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THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF
BRAHMANISM IN THAILAND WITH SPECIAL
REFEREMCE TO THE ICONOGRAPHY OF BRAHMANICAL
DEITIES
(UP TO 13TH
CENTURY A.D.)
Submitted by
Wannapat Ruangsup
Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the Degree of Philosophy
In Archaeology
Research Supervisor
Prof. R.K. Mohanty
Co-Research Supervisor
Prof. Phasook Indrawooth
Submitted To
Deccan College Post Graduate and Research institute
Pune 411006
A University Established under section s of the UGC. Act 1956, vide Government of
India Notification No.F.9 - 17/84 - U.3 dated 5th
March 1990
November 2013
Contents
Page No
Acknowledgement I - II
List of Figures: III - XVI
List of Tables: XVI
Chapter 1: Introduction 1 - 8
Chapter 2: Social and Cultural Study of Thailand 9 - 36
Chapter 3: The cultural relationship between India and Southeast Asia
From the beginning of Christian era 37 -164
3.1. The development of political history and trade connection
in India and Southeast Asia 38 - 119
3.1.1 Trade as the exchange networks in South and Southeast
Asia: Literary and archaeological aspects 50 - 58
3.1.2 The development of Southeast Asian states from the prehistory
up to proto Historical period 59 - 80
3.1.3 States formation in Southeast Asia: political history and
Socio-economic structures 81 - 119
3.2. The development of Brahmanism in India and Southeast Asia 120 -164
Chapter 4: The development of Brahmanism in Thailand in context of Epigraphy
and architectures 165 - 197
4.1 The Brahmanism in epigraphic source 165 -168
4.2 The Brahmanism in ancient arts and Architectures in Thailand
before the 13th century 169 - 197
This theisis is presented in two volumes
Volume 1: Page- 1 - 197
Volume 2: Page- 198 - 509
Chapter 5: The iconography of Siva and Vishnu in Thailand before the
13th century A.D. 198 - 394
5.1 Siva 189 - 289
5.2 Vishnu 289 - 394
Chapter 6: The iconography of Goddesses (Saktis), other Gods and
minor deities 395 - 468
6.1: Goddess: Lakshmi and Durga 395 - 410
6.2: Ganesha 410 - 430
6.3: Skanda 430 - 432
6.4: Brahma 432 - 451
6.5: Navagrahas and Dikpalas 451 - 468
Chapter 7: Conclusion 469 - 478
References 479 - 509
P a g e | I
Acknowledgement
First and foremost I would like to thank my research Guide Prof. R.K.
Mohanty, and my co-Guide Prof. Phasook Indrawooth for accepting me as research
student under them. Besides academic aspect, they also taught me many things in life
during the years in India. Their encouragement always gives me the light and new
inspiration for further studies in the field of arts and archaeology. Without their kind
perseverance, supports and guidance this work would not have been finished.
I am thankful to the government of Thailand, the SFR .51 scholarship officers
and Royal Thai embassy, New Delhi for supporting my research and helping me to
complete this work successfully. I would specially thank Department of liberal Arts,
Ubonratchatani University for allowing me to study in India as scholarship student
under their name. I am totally grateful to all of them.
I am greatly indebted to Deccan College and the college staffs who have been
very cooperative and was like an extended family throughout my long staying in the
campus.
Here, I wish to thank the archaeologists and officers at Fine art departments of
Thailand and the National museums that I visited for field works. Their hard and
valuable works in excavations and conservations have given me number of wonderful
sculptures related to my field study. Sincerely, I believe, their enduring projects
would be the most important part of this research. Without their kind cooperation, my
work might have not been completed.
Some photos I used in this works, I have got them from my kind senior
archaeologists. I specially thank Mr. Yuthana Varakorn Sangaram, Mr. Sarath
(P’Nick), Miss Wilasinee (P’Phung) and Miss Kannika (P’Bee) for their kind
suggestion, helps and everything that supported me during my field works. My thanks
humbly also go to Dr. Bumrung Kamek, Dr. Chedha Tingsanshali and Mr. Kittipong
Bunkerd for moral supports and valuable advices.
I am also thankful to my editors, Dr. Shushubana Kodial, Dr. Utain
Wongsathit, Ramika Batra, Pankaj Goyal, Amrita Sen, Ajmal Shah and Sikhashree
Ray who gave me their time for editing work. I heartily thank all of them.
P a g e | II
I specially thank Aref Biglari, Neda Tehrani, Ali Mishiri, Sadhag, Venerable
Ariyawansa, Ananda, and Tarindu for their supports which cherished and encouraged
me during the difficult time. My thanks are also gone to my Thai friends namely Miss
Wiangkum Choun U Dom, Mr. Prasertsak K., Mr. Sompit (Nuang), Prawin Minthong,
Tul Jirachoksopol and Venerable Arjarn Sopol for their loving supports and always
being with me for many years.
My heartfelt thanks are also given to my friends who accompanied me for
years of research work. I am thankful to Sikhashree Ray, Shantanu Vaidya,
Meenakshree Chauley, Tosabanta Padhan, Nikhil Das, Tejal Ruikar, Tanushree Redji,
Burhan, Tosabanta, Kim Yong Jung and others friends from Deccan College.
Finally, I am grateful to God for giving me my beloved family, my parent and
brother, who has always given me love and understanding for 30 years. My work and
life could have not been successfully completed without them.
Wannapat Ruangsup
P a g e | III
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Map of Thailand
Fig.2. Map of Southeast Asia
Fig.3. Map of proto-historical Asia (from the Millenuim B.C. 1st Millenium A. D.)
Fig.4. Map of proto- historical sites in Southeast Asia and the trade routes during early
Christian era
Fig.5. Distribution of etched beads, knobbed vessels, high-tin bronze and rouletted ware in
India
and Southeast Asia (after Glover 1989)
Fig. 6. The Buddha and Bodhisattavas images of Dvaravati
Fig. 7. The Vishnu images from U-thong, Suparnburi provine
Fig. 8. The plan of the basement remains of Brahmanical temple near by the ancient tank
(no. 6.)
at U Thong, Suparnburi province
Fig. 9. The comparative architectural remains and plan at Sri Mahosoth, and Beikthano (KKG
14,Pyu: Burma)
Fig. 10. The Khuha caves, Songkla province.
Fig. 11. The shrine at Bujung valley (Malaysia), Candi Blandogan (Indonesia),
Fig. 12. Thung Tuk (Thailand), the temple at Khao Kha and Saivite related aritifacts (Yoni
pedestal and Svayambhu linga)
Fig. 13. The temples at Khao Srivijaya, Suratthani (Thailand)
Fig. 14. The location of Khmer Brahmanical monuments in northeastern Thailand
Fig. 15. Prasat Phum Pon temple, Sankha district, Surin province
Fig. 16. The Prang Sri Tep and Prang Song Pi Nong temples
Fig. 17. The view of Khao Khlang Nai mound.
Fig. 18. Prasat Muang Tam, Buriram province
Fig. 19. Prasat Sri Kharabhumi, Surin province and Sra Kamphang Yai temple, Sri saket
province
Fig. 20.The Phanom Rung sanctuary, Buriram province and Prasat Pimai temple, Nakon
Ratchsima province
Fig. 21.The Prasat Phanom Rung sanctiary and axial plan, Buriram province : Thailand
Fig. 22.Darasuram temple, Tamilnadu (11th -12th century A.D.)
Fig. 23.Kandariya Mahadeva Temple: Khajuraho (10th-11th century A.D.)
P a g e | IV
Fig. 24.Map showing the location of major Khmer temples (Prasat Pimai and surrounding
monuments) with other archaeological sites. Phimai is located at Nakon Ratchasima
province, northeastern Thailand.
Fig. 25.Map showing the location of Phanom Ruang sanctuary and its surrounding
archaeologicalsites in Buriram province, northeastern Thailand.
Fig. 26.The early Mukhalinga, Gudimallam, Mathura and puncha mukhalinga from Bhita
(Allahabad)
Fig. 27.The realistic linga and Mukhalinga dated to Kushana period from Kankali Tila
(Mathura) and Aghapur
Fig. 28. The linga from Karamdanda (Uttra Pradesh) and Arvalem (Goa)
Fig. 29. The early tripaties linga from Ahicchatra and Sondani, Madhaya Pradesh
Fig. 30.The ealy South Indian linga from Alampur (Andhrata Pradesh), two lingas
fromMamallapuram (Tamilnadu) and two polished linga from Pattadakal and Aihole
(Karnataka)
Fig. 31. The linga at Bridesvara temple, Tamilnadu
Fig. 32.The modern Siva linga Ramatirtha temple, Halsi (Karnataka) and linga from
Mahadeva temple, Goa
Fig. 33. The relief of early mukhalinga associated with pithas from Mathura
Fig. 34. The realistic linga from Chennitalai,two lingas from Oc Eo and Vat Crak, transbassac
region
Fig. 35. The linga from Yarang, Pattani province: National museum Songkla
Fig. 36. The linga from Wat Kheaw, National museum Chaiya, Suratthani province.
Fig. 37. The Siva lingas from Koh Chand masjid, Nakon Sri Thammarat: national museum
Nakon SriThammarat
Fig. 38. The lingas from Wat Thung Nong Kong, Brahmagiri district
Fig. 39. The linga from Phum Pon Village, Surin province and the linga from Prang Song Pi
Nong, Sri Tep.
Fig. 40. The fountain lingas from Candi Jolotundo: Eastern Java and the granite linga from
Nakon Sri Thammarat, National museum
Fig. 41. The linga from Kok Peep, Prachinaburi province, National museum Bangkok.
Fig. 42. The fragment of realistic linga from U Thong
Fig. 43. The realistic linga from Nakon Prathom, Wat Phra Prathom Chedi temple
Fig. 44. The linga from Vat Slen temple (220-250 cm) (Parmentier 1935: 89 - 90)
Fig. 45. The ekMukhalinga from Chaiya, Suratthani province, National museum Bangkok
P a g e | V
Fig. 46. The Gupta ekmuklingas from (left) Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh), Shahdul (Bhopal
state museum), Mathura (Private collection Chicago) and Mrgasthali, Nepal
Fig. 47.The Ek Mukhalinga from Prathat Phankhan temple, Suvarnbhumi district: National
museum Roiet, Roiet province
Fig. 48.The linga from Oc Eo Vat Sek Sampao and Neak Ta Svay Damba
Fig. 49.The Ekmukhalinga from Kok Chang Din remains, U Thong: National museum U
Thong, Suparnburi province
Fig. 50.The ekmukhalinga from U Thong: National museum U Thong, Suparnburi.
Fig. 51.The lintel from Wat En Khna temple: Albert Sarraut museum, pre Angkorean before
9th century
Fig. 52.Tympan de Trach Pho, Phang-rang, Vietnam
Fig. 53.The Ekmukhlinga with pithas from U Thong, National museum U Thong,
Fig. 54.The decorated golden mask of Cham mukhalinga, (museum Gimet: Paris)
Fig. 55.The early mukhalinga in tripatities from (left) Oc EO and Bathe (transbassac region)
Fig. 56.The tripartite linga from Nation museum Chaiya, Suratthani province
Fig. 57. Ban Sra Kud Village, Si Chon district and (Right) Old Siva Shrine 1 (Ho Prah
Isavara)
Fig. 58. Old Siva Shrine 2 (Ho Prah Isavara) and (Right) Wat Na Khom temple, Nakon
Srithammarat
Fig. 59. The lingas and high relief from Pattadakal
Fig. 60.Siva linga from Sathing Pra and (Right) Linga from Ranod, National museum
Songkla
Fig. 61.The linga from Na Khom temple, National museum Nakon Srithammarat and and
Siva from Wat Theparaj, Nakon Srithammarat
Fig. 62. The Tripartite Siva linga from Prang Song Phi Nong ,Sri Thep and (Right) The Siva
linga from Petchaburna province
Fig. 63. The Khmer linga from Phanom Bakhaeng sanctuary and the Khmer geometric
tripaties linga from private museum Chicago
Fig. 64. The tripartite Siva linga from Aranya Pradesh district, Sra Kheaw, National museum
Prachinaburi, The Lingas from Sri Saketh province and Nakon Ratchasima, National museum
Pimai
Fig. 65.The tripartite Siva linga from Nakon Ratchasima and the group of miniature lingas
from Prasat Pimai sanctuary, National museum Pimai (Nakon Ratchasima province)
Fig. 66.The tripartite Siva lingas from Prasat Ta Muan Tom, National museum Surin.
P a g e | VI
Fig. 67. The tripartite lingas (left and right) from Non Puey village, Surin, National museum
Surin
Fig. 68.The Cham Jatalinga from Myson, mukhalinga from Tra-lien and Cham jatalinga with
reduced neck portion from Tra-Kieu
Fig. 69.The Javanese lingas with high decorated pithas, the miniature linga from private
collection, the linga from Tara-Ulan museum and Tandjong tirtha, Indonesia
Fig. 70.The Kotilinga at Mahakuti, the group of minor lingas from Ekambesavara temple:
Kanchipuram, Bhridesvara temple, Tanjavour
Fig. 71.The miniature lingas from Phanom Kulen
Fig. 72.The Siva linga from Sri Mahabhodi, National museum Prachinaburi
Fig. 73.The linga with high pithas from Sombor Prei Kuk, Cambodia
Fig. 74.The linga from Hoh Prah Isavara (Siva shrine) Nakon Srithammarat, National
museum Nakon Srithammarat and the terracotta Siva linga from Prasat Chang Pi :Surin
Fig. 75.The Siva linga from Prasat Phu Prasat temple and (Right) Sivalinga from Lopburi,
National museum Bangkok
Fig. 76.The lingas from from (left) Candi Ijo and Candi sari, Indonesia
Fig. 77.The linga pithas from Masjid Koh Chand (left) and Siva shrine of Nakon Sri
Thammarat
Fig. 78. The early square pedestal from Don Khum Nueng (Roiet province)
Fig. 79.The minor Siva linga, The Siva linga from Sri Thep site (Petchabura province) and
Phanom Rung Sanctuary (Buriram Province)
Fig. 80.The Svayambhu linga at Khao Kha monument, Nakon Sri Thammarat province
Fig. 81.The pithas and high pedestal at Khao Kha monument
Fig. 82.The bronze image of Agastaya, Satingpra district, National museum Songkla
Fig. 83.The Agastaya images from Southern Thailand Brahmapurisvara (Chola art, the early
of 10th c.), Candi Banon, National museum Jakarta (central Javanese art the 7th – 9th c.) and
the seer Ternavindu in the form of Agastaya of Singosari complex (eastern Javanese art the
13th-14th c.)
Fig. 84.The Agastaya (?) image (65 cm) from Southern Vietnam
Fig. 85. The bronze image of Siva mahadeva, National museum Songkla
Fig. 86. (Left) The Siva-Mahadeva image from Songkla, the bronze image of Avalokitesvara
and Siva of Central Javanese art, National museum Jarkata
Fig. 87.The Vatuka Bhairava from Viang sra, National museum Bangkok (53 cm)
Fig. 88.The Siva in Bhairava forum from South India, (from left) Brhadesvara (Tanjavour),
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Bhairava from South India dated to the 9th-10th c. British
P a g e | VII
museum, the Bhairava image from Kinarma (North Arcot. Tamilnadu) and Mugaiyur, State
museum Channai
Fig. 89.The sthanaka murti of Siva image and the group of Uma-Ganga-Patisavara images
from Prasat Ba Kong sanctuary of Preh Ko style.
Fig. 90. (Left) The Siva image from Prasat Nong Ku, National museum Bangkok, (Middle)
the Siva image from Ku Noi, National museum Konkhean and (Right) the Siva image from
Prasat Nang Ram, National museum Pimai
Fig. 91. The head portion of Siva images from Prasat Nang Ram and Ku Noi
Fig. 92. The relief of Siva Nataraja from Prasat Prah Pithu, Cambodia
Fig. 93. The reliefs of Siva nataraja in Cham art from My Son C1 and Phong Li, Vieatnam
Fig. 94. The Nataraja from Odhisa, (Vaital and Satrughnesvara temple
Fig. 95. The Nataraja reliefs from Badami and Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Fig. 96. The relief from Prasat Nairai Jeng Weng, Surin province
Fig. 97. The relief from eastern pediment of Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 98. The figure of Karaikal ammaiyar sitting with ganas from the relife of Siva Nataraja
from Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Fig. 99.The relief from Prasat Sri Khorabhumi, Surin province
Fig. 100. The depiction of Arjuna-Kirata from Prasat Sri Khorabhumi and the same depiction
from Kailashnath temple, Kanchipuram.
Fig. 101.The relief from Prasat Sra Kamphang Yai, Sri Saket province
Fig. 102The relief of Siva Nataraja from Prasat Pimai, Nakon Ratchasima province
Fig. 103.The relief from Ku Suan Thang, Bururam province, National museum Pimai
Fig. 104.The Uma-Mahesvara images in Indian art and the sculptures from Mandsor, State
museum Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)
Fig. 105.The Uma-Mahesvara images in Indian art from Hemavati, State museum Chennai
and Helebidu, State museum Bangalore
Fig. 106. The reliefs of Uma-Mahesvara murti in Thailand at Prasat Sra Kamphang Yai, Sri
Saket and Muang Tum, Buriram province
Fig. 107. The Uma-Mahesvara fromPrasat Puey Noi, Phanom Rung sanctuary, Sri Tep and
Prasat Muang Kheak, National museum Pimai
Fig. 108. The relief of Yoga Daksinamurti from Phanom Rung Sanctuary
Fig. 109. The relief from Pimai, national museum Pimai
Fig. 110. The relief from Prasat Muang Tum, National museum Pimai
Fig. 111. The relief depicted on the pediment of Pimai
P a g e | VIII
Fig. 112.The image of Ardhanarisvara from Ubon Ratchathani province, location unknown,
National museum Ubon ratchatani (59 cm)
Fig. 113. The Avalokitesvara from Rajgir, dated to the 8th - 9th century, Gimet (Paris)
Fig. 114. The frangment of Ardhanarisvara from Sri Tep, petchaburna province
Fig. 115. The comparative lower garment feature of Ardhanarisvara from Sri Tep with the
Harihara from Asharma Maharishi (Boiseelier 1955: 7) and Goddess from Koh Krien
(museum Gimet)
Fig. 116. The head of Harihara image, National museum Prachinaburi (10 cm)
Fig. 117.(Left) The head protions of Harihara of pre-Angkorean style, (Left) the Harihara
from Phanom Da, Prasat Andet and Muang Kavai, Chandraburi province
Fig. 118. The inscription of King Mulavarman of Taruma, eastern Java (Indonesia)
Fig. 119. (Left) The Vishnu image from Wat Sala Thung temple(Chaiya),National museum
Bangkok. (center) Vishnu image from Yelleswaram, Andhara pradesh. (right) The head
fragment of Vishnu images, National museum Nakon Sri Thammarat
Fig. 120. (Left)The Vishnu images from National museum Nakon Sri Thammarat and (Right)
Vat Mahathatu temple, Nakon Sri Thammarat province
Fig. 121.(Left) The Vishnu image from Ban Phang Kam, National museum Nakon
Srithammarat and (Right) The Vishnu image from Tjibuaja (western Indonesia)
Fig. 122.The Vishnu images from U-Thong
Fig. 123.The early Vishnu images (D) from U Thong, Suparnburi province and (Right) the
Visnu image from San Prakal shine (E), National museum Lopburi
Fig. 124. The group of Vishnu images wearing mitre crown from Southern Thailand: Group
A. Vishnu image from Wiang Sra: Surathani province, Group B. Vishnu image from Khao
Sri Vijaya: Suratthani province and Group C. Vishnu image from Ta Kua Pa district, Phang
Ngha province
Fig. 125. The Vishnu Group A. from Southern Thailand
Fig. 126. The Vishnu images from Sri Mahosoth
Fig. 127. The example of four armed Vishnu images Group B. in Thailand.
Fig. 128. The Vishnu images discovered from Sri Mahosoth, Prachinaburi province. (left) the
Vishnu image from Sri Mahosoth and (right) the remains of Vishnu image, National museum
Prachinaburi
Fig. 129. The four armed Vishnu images of Group C. from Southern Thailand
Fig. 130. fragment of Vishnu image from Songkla and the four armed free standing Vishnu
image from Ta Kua Pa, National museum Bangkok
P a g e | IX
Fig. 131. The four armed Vishnu image from Ko Kho Khao moutain, Ta Kua Pa district,
Phang Nga province, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 132. (Left) Vishnu image from Tjibuaja, western Java,The four armed Vishnu image
from private collection of Prince Bhanubandha and (Right) The Vishnu image from Chandi
Banon, central Javanese art
Fig. 133. The four armed Vishnu image from Petchaburi, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 134. The Vishnu image from Viang Sra and other contemporary sculptures from pre-
Angkorean of Cambodia, Vishnu image from Kam Phong Prah and Prasat Andet, Cambodia
Fig. 135. The high relief of four armed Vishnu image from Pong Tuk district, Ban Kao
museum, Kanchanaburi province
Fig. 136. The high relief of Vishnu image from Pong Tuk, Kanchanaburi province, Harihara
image from Prasat Andet, Cambodia and Harihara from Traphan Phon, Kampong Preh style.
Fig. 137.The examples of four armed Vishnu images from Transbassac region and Southern
Vietnam.
Fig. 138. The example of Vishnu images of early Chalukya art from Karnataka
Fig.139. The examples of four armed standing Vishnu in Pallava style craved in bas relief
technique.
Fig. 140. The Vishnu and Bodhisattava images of early Gupta art.
Fig. 141. The standing Vishnu in Madhayama Yogasthanakamurti from Khao Pra Narai
mountain, National museum Phuket
Fig. 142.The divine attendants of Vishnu, the sage Markandeya and Bhudevi,National
museum, Phuket
Fig. 143.The group of Brahmanical images in Gangadhara murti of Siva
Fig. 144.The examples of Vishnu images from different periods (the 8th -12th century A.D) :
The Vishnu images from Pra Narai hill, Mamallapuram, Vaikunta perumal, Kanchipuram,
Fig. 145. Vishnu from Kottur, Tirykkara Vayil and Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Fig.146. The Vishnu image from Viang Sra, Suratthani province,National museum Bangkok.
Fig. 147.Harihara from Tiruverumbur, Vishnu image from Tirumalai Nayak palace and
Vishnu image from Karnataka
Fig. 148. The Vishnu image from Prah Narai shrine of Nakon Ratchasima city
Fig. 149.The examples of sculptures in Koh Ker style (the early of 10th century, circa 907 -
940 A.D.),
Fig. 150. The Vishnu images of Baphoun style
Fig. 151. The example of Vishnu images of Baphoun style in Khmer art
P a g e | X
Fig 152.Vishnu image from Ku Bua Mas, National museum Kon Khean, and Vishnu image
from Ban Phon Doun temple, Roiet.
Fig. 153. The example of Vishnu image of Angkor Wat style
Fig. 154. The conch shell of Vishnu images dated up to 8th century A.D.
Fig. 155. The conch shells of Vishnu images dated after the 8th century A.D.
Fig. 156. The Sudrasana-Chakra of Vishnu image in Thailand dated up to 10th century A.D.
Fig. 157. The Sudrasana - Chakra wheel from Vishnu images of Khmer influenced style
dated up to 12th century A.D
Fig. 158. The mace (gada) of Vishnu image
Fig. 159. The earth (bhu) from Vishnu images
Fig. 160. The reliefs of four armed Vishnu
Fig. 161.The relief of four armed Vishnu from National museum Pimai
Fig. 162. The examples of Anataśayinamurti in Indian art,
Fig. 163.The Vishnu Anataśayinamurti from Warangal district and the bronze image of
Vishnu Anataśyana padmanabha murti from Andhara Pradesh.
Fig. 164. The Anantaśayina murti in Khmer art
Fig. 165. The Anantaśayina murti from Prasat Hanchai temple
Fig. 166. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti from Toul Baset.
Fig. 167. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti from Phnom Pros temple
Fig. 168. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti from Prasat Nak Ta Tang Reay temple
Fig. 169. The relief from Prasat Nak Ta Khlan Muon,Baphoun style
Fig. 170. The relief from Bantay Samre, Angkor Wat style
Fig. 171. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti in Bayon style at Prasat Pra Khan
Fig. 172. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti in Bayon style at Prasat Ta Prohm
Fig. 173. The relief from Aranya Pradesh, Sra Keaw province, National museum
Prachinaburi
Fig. 174. The bas relief from Prasat Sra Kamphang Yai, Baphoun style
Fig. 175. The relief from Prasat Preah Vihear, Sri Saket province
Fig. 176. The eroded relief from Lopburi, National museum Lopburi
Fig. 177.The relief of Anantaśayina padmabha murti from Prah Narai shrine, National
museum Pimai
Fig. 178. The relief from Prasat Pueay Noi, Kon Khean province
Fig. 179. The bas relief from the eastern gate of mandapa from Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 180. The bas relief from Ku Suan Thang temple, National museum Bangkok
P a g e | XI
Fig. 181. The relief from Ku Suam Thang, Buriram province, National museum Pimai (135
cm)
Fig. 182. The relief from Prasat Pimai, National museum Pimai (145 cm)
Fig. 183. The relief from Prasat Preah Vihar, Sri Saket province
Fig. 184. The relief of Kurmavatars from Angkor Wat
Fig. 185. The depiction of Narasimhavatars at Ramgiri,
Fig. 186. The high reliefs of Vamanavatars in trivikrama from Mamallapuram and Badami
Fig. 187. The relief of trivikrama from Ramgiri, Vakataka style and Prasat Kravan, Cambodia
Fig. 188. The lintel from Prasat Muang Kheak, , National museum Pimai
Fig. 189. The lintel from Ku Suan Thang, Buriram province, National museum Pimai
Fig. 190. The image of Rama in Khmer art
Fig. 191. The relief of Rama shooting arrow to the rakshasa, Pimai, National museum Pimai
Fig. 192. The relief from Aranyakanda, Ravana is abducting Sita while Rama and Lakshman
are in the forest. (Phanom Rung Sanctuary)
Fig. 193. The scene from Kishkindhakanda, Rama and Sugriva are coming back to the
Khishkind Kingdom with royal symbols and monkey military from Pimai, National museum
Pimai
Fig. 194. The relief from Yuddhakanda, the Rama and Lakshmana are struck down by the
Nagapasa arrow surrounded by the monkey troop, National museum Pimai
Fig. 195. The relief from Yuddhakanda, Rama, Lakshman and Sita are reunited at Ayodhaya.
Pimai, National museum Pimai
Fig. 196. The relief from Yudhakanda, The three royals are at court of Ayodhaya from
Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 197.The example of Krishna subduing Naga Kaliya from Prasat Ban Ploung,Pimai,
Muang Tum and Phanom Ruang sanctuary
Fig. 198. The other three reliefs from Prasat Muang Tum, Buriram
Fig. 199. The representation of Kaliyahimarddaka from Somnarthpur temple, Mysore and the
bronze image from Nagapattinam district, Madras
Fig. 200. The representations of Krishna lifting Govardhana Mountain in Southern Indian art
Fig. 201. The examples of Krishna –Govardhanaimages, the Krishna from Tual Koh,
Cambodia, Phanom Da: Angkor Borei and the group of Krishna images from Sri Tep,
Nationalmuseum Bangkok.
Fig. 202. The representations of Krishna lifting Govardhana Mountain at Prasat Ban Ploung,
and the two from Phanom Ruang sanctuary
P a g e | XII
Fig. 203.The representations of Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain from Prasat Muang
Tum, Buriram and Prasat Sra Kamphange Yai and Prasat Preah Vihar, Sri saket province
Fig. 204. The relief of Krishna killing Kesin from Sra Kam Phang Yai temple, Sri Saket
province
Fig. 205. The reliefs of Krishna killing the elephant Kuvalayapida from northeastern Thailand
Fig. 206. The reliefs of Krishna as mystical animal fighters, Krishna fighting with lion (?)
from Phanom Rung sanctuary and Pimai
Fig. 207. The Reliefs of Krishna capturing elephant-lion (gaja-simha)
Fig. 208. The narrative panel of Bhagavata purana, from the childhood of Krishna, the young
Krishna fighting with the demons like Putana, Pralambha , Kuvalayapida etc. and lifting
Govardhana mountain
Fig. 209. The relief of Krishna killing Kamsa at Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 210. The example of Krishna killing Kamsa at Pimai and Prasat Muang Kheak
Fig. 211. The Kalkin or Hayagriva in early Medival South Indian and Khmer arts
Fig. 212. The Khmer Vishnu bronze images, Angkor Wat style, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 213. The image of Siva from Lopburi province, national museum Bangkok
Fig. 216. The Gajalakshmi from Sanchi stupa (eastern torana)
Fig. 217. The Gajalakshmi from Adhivaraha cave, Mahabalipuram
Fig. 218. The reliefs of Gajalakshmi depcited at the gateway (torana) from Andhara pradesh
dated around 10th - 11th century, State musuem Andhara Pradesh, Hyderabad
Fig. 219. The Gajalakshmi seal from Sap Champa, terracotta image from U Thong and
Chansen
Fig. 220. The reliefs of Gajalakshmi on Dharmachakra from Nakon Prathom and ritual stone
tablet
Fig.221 The relifes of Gajalakshmi from Banteay Srei and Prasat Kravan, Cambodia
Fig. 222. The sculpture of Lakshmi (?) from Pimai, National museum Pimai
Fig. 223. The relief of Lakshmi (?) and Vishnu from Ku Kra Don, Roiet
Fig. 224. The fragment of Goddess holding a child (Somaskanda?) from Takua Pa, Phang nga
province
Fig. 225. The Somaskanda from Shore temple and the bronze image from Patteswaram, the
Art gallory of Tanjavour palace
Fig. 226. The depiction of Durga in Mahisasura mardhini in Thailand from,Sri Tep, Sri
Mahosoth and Prasat Muang Kheak.
Fig. 227. The examples of Mahisasura mardhini in early Khmer art from Cambodia and
Southern Vietnam, the image of Durga from Kamphong Cham,Trung Hua,Kamphong Speu
P a g e | XIII
Fig. 228. The depiction of Durga mahisasura Mardhini from Prasat Banteay Samre, Angkor
Wat style
Fig. 229. The Javanese Mahisasura mardhini from Candi Jawi Candi Singoosari , eastern
Javanese art, the eastern Javanese image from Indonesia and the north Indian image from
Mandsor
Fig. 230. The depiction of Mahisasura mardhini from Mahabalipuram and Kailashnarth
temple Pallava art
Fig. 231. The Mahisasura mardhini from Badami, Durga temple and Ravanaphadi, Aihole
Fig. 232. The Mahisasura mardhini from Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Fig. 233. The group of images named “Uma-Ganga –Patisvara” from Prasat Bakong,
Fig. 234. The Cham Ganesha image from museum of Danang (Saigon) and My Son
Fig. 235. The three Ganesha images from Candi Singasari and, national museum Bangkok
Fig. 236. The four armed Ganesh images from Southern Thailand, the Ganesh image from
Sathing Pra and two Ganesh images from Wat Kheaw temple, Suratthani province
Fig. 237. The stone Ganesha image from Sathing Pra, Songkla
Fig. 238. Early Ganesh images from Toul Phak Kin,Oc Eo, Chau doc and Ganesh image of
Gupta period from National museum
Fig. 239. The Ganesha images from Wat Kheaw temple, Chaiya, Suratthani province,
National museum Chaiya
Fig. 240 The Ganesh from National museum Chaiya and the four armed Ganesha images
from Aihole
Fig. 241. The Ganapati and pithas from Sri Mahosoth, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 242. The standing Ganesha image from Oc Eo and Chau doc southern Vieatnam
Fig. 243. The four armed Ganesha image from Thung Tuk
Fig. 244. The Ganesha images from Kailashnath temple, Kaveripakkam and Government
museum Chennai
Fig. 245. Ganesh image from Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 246. The Ganesha image from Prasat Muang Tum and the two Ganesha images from
Ban Bon of Varinchamrab district, National museum Ubon Ratchathani
Fig. 247. The damaged Ganesha image from national museum Ubon ratchathani
Fig. 248. Ganesha image from Wat Supatthanaram, Ubon Ratchathani province, Prasat Tha
MuanThom, Surin province and National museum Maha Veerawongsa
Fig. 249. The damaged Ganesha image from Wat Mahathatu temple, Nakon Sri Thammarat
province
P a g e | XIV
Fig. 250. The eaxmple of stone amulet of Ganesha from Prachinaburi province, National
museum prachinaburi
Fig. 251. The Bronze Ganesha images from Brahmanicl shrine, Nakon Srithammarat,
National museum, and the bronze image of Ganesha riding on rat, National museum Nakon
Srithammarat
Fig. 252. The Bronze images of Ganesha from National museum, Wat Matchimawas temple,
and the bronze Ganesha image from National museum Chaiya
Fig. 253. The two seated Ganesha images from Prang Thanon Hak and Lam Prai Mas
National museum Pimai,the two armed sitting Ganesha from national museum and National
museum Bangkok
Fig. 254. The standing Ganesha image from Lopburi province, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 255. The Ganesha images associated in the trivikarma scene from Prasat Muang Kheak
temple
Fig. 256. Skanda image from Ayuthaya and (Right) the relief from Prasat Pimai
Fig. 257. The image of Skanda from Angkor Borei
Fig. 258. The trimurti image from Prasat Prai Cruk , Cambodia
Fig. 259. The Brahma images from Indonesia, Brahma from Private collection (Laiden),
Brahma from Singhasari and Brahma from Eastern Java
Fig. 260. The depiction of Brahma from Prasat Muang Kheak, Nakon Ratchasima province
Fig. 261. The images of Brahma, National museum Bangkok, Brahma from Prasat Phanom
Rung sanctuary and Brahma from Lopburi, national museum Bangkok
Fig. 262. The Brahma images from Phanom Bok and Prasat Baset
Fig. 263. The Brahmi from Phanom Rung sanctuary and the female deities’ statue from
Prasat Crup, Cambodia
Fig. 264.The Brahmi (1st) from the left in Saptamatrika panel, Aihole
Fig. 265. The Brahmi (2nd) from left in Saptamatrika panel with swan, Aihole
Fig. 266. The Brahmi in Saptamatrika panel, Ayyapa temple at Thiruvaiyaru
Fig. 267.The image of male figure of Sassanid period, Surya from Khaira Khaneh (Kabul:
Afganistan) and the Surya image from Kondia, Madhaya Pradesh
Fig. 268. The Surya image from Mandasor, State museum Bhopal
Fig. 269. The Surya images from Sala Jung museum, Hyderabad and Tamilnadu
Fig. 270. The Surya image of pre-Angkorean style Denver Art museum
Fig. 271. The Surya image from Sri Tep
Fig. 272. The Surya images from Sri Tep
Fig. 273. The Surya image from Sri Tep
P a g e | XV
Fig. 274. The Surya image from Wat Hong temple, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 275.The Surya image on the Dharmachakra at Nakon Prathom, National museum Nakon
Prathom
Fig. 276. The Surya image from Chaiya, National museum Bangkok
Fig. 277. The Chola Surya images from South IndiaChidambaram, Cuddapah (Tamilnadu) ,
Hemavati (Andhara pradesh) and Salar jung museum , Hyderabad.
Fig. 278. The surya image from Yarang district
Fig. 279. The depiction of Chandra on the gold plaque
Fig. 280. The panal of nine deities from Prasat Lolei, , National museum Bangkok
Fig. 281. The depiction of Lokpalas at Badami (I), showing Brahma as the God of upper
direction
Fig. 282. The depiction of Lokpalas at Badami (II), showing Vishnu as the God of upper
direction
Fig. 283. The nine deities’ panel from Prasat Ban Ben, Ubon Ratchathani
Fig. 284.The two nine deities’ panels preserved at National museum Mahaverawongsa,
Nakon ratchasima province
Fig. 285. The panel of nine deities from Vishnu shrine (Prah Narai shrine of
Nakonratchasima city), National museum Pimai
Fig. 286. The panel of nine deities from Prasat Pimai, National museum Pimai
Fig. 287. The depiction of Dikpalas and stone cubic Brahma, Varuna, Agni, Indra, Kubera
and Isana from Prasat Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 288. The vahicles of Dikpalas from Phanom Rung sanctuary
Fig. 289. Nritti mounting on the human from Prasat Muang Tum and Yama riding on buffalo
from Ku Keaw
Fig. 290. The Indra from Prasat Banteay Sri, Cambodia
Fig. 291. The relief of Indra from Prasat Muang Kheak, Natinal museum Pimai
Fig. 292. The relief of Indra riding elephant (Airawatta) from Prasat Ban Phlaung, Surin
province
Fig. 293. The reliefs of Indra sitting on Airawatta from Prasat Muang Tum, Buriram province
and (Right) Pimai, Nakon Ratchasima province, National museum Pimai
Fig. 294. The Indra and consorts sitting on the Airavatta from Pimai, National museum Pimai
Fig. 295. The lintel from Prasat Muang Kheak, Nakon Ratchasima province, National
museum Pimai
Fig. 296. The relief of Indra holding lous from Prasat Muang Tun, Buriram
Fig. 297. The relief of Indra holding lotus from Phanom Rung sanctuary, Buriram
P a g e | XVI
Fig. 298. The relief of Indra holding mace from Prasat Ku Suan Tang, Buriram province,
Nationa museum Pimai
Fig. 299. The relief of Indra from Prasat Muang Tum, Buriram
Fig. 300. The depiction of Indra sitting on the Airawatta at the middle of devine role, Pimai
List of Tables:
Table No: 1. The important excavation sites in Southeast Asian (3rd
century B.C to 1st
century B.C. Late prehistoric period): Phase I and antiquities
Table No: 2. The important excavation sites in Southeast Asian (The 1st century B.C to 4
th
Century A.D. Proto-Early Historic period). Phase II and antiquities
Table No: 3. The chronology and development of South and Southeast Asian states before
the 8th
century A.D.
Table No: 4. The chronology and development of South and Southeast Asian states after 9th
century A.D.