ned
84D
asya
tis m
arm
orat
aM
arbl
ed s
tingr
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x20
- 3
0F
ree-
swim
min
g84
Das
yatis
pas
tinac
aC
omm
on s
tingr
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g5
- 21
Das
yatis
vio
lace
aP
elag
ic s
tingr
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g9
(=
Pte
ropl
atyt
rygo
n)
Res
trai
ned
8D
iptu
rus
batis
Ska
teF
ree-
swim
min
g14
Ech
inor
hinu
s co
okei
Pric
kly
shar
kR
estr
aine
d2
Gal
eoce
rdo
cuvi
erT
iger
sha
rkF
ree-
swim
min
g1
- 3
Res
trai
ned
2 -
24G
aleo
rhin
us g
aleu
sT
ope
shar
kF
ree-
swim
min
g6
- 26
Res
trai
ned
2 -
6G
ingl
ymos
tom
a ci
rrat
umN
urse
sha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x24
- 4
8 (j)
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
12 -
50
Res
trai
ned
1 -
36G
ymnu
ra a
ltave
laS
piny
but
terf
ly r
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g3
Res
trai
ned
5G
ymnu
ra m
icru
raS
moo
th b
utte
rfly
ray
Sea
led
bag
and
box
24F
ree-
swim
min
g7
- 9
Hap
lobl
epha
rus
edw
ards
iiP
uffa
dder
shy
shar
kS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x20
- 3
0F
ree-
swim
min
g42
Hap
lobl
epha
rus
fusc
usB
row
n sh
ysha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x30
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
42H
aplo
blep
haru
s pi
ctus
Dar
k sh
ysha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x20
- 3
0F
ree-
swim
min
g42
Hem
iscy
llium
oce
llatu
mE
paul
ette
sha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x14
- 2
0H
eter
odon
tus
fran
cisc
iH
orn
shar
kS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x14
- 3
6F
ree-
swim
min
g48
Het
erod
ontu
s ga
leat
usC
rest
ed b
ullh
ead
shar
kR
estr
aine
d2
- 26
Het
erod
ontu
s ja
poni
cus
Japa
nese
bul
lhea
d sh
ark
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
56H
eter
odon
tus
port
usja
ckso
niP
ort J
acks
on s
hark
Sea
led
bag
and
box
14 -
38
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
10R
estr
aine
d26
Hex
anch
us g
riseu
sB
lunt
nose
six
gill
shar
kF
ree-
swim
min
g3
Res
trai
ned
3H
iman
tura
ble
eker
iB
leek
er's
whi
pray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
24 -
48
Him
antu
ra fa
iP
ink
whi
pray
Res
trai
ned
56H
iman
tura
ger
rard
iS
harp
nose
stin
gray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
24 -
48
Him
antu
ra im
bric
ata
Sca
ly w
hipr
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g24
- 4
8H
iman
tura
sch
mar
dae
Chu
pare
stin
gray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
2H
iman
tura
uar
nak
Hon
eyco
mb
stin
gray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
24 -
48
Res
trai
ned
10 -
56
Him
antu
ra u
ndul
ata
Leop
ard
whi
pray
Res
trai
ned
56H
ydro
lagu
s co
lliei
Spo
tted
ratfi
shS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x12
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
44
Ref
eren
ce
Tho
mas
You
ngS
tesl
owU
n pub
. Res
ults
Far
quar
; Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
Jam
es; J
anse
Tho
mas
Mar
shal
lJa
mes
O'S
ulliv
anK
innu
nen;
Mar
ín-O
sorn
oG
rube
r an
d K
e yes
, 198
1; B
alla
rd, 1
989;
Chr
istie
; Mar
ín-O
sorn
o; T
hom
asJa
mes
; Tho
mas
En g
elbr
echt
; How
ard;
Tho
mas
Car
rier;
Vio
letta
; You
n gJa
mes
; Tho
mas
; Vio
letta
; You
ngC
lark
, 196
3; C
hris
tie; M
arín
-Oso
rno;
Tho
mas
; Vio
letta
Hen
ning
sen
Mar
shal
lY
oun g
Hen
ning
sen
Far
quar
; Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
Far
quar
; Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
McE
wan
; Vio
letta
Jam
es; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta; M
arsh
all
Tho
mas
Hiru
da e
t al.,
199
7; K
innu
nen
Mar
shal
lJa
mes
; McE
wan
; Rom
ero
Mar
shal
lH
iruda
et a
l., 1
997
Tho
mas
En g
elbr
echt
; Tho
mas
McE
wan
Mar
shal
lM
cEw
anM
cEw
anC
hris
tieM
cEw
anM
arsh
all
Mar
shal
lM
arsh
all
Cor
reia
, J. 2
001
119
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Tab
le 8
.5 (c
on
tin
ued
). S
ucce
ssfu
lly tr
ansp
orte
d el
asm
obra
nchs
, sho
win
g te
chni
que
and
dura
tion
of tr
ansp
ort;
(j) r
efer
s to
juve
nile
and
(t)
ref
ers
to a
tow
ed s
ea-c
age.
Ifm
ore
than
one
refe
renc
e is
ava
ilabl
e, d
urat
ions
are
giv
en a
s a
rang
e sh
owin
g m
inim
ums
and
max
imum
s. A
ll re
fere
nces
wer
e pe
rson
al c
omm
unic
atio
ns u
nles
s ot
herw
ise
indi
cate
d by
a d
ate
of p
ublic
atio
n.
Sp
ecie
s n
ame
Co
mm
on
nam
eT
ech
niq
ue
Du
rati
on
(h
)
Isur
us o
xyrin
chus
Sho
rtfin
mak
oF
ree-
swim
min
g2
- 7
(j)R
estr
aine
d1.
5M
anta
biro
stris
Gia
nt m
anta
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
1 -
3M
obul
a m
unki
ana
Mun
k's
devi
l ray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
12M
uste
lus
anta
rctic
usG
umm
y sh
ark
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
8M
uste
lus
aste
rias
Sta
rry
smoo
th-h
ound
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
10M
uste
lus
calif
orni
cus
Gre
y sm
ooth
-hou
ndS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x36
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
36R
estr
aine
d6
Mus
telu
s he
nlei
Bro
wn
smoo
th-h
ound
Sea
led
bag
and
box
36F
ree-
swim
min
g1
- 36
Mus
telu
s m
uste
lus
Sm
ooth
-hou
ndS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x12
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
10 -
50
Myl
ioba
tis a
quila
Com
mon
eag
le r
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g20
Res
trai
ned
84M
ylio
batis
aus
tral
isA
ustr
alia
n bu
ll ra
yF
ree-
swim
min
g8
Myl
ioba
tis c
alifo
rnic
aB
at e
agle
ray
Sea
led
bag
and
box
30 (
j)F
ree-
swim
min
g1
- 36
Res
trai
ned
3M
ylio
batis
frem
invi
llii
Bul
lnos
e ea
gle
ray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
3R
estr
aine
d84
Nar
cine
bra
silie
nsis
Bra
zilia
n el
ectr
ic r
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x24
Neb
rius
ferr
ugin
eus
Taw
ny n
urse
sha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x14
Res
trai
ned
56N
egap
rion
acut
iden
sS
ickl
efin
lem
on s
hark
Res
trai
ned
32N
egap
rion
brev
irost
risLe
mon
sha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x14
- 4
8F
ree-
swim
min
g30
- 3
6R
estr
aine
d23
- 3
6N
otor
ynch
us c
eped
ianu
sB
road
nose
sev
engi
ll sh
ark
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
3 -
5R
estr
aine
d1
- 6
Ore
ctol
obus
mac
ulat
usS
potte
d w
obbe
gong
Sea
led
bag
and
box
24 -
30
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
8 -
10R
estr
aine
d4
- 26
Ore
ctol
obus
orn
atus
Orn
ate
wob
bego
ngS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x18
- 2
4R
estr
aine
d3
- 26
Par
agal
eus
rand
alli
Sle
nder
wea
sel s
hark
F
ree-
swim
min
g24
- 4
8P
astin
achu
s se
phen
Cow
tail
stin
gray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
24 -
56
Pla
tyrh
inoi
dis
tris
eria
taT
horn
back
gui
tarf
ish
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
4P
orod
erm
a af
rican
umS
trip
ed c
atsh
ark
Sea
led
bag
and
box
20 -
30
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
56P
orod
erm
a pa
nthe
rinum
Leop
ard
cats
hark
Sea
led
bag
and
box
20 -
30
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
56P
otam
otry
gon
mot
oro
Oce
llate
riv
er s
tingr
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g4
Prio
nace
gla
uca
Blu
e sh
ark
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
1.5
- 4
(j, t)
Res
trai
ned
3 -
8P
ristis
pec
tinat
aS
mal
ltoot
h sa
wfis
hS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x12
Res
trai
ned
12 -
24
Ref
eren
ce
Kin
nune
n; S
tesl
ow; T
hom
asP
owel
lC
hris
tie; M
arín
-Oso
rno
O'S
ulliv
anK
innu
nen
Jans
eT
hom
asT
hom
asE
ngel
brec
htT
hom
asH
owar
d; T
hom
asJa
mes
Jans
e; R
omer
oF
arqu
arM
arsh
all
Kin
nune
nT
hom
asH
owar
d; T
hom
asE
ngel
brec
htH
enni
n gse
nM
arsh
all
You
ngM
cEw
anM
arsh
all
Eng
elbr
echt
Hen
ning
sen;
You
ngT
hom
as; V
iole
ttaG
rube
r an
d K
e yes
, 198
1; H
enni
ngse
n; T
hom
as; Y
oung
Kin
nune
n; T
hom
asE
ngel
brec
ht; H
owar
dC
hris
tie; R
omer
oK
innu
nen;
Mar
shal
lH
iruda
et a
l., 1
997;
Mar
shal
lC
hris
tie; V
iole
ttaH
iruda
et a
l., 1
997;
Kin
nune
nM
cEw
anM
cEw
an; M
arsh
all
Tho
mas
Far
quar
; Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
Far
quar
; Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
Jans
eK
innu
nen;
Tho
mas
How
ard;
Pow
ell;
Ste
slow
; Tho
mas
Chr
istie
; Hen
ning
sen
Chr
istie
; En g
elbr
echt
; Hen
ning
sen;
Vio
letta
120
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
Tab
le 8
.5 (c
on
tin
ued
). S
ucce
ssfu
lly tr
ansp
orte
d el
asm
obra
nchs
, sho
win
g te
chni
que
and
dura
tion
of tr
ansp
ort;
(j) r
efer
s to
juve
nile
and
(t)
ref
ers
to a
tow
ed s
ea-c
age.
Ifm
ore
than
one
refe
renc
e is
ava
ilabl
e, d
urat
ions
are
giv
en a
s a
rang
e sh
owin
g m
inim
ums
and
max
imum
s. A
ll re
fere
nces
wer
e pe
rson
al c
omm
unic
atio
ns u
nles
s ot
herw
ise
indi
cate
d by
a d
ate
of p
ublic
atio
n.
Sp
ecie
s n
ame
Co
mm
on
nam
eT
ech
niq
ue
Du
rati
on
(h
)
Pris
tis p
ristis
Com
mon
saw
fish
Res
trai
ned
32R
aja
bino
cula
taB
ig s
kate
Sea
led
bag
and
box
12 (
j)F
ree-
swim
min
g1
- 5
Res
trai
ned
6R
aja
clav
ata
Tho
rnba
ck r
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x24
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
10R
aja
egla
nter
iaC
lear
nose
ska
teS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x30
Raj
a rh
ina
Long
nose
ska
teF
ree-
swim
min
g3
- 16
Raj
a st
ellu
lata
Sta
rry
skat
eF
ree-
swim
min
g3
- 15
Raj
a un
dula
taU
ndul
ate
ray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
8R
hina
anc
ylos
tom
aB
owm
outh
gui
tarf
ish
Res
trai
ned
5R
hinc
odon
typu
sW
hale
sha
rkR
estr
aine
d2
Rhi
noba
tos
annu
latu
sLe
sser
san
dsha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x20
- 3
0F
ree-
swim
min
g42
Rhi
noba
tos
gran
ulat
usS
harp
nose
gui
tarf
ish
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
24 -
48
Rhi
noba
tos
lent
igin
osus
Atla
ntic
gui
tarf
ish
Sea
led
bag
and
box
6 -
30R
hino
bato
s pr
oduc
tus
Sho
veln
ose
guita
rfis
hF
ree-
swim
min
g36
Rhi
noba
tos
typu
sG
iant
sho
veln
ose
ray
Res
trai
ned
56R
hino
pter
a bo
nasu
sC
owno
se r
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x6
- 60
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
12 -
76
Rhi
zopr
iono
don
terr
aeno
vae
Atla
ntic
sha
rpno
se s
hark
Sea
led
bag
and
box
10F
ree-
swim
min
g3
- 30
(j)
Res
trai
ned
6 -
8R
hync
hoba
tus
djid
dens
isG
iant
gui
tarf
ish
Res
trai
ned
2 -
42S
cylio
rhin
us c
anic
ula
Sm
alls
potte
d ca
tsha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
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x3
- 25
(j)
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e-sw
imm
ing
26S
cylio
rhin
us r
etife
rC
hain
cat
shar
kS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x18
Scy
liorh
inus
ste
llaris
Nur
seho
und
Sea
led
bag
and
box
10 -
24
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
3 -
26S
omni
osus
pac
ificu
sP
acifi
c sl
eepe
r sh
ark
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
5S
phyr
na le
win
iS
callo
ped
ham
mer
head
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
6 -
60 (
j)S
phyr
na m
okar
ran
Gre
at h
amm
erhe
adF
ree-
swim
min
g12
- 2
1S
phyr
na ti
buro
Bon
neth
ead
Sea
led
bag
and
box
8 -
48 (
j)F
ree-
swim
min
g8
- 76
Sph
yrna
zyg
aena
Sm
ooth
ham
mer
head
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
8 (t
)S
qual
us a
cant
hias
Spi
ny d
ogfis
hF
ree-
swim
min
g1
- 36
Res
trai
ned
1 -
6S
quat
ina
aust
ralis
Aus
tral
ian
ange
lsha
rkR
estr
aine
d3.
5S
quat
ina
calif
orni
caP
acifi
c an
gels
hark
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
4R
estr
aine
d6
Squ
atin
a du
mer
ilS
and
devi
lR
estr
aine
d0.
5 -
1S
quat
ina
squa
tina
Ang
elsh
ark
Sea
led
bag
and
box
17S
tego
stom
a fa
scia
tum
Zeb
ra s
hark
Sea
led
bag
and
box
14 -
24
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
8 -
20R
estr
aine
d6
- 56
Tae
niur
a ly
mm
aB
lues
potte
d rib
bont
ail r
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x14
- 2
4R
estr
aine
d56
Ref
eren
ce
Rom
ero
How
ard
How
ard;
Tho
mas
En g
elbr
echt
Mar
shal
lJa
nse
You
n gH
owar
d; T
hom
asH
owar
d; T
hom
asM
arsh
all
Sm
ith, 1
992
Kin
nune
nF
arqu
ar; S
abal
ones
Mar
shal
lM
cEw
anC
hris
tie; Y
oun g
Tho
mas
Mar
shal
lC
hris
tie; V
iole
tta; Y
oun g
Hen
ning
sen;
You
ngH
enni
ngse
nC
hris
tie; H
enni
n gse
n; V
iole
ttaS
tesl
owK
innu
nen;
Un p
ub. R
esul
tsJa
mes
; Jan
se; M
arsh
all
Jam
esM
arsh
all
Jam
es; M
arsh
all
Jam
es; J
anse
Tho
mas
Ara
i, 19
97; Y
oun g
, 200
2; T
hom
as; V
iole
ttaC
hris
tie; Y
oun g
Chr
istie
; Jam
es; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta; Y
oung
Chr
istie
; Jam
es; H
enni
ngse
n; T
hom
as; V
iole
tta; Y
oung
Kin
nune
nH
owar
d; J
ames
; Tho
mas
En g
elbr
echt
; How
ard
Kin
nune
nH
owar
dE
n gel
brec
htM
arín
-Oso
rno
Rom
ero
Chr
istie
; McE
wan
; Vio
letta
Kin
nune
n; R
omer
o; V
iole
ttaS
mith
, 199
2; H
iruda
et a
l., 1
997;
Mar
shal
lM
cEw
an; M
arsh
all
Mar
shal
l
121
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Tab
le 8
.5 (c
on
tin
ued
). S
ucce
ssfu
lly tr
ansp
orte
d el
asm
obra
nchs
, sho
win
g te
chni
que
and
dura
tion
of tr
ansp
ort;
(j) r
efer
s to
juve
nile
and
(t)
ref
ers
to a
tow
ed s
ea-c
age.
Ifm
ore
than
one
refe
renc
e is
ava
ilabl
e, d
urat
ions
are
giv
en a
s a
rang
e sh
owin
g m
inim
ums
and
max
imum
s. A
ll re
fere
nces
wer
e pe
rson
al c
omm
unic
atio
ns u
nles
s ot
herw
ise
indi
cate
d by
a d
ate
of p
ublic
atio
n.
Sp
ecie
s na
me
Co
mm
on
nam
eT
ech
niq
ue
Du
rati
on (
h)
Tae
niur
a m
eyen
iB
lotc
hed
fant
ail r
ayR
estr
aine
d56
Tor
pedo
cal
iforn
ica
Pac
ific
elec
tric
ray
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
2 -
6T
orpe
do m
arm
orat
aM
arbl
ed e
lect
ric r
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g8
Tor
pedo
nob
ilian
aE
lect
ric r
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g18
Tor
pedo
pan
ther
aP
anth
er e
lect
ric r
ayF
ree-
swim
min
g24
- 4
8T
riaen
odon
obe
sus
Whi
tetip
ree
f sha
rkS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x10
- 1
8 (j)
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
7 -
34R
estr
aine
d26
- 5
6T
riaki
s m
egal
opte
rus
Sha
rpto
oth
houn
dsha
rkF
ree-
swim
min
g20
- 3
0R
estr
aine
d84
Tria
kis
sem
ifasc
iata
Leop
ard
shar
kS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x24
- 3
6 (j)
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
1 -
48R
estr
aine
d6
Try
gono
rrhi
na f
asci
ata
Sou
ther
n fid
dler
Sea
led
bag
and
box
3 -
10F
ree-
swim
min
g10
Res
trai
ned
26U
rolo
phus
hal
leri
Hal
ler's
rou
nd r
ayS
eale
d ba
g an
d bo
x24
- 3
6F
ree-
swim
min
g36
Uro
batis
jam
aice
nsis
Yel
low
stin
gray
Sea
led
bag
and
box
24 -
48
Fre
e-sw
imm
ing
1 -
36U
rolo
phus
suf
flavu
sY
ello
wba
ck s
tinga
ree
Res
trai
ned
26
Ref
eren
ce
Mar
shal
lH
owar
dM
arsh
all
Jans
eM
cEw
anH
enni
n gse
n; M
cEw
an; V
iole
ttaB
arth
elem
y; M
arsh
all
Hiru
da e
t al.,
199
7; M
arsh
all
Far
quar
; Sab
alon
esM
arsh
all
Car
rier;
Tho
mas
; Mar
shal
lH
owar
d; J
ames
; Tho
mas
En g
elbr
echt
Kin
nune
n; M
arsh
all
Mar
shal
lH
iruda
et a
l., 1
997
Tho
mas
; You
n gT
hom
asT
hom
as; V
iole
tta; Y
oun g
; Mar
shal
lC
hris
tie; T
hom
asH
iruda
et a
l., 1
997
122
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
Tab
le 8
.5 (c
on
tin
ued
). S
ucce
ssfu
lly tr
ansp
orte
d el
asm
obra
nchs
, sho
win
g te
chni
que
and
dura
tion
of tr
ansp
ort;
(j) r
efer
s to
juve
nile
and
(t)
ref
ers
to a
tow
ed s
ea-c
age.
Ifm
ore
than
one
refe
renc
e is
ava
ilabl
e, d
urat
ions
are
giv
en a
s a
rang
e sh
owin
g m
inim
ums
and
max
imum
s. A
ll re
fere
nces
wer
e pe
rson
al c
omm
unic
atio
ns u
nles
s ot
herw
ise
indi
cate
d by
a d
ate
of p
ublic
atio
n.
123
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
treatment system. Throughout any transportcritical water parameters to monitor and controlinclude: (1) oxygen (described above); (2)temperature; (3) particulates and organics; (4) pH;and (5) nitrogenous wastes.
Temperature
When elasmobranchs go from a warmer to coolerenvironment they suffer a short-term thermal shockthat can result in respiratory depression. Conversely,an increased temperature can promote andexacerbate hyperactivity (Stoskopf, 1993, Ross andRoss, 1999). Reducing temperature differentials atthe source, in transit, and at the final destination,will increase the chances of a successful transport(Andrews and Jones, 1990; Stoskopf, 1993).Transport tanks should be well-insulated, and asmuch as possible, temperature-controlled environ-ments should be used (e.g., air conditioned vehicles,covered airport hangars, etc.). In extreme caseswater exchanges, bagged ice, bagged hot water, andheat beads may be used to minimize temperaturechanges depending on prevailing trends.
Particulates and organics
Particulate and dissolved organo-carboncompounds, or organics, are excreted byelasmobranchs during transport. In particular skatesand rays produce copious amounts of aproteinaceous slimes when subjected to stress.Particulates, or suspended solids, will irritate thegills, reduce water clarity, and cause distress tospecimens being transported (Ross and Ross,1999). Dissolved organics will tend to reduce pH,increase ammonia (NH
3) concentration, and
consume O2. The concentration of both particulates
and organics should therefore be minimized duringtransport. Dilution of particulates and organics canbe achieved by water exchanges, mechanicalfiltration, adsorption or chemical filtration, and foamfractionation (Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Stoskopf,1993; Dehart, pers. com.).
Mechanical filtration usually takes the form of acanister filter containing appropriate media (e.g.,pleated paper, filter wool, etc.). Filtration may beenhanced by the addition of an adsorption orchemical filtration medium such as activatedcarbon (e.g., Professional Grade ActivatedCarbon, Aquarium Pharmaceuticals Inc, USA) orother chemical filter (e.g., Eco-lyte™, MescoAquatic Products, USA) (Marshall, 1999). Eco-lyte™ is particularly effective (i.e., ~100 times as
effective as activated carbon) at removingdissolved organics (Gruber and Keyes, 1981). AsEco-lyte™ is an adsorption medium it will be moreeffective if preceded by a mechanical filter. Whenusing Eco-lyte™ it should be borne in mind that itwill remove medications from the water (e.g., anti-stress agents, anesthetics, etc.). Always pre-washa medium before packing a filter. For long transportsit is beneficial to completely replace the medium, intransit, once it has become heavily contaminated.
pH
Continued excretion of dissolved CO2 and H+ will
drive pH in a transport tank down (i.e., the waterwill become more acidic). Efforts should be madeto resist this trend and pH should be maintainedat a level of 7.8-8.2 (Murru, 1990). One importantway to counter pH decline is the continuousremoval of CO
2 from transport water by de-
gassing. Degassing is achieved by spraying re-circulated water into the tank and agitating thesurface, or alternatively, bubbling the watersurface with a diffuser. Air ventilation is criticalduring this process as it will carry away liberatedCO
2 gas (Young et al., 2002).
Both sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and sodium
carbonate (Na2CO
3) have been added to transport
water to successfully resist decreasing pH (Cliff andThurman, 1984; Murru, 1990; Smith, 1992). A moreefficient buffer is tris-hydroxymethyl aminomethane(e.g., Tris-amino®, Angus Chemical, USA). Thiscompound is more effective within the expected pHrange (i.e. 7.5-8.5) and is able to increase the acid-absorbing capacity of seawater by up to 50 times(McFarlane and Norris, 1958; Murru, 1990). It isimportant to remember that increased pH results inan increased proportion of the toxic form of ammoniaaccording to the reaction given in Equation 8.2. Anycorrective therapy applied to the pH of the watermust therefore be coupled with the removal ofexcess ammonia (Ross and Ross, 1999).
Nitrogenous wastes (NH3 / NH4+)
Ammonia constitutes approximately 70% of thenitrogenous wastes excreted by aquaticorganisms (Ross and Ross, 1999). Some delicate
Equation 8.2
NH4+ + OH- NH3 + H20
Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonia Waterion ion
→←
elasmobranchs are particularly nutrient-sensitiveand ammonia concentrations should never beallowed to exceed 1.0 mg l-1. The removal ofammonia from a transport tank should thereforebe one of the principal objectives of any watertreatment system. Ammonia can be removedsuccessfully using periodic 50% water exchangesand the application of adsorption media (seeabove). Pre-matured biological filters may beemployed if ammonia production levels duringtransport can be calculated and simulatedbeforehand (e.g., with ammonium chloride)(Dehart, pers. com.). Another option is to use anammonia sponge such as sodium hydroxy-methanesulfonate (e.g., AmQuel®, Novalek Inc.,USA) (Visser, 1996; Young et al., 2002). AmQuel®
inactivates ammonia according to the reactiongiven in Equation 8.3. The substance formed isstable and non-toxic, and wil l not releaseammonia back into the water. It should be notedthat this reaction will lower pH so the addition ofAmQuel® should be accompanied by the carefulapplication of a buffer as discussed above.Following the application of AmQuel®, onlysalicylate-based ammonia tests will yield accurateresults.
Zeol i te (e.g., Ammo-Rocks®, AquariumPharmaceuticals Ltd., USA), an ion-exchangeresin used for the removal of nitrogenous wastesin freshwater systems, does not work well inseawater because the ammonia molecule issimilar in size to the sodium ion. At a salinity of36 ppt there is a 95% reduction in zeolite’s abilityto remove ammonia from the water—although itsability to remove organic dyes remains unchanged(Noga, 1996).
ANESTHESIA
The mechanics of anesthesia, appropriate sedativesfor elasmobranchs, and corresponding dosage rateswill be covered in Chapter 21 of this manual. We willtherefore focus only on specific examples as theyrelate to elasmobranch transport.
Anesthesia may be valuable during specifictransports as it can minimize handling times,reduce physical injury, slow metabolic rate andO
2 consumption, and reduce the production of
metabolic wastes (Ross and Ross, 1999). Ifanesthesia is used, respiratory and cardiovasculardepression becomes a risk and must be avoided(Tyler and Hawkins 1981; Dunn and Koester,1990; Smith, 1992). Reduction of a specimen’smetabolism by chemical immobilization willconstitute a poor trade-off if circulation becomesso weakened that O
2 uptake and metabolite
effusion at the gill surface are impaired (Smith,1992). Additionally, the wide inter-specific diversityof elasmobranchs can make it difficult to predictdosage rates and possible sensitivity reactionsto immobilizing agents (Vogelnest et al., 1994).Consequently anesthesia may be warranted inspecific cases but is not advocated for generaluse during elasmobranch transports.
If anesthesia is used it will be more valuable iftransport does not begin until the drug has takenits full effect and specimen stability has beenassured (Smith, 1992). If defense reactions arenot fully moderated the animal could respond toexternal stimuli and physically injure itself orpersonnel. Aggressive emergence reactionsshould be avoided for the same reasons so visual,auditory, and pressure st imul i should beminimized during recovery (Smith, 1992). Somemeans to adequately monitor depth of anesthesiamust be employed throughout the transport sothat corrective measures can be undertakenshould system deterioration be observed (Dunnand Koester, 1990).
Inhalation anesthesia
A popular method of inducing anesthesia in smallsharks is by immersing them in water containingan anesthetic agent. The thin gill membranes actas the site of adsorption and the anestheticpasses directly into arterial blood (Oswald, 1977;Stoskopf, 1986). It is possible to control the depthof anesthesia by adjusting the concentration ofdrug in the water. Immersion, or inhalation,anesthesia is often impractical for large sharksso a modification of the technique, irrigationanesthesia, may be used as an alternative.Irrigation anesthesia is achieved by spraying aconcentrated solution of the anesthetic over thegills using a plastic laboratory wash bottle orpressurized mister. This system yields a rapid
124
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
Equation 8.3
NH3 + HOCH2SO3- H2NCH2SO3
- + H20
Ammonia AmQuel Aminomethanesulfonate Water
→←
125
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
induction but there is a risk of overdose and it canresult in delayed recovery (Tyler and Hawkins, 1981).
Some filtration media (e.g., ion-exchange resinsand activated carbon) may remove drugs usedfor inhalation anesthesia. Inhalation anesthesiacannot be employed in aquariums wherecontamination of the water is a consideration(Stoskopf, 1986).
A popular inhalation anesthetic for elasmobranchsis tricaine methanesulfonate or MS-222 (Finquel®,Argent Laboratories, USA) (Gilbert and Wood,1957; Clark, 1963; Gilbert and Douglas, 1963;Gruber, 1980; Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Tyler andHawkins, 1981; Stoskopf, 1986; Dunn andKoester, 1990). Unfortunately dosage rates fortransport purposes are not well documented.Stoskopf (1993) has suggested an immersioninduction dose of 100 mg l-1 MS-222 for the long-term anesthesia of small sharks; with an expectedinduction time of 15 minutes. For the transport offishes in general, Ross and Ross (1999) advocatea lower immersion induction dose of 50 mg l-1
followed by a maintenance dosage of 10 mg l-1.Brittsan (pers. com.) successfully restrained andtransported two blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinusmelanopterus) for 24 hours using an induction doseof 48 mg l-1 MS-222. Initial induction time wasapproximately two minutes and both animals weretransferred to the transport tanks within eightminutes. A maintenance dose was consideredunnecessary and was not applied.
Injection anesthesia
Inject ion anesthesia may be administeredintravenously (IV), intraperitonealy (IP), andintramuscularly (IM). IV injections result in a quickonset of anesthesia but can only be administeredto restrained animals, allowing accurate locationof appropriate blood vessels. IP administeredsedatives must pass through the intestinal wallor associated membranes so induction time isoften delayed. IM injections can be administeredto slow-swimming sharks without previousrestraint and induction time is usually quite fast.It is possible to administer IM injections to activeelasmobranchs with pole syringes or similarremote-injection devices. A convenient site for IMinjection is an area of musculature surroundingthe first dorsal fin, referred to as the dorsal saddle(Stoskopf, 1993).
The tough nature of shark skin and denticlesrequires the use of a heavy-gauge needle to
penetrate through to a blood vessel, body cavityor musculature (Stoskopf, 1986). The use ofheavy-gauge needles may present problems asshark skin is not very elastic and drugs may leakfrom the inject ion site. I f possible, gentlymassaging the injection site can reduce leakage.When using any form of injection anesthetic it maybe difficult to control depth of anesthesia becauseonce the drug has been introduced into systemiccirculation it is not easily reversed. In addition,recovery from a heavy dose of an injectedanesthetic may be prolonged if the drug is slowlyreleased from non-nervous tissue.
Sedation is defined as a preliminary level ofanesthesia where response to stimulation isreduced and some analgesia is evident (Ross andRoss, 1999). Sedation may be useful i f aspecimen is likely to struggle excessively duringthe initial stages of capture and preparation fortransport. The sooner a specimen becomesquiescent the better the chances of its long-termsurvival (Dunn and Koester, 1990). One of theauthors (Smith) has used Diazepam (Valium®, F.Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Switzerland)successful ly at 0.1 mg kg-1 IM to mit igatehyperactivity in sand tiger sharks for short periods.Visser (1996) applied 5.0 mg of Diazepam to a1.8 m sand tiger shark prior to transferring theanimal from the site of capture to a staging facility.Within minutes of application the shark wassedated and could be handled safely for a periodof approximately one hour.
A combinat ion of ketamine hydrochlor ide(Ketalar®, Parke-Davis, USA) and xylazinehydrochloride (Rompun®, Bayer AG, Germany)has been used successfully to deeply anesthetizelarge elasmobranchs, for long periods, whenadministered IM (Oswald, 1977; Stoskopf, 1986;Andrews and Jones, 1990; Jones and Andrews,1990; Smith, 1992). Stoskopf (1993) suggests theuse of 12.0 mg kg-1 ketamine hydrochloride and 6.0mg kg-1 xylazine hydrochloride for anesthetizinglarge sharks. Stoskopf (1986) further recommendsusing higher doses for more active sharks, suchas the sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus)(i.e., 16.5 mg kg-1 and 7.5 mg kg-1, respectively),and lower dosage rates for less active sharks likethe sand tiger (i.e., 8.25 mg kg-1 and 4.1 mg kg-1,respectively). The expected induction time atthese dosage rates is ~8-10 minutes. Andrewsand Jones (1990) successfully used 16.5 mg kg-1
ketamine hydrochloride and 7.5 mg kg-1 xylazinehydrochloride IM to anesthetize sandbar sharksfor transport purposes. Similarly the sand tigershark, bull shark, zebra shark (Stegostoma
126
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
fasciatum), and bowmouth guitarfish (Rhinaancylostoma) have been anesthetized andtransported using a combination of 15.0 mg kg-1
ketamine hydrochloride and 6.0 mg kg-1 xylazinehydrochloride IM, in conjunction with 0.125 mgkg-1 IM of the antagonist yohimbine hydrochloride(Antagonil®, Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc, USA)at the conclusion of the operation (Smith, 1992).Visser (1996) has anesthetized two 1.8 m sandtiger sharks, for transport purposes, using 900 mgketamine hydrochloride and 360 mg xylazinehydrochloride IM.
CORRECTIVE THERAPY
If a transport is extensive in duration, or precededby specimen hyperactivity, an elasmobranch willconsume a lot of its stored energy reserves. Byadminister ing glucose direct ly into thebloodstream it is possible to compensate for adrop in blood-glucose concentrat ions anddecrease the need to mobilize valuable glycogenstores from the liver. Reduced mobilization ofglycogen is particularly important if hyperactivityhas proceeded to such an extent thatglucocorticoids are depleted or blood-glucosereserves are nearing exhaustion (Smith, 1992).
Although elasmobranchs have a limited ability tobuffer their blood, it has been observed that theyare able to absorb bicarbonate (HCO
3-) directly from
the surrounding environment to help counteractacidosis (Murdaugh and Robin, 1967; Holeton andHeisler, 1978). This ability suggests an avenue fortherapy directed at alleviating acid-base disruptionin an acidotic elasmobranch: specifically, directadministration of HCO
3- into the bloodstream (Cliff
and Thurman, 1984). Acetate has been suggestedas an effective alternative to bicarbonate (Hewitt,1984), although there is some concern that acetatedegradation may be more noxious than bicarbonatedissociation (Young, pers. com.). Nevertheless, anacetate-bicarbonate combination has been usedsuccessfully to revive a prostrated blacktip reefshark by injecting the mix directly into thebloodstream (Hewitt, pers. com.).
In practice, a corrective therapy for hypoglycemiaand acidosis can be prepared by adding HCO
3-
or CO3
2- (carbonate) to an IV drip-bag of glucoseor dextrose (e.g., 100 ml of 8.4% NaHCO
3 mixed
in a 1.0 l IV drip-bag of 5% glucose in saline).The resulting mixture is introduced into thespecimen via an IV drip line and heavy-gaugecatheter. The preferred si te for therapy
administration is the large dorsal blood sinus justunder the skin and posterior to the first dorsal fin.This site allows the position of the catheter to bemonitored closely (Murru 1990). If this bloodvessel resists penetration, it is possible to use acaudal blood vessel just posterior to the anal finor even to introduce the catheter IP. IV will bemore effective than IP in the case of bradycardia(cardiac depression). Approximately 500 ml of thecorrective therapy should be administered to a100 kg shark every hour (i.e., 5 ml kg-1 h-1). Thisdosage may be increased if the decline in bloodpH is known to be profound (Smith, 1992).
Many workers have produced variations on thistherapeutic recipe to make it less physiologicallychallenging to target elasmobranchs (Table 8.6).In some cases, urea has been added to equilibratethe osmotic pressure of the mixture with that of sharkplasma (Murru, 1990; Andrews and Jones, 1990).This area of corrective therapy would benefit greatlyfrom some structured research.
MONITORING
When transporting delicate species, or using anelaborate transport regime, it is important tofrequently check specimen and equipment status(Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Smith, 1992; Ross andRoss, 1999). Many important factors should beverified and have been summarized in Table 8.7.If a problem is observed, corrective measuresshould be undertaken immediately. Tanks shouldbe packed so that windows, access hatches, andcritical equipment (e.g., valves, gauges, tools,etc.) are all easily accessible. Testing equipmentto measure critical water parameters should becarried and used.
It is important to monitor venti lat ion rate.Ventilation and cardiac rates are functionallylinked in many fishes and may be neurologicallysynchronized (Ross and Ross, 1999). Gilbert andWood (1957) observed that heartbeat wassynchronous with ventilation rate in anesthetizedlemon sharks. Skin color should be monitored asit may be used to loosely assess biochemicalimpact on a specimen; increasing loss of skincolor equating to an increased biochemicalchange (Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Smith, 1992).Stoskopf (1993) observed that hypo-oxygenationcould cause sharks to turn blotchy and increasetheir respiration rate, while hyper-oxygenationcaused them to become pale and occasionallycease ventilation altogether (Stoskopf, 1993).
127
CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Tab
le 8
.6.
Cor
rect
ive
ther
apie
s ap
plie
d to
hyp
ogly
cem
ic a
nd a
cido
tic e
lasm
obra
nchs
dur
ing
tran
spor
tatio
n sh
owin
g fo
rmul
atio
ns,
dosa
ge r
ates
for
adul
t sp
ecim
ens,
mod
e of
adm
inis
trat
ion,
and
spe
cies
tre
ated
.
Hew
itt,
198
4B
alla
rd, 1
989
Mu
rru
, 199
0A
nd
rew
s an
d J
on
es, 1
990
Sm
ith
, 199
2V
isse
r, 1
996
Dex
tros
e25
.0 g
l-1 (
2.5%
)D
extr
ose
? aD
extr
ose
20.0
g l-1
(2.
0%)
Glu
cose
1.00
g l-1
Glu
cose
50.0
g l-1
(5.
0%)
Glu
cose
50.0
g l-1
(5.
0%)
NaH
CO
3?
aN
aHC
O3
0.42
g l-1
NaC
O3
? bN
aHC
O3
0.35
g l-1
NaH
CO
30.
84 g
l-1 d
NaH
CO
30.
84 -
3.3
6 g
l-1 e
Am
ino
acid
s? a
Ure
a30
0 m
Eq
l-1U
rea
c21
.02
g l-1
Ele
ctro
lyte
s?
aN
a+28
0 m
Eq
l-1N
aCl
16.0
0 g
l-1
B-v
itam
ins
? a
Cl-
230
mE
q l-1
KC
l0.
40 g
l-1
K+
4.4
mE
q l-1
CaC
l 20.
14 g
l-1
MgC
l 20.
10 g
l-1
KH
2PO
40.
06 g
l-1
MgS
O4
0.10
g l-1
NaH
PO
40.
90 g
l-1
? a25
0 -
500
ml h
-140
- 1
00 m
l h-1
120
ml h
-150
0 m
l h-1
600
- 70
0 m
l h-1
IVIP
IP (
or IV
)IP
IP (
or IV
)IP
Car
char
odon
car
char
ias
Car
char
hinu
s le
ucas
Car
char
hinu
s le
ucas
Car
char
hinu
s pl
umbe
usC
arch
arhi
nus
leuc
asC
arch
aria
s ta
urus
Car
char
hinu
s ob
scur
usC
arch
arhi
nus
obsc
urus
Car
char
ias
taur
us
Car
char
hinu
s pl
umbe
us
a: v
alue
unk
now
n.b:
val
ue u
nkno
wn;
sod
ium
car
bona
te a
dded
to fo
rmul
atio
n un
til p
H v
alue
of 8
.4 a
ttain
ed.
c: u
rea
adde
d to
form
ulat
ion
until
osm
otic
pre
ssur
e eq
uilib
rate
d w
ith s
hark
pla
sma.
d: q
uote
d as
8.4
g 1
00m
l-1 H
CO
3- add
ed to
900
ml o
f 5%
glu
cose
in s
alin
e.e:
quo
ted
as 8
.4 g
100
ml-1
HC
O3- a
dded
to 9
00 m
l of 5
% g
luco
se in
sal
ine
and
16.8
g 2
00m
l-1 H
CO
3- add
ed to
800
ml o
f 5%
glu
cose
in s
alin
e.
ACCLIMATIZATION AND RECOVERY
At the termination of a transport specimens shouldbe acclimatized to local water parameters byslowly replacing the water in the transport tankwith water from the quarantine facility (referChapter 11 for more information about specimenacclimatization). If the elasmobranch appears tobe healthy, prophylactic treatments (e.g., anti-helminthic baths, antibiotic injections, etc.) maybe appl ied (Mohan, pers. com.). Seriousabrasions, punctures, or lacerations should beevaluated and may require the application of anantibacterial agent or possibly sutures (Murru,1990). Handling should be kept to a minimum andexcess external stimuli avoided.
Reversal of immobil iz ing drugs should becoincident with specimen release. Once aspecimen starts to swim normally, muscle tissuewill be flushed with fresh, oxygenated blood. Thisprocess wi l l cause metabol ic by-productssequestered in the tissues and extra-cellularspaces to move into circulat ion. Highconcentrations of toxins may enter delicate organsand possibly compromise recovery (Cliff andThurman, 1984). In addition, immobilizing drugsmay be flushed into the bloodstream and renewtheir paralyzing effects. During this period theanimal may be disorientated and exhibit defenseresponses to external stimuli (Gruber and Keyes1981; Smith, 1992).
When released, some pelagic and demersalelasmobranchs will lie on the bottom of theaquarium. Walking while holding the shark in thewater column, flexing its caudal peduncle, and
stroking i ts dorsal surface have al l beenrecommended as techniques to increaseventilation, assist venous return, and facilitaterecovery (Clark, 1963; Gruber and Keyes, 1981).These techniques require excess handling anddo not simulate normal swimming behavior. Inaddit ion, these techniques may actual lycompound the effects of hyperactivity andprematurely flush systemic circulation with highconcentrations of toxic metabolites. As long asan elasmobranch is venti lating voluntari ly,allowing it to lie in a current of oxygen-richseawater avoids these complications (Hewitt,1984; Smith, 1992; Stoskopf, 1993).
It is preferable to allow specimens to recover inan isolated and unobstructed tank. Once arecovering elasmobranch is swimming freely it isimportant that a program of post-transportobservation be implemented. Feeding the animalwithin 24 hours of transport is not recommended(Smith, 1992). If a suitable isolation facility isavailable, a comprehensive quarantine regimeshould be seriously considered before thespecimen is introduced into the destination exhibit(Andrews, pers. com.).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following individuals made valuablesuggestions to improve the contents of this chapter:Jackson Andrews, Geremy Cliff, Heidi Dewar, JohnHewitt, Frank McHugh, Pete Mohan, Dave Powell,Juan Sabalones, Dennis Thoney, Marty Wisner, andForrest Young. I would like to thank the staff of theOceanário de Lisboa, and International Design for
128
SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP
1.1 Ataxia (uncoordinated movements) or disorientation.1.2 Partial or total loss of equilibrium.1.3 Tachy-ventilation or brady-ventilation (i.e. increased or decreased gill ventilation rates).1.4 Changes in muscle tone.1.5 Changes in shade and homogeneity of skin color.1.6 Possible physical injury.
2.1 Bubbles emerging from oxygen diffuser.2.2 Uninterrupted power supply and power supply not overheating.2.3 Pump operating correctly and not overheating.2.4 Water flow constant and correctly orientated.2.5 Water level stable with no appreciable leakages.2.6 Water clear and uncontaminated.2.7 Water quality parameters within acceptable limits.
Table 8.7. Important factors to monitor throughout an elasmobranch transport. Should any of these factorsrepresent a progressive problem corrective measures should be undertaken immediately.
Equipment
Specimens
the Environment and Associates, all of whomallowed me valuable time to work on theelasmobranch husbandry manual project.
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PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Andrews, J. 2002. Tennessee Aquarium, Chattanooga, TN37402, USA.
Barthelemy, D. 2001. Océanopolis, Brest, F-29275, France.Brittsan, M. 2002. Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, Powell, OH
43065, USA.Carrier, J. 2001. Albion College, Albion, MI 49224 -5011, USA.Choromanski, J. 2001. Ripley Aquariums, Inc., Orlando, FL
32819, USA.Christie, N. 2001. Atlantis Resort, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33304, USA.Dehart, A. 2001. National Aquarium in Baltimore, Baltimore,
MD 21202, USA.Ezcurra, M. 2001. Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, CA
93940, USA.Farquar, M. 2001. Two Oceans Aquarium, Waterfront, Cape
Town, 8002, South Africa.Henningsen, A. 2001. National Aquarium in Baltimore,
Baltimore, MD 21202, USA.Hewitt, J. 2000. Aquarium of the Americas, New Orleans, LA
70130, USA.Howard, M. 2001. Aquarium of the Bay, San Francisco, CA
94133, USA.James, R. 2001. Sea Life Centres, Dorset, DT4 7SX, UK.Janse, M. 2001. Burger ’s Ocean, Arnhem, 6816 SH,
Netherlands.
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CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Kinnunen, N. 2001. Sydney Aquarium, Darling Harbor, Sydney,2001, Australia.
Marín-Osorno, R. 2001. Acuario de Veracruz, Veracruz, CP91170, Mexico.
Martel Bourbon, H. 2001. New England Aquarium, Boston,MA 02110, USA.
McEwan, T. 2001. The Scientific Centre, Salmiya, 22036,Kuwait.
McHugh, F. 2001. The Tower Group, Boston, MA 02150, USA.Mohan, P. 2001. Six Flags Worlds of Adventure, Aurora, OH
44202, USA.O’Sullivan, J. 2001. Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, CA
93940, USA.Powell, D. 2001. Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, CA
93940, USA.Romero, J. 2001. National Marine Aquarium, Plymouth, PL4
0LF, UK.Sabalones, J. 2001. Newport Aquarium, Newport, KY 41071,
USA.Steslow, F. 2001. New Jersey State Aquarium, Camden, NJ
08103, USA.Thomas, L. 2001. Oregon Coast Aquarium, Newport, OR
97365, USA.Thoney, D. 2003. Humboldt State University, Trinidad, CA
95570, USA.Young, F. 2001. Dynasty Marine Associates Inc., Marathon,
FL 33050, USA.
131