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The Evolution
of
Transformative Learning
Jonathan West
ADLT 601, Fall 2008 - Project 3
Virginia Commonwealth University
Dr. Muth
Due: 11 Dec 2008
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Making meaning of our experience has likely been an integral subject of humankind for
centuries. Learning from experience usually results in change of some kind, whether knowledge,
skills, attitudes, or beliefs. To change markedly can be considered to transform. The study of
learning that produces transformation is learning that produces more marked or far-reaching
changes in the learners than learning in general.
The study of the process of how we make meaning of our experiences has received
increasing interest in the field of adult education since Jack Mezirow first published a study on
perspective transformation of women re-entering college in 1978 (Taylor, 1998). Mezirow
further laid the foundations of transformative learning theory in his publications on the subject in
1991 and 2000. Most studies or research on the transformative learning refer to Mezirow’s
seminal works.
The process of transformation has been comprehensively studied by developmental
theorists and psychologists, but it is only within the past thirty years or so that it has become a
subject of interest in adult education and thus conceptualized as a learning process. There are a
number of threads of study in this field. In the first ten to twenty years there were considered
four main lenses through which to view transformative learning: pscychocritical, pschoanylitical,
psychodevelopmental, and sociocultural (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). In recent
times Taylor (2008) has provided four additional lenses through which to view transformative
learning: neurobiological, cultural-spiritual, race-centric, and planetary. The following is a
review of transformative learning theory as first proposed by Mezirow explores some of the key
areas of evolution of the theory in recent times.
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An Overview of Transformative Learning
Early approaches to Transformative Learning
Psychoanalytical view. Jack Mezirow’s view of transformative learning offers a theory of
learning that is distinctively adult, idealized, abstract, and grounded in the nature of human
communication. It is a theory that can be considered partly a developmental process, but more as
“learning is understood as the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised
interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action” (Mezirow,
1996, in Taylor, 1998, p 5). Transformative learning theory is largely based on Habermas’
communicative theory which explores instrumental learning and communicative learning.
Instrumental learning focuses on “learning through task-oriented problem solving and
determination of cause and effect relationships – learning to do, based on empirical-analytical
discovery” (Taylor, 1998, p. 5). Communicative learning explores beliefs, values, feelings, and
purposes and is less open to to empirical tests. In communicative learning, it becomes crucial for
learners to “become critically reflective of the assumptions underlying intentions, values, beliefs,
and feelings” (Mezirow, 1997, p. 6).
“Transformative learning attempts to explain how our expectations, framed within
cultural assumptions and presuppositions, directly influence the meaning we derive from
experiences” (Taylor, 1998, p. 6). Mezirow’s theory of perspective transformation addresses the
revision of meaning structures and is the foundational work out of which evolved his theory of
transformative learning. Perspective transformation lays out the process of how adults modify
their frames of reference, which can be described as “a coherent body of experience—
associations, concepts, values, feelings, conditioned responses… —that define their life world”
(Mezirow, 1997, p. 5). A frame of reference is composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and
a point of view. Habits of mind are broad habitual ways of thinking, feeling, and acting
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influenced by assumptions that make up a set of guidelines. A habit of mind is expressed as a
point of view. A point of view is a collection of attitude, value judgment, belief, and feeling
used to interpret experience (Mezirow, 1997).
A transformed meaning perspective is the development of a new meaning structure. This
development is usually the result of a disorienting dilemma due to a disparate experience in
conjunction with a critical appraisal of previous assumptions and presuppositions (Taylor, 98, p.
7). It is this change in meaning structure that is at the heart of Mezirow’s theory of perspective
transformation – a world view shift. A perspective transformation is “a more fully developed
(more functional) frame of reference… one that is more (a) inclusive, (b) differentiating, (c)
permeable, (d) critically reflective, and (e) integrative of experience” (Mezirow, 1996, in Taylor,
1998, p. 7).
There are three common themes of Mezirow’s theory: the central role of experience,
critical reflection, and rational discourse. The starting point and subject matter for transformation
is the learner’s experience. Experience is seen as socially constructed and so can be
deconstructed and acted upon. A learner constructs meaning through personal reflection and
group discussion and these meanings may be subject to critical examination (Taylor, 1998).
Mezirow considers the second theme, critical reflection, which is based on Habermas’
view rationality and analysis, the distinguishing feature of adult learning. Only in adulthood does
one become aware of “uncritically assimilated half-truths of conventional wisdom and power
relationships… [and] come to recognize being caught in his/her own history and reliving it”
(Mezirow, 1981, in Taylor, 1998, p. 9). Critical reflection often occurs in response to an
awareness of a contradiction among our thoughts, feelings, and actions. It is through this
reflection we question the reliability or truthfulness of assumptions and beliefs based on prior
experience. Mezirow suggests reflection is the process of integrating present observations and
past experience by which we change our minds (Taylor, 1998).
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The third theme of transformative learning theory is rational discourse which Mezirow
considers as the indispensable vehicle through which transformation is promoted and developed.
Rational discourse differs from everyday discussion and is used “when we have reason to
question the comprehensibility, truth, appropriateness, (in relation to norms), or authenticity (in
relation to feelings) of what is being asserted or to question to credibility of the person making
the statement” (Mezirow, 1991, in Taylor, 1998, p. 10). It is through rational discourse that
experience and critical reflection are explored. Through discourse critical reflection is put into
action. In this process experience is reflected upon, beliefs and assumptions questioned, and
meaning structures and schemes ultimately transformed (Taylor, 1998).
Mezirow considers that anything that moves the individual towards a more integrated
meaning perspective that is inclusive and open to other viewpoints contributes to an adult’s
development. He also sees that the practice of transformative learning is essential to adult
development and includes the most significant learning in adulthood (Taylor, 1998).
Psychoanalytic view. Robert Boyd’s model of transformation is rooted in the analytic or
depth psychology work of Carl Jung and investigated through small group behavior. For Boyd
transformation is internal voyage of individuation, the constant process of gaining understanding
through reflection of the psychic structures (shadow, persona, ego, collective unconscious, etc.)
that form one’s identity. Boyd defines transformation as “a fundamental change in one’s
personality involving conjointly the resolution of a personal dilemma and the expansion of
consciousness resulting in greater personality integration” (1991, in Merriam, et al., 2006, p.
139). In this view the main purpose of perspective transformation is to liberate a person from
their “unconscious influences and reified cultural norms and patterns that constrain the potential
for self-actualization” (Taylor, 1998, p. 13). Whereas Mezirow focuses primarily on cognitive
conflicts encountered through the individual’s relationship with culture, Boyd is more focused on
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struggles within the individual’s psyche and the resolution of these which moves a person
towards transformation.
In contrast to Mezirow’s view of the ego as the central psychic actor, analytical
psychology recognizes the role of the whole person inclusive of the ego and collective
unconscious in the transformative process (Taylor, 1998). Boyd’s interest is principally with the
expressive or emotional-spiritual facets of learning and integrating these facets with our daily
life. To do this adult learners strive to make the unconscious conscious and thus become aware
of parts of themselves of which they were not previously aware. The goal of transformative
learning is to dialogue with the unconscious through images. Engaging in dialogue with the
unconscious structures is a way to actively participate in the process of individuation (Dirkx,
1998). The psychoanalytic view offers the possibility of perspective transformation going
beyond an ego and a reason-centered outlook to the individual developing a greater
interdependent relationship with and compassion for society (Taylor, 1998).
Boyd sees the journey of transformation as a process of discernment, rather than a
rational process reliant on critical reflection. “Discernment is a holistic orientation leading to
contemplative insight, personal understanding of seeing life in a relational wholeness” (Taylor,
1998, p. 15). There are three activities that indicate discernment: receptivity or listening,
recognizing the need to choose, and grieving. “As radically distinguished from Mezirow’s
occasional reference to an individual’s feelings of discomfort and disorientation, transformative
education identifies grieving as a critical condition for the possibility of personal transformation”
(Boyd and Myers, 1988, in Taylor, 1998, p. 15). Grieving can be about the loss of a loved one, a
time, a place, or the way one constructed meaning in the past.
Regarding the promoting of transformative education Boyd sees its purpose is to help
students in becoming familiar with the transcendent element of their self, the “spirit.” To do this
the adult educator or mentor is encouraged to develop two virtues. The first is seasoned
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guidance, or reflecting on their own journey with the aim of helping others. The second is
compassionate criticism, assisting students in the process of discernment.
Psychodevelopmental view. While similar to the view of Mezirow that development is
implicit in the process of transformative learning, Larry Daloz considers the developmental
perspective a core framework in understanding transformative learning as growth (Dirkx, 1998).
Daloz sees the goal of transformative learning to be lifelong personal development. His work as
a teacher and administrator focuses on adults returning to higher education. In his view the
teacher is a mentor in the transformative learning process, serving as a “guide, cheerleader,
challenger and supporter” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 138).
The teacher/mentor encourages the student to face their views of the self and world and
to form new, more expanded points of view. Daloz also considers dialogue or discourse, like
Mezirow, an integral part of transformation. However, Daloz focuses on the use of stories on the
voyage to an expanded view of the world. Through stories the teacher/mentor can listen to the
“dreams of the pilgrim” and learn about them – how are they progressing, what they want. The
mentor can also tell stories to the student to encourage their development. Stories can help
students in three ways: provide support, provide a vision, and challenge students (Merriam et al,
2007).
Social-emancipatory view. Evolving out of his radical teaching of literacy to the poor in
Brazil and other parts of Latin America and Africa, Paulo Freire considered the purpose of
education was emancipation from the oppressive structures in society. His view of
transformative learning considers the goal as “conscientization or consciousness-raising” (Dirkx,
1998). He wanted people to view themselves and others as subjects, not objects, who are
constantly reflecting and striving to transform their world into a fairer and just place for all.
Unlike Mezirow, Boyd and Daloz’s focus on personal transformation, Freire was much more
interested in social transformation through unveiling the situation of the oppressed by awakening
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their critical consciousness so they could see inequalities and contradictions of a social,
economic or political nature and take action to change these.
There are three key teaching approaches vital to bringing about emancipatory
transformative learning. The first is the focus of critical reflection where learners rediscover
power and a way to transform society and the way they think about themselves. The second is to
teach through a “problem posing” and dialogical method, rather than just transferring
information (Taylor, 1998). The third is a changed relationship between the teacher and student
where the student and teacher are coinvestigators in their shared sociocultural reality (Merriam et
al., 2007).
Freire’s perspective on transformational learning is similar to Mezirow’s and Boyd’s in
that they all consider critical reflection and dialogue key elements. Whereas Mezirow, Boyd and
Daloz view of transformation learning are personal in nature, Freire’s view is social. Education is
never neutral for Freire: “It either domesticates by imparting the values of the dominant group so
that learners assume things are right the way they are, or liberates, allowing people to critically
reflect upon their world and take action to change society towards a more equitable and just
vision” ( Merriam and Caffarella, 1998, in Taylor, 1998, p. 16).
Recent views of transformative learning
The exploration of transformative learning theory by the pioneers mentioned above has
generated continued interest and further investigations in a variety of directions. As a result,
Taylor (2008) has categorized four additional views of transformative learning as
neurobiological, cultural-spiritual, race-centric, and planetary.
Neurobiological view. The most recent view of transformative learning put forth by Janik
in 2005 is the neurobiological perspective. This approach was discovered by clinically studying
brain functions using medical imaging technology. The findings propose that the brain
functioning actually changes during learning. From this view learning is seen as “volitional,
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curiosity-based, discovery-driven, and mentor-assisted” and primarily effective at higher
cognitive stages” (Janik, 2005, in Taylor, 2008, p. 8). Additionally, a neurobiological approach
suggests that transformative learning “(1) requires discomfort prior to discovery; (2) is rooted in
students’ experiences, needs, and interests; (3) is strengthened by emotive, sensory, and
kinesthetic experiences; (4) appreciates the differences in learning between males and females;
and (5) demands that educators acquire an understanding of a unique discourse and knowledge
base of neurobiological systems” (Taylor, 2008, p. 8).
Cultural-spiritual view of transformative learning. A cultural-spiritual view is proposed
by Tisdell and suggests that “spirituality… is fundamentally about how we make meaning in our
lives through conscious and unconscious processes such as dreams and symbols” (2003, in
Merriam et al., 2007, p. 141-142). Tisdell’s view appears similar to Boyd’s, except that Tisdell
also takes into account the role of culture in the experience of transformative learning. Tisdell
names several elements that promote transformative learning in the spiritual-cultural context.
First, cross-cultural relationships help us to see different ways of thinking and being in the world.
Second, educators need to be, themselves, grounded culturally and spiritually so as to foster
authenticity in students. Authenticity helps to promote openness, thereby allowing the possibility
of transformation. Third, community-based, culturally relevant settings may facilitate
transformative learning because they are freer to use different approaches to provide a variety of
experiences (Merriam et al., 2007). Tisdell (2008) further considers “there is power in trying to
engage people in spiral learning opportunities that draw on multiple realms of being, including
the rational; the affective; and the symbolic, imaginal, and spiritual domains” (p. 34).
Race-centric view. The race-centric view of transformative learning places people of
African decent, mostly black women, at the focal point. In this view race is vehicle of analysis
and emphasizes the social-political aspects of learning. “Traditionally, African people have had
systems of education that were transformative. Rites of passage and rituals are among the many
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forms Africans have created to nurture the consciousness of every member of society into a
greater into a greater connection with the Self, the Community, and the Universe” (Williams,
2003, in Taylor, 2008, p. 9). In addition to considering students multifaceted experiences that
include engaging with their history, social and political contexts, referred to a polyrythmic
realities, there are three main concepts to cultivate transformative education: “promoting
inclusion (giving voice to the historically silenced), promoting empowerment (not self-
actualization but belongingness and equity as a cultural member), and learning to negotiate
effectively between and across cultures” (Taylor, 2008, p. 9).
Planetary view. A planetary view of transformative learning looks beyond the individual
context and examines the entirety of life’s context with regards to education. The goal is to
create a new story that considers the “interconnectedness among the universe, planet, natural
environment, human community, and personal world” (Taylor, 2008, p.9). Most important is
being aware of the ecological and planetary as well as social-political aspects of the individual.
In addition, the planetary view of transformative learning includes the appreciation of spirituality
(Merriam et al. 2007).
Summary
In summary, there are common aspects to all of the perspectives of transformative
learning theories reviewed. All of the theorists are constructivists with the view that knowledge
is constructed by the individual rather than somewhere waiting to be discovered. (Merriam et al.,
2007). A second commonality is that dialogue is required for transformative learning to happen,
either with others, or with the unconscious, in the case of Boyd. Dialogue helps the learner
broaden their views. A third point in common is critical reflection on the assumptions, values,
beliefs, and biases, is essential for an expanded view to occur. In Boyd’s case, one would reflect
on symbols. Fourth, most theorists consider that one of the outcomes of transformative learning
is social change (Merriam et al., 2007).
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While the interest in transformative learning continues to grow there are still unresolved
issues that are being explored. One of the key issues is Mezirow’s perspective lack of
consideration of context and its focus on rationality in the meaning-making process. Further,
researchers are studying the role of relationships in transformative learning, the educator’s role in
encouraging transformative learning and the place of social action (Merriam et al., 2007).
Some of the trends in the study of transformative learning are examining more closely the
spiritual and emotional sides of transformative learning, exploring transformative learning and
technology, and the interest of transformative learning in the workplace in relation to groups and
organizations. Other trends are considering the individual differences along the lines of Jung’s
psychological type theory; ethics, authenticity and the educator roles in transformative learning
(Cranton, 2006).
While still considered a theory in process, transformative learning has captured the
attention of adult educators probably more than any other approach in the past fifteen years. It
appears that there are sufficient theoretical foundations to continue research, discussion, and
debate (Merriam et al., 2007).
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References
Cranton, P. (2006). Understanding and promoting transformative learning: A guide for
educators of adults. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Dirkx, J. (1998). Transformative learning theory in the practice of adult education: An overview.
Journal of Lifelong Learning, 7, 1-14.
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood – A comprehensive
guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, 74, 5-12.
Taylor, E. (1998). The theory and practice of transformative learning: A critical review. Center
on Education and Training for Employment, Columbus, OH. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 423 427)
Taylor, E. (2008). Transformative learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education, 119, 5-15.
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