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THE ELEMENT OF MYSTICISM IN THE SELECTED
WORKS OF KAHLIL GIBRAN
BY
HOMAM ALTABAA
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Philosophy, Ethics and
Contemporary Issues
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge
and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
AUGUST 2016
ii
ABSTRACT This study takes a comparative and analytical approach to exploring the various
mystical aspects that encompass selected creative works of Kahlil Gibran in English
and Arabic. It presents an overview of theistic mysticism as the guiding light for the
analysis of his works, before examining the mystical themes represented by Gibran
such as Truth, the Perfect Divine Being, the mystic path, and spiritual morality,
coupled with analogies from Islamic and Christian mysticism. The study finds that
Gibran adopts mysticism as a universal answer to questions about the meaning of life
and as a path that seeks to elevate man above material preoccupations into a world of
spiritual and moral perfection. Gibran uses a prophetic voice to guide the soul from its
transcendental origin through a journey of purification, gnosis, and love to reach
mystical unity with God. It highlights that the importance of the mystical element
cannot be overestimated in the works of Gibran. The mystical element is the link that
unifies his Arabic and English works, and propels them to enduring literary and
popular success across cultures. He places himself as a writer in the traditional context
of mysticism, taking the esoteric heart and spiritual core of all religions to be one. The
moral values promoted by Gibran are based on his mystical outlook and his
conception of a just and loving God.
iii
خلاصة البحث
في تحليل النصوص، أن تستكشف أبعاد التصوف مقارنا منهجا تحاول هذه الدراسة، معتمدة الروحي في أعمال جبران. وتقدم الدارسة عرضا عاما عن التصوف الروحي باعتباره عمادَ تحليلِ الأفكار والمواضيع الصوفية كالحق والرب والطريق الصوفي والأخلاق الروحانية في أعمال
بارزين. وقد وجدت الدراسة أن جبران جبران مع مقارنتها بأعمال كتاب مسلمين ومسيحيين اعتمد التصوف الروحي جوابا شافيا عن معنى الحياة وطريقا وافيا يهدي الإنسان للتسامي على مشاغله المادية وصولا إلى الكمال الروحي والأخلاقي. كما اتخذ جبران أيضا موقف
د عبر مراحل التخلية والمعرفة والمحبة في رحلة عودتها إلى الواحد الأح النبي الناصح ليقود الروحالإلهية. واستنتجت الدراسة أن التصوف الروحي يمثل حجرَ الأساس في أعمال جبران والرابطَ الأساسي بين أعماله العربيةِ والإنكليزيةِ والعاملَ الأكبر وراء نجاح هذه الأعمال ورواجها.
يدي يرى اتحادَ جوهرِ الأديان في وبذلك يضع جبران هذه الأعمالَ ضمن سياقٍ روحي تقل بحثها عن الحقيقة ويبني عالمها الأخلاقي على أساس روحي يؤمن بإلهٍ محبٍ وعادل.
iv
APPROVAL PAGE
The thesis of Homam Altabaa has been approved by the following:
_____________________________
Prof. Dr. Hassan El-Nagar
Supervisor
_____________________________
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ajmal bin Abdul Razak Al-Aidrus
Internal Examiner
_____________________________
Prof. Dr. Zakariyau I. Oseni
External Examiner
_____________________________
Prof. Dr. Afis Ayinde Oladosu
External Examiner
_____________________________
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Md. Yousuf Ali
Chairman
v
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Homam Altabaa
Signature ........................................................... Date .........................................
vi
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF
FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
THE IMPACT OF MOBILE INTERFACE DESIGN ON
INFORMATION QUALITY OF M-GOVERNMENT SITES
I declare that the copyright holders of this dissertation are jointly owned by the
student and IIUM.
Copyright © 2016 Homam Altabaa and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights
reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the
copyright holder except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research
may be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies
(print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved
system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by
other universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM
Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Homam Altabaa
……..…………………….. ………………………..
Signature Date
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ................................................................................................................. ii Abstract in Arabic ................................................................................................. iii
Approval Page ....................................................................................................... iv
Declaration ............................................................................................................ v
Copyright Page ...................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1.1 Overview.............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Background on Mysticism: Secularism, Religion, and Spirituality .... 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................ 4
1.4 Significance of the Study ..................................................................... 5
1.5 Statement of Problem .......................................................................... 6
1.6 Methodology and Theoretical Assumptions ........................................ 7
1.7 Scope and Limitations ......................................................................... 9
1.8 Literature Review ................................................................................ 11
1.8.1 On the Life and Works of Gibran ............................................. 11
1.8.2 On Mysticism and Mystical Literature ..................................... 34
1.9 Organization of the Study .................................................................... 37
CHAPTER TWO: THE LIFE AND WORKS OF GIBRAN ............................... 39
2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 39
2.2 The Historical Context in the Levant................................................... 40
2.3 The Historical Context in the United States of America ..................... 44
2.4 Immigration at the Turn of the Century ............................................... 46
2.5 Arabic Literary Context ....................................................................... 48
2.6 American Literary Context .................................................................. 51
2.7 Arabic Émigré Literature ..................................................................... 54
2.8 The Life of Kahlil Gibran .................................................................... 56
2.9 Major Literary Works of Gibran.......................................................... 65
2.10 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 80
CHAPTER THREE: MYSTICISM AND LITERATURE .................................. 82
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 82
3.2 Mysticism: Etymology and Background ............................................. 83
3.3 Mysticism: Modern Definitions and Dimensions ................................ 84
3.4 Mysticism: The Divine and the World ................................................ 87
3.5 Universality, Perennialism and East-West Interaction ........................ 88
3.6 Characteristics of Mysticism ............................................................... 90
3.7 Islamic Mysticism ................................................................................ 92
3.7.1 Etymology and Origins ............................................................. 93
3.7.2 Quran and Islamic Mysticism ................................................... 94
3.7.3 Quran and Mystic Tenets .......................................................... 95
3.7.4 The Primordial Covenant .......................................................... 96
3.7.5 Prophet and Murshid ................................................................. 97
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3.7.6 Categories of People ................................................................. 98
3.7.7 Self-Discipline and Asceticism ................................................. 99
3.7.8 School of Thought ..................................................................... 100
3.8 Mysticism and Literature in Theistic Traditions ................................ 102
3.8.1 Divine Essence and Attributes in Islamic Mystical Writings ... 102
3.8.1.1 Unity of Being/Manifestation ......................................... 103
3.8.1.2 Abrahamic Roots ............................................................ 104
3.8.2 Divine Essence and Attributes in Christian Mystical Writings 105
3.8.3 Mysticism of Knowledge and Prose Mystical Literature .......... 107
3.8.4 The Path of Mystics .................................................................. 110
3.8.4.1 The Mystic Way: Islamic Representations ..................... 111
3.8.4.2 The Mystic Way: Christian Representations .................. 112
3.8.5 Love in Mystical Literature ....................................................... 113
3.8.5.1 Love in Christian Traditions ........................................... 114
3.8.5.2 Love in Islamic Traditions .............................................. 117
3.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 119
CHAPTER FOUR: MYSTICISM IN GIBRAN: THE TRUTH ........................... 120
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 120
4.2 Mystical Truth and Divine Reality ...................................................... 121
4.2.1 Gibran and the Expression of Truth .......................................... 123
4.2.1.1 Appearance and Reality .................................................. 125
4.2.1.2 The Elephant and the Frog ............................................. 126
4.2.1.3 Mystical or Religious Truth? .......................................... 128
4.3 The Absolute Truth, God ..................................................................... 131
4.3.1 The Poem “God” ....................................................................... 132
4.3.1.1 Speaking To God ............................................................ 135
4.3.1.2 First Prayer: The Lord .................................................... 136
4.3.1.3 Second Prayer: Creator and Sustainer ............................ 138
4.3.1.4 Third Prayer and Divine Love ........................................ 139
4.3.1.5 Rejection of Duality ....................................................... 140
4.3.1.6 Fourth Prayer: The Answer is Unity ............................. 141
4.3.2 Connotations of Gibran's Views on God ................................... 143
4.3.2.1 A Multifaceted Concept ................................................. 144
4.3.2.2 Meaning in Life .............................................................. 145
4.3.2.3 God and Justice ............................................................. 146
4.3.3 Epilogue on the Concept of God ............................................... 147
4.4 The Truth of Man: The Soul ................................................................ 147
4.4.1 Avicenna and Gibran................................................................. 148
4.4.1.1 Duality and Imprisonment .............................................. 151
4.4.1.2 Veiling and Disclosure ................................................... 154
4.4.1.3 The Cycle of Ascension and the World of Matter .......... 155
4.4.2 Soul and Unity .......................................................................... 156
4.4.3 Transmigration of the Soul ....................................................... 159
4.4.4 Epilogue on the Concept of the Soul......................................... 161
4.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 161
CHAPTER FIVE: GIBRAN: THE WAY OF THE MYSTIC ............................ 163
5.1 Introduction and Overview .................................................................. 163
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5.1.1 Gibranism .................................................................................. 164
5.2 Love in the Mystic Way ...................................................................... 165
5.2.1 Love: A Call from the Divine ................................................... 166
5.2.2 Love: Purification and Perfection ............................................. 167
5.2.3 Love and Longing ..................................................................... 170
5.2.4 Consummate Love .................................................................... 171
5.2.5 Annihilation and Unity .............................................................. 172
5.3 Contemplation and Beatific Disclosure ............................................... 174
5.4 Nature and Truth in the Mystic Way ................................................... 177
5.4.1 Gibran and Nature ..................................................................... 178
5.5 MORALITY IN THE MYSTIC PATH ............................................... 183
5.5.1 The Prophetic Voice .................................................................. 185
5.5.2 Characteristics of Gibran’s Moral Message .............................. 186
5.6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 190
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION ........................................................................ 191
6.1 Overview.............................................................................................. 191
6.2 On Truth and God ................................................................................ 192
6.3 On the Soul .......................................................................................... 194
6.4 On the Mystic Way .............................................................................. 195
6.5 Tradition .............................................................................................. 197
6.6 Areas for Further Research .................................................................. 198
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 199
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Kahlil Gibran, commonly acknowledged as a leading figure in modern Arabic
literature and a popular writer in American literature, has introduced various mystical
aspects throughout his works. The life of Gibran has been well studied, as well as his
position as a Romantic and a literary iconoclast; however, his views on mysticism as a
defining aspect of life have not received the same critical attention. The mystical
element conceived by Gibran is a unifying thread that ties together his literary output
in two totally different cultural environments. It grants his works a distinctive flare
amidst the apprehension of modernity, rooting them in the human psyche with
reverberations of ancient mysticism and spirituality. The popular success of Gibran
could be attributed to the fact that Gibran, in every single work, has gracefully given
voice to the deep human need for spiritual answers to pressing questions on the
meaning of existence.
As this is true in both his Arabic and English writings, the mystical element of
his literary corpus warrants thorough comparative analysis to reveal its various aspects
for a rich critical appreciation across cultures. This study seeks to underscore these
aspects within a larger context of mystical literature in the Western and the Muslim
civilizations. To achieve this, an overview of the life of Gibran, in both its formative
and productive periods, is presented. This is followed by an outline of the historical
and literary contexts in both America and the Middle East in the late 19th
and early
20th
centuries. An introduction to defining concepts in the study of mysticism in
2
literature forms the backbone of this study. The works of Gibran are examined
through the perspective of these concepts to highlight the vital and acute implications
of mysticism in these works. This chapter serves as the introduction to the entire
study, with emphasis on its objectives and organization. This chapter also offers a
critical review of the studies on Gibran, focusing on their evaluation and presentation
of mystical themes.
1.2 BACKGROUND ON MYSTICISM: SECULARISM, RELIGION, AND
SPIRITUALITY
Generally, mysticism and the search for a direct experience of the “Holy” have been
integral parts of the religious phenomenon and date back to ancient times. Mysticism,
and spirituality in general, have played an indomitable role in shaping human life and
history. Through one form or another, mystical religious experiences have been an
essential feature of every civilization across the longitudes and latitudes of human
geography and history.
Academically, the importance of mysticism and spirituality is still evident in
the various modern disciplines that study their aspects such as psychology and
sociology. This study of mysticism from the vantage point of various modern
disciplines develops mysticism itself and clarifies its concepts and constructs. It seems
that mysticism and spirituality are very important, and their impact is too pervasive, to
be confined to the realm of religious studies. However, the rigorous detached study of
mysticism in all its manifestations in various disciplines has only flourished in the 20th
century. Examining the personal and collective impact of mysticism within the world
of literature is key for the erudite appreciation of both literature and mysticism within
the wider frame of one or multiple cultures.
3
Recently, developments in natural and social sciences with revolutionary ideas
such as Darwinism or Marxism have not usurped the central role of mysticism and
spirituality in numerous communities. However, traditional religions have been at
battle with forces of secularism, most crucially since the Age of Enlightenment.
Christianity in Europe have endured the heaviest agnostic and atheistic blows. Thus,
the realm of religion in society and in personal life has receded across various
cultures, with science and its empiricist essence gaining ground. However, recent
studies have shown that modernity has given way to a thriving practice of religious
expression, namely that of spirituality that distances itself away from traditional,
institutionalized forms of religion.1
This spirituality, in contrast to unyielding institutional religion, does not rely
on doctrinal obedience and fear of sin, but rather on contemplative love and
democratization of the sacred. The sacred itself is brought down from above the skies
to be personally experienced everywhere. As traditional forms of religion struggle
with reductionist science, and as political and capitalist promises fail, spirituality
succeeds as a refuge for the modern man.2
The above description could pose a question as to how does the recedence of
religion and the resurgence of spirituality relate to the mysticism of Gibran or to the
works of Gibran at large? To answer such questions, one needs to examine some
biographical aspects of this émigré writer. Gibran was influenced by his devout
Maronite mother to admire and value Jesus as the epitome of divine grace and human
compassion. This admiration is evident throughout his works. However, Gibran
deeply detested the practices of the Church in rural Lebanon. The greed and tyranny
1 Paul Heelas, “The Spiritual Revolution from ‘Religion’ to ‘Spirituality’”, in Religions in the Modern
World, edited by Linda Woodhead, et la. (New York: Routledge, 2005), 412-433. 2 Refer to: David Tacey, The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of Contemporary Spirituality
(New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2004), 11-28.
4
of the church are well-documented in his Arabic writings. This did not lead Gibran to
reject all aspects of religion and to embrace agnosticism or nihilism.3 Rather, he
accepted the spiritual aspect of religion, with its emphasis on man’s personal relation
with the Divine, and rejected the formal authority of organized religion. After
immigrating to the United States, Gibran also rejected its materialism and rather
endorsed European Romanticism, which played an important role in the formation of
his spirituality.4 In short, Gibran permanently left adherence to one strict interpretation
of religion and its pervasive formal laws to embrace the spiritual core of all religions.
Thus, Gibran would readily exhibit Christian or Islamic influences in presenting his
mystically-inclined literary themes.5 This study will examine the various aspects of
mysticism in the works of Gibran, as a literary interaction between religion,
secularism, and spirituality in the twentieth century.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
No other Arab-American writer has met the success of Gibran since immigration to
America began. A full appreciation of the most successful bilingual writer of Arabic
and English literature is not possible without the critical examination of the mystical
themes that define and characterize his works. It is the mystical center of Gibranian
texts that grant them their universality and success in two different cultures. In a
nutshell, the study aims to examine the mystical elements expressed by Gibran in his
3 Although the ideas of Nietzsche greatly influenced Gibran in a certain stage of his life.
4 Raymonde Cobin, ’Al-Naz‘ah ’Al-Rūḥīah fī ’Adāb Jūbrān wa Nā‘īmī, (Beirut: Dār ’Al-Fikir ’Al-
Lubnānī, 1993), 17-36. This important study presents a survey of the factors that affected the spiritual
formation of Gibran. 5 Wail Hassan attributed the spiritual and mystical aspects of Gibran to a sense of alienation and social
marginalization due to his position as an immigrant. Thus, Gibran resorted to systematic lies about his
origin and social status and to self-Orientalizing by presenting a monolithic and vague Eastern
mysticism to American audience through a stereotypical sage. Refer to: Wail S. Hassan, “Gibran and
Orientalism”, in Arab Voices in Diaspora: Critical Perspectives on Anglophone Arab Literature, edited
by Layla Al Maleh. (New York: Rodopi, 2009), 65-92.
5
Arabic and English works. This study of spiritual themes such as divine love and
existential unity is entwined with an exploration of the mystical ways and moral
setting that can lead to such love and unity. It employs various aspects of Islamic and
Christian mysticism in comparison and contrast with the mysticism of Gibran to offer
a better understanding his works and a critical understanding of spirituality in
literature at the turn of the 20th
century.
Thus, this thesis will primarily explore:
1. The varied dimensions of mysticism in the works of Gibran, and how
Gibran presented mysticism as the quintessence of the relationship
between man and God.
2. The ways Gibranian mysticism defines the relationship between man and
the universe and the relationship between man and man on the basis of
agape and justice.
3. The foundation of the relation between man and Divine Reality through
focusing on a theistic view of a good and loving God, who can be reached
through the journey of the soul on several mystical paths. In other words,
this point elucidates aspects of the mystic way as conceived by Gibran.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The stature of Gibran as the most prominent Arab-American writer has been well
established. His books have sold millions of copies and have been translated into
scores of languages.6 He is a leading figure of Arabic Romanticism, literary reform,
and the Émigré School. Gibran proves that it is possible to overcome geographical,
linguistic, and cultural barriers to become a successful literary figure on the world
6 Wail S. Hassan, “Gibran and Orientalism”, in Arab Voices in Diaspora: Critical Perspectives on
Anglophone Arab Literature, edited by Layla Al Maleh. (New York: Rodopi, 2009), 65.
6
stage. The search for the meaning of existence in literature is as significant today as it
has been during the early days of the past century. The message of Gibran is a quest to
find this meaning in its most intimate and direct form, in an age notorious for its
spiritual infertility and worldwide conflicts. The vision of Gibran penetrates through
the thick veils of materialism and doubt to the beating heart of human consciousness,
connecting it to the soul of the universe. An examination of the mystical aspects of his
works is essential for a critical appreciation of their merits. One must note here that
Gibran has not received the academic and critical attention that matches his
popularity, especially in the West. Furthermore, the spiritual and mystical aspects of
his works have scarcely received any dedicated critical attention. This study aims to
fill this gap by focusing on the mystical elements in both his Arabic and English
works.
1.5 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Reading and analyzing works by the same writer in two different languages,
belonging to two major literary traditions, poses interesting problems as to the effect
of language and culture on their themes. Undoubtedly, the overall genre and style used
by Gibran changed after he began publishing in English in 1918. The sustained
narrative of Spirits Rebellious or lyrical poetry of The Processions have not found
parallel in the English output of Gibran, who came to mostly rely upon parables and
aphorisms with a didactic tone and prophetic voice - to great commercial success.
Nonetheless, the mystical thread remained as true in his English writings as it was in
Arabic. Mystical aspects remained as central features of his works. Thus, the act of
immigration and the change in language and culture did not uproot the mystical
7
element. Thus, understanding this mystical element presents an opportunity to
appreciate the constant and universal that engaged readers of Gibran across the world.
However, tracing the roots and various manifestations of the mystical elements
represented by Gibran is arduous task. Despite his relative lack of formal education,
the intellectual prowess and erudition of Gibran are undeniable. He exhibited
knowledge of countless philosophical and religious works and concepts. A
comprehensive analysis of his English and Arabic works is required to reveal all the
implications and connotations of the mystical elements he expressed.
1.6 METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
This study employs a comparative approach that encompasses the Arabic and English
works of Gibran against a backdrop of traditional mysticism. The act of comparison in
general can be understood as an act of pointing out the differences and similarities
between two or more objects of observation. In fact, any literary study cannot do
without an element of comparison. For instance, one cannot appreciate the importance
of T.S. Eliot without contrasting him against the backdrop of the literary period of the
time and maybe the Romantic poets that preceded Modernism. Hence, O. J. Campbell
described a function of comparative literature to be the appreciation of development of
individual works by ways of discovering similarities and resemblances with other
works. Other functions assigned by Campbell to comparative literature include
revealing the laws that transcend a certain literature and the affinity between
literatures.7 This understanding of the comparative literary approach is relevant to the
study of mysticism in the works of Gibran as it links between his Arabic and English
7 Irvin Ehrenpreis, The Types Approach to Literature, (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1945), 21.
8
output on the one hand, and between his works and the works of great Christian and
Islamic mysticism on the other.
Henry Remak defines comparative literature as “the study of literature beyond
the confines of one particular country, and the study of the relationships between
literature on the one hand and other areas of knowledge and belief… the sciences,
religion, etc., on the other. In brief it is the comparison of one literature with another
or others, and the comparison of literature with other spheres of human expression.”8
One key aspect of comparative research in literature is thematology, where
intertextual and intratextual echoes of a theme link the works of literature. These
echoes accommodate and implicate numerous literary forms and motifs that are highly
varied: characters, setting, plot, myth, images, symbols, etc.9 Tötösy de Zepetnek sees
comparative literary study, in one sense, as the study that entails crossing the
boundary of one language or the boundary of one nation. Additionally, it incorporates
the application of other disciplines “in and for the study of literature”, both in content
and in form. Such comparative studies are thus a challenge to the “exclusion and self-
referentiality of single language and literature” and rigid boundaries. It may be in this
context perceived as a “dialogue between cultures, languages, literatures, and
disciplines”. 10
The study of mysticism in this thesis serves as the theme that crosses
the confines of countries and languages and the link between literature and other fields
of human expression.
Accordingly, the confines of a single country and the assumptions of a
homogenous culture must be crossed and overcome in order to realize the factors and
8 César Domínguez, Haun Saussy, and Darío Villanueva, Introducing Comparative Literature: New
Trends and Applications, (London: Routledge, 2015), 5. 9 Refer to: Claudio Guillen. The Challenge of Comparative Literature, (Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press, 1993), 196. 10
Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, Comparative Literature: Theory, Method, Application, (Amsterdam:
Rodopi, 1998), 13-16.
9
influences that molded the creative character and works of Gibran. This necessitates a
comparative-analytical literary approach to these works that accurately places them in
their larger context. As mysticism has played a historically important role in the
religions and cultures of both the Muslim East and Christian West11
, the examination
of the mystical elements in the works of Gibran should benefit from the mystical
traditions of both Eastern and Western civilizations. Thus, the relevant writings of
Gibran will be compared and contrasted with pertinent mystical texts from Christian
and Muslim traditions to assess their universality, relativism or localism and their
innovativeness.
The detailed and critical examination of every literary work of Gibran is one
methodic way to assess the themes and values he addresses. This is aided by a
comprehensive review of the critical commentaries and studies about his life and
works. While some of these works are general, offering an overall picture of his life or
works, others are focused directly on subject-matters related to the study of mysticism.
A study of religion, spirituality or even in some instances romanticism in his life and
works inevitably addresses certain mystical aspects since these concepts either overlap
or are systematically indivisible.
1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
The study first presents a summary of the life and times of Kahlil Gibran, placing
emphasis on his cultural background in the Levant and the various local and
international factors affecting it. The emphasis shifts then, with the journey to Boston
by the Gibrans, to the Western historical and literary context at that stage. This study
aims to examine a small intersection of life and literature. It is situated within a
11
The two biographical spheres and literary environments of Gibran.
10
historical context, made more present by historical events -- such as immigration --
that shaped the life of the author whose works are under examination.
The study covers the creative works of Gibran, written in a span of around 26
years between 1905 and 1931. The major Arabic publications of Gibran are Music,
Nymphs of the Valley, Spirits Rebellious, Broken Wings, A Tear and A Smile, The
Processions, and The Tempests. A collection of short pieces written in Arabic was
published in 1923 as The New and the Marvelous. The English works of Gibran began
in 1918 with The Madman, and continued with The Forerunner, The Prophet, Sand
and Foam, Jesus the Son of Man, and finally The Earth Gods. The Garden of the
Prophet, which was pieced together, completed and published posthumously by
Barbara Young in 1933 is not part of this study as its authenticity cannot be verified.12
The correspondences of Gibran and close friends such as Mary Elizabeth Haskell and
Palestinian-Lebanese writer May Zīyādah 1886-1941 are not included under his major
creative writings. The same goes for innumerable articles written by Gibran in various
newspapers under political or cultural subheadings.
Throughout this thesis, mystical themes in all Gibranian works are
methodically analyzed to study the various aspects they represent, comparing them
with the works of great mystics such as St. Teresa and Jalaluddin Rumi. The survey of
the major mystical themes across his Arabic and English works is carried out with the
guiding light of concepts elaborated and refined in works of Christian and Islamic
mysticism. The study, in its reliance on mysticism as the framework to study the
creative output of Gibran, is not limited to one or two writers or schools. This ensures
12
Suheil Bushrui, “Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān”, in Essays in Arabic Literary Biography: 1850-1950, edited
by Roger M. A. Allen, (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010), 189 (175-191).
11
the diversity of religious and spiritual views and attitudes that reflect the myriad of
Gibranian mystical representations.13
Certain objections about the blasphemous undertones of some of Gibran’s
works are not included within the limits of this study. Some writers object, as Dr.
Samuel Johnson, to “figurative expression in addressing the Supreme Being” and see
the relation between God and the soul of a human as too high a subject to be
addressed in poems and the like.14
Such views are also glossed over in this study in
favor of human expression of one’s most essential experience.
To guarantee its focus and to refine its scope, the study will essentially address
the following research questions:
1. What are the various dimensions and roles of mysticism in the works of
Gibran? How do they shape the relationship between man and God?
2. How does mysticism influence the relationship between man and the
universe in the works of Gibran?
3. How is man supposed to achieve this perfect and moral relation with God
and the universe?
1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW
1.8.1 On the Life and Works of Gibran
There have been numerous dedicated studies on the life and works of Gibran which is
understandable due to his stature and popularity in Arabic and American literatures.
Nonetheless, it has been argued that the literary establishment has not given Gibran
13
It can be noted that this study does not underscore the role played by Romanticism in the formation
of the Gibran’s worldview, as the influence of Romanticism, especially William Blake, has been the
subject of various former studies. 14
David Jasper, The Study of Literature and Religion: An Introduction, (London: Macmillan, 1992),
10-12.
12
his due credit, especially in the United States, since Gibran has attained global
recognition, been translated into tens of languages, and sold more volumes than all
poets of America, including Walt Whitman and T.S. Eliot.15
This review seeks to present an overview of the studies about Gibran and
highlight, when possible, the input of these studies on the mystical aspects in his
creative writings. Naturally, these studies have been written in various languages, but
the focus here will be on studies published in English and Arabic, originally or by
translation. Some of these studies, in entire books or in articles, are dedicated to the
spiritual or religious aspects of Gibran’s works, with some focus on certain mystical
aspects.
One of the comprehensive studies on Gibran and his works is Kahlil Gibran:
Man and Poet, written by Suheil Bushrui and Joe Jenkins, and published in 1998.
Bushrui was a world-renowned scholar on Gibran, and established the Kahlil Gibran
Research and Studies Project at the University of Maryland, which sponsored the
book. The book follows chronologically the life of Gibran in eleven chapters. In this,
it analyzes the context of writing and publishing his major works, offering insights
and critical commentary on them individually. Throughout its scholarly observations
and analyses, the book is methodic and well-referenced. In commenting on the book,
Kathleen Raine16
strikes a comparison between Gibran and W. B. Yeats, seeing them
both as teachers of the modern world who rejected their contemporaneous
materialism. In this rejection, Gibran is viewed as “re-visioning Christianity in the
15
Irfan Shahid. “Gibran Kahlil Gibran Between Two Millennia,” Farhat J. Ziadeh Distinguished
Lecture in Arab and Islamic Studies, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilization,
University of Washington, Seattle, April 30, 2002. (Online at
http://depts.washington.edu/nelc/ziadehseries.html) 16
Kathleen Jessie Raine (1908–2003) was a British poet and critic, influenced by William Blake and
W. B. Yeats, and deeply interested in spirituality.
13
light of Islamic (Sufi) mysticism”17
to locate a spirituality for the people. The book
acknowledges and presents a clear appreciation of the mystical and spiritual aspects of
Gibran. It sees Christian mysticism and Sufism as great factors in forming the
character and poetic aspirations of Gibran. These two influences combined to issue
forth the seminal character of Almustafa, the spiritual Prophet of “East and West”18
The book has plenty to offer for readers interested in the spiritual influences on
Gibran. It also occasionally offers comparisons between Gibran and prominent
mystical writers, with regard to certain mystical concepts such as unity of being. In
this, Bushrui and Jenkins have no qualms in describing Gibran as Sufi. In summary,
the commentary on the Arabic works of Gibran concludes by describing them as an
onslaught of social justice against corruption, hypocrisy, and oppression. At the same
time, they are a subtle manifestation of Gibran’s “mystical ontology, reforging Sufi
thought to express the poetic realities of his own creative vision.”19
As for his English
works, they are seen as counterweight against the mechanic Western worldview that is
“arrogantly unresponsive to mysticism”. Thus, Gibran transcends these mechanic
views and any cultural barriers to infuse his invaluable Eastern spirituality into the
Western literary and cultural arenas.20
Another key biography on Gibran is the work by his friend and peer, Mikhail
Naimy, which was originally published in Arabic and later translated into English.
The beautiful original prose of Naimy, who dramatized some biographical anecdotes
of Gibran, is hard to match in any other biography on the latter. Another aspect that is
hard to match is the fact that Naimy knew Gibran very well as a close friend and
colleague. Naimy and Gibran shared a similar poetic vision that culminated in the
17
Suheil Bushrui and Joe Jenkins, Kahlil Gibran: Man and Poet, (Oxford: One World, 2008), vii. 18
Ibid., 9. 19
Ibid., 15. 20
Ibid., 18.
14
establishment of the Pen League with other prominent and like-minded émigré
writers. The common life and shared vision of both poets awarded Naimy deep
insights into the life and work of his friend. In recording these insights, Naimy does
not refrain from criticizing his friend or from offering his subjective opinions. An
interesting factor forming the mysticism of Gibran, according to Naimy, was his
desire for fame. Gibran became drunk with the success of his publications, and sought
more recognition by claiming to be a mystic from the East, born in Bombay rather
than Bsharrī. Naimy also depicts the ominous and pervasive effect of Nietzsche’s
Thus Spoke Zarathustra on his friend, and how it replaced his sense of compassion
and spirituality with a will to power and greatness.21
Naimy describes how the
influence of Nietzsche receded and Gibran arrived at his mystical belief in an “All-
including Self”, from which, like a mother, all human souls proceed. On this belief,
the morality of man is built, where one is to be as compassionate to other souls as the
Mother. Knowledge comes as a flow of the All-Self into the soul. If the flow
increases, the human soul feels herself to be infinite, in unity with the All-Self, and
embracing the whole existence.22
It is this mystical ontology that enabled Gibran to
conceive The Prophet, eagerly conveying the “mystic bond of love” and the charms of
these spiritual discoveries.23
In summary, the importance of this book, by one of the
pioneering and adroit writers of modern Arabic, lies in the fact that it presents a
comprehensive picture of Gibran. In other words, Gibran is not sentimentally
presented as a one dimensional mystic or a Romantic rebel. Rather, it points to various
imperfections such as his excessive inebriation and his hunger for acclaim. The book
describes how numerous biographical developments shaped the evolution of the
21
Mikhail Naimy, Kahlil Gibran: His Life and his Works, (Beirut: Naufal Publishers, 1974), 119-121. 22
Ibid., 177-178. 23
Ibid., 185.
15
complex character of Gibran as a person and as a creative poet. Accordingly, the
mystical writing of Gibran can thus be appreciated through a more multifaceted and
nuanced biographical background.
A similar biography in delineating the complex character of Gibran is Prophet:
The Life and Times of Kahlil Gibran by the British Classical scholar Robin
Waterfield.24
This book is an academic study rather than a personal account by a
colleague or a hagiography by a follower. It pays close attention to the flaws of
Gibran’s character, such as insincerity, pretension, and narcissism. The inaccurate
stories of Gibran about his family, status, and mystical upbringing are highlighted on
various occasions. These, coupled with desire for fame and greatness, ensured the
downfall of Gibran by way of alcoholism and cirrhosis when he was forty-eight years
old. Nonetheless, the aim of the book is not to disparage Gibran, but to present a
complete portrait of a man, who is both vain and capable of genius-like spiritualism.
The book explores all aspects of Gibran’s life, with a stress on his failure to live up to
the spirituality he preached. Despite this and despite his sentimentality, the book sees
Gibran as an ancestor and forerunner of the New Age movement that rebuffed
institutional religion and embraced subjective spirituality.
It can be noted that the biographies by Bushrui and Waterfield have both
benefited from one earlier biography, namely, Kahlil Gibran: His Life and World by
Gibran’s Lebanese-American relative, Kahlil Gibran, and his wife, Jean Gibran,
(1981).25
However, the importance of this biography lies in the fact that it is the first
meticulous, exhaustive, and well-documented account of Gibran. The one by Naimy is
subjective at times and does not rely on historical research and documentation as
24
Robin Waterfield, Prophet: The Life and Times of Kahlil Gibran, (New York: St. Martin's Press,
1998), 25
Kahlil Gibran and Jean Gibran, Kahlil Gibran: His Life and World, (Northampton, Massachusetts:
Interlink Publishing, 1998).
