The Festival CalendarThe Festival Calendar

The Roman CalendarThe Roman Calendargeneral introductiongeneral introduction

Republican year – 355 days, - required Republican year – 355 days, - required intercalationintercalation of entire month of entire month

not divided into weeks and weekends not divided into weeks and weekends but into sequences of special days:but into sequences of special days:

12 times a year: Kalends = 112 times a year: Kalends = 1stst ; Nones ; Nones = 5= 5thth/7/7thth; Ides = 13; Ides = 13thth/15/15thth – –

More frequently the Nundinae (9More frequently the Nundinae (9thth days) market days days) market days

CalendarsCalendars

publicly displayed – inscribed on stone/painted on publicly displayed – inscribed on stone/painted on walls for citizens to seewalls for citizens to see

For historians calendars indicate dates of major For historians calendars indicate dates of major rituals as well as comments on content and rituals as well as comments on content and interpretation of ritualsinterpretation of rituals

Various calendars compared over time indicate Various calendars compared over time indicate additions and changes additions and changes

In addition to official state calendar, local In addition to official state calendar, local communities, army units, religious association had communities, army units, religious association had own calendarsown calendars

provide important information for local variations in provide important information for local variations in religious festivals/practicesreligious festivals/practices

The Roman CalendarThe Roman Calendar Official state calendar central to Roman religionOfficial state calendar central to Roman religion Regulated by Regulated by pontifices pontifices (priests)(priests) Sequence of religious festivals defined in calendar created Sequence of religious festivals defined in calendar created

rhythm of Roman yearrhythm of Roman year Roman calendar organized the use of time, including timing Roman calendar organized the use of time, including timing

of of publicpublic and and secular secular business through religionbusiness through religion Special days - Festival days were marked Special days - Festival days were marked nefasti nefasti

(nefastus) (nefastus) Complex festival calendar Complex festival calendar Many festivals closely tied to the agricultural year; others to Many festivals closely tied to the agricultural year; others to

military campaignsmilitary campaigns

Macrobius, Macrobius, Numa divided the year into months and then divided Numa divided the year into months and then divided

each month into days, calling each day either ‘festival’, each month into days, calling each day either ‘festival’, ‘working day’, or ‘half-festival’. The festival days are ‘working day’, or ‘half-festival’. The festival days are dedicated to the gods; on the working days people may dedicated to the gods; on the working days people may transact private and public business; and the half-transact private and public business; and the half-festivals are shared between gods and humans. Thus on festivals are shared between gods and humans. Thus on festival days there are sacrifices, religious banquets, festival days there are sacrifices, religious banquets, games and holidays. The working days include ‘lawcourt games and holidays. The working days include ‘lawcourt days’ [days’ [fastifasti], assembly days [], assembly days [comitialescomitiales], adjournment ], adjournment days, appointed days and battle days. The half-festivals days, appointed days and battle days. The half-festivals are not divided into subgroups, but each is divided into are not divided into subgroups, but each is divided into hours at which legal judgments may or may not be hours at which legal judgments may or may not be pronounced; for when the victim is being slain no legal pronounced; for when the victim is being slain no legal business may be carried out, but in the interval between business may be carried out, but in the interval between the slaying of the victim and the placing of the offering the slaying of the victim and the placing of the offering on the altar such business may be done, although it is on the altar such business may be done, although it is again forbidden when the offering is being burned ..again forbidden when the offering is being burned ..

Macrobius, Macrobius, continued continued The celebration of a religious festival consists of the The celebration of a religious festival consists of the

offering of sacrifices to the gods or the marking of the offering of sacrifices to the gods or the marking of the day by a ritual feast or the holding of games in honour day by a ritual feast or the holding of games in honour of the gods or the observance of holidays. There four of the gods or the observance of holidays. There four kinds of public holidays: either fixed, movable, kinds of public holidays: either fixed, movable, extraordinary or market days. In the fixed holidays all extraordinary or market days. In the fixed holidays all the people share; they are held on days in set and the people share; they are held on days in set and appointed months: they are noted in the calendar, and appointed months: they are noted in the calendar, and have fixed observances. The chief examples of fixed have fixed observances. The chief examples of fixed holidays are the Agonalia, the Carmentalia and the holidays are the Agonalia, the Carmentalia and the Lupercalia. Movable holidays are those which are Lupercalia. Movable holidays are those which are proclaimed annually by the magistrates or priests, to proclaimed annually by the magistrates or priests, to be held on days which may or may not be set days, be held on days which may or may not be set days, for example the Feria Latinae, the Feriae Sementiva, for example the Feria Latinae, the Feriae Sementiva, Pagnalia, and the Compitalia (Macrobius, Pagnalia, and the Compitalia (Macrobius, Saturnalia Saturnalia I.16.2-6I.16.2-6

Activities during religious Activities during religious festivalsfestivals

Enormous diversity Enormous diversity Solemn rituals, formal processions, Solemn rituals, formal processions,

prayers, sacrificesprayers, sacrificesLess solemn activities: theatrical Less solemn activities: theatrical

performances, games, racing, gift-performances, games, racing, gift-giving, eating and drinkinggiving, eating and drinking

The Parilia, April 21 The Parilia, April 21 ((Beard, Sources 5.1)Beard, Sources 5.1)

Originally a pastoral festival: for well-Originally a pastoral festival: for well-being of flocks and herdsbeing of flocks and herds

By late Republic also associated with By late Republic also associated with foundation – birthday of city itself foundation – birthday of city itself (indicating change from primarily (indicating change from primarily pastoral society to urban society?)pastoral society to urban society?)

Ovid, Ovid, FastiFasti IV, 721-46 IV, 721-46 ““Night has gone and dawn is appearing. I am called upon to tell of the Night has gone and dawn is appearing. I am called upon to tell of the

Parilia – and not called in vain, if kindly Pales grants her favour. Kindly Parilia – and not called in vain, if kindly Pales grants her favour. Kindly Pales, please grant your favour to one who sings of shepherd’s rites, if I Pales, please grant your favour to one who sings of shepherd’s rites, if I show dutiful respect to your festival. I can assure you, I have often show dutiful respect to your festival. I can assure you, I have often myself borne along, with loaded hands, the ashes of the calf and the myself borne along, with loaded hands, the ashes of the calf and the beanstalks – the sacred materials of purification. I can assure you. I have beanstalks – the sacred materials of purification. I can assure you. I have personally leapt over the fire, arranged three in a row, and the moist personally leapt over the fire, arranged three in a row, and the moist laurel has sprinkled its drops of water over me. ..Go, people bring from laurel has sprinkled its drops of water over me. ..Go, people bring from the virginal altar the materials of purification. Vesta will provide them. the virginal altar the materials of purification. Vesta will provide them. By Vesta’s generosity you will be pure. The blood of a horse will make up By Vesta’s generosity you will be pure. The blood of a horse will make up those materials, together with the ashes of a calf; the third ingredient those materials, together with the ashes of a calf; the third ingredient will be the empty stalk of a hard bean. ..Shepherd, purify your well-fed will be the empty stalk of a hard bean. ..Shepherd, purify your well-fed sheep as dusk first falls. ..sprinkle the ground with water and sweep it sheep as dusk first falls. ..sprinkle the ground with water and sweep it with a broom, decorate the sheep-pen with leaves and branches ..deck with a broom, decorate the sheep-pen with leaves and branches ..deck out the door and cover it with a long garland. Make blue smoke from out the door and cover it with a long garland. Make blue smoke from pure sulphur, and let your sheep bleat when she is touched by the pure sulphur, and let your sheep bleat when she is touched by the smoking sulphur ..burn up the wood of male olive trees, pine and smoking sulphur ..burn up the wood of male olive trees, pine and juniper, and let the laurel sing and crackle in the middle of the hearth. juniper, and let the laurel sing and crackle in the middle of the hearth. Put a basket of millet with the millet cakes. the country goddess takes Put a basket of millet with the millet cakes. the country goddess takes special pleasure in this kind of food. Add her favourite morsels ad a pail special pleasure in this kind of food. Add her favourite morsels ad a pail of milk, and when the morsels have been cut up, pray to sylvan Pales, of milk, and when the morsels have been cut up, pray to sylvan Pales, with an offering of warm milk.with an offering of warm milk.

Continued Ovid, Continued Ovid, Fasti Fasti IV, IV, 783-86783-86

On the origins: …devouring fire purifies On the origins: …devouring fire purifies everything and burns the impurities out of everything and burns the impurities out of metals; so for that reason it purifies the metals; so for that reason it purifies the sheep and their shepherd too. Or it is sheep and their shepherd too. Or it is because those two irreconcilable deities, because those two irreconcilable deities, fire and water, are the opposing principles fire and water, are the opposing principles that make up everything? And for this that make up everything? And for this reason our ancestors joined these elements reason our ancestors joined these elements together and thought it right to touch the together and thought it right to touch the body with fire and drops of water?”(in Beard body with fire and drops of water?”(in Beard Sources 5.1a)Sources 5.1a)

The Parilia in the 2The Parilia in the 2ndnd century CE; century CE;now also called Romaia (Festival of now also called Romaia (Festival of

Rome)Rome) “ “ While the conversation was continuning in this kind While the conversation was continuning in this kind

of way (dinner table setting in a house at Rome), of way (dinner table setting in a house at Rome), right then throughout the whole city was heard the right then throughout the whole city was heard the resounding note of the pipes, the clash of the resounding note of the pipes, the clash of the cymbals and the beat of the drums, accompanied by cymbals and the beat of the drums, accompanied by singing. It turned out that it was the festival of the singing. It turned out that it was the festival of the Parilia,Parilia, as it used to be called – now known as the as it used to be called – now known as the RomaiaRomaia, to commemorate the foundation of the , to commemorate the foundation of the temple of the Fortune of the City of Rome by the temple of the Fortune of the City of Rome by the universally greatest and most cultured emperor universally greatest and most cultured emperor Hadrian. That day is celebrated each year as a Hadrian. That day is celebrated each year as a special occasion by all the inhabitants of Rome and special occasion by all the inhabitants of Rome and by those staying in the city.” by those staying in the city.”

Athenaeus, Athenaeus, Table TalkTable Talk VII. 361 e-f VII. 361 e-f

The Lupercalia, Feb. 15The Lupercalia, Feb. 15

While account of what happens during While account of what happens during festival is quite consistent among the festival is quite consistent among the ancient accounts, Romans have ancient accounts, Romans have different accounts of the religious different accounts of the religious significance of ceremonies:significance of ceremonies:

A) ceremony of purificationA) ceremony of purificationB) commemoration of myth of B) commemoration of myth of

Romulus and Remus being suckled by Romulus and Remus being suckled by the she-wolfthe she-wolf

The Lupercalia, according to The Lupercalia, according to PlutarchPlutarch

““The Lupercalia, ..festival of purification. For it is The Lupercalia, ..festival of purification. For it is performed on the inauspicious days (marked N, performed on the inauspicious days (marked N, nefastusnefastus in calendar) of month of February ( a name in calendar) of month of February ( a name which may be explained as meaning ‘purificatory’) – which may be explained as meaning ‘purificatory’) – and in early times they used to call the day itself and in early times they used to call the day itself Febrata. But the name of the festival has a sense Febrata. But the name of the festival has a sense equivalent to the Greek Lycaea (feast of wolves), equivalent to the Greek Lycaea (feast of wolves), and because of that it seems to be exceedingly and because of that it seems to be exceedingly ancient, going back to the Arcadians under Evander. ancient, going back to the Arcadians under Evander. In fact this is the generally accepted explanation it is In fact this is the generally accepted explanation it is possible that the name is derived from the she-wolf possible that the name is derived from the she-wolf (lycaina). ..the luperci start out on their circuit of the (lycaina). ..the luperci start out on their circuit of the city from the place where Romulus is said to have city from the place where Romulus is said to have been exposed (i.e. prob. In circle around Palatine). been exposed (i.e. prob. In circle around Palatine). But what actually happens in the festival makes it But what actually happens in the festival makes it hard to hazard a guess about its origin.hard to hazard a guess about its origin.

Plutarch, Lupercalia - Plutarch, Lupercalia - continuedcontinued

For they sacrifice goats; then two boys of noble family are For they sacrifice goats; then two boys of noble family are brought forward-and some touch their foreheads with a bloody brought forward-and some touch their foreheads with a bloody knife, and others immediately wipe off the blood using wool knife, and others immediately wipe off the blood using wool soaked in milk. Once they have been wiped, the boys must soaked in milk. Once they have been wiped, the boys must laugh. After this, they cut the goat strips and run about naked laugh. After this, they cut the goat strips and run about naked but for a belt around their waist, striking anyone in their path but for a belt around their waist, striking anyone in their path with the thongs. And women of childbearing age do not try to with the thongs. And women of childbearing age do not try to escape the blows, believing that they help towards fertility and escape the blows, believing that they help towards fertility and easy childbirth. A distinctive feature of the festival is that theeasy childbirth. A distinctive feature of the festival is that the luperci luperci sacrifice a dog as well. 6) a certain Brutus, who wrote of sacrifice a dog as well. 6) a certain Brutus, who wrote of the mythical origins of Roman customs…says that ..followers of the mythical origins of Roman customs…says that ..followers of Romulus, once they had defeated Amulius, raced joyfully to the Romulus, once they had defeated Amulius, raced joyfully to the spot where the she-wolf suckled the twins when they were spot where the she-wolf suckled the twins when they were babies; and that the festival is conducted as an imitation of babies; and that the festival is conducted as an imitation of that race, and that the boys of noble family run : striking those that race, and that the boys of noble family run : striking those they meet – as long ago, with sword in hand ..suggests that they meet – as long ago, with sword in hand ..suggests that bloody sword is applied to their foreheads as a symbol of the bloody sword is applied to their foreheads as a symbol of the slaughter and danger of that time; and the cleansing with slaughter and danger of that time; and the cleansing with milk ..reminder of how the twins were nourished. milk ..reminder of how the twins were nourished.

Plutarch, Lupercalia - Plutarch, Lupercalia - continuedcontinued

Caius Acilius, on the other hand, writes that before the Caius Acilius, on the other hand, writes that before the foundation of the city Romulus’ companions once lost their foundation of the city Romulus’ companions once lost their flocks; they prayed to Faunus and then ran off to find them flocks; they prayed to Faunus and then ran off to find them - naked, so that they should not be troubled by sweat. And - naked, so that they should not be troubled by sweat. And this, he suggests, is the reason that this, he suggests, is the reason that luperciluperci run around run around naked. As for the dog, one might say (if it really is a naked. As for the dog, one might say (if it really is a purificatory sacrifice) that it is sacrificed as a means of purificatory sacrifice) that it is sacrificed as a means of purification. For the Greeks also in rituals of purification purification. For the Greeks also in rituals of purification bring out puppies and in many places practice what they bring out puppies and in many places practice what they call periskylakosmoi (Greek ritual in which a puppy (skylax) call periskylakosmoi (Greek ritual in which a puppy (skylax) was carried around (was carried around (perperi)). But if they perform these rites i)). But if they perform these rites as a thanks offering to the she-wolf, for saving and as a thanks offering to the she-wolf, for saving and nourishing of Romulus, it is not without reason that a dog is nourishing of Romulus, it is not without reason that a dog is sacrificed. For the god is an enemy of wolves – unless, by sacrificed. For the god is an enemy of wolves – unless, by Zeus, the animal is being punished for annoying the lZeus, the animal is being punished for annoying the luperciuperci when they run their course. Plutarch, Life of Romulus 21.3-8 when they run their course. Plutarch, Life of Romulus 21.3-8 (in Beard, Sources, 5.2a)(in Beard, Sources, 5.2a)

The Lupercalia in 46 BCEThe Lupercalia in 46 BCE

Most famous celebration - occasion Most famous celebration - occasion when Mark Antony offered Iulius when Mark Antony offered Iulius Caesar a royal diadem and title and Caesar a royal diadem and title and position of kingposition of king

Some claim Lupercalia was Some claim Lupercalia was concerned with conferral and concerned with conferral and confirmation of royal powerconfirmation of royal power

LupercaliaLupercalia Caesar was watching the ceremonies (Lupercalia), seated Caesar was watching the ceremonies (Lupercalia), seated

on the rostra on a golden throne, dressed in triumphal on the rostra on a golden throne, dressed in triumphal costume. Antony was one of the runner of the sacred race, costume. Antony was one of the runner of the sacred race, and in fact, he was also consul. So he rushed into the forum and in fact, he was also consul. So he rushed into the forum – the crowd parting to make way for him and offered to – the crowd parting to make way for him and offered to Caesar the diadem (a distinctive attribute of kings in Caesar the diadem (a distinctive attribute of kings in Hellenistic Greek East) he was carrying, entwined with a Hellenistic Greek East) he was carrying, entwined with a wreath of laurel. The was some applause, not very hearty, wreath of laurel. The was some applause, not very hearty, but desultory and contrived. But when Caesar pushed it but desultory and contrived. But when Caesar pushed it away, the whole people burst into applause, and a second away, the whole people burst into applause, and a second time just a few applauded when Antony repeated the offer, time just a few applauded when Antony repeated the offer, but everyone did when Caesar refused it. ..and Caesar rose but everyone did when Caesar refused it. ..and Caesar rose and ordered the wreath to be taken to the Capitoline temple and ordered the wreath to be taken to the Capitoline temple (of Jupiter). But it was noticed that his statues were dressed (of Jupiter). But it was noticed that his statues were dressed up in royal diadems. So two of the tribunes, Flavius and up in royal diadems. So two of the tribunes, Flavius and Marullus, went and tore them off; then they searched out Marullus, went and tore them off; then they searched out those who had first hailed Caesar king and carried them off those who had first hailed Caesar king and carried them off to prison. Plutarch, to prison. Plutarch, Life of CaesarLife of Caesar 61.3-4 (Beard, Sources 61.3-4 (Beard, Sources 5.2b)5.2b)

Rituals of the SaliiRituals of the Salii Some festivals connected with warSome festivals connected with war Priests known asPriests known as salii salii performed ritual performed ritual

dances and songs through streets of city dances and songs through streets of city several days in March and October – --several days in March and October – --months marking (in early community) the months marking (in early community) the beginning and end of the annual military beginning and end of the annual military campaigning season. campaigning season.

Continued even in period when campaigns Continued even in period when campaigns continued well beyond summer monthscontinued well beyond summer months

See the passage on the Salii in your See the passage on the Salii in your Sourcebook: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Sourcebook: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities II 70.1-5Roman Antiquities II 70.1-5 (Beard, Sources (Beard, Sources 5.4)5.4)

The lectisterniumThe lectisternium

A banquet given in honour of the godsA banquet given in honour of the godsFirst celebrated in early 4First celebrated in early 4thth century and century and

incorporated into several major festivalsincorporated into several major festivalsProbably introduced from the Greek Probably introduced from the Greek

world where such banquets were world where such banquets were commoncommon

The first and all of the earliest The first and all of the earliest lectisterniumlectisternium festivals were carried out festivals were carried out in response to a plaguein response to a plague

The first lectisterniumThe first lectisternium ..The duoviri sacris faciundis (a priesthood of 2 men) ..The duoviri sacris faciundis (a priesthood of 2 men)

celebrated the first lectisternium ever held in the city of celebrated the first lectisternium ever held in the city of Rome, and for eight days they appeased Apollo and Latona Rome, and for eight days they appeased Apollo and Latona and Diana, Hercules, Mercury and Neptune, with three and Diana, Hercules, Mercury and Neptune, with three couches spread as magnificently as it was then possible to couches spread as magnificently as it was then possible to furnish. The rite was also celebrated in private houses. furnish. The rite was also celebrated in private houses. Throughout the whole city doors stood ajar, everything was Throughout the whole city doors stood ajar, everything was left out in the open to be shared by anyone who wished, left out in the open to be shared by anyone who wished, and they say that all visitors – whether known or unknown – and they say that all visitors – whether known or unknown – were welcomed hospitably, while people exchanged were welcomed hospitably, while people exchanged friendly and courteous words with their enemies, setting friendly and courteous words with their enemies, setting aside their quarrels and disputes. Prisoners too were freed aside their quarrels and disputes. Prisoners too were freed from their chains for those days; and afterwards they felt from their chains for those days; and afterwards they felt scruples about imprisoning those whom the gods had scruples about imprisoning those whom the gods had helped in this way. helped in this way.

Livy, V.13.5-8 in Beard, Sources 5.5bLivy, V.13.5-8 in Beard, Sources 5.5b

The Saturnalia, Dec. 17-23The Saturnalia, Dec. 17-23

Seven-day festivalSeven-day festival Had both public and private aspectHad both public and private aspect Formal sacrifice and banquet at the temple Formal sacrifice and banquet at the temple

of Saturnof Saturn Private parties (sometimes over several Private parties (sometimes over several

days) fun, and gift-exchange.days) fun, and gift-exchange. Festival popular into 3Festival popular into 3rdrd and 4 and 4thth centuries CE centuries CE Customs incorporated into Christian Customs incorporated into Christian

celebrations of New Year and Christmascelebrations of New Year and Christmas Custom of exchanging giftsCustom of exchanging gifts

Saturnalia -Saturnalia -turning the world upside turning the world upside

down down Religious festival that temporarily Religious festival that temporarily

reversed established social rules and reversed established social rules and hierarchies - hierarchies -

Privilege of wining and dining for Privilege of wining and dining for short time extended to household short time extended to household slavesslaves

Some ancient writers even say that Some ancient writers even say that the masters served the slaves the masters served the slaves

Saturnalia Saturnalia

““Meanwhile the head of the slave household Meanwhile the head of the slave household ((familiafamilia), whose responsibility it was to offer ), whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the Penates, to manage the provisions sacrifice to the Penates, to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic slaves, and to direct the activities of the domestic slaves, came to tell his master that he household had came to tell his master that he household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honour the slaves religious usage, they first of all honour the slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master, and with a dinner prepared as if for the master, and only afterwards is the table set again for the head only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to table.” (Macrobius, the masters to table.” (Macrobius, Saturnalia Saturnalia I.24.22-3 in Beard, Sources 5.3a) I.24.22-3 in Beard, Sources 5.3a)

Statius, Statius, Silvae Silvae ““Hence, father Phoebus and stern Pallas! Away, ye Muses, go, Hence, father Phoebus and stern Pallas! Away, ye Muses, go,

keep holiday. We will call you back at the New Year. But Saturn, keep holiday. We will call you back at the New Year. But Saturn, slip your fetters and come hither, and December tipsy with much slip your fetters and come hither, and December tipsy with much wine and laughing Mirth and wanton Wit, while I recount the glad wine and laughing Mirth and wanton Wit, while I recount the glad festival of our merry Caesar and the banquet’s drunken revel.festival of our merry Caesar and the banquet’s drunken revel.

Scarce was the new dawn stirring, when already sweetmeats Scarce was the new dawn stirring, when already sweetmeats were raining from the line (rope stretched across the were raining from the line (rope stretched across the amphitheater), such was the dew the rising east wind was amphitheater), such was the dew the rising east wind was scattering; the famous fruit of the Pontic nut groves, or of scattering; the famous fruit of the Pontic nut groves, or of Idume’s fertile slopes (Palestine dates), all that devout Idume’s fertile slopes (Palestine dates), all that devout Damascus grows upon its boughs (Damson plums) or thirsty Damascus grows upon its boughs (Damson plums) or thirsty Caunus ripens (figs), falls, gratis, in a generous profusion. Caunus ripens (figs), falls, gratis, in a generous profusion. Buscuits and melting pastries, Amerian fruits (Apples and pears) Buscuits and melting pastries, Amerian fruits (Apples and pears) not overripe, ..showering down..not overripe, ..showering down..

Statius continuedStatius continued ..another multitude, handsome and well dressed, ..makes its way ..another multitude, handsome and well dressed, ..makes its way

along all the rows. Some carry baskets of breads and white along all the rows. Some carry baskets of breads and white napkins and more luxurious fare; others serve languorous wine in napkins and more luxurious fare; others serve languorous wine in abundant measure.. You nourishes alike the circle of the noble abundant measure.. You nourishes alike the circle of the noble and austere and the folk that wear the toga, …..One table serves and austere and the folk that wear the toga, …..One table serves every class alike, children, women, common people, knights, and every class alike, children, women, common people, knights, and senators; freedom has loosed the bonds of awe. ..even yourself – senators; freedom has loosed the bonds of awe. ..even yourself – what god could have such leisure, or vouchsafe as much? - you what god could have such leisure, or vouchsafe as much? - you have come and share our banquet. And now everyone, be he rich have come and share our banquet. And now everyone, be he rich or poor, boasts himself the emperor’s guest.or poor, boasts himself the emperor’s guest.

Amid such excitements and strange luxuries the pleasure of the Amid such excitements and strange luxuries the pleasure of the scene flies quickly by: women untrained to the sword take their scene flies quickly by: women untrained to the sword take their stand, daring, how recklessly, men’s battles! Then comes a bold stand, daring, how recklessly, men’s battles! Then comes a bold array of dwarfs…They give and suffer wounds, and threaten array of dwarfs…They give and suffer wounds, and threaten death - with fists how tiny! (Statius, death - with fists how tiny! (Statius, SilvaeSilvae i. vi.) during reign of i. vi.) during reign of Domitian – late first century CEDomitian – late first century CE

Festivals in generalFestivals in general

Also functioned as commemorating Also functioned as commemorating important events of past and important events of past and bringing it to attention of present bringing it to attention of present generationsgenerations

By 2By 2ndnd century CE there were so century CE there were so many ‘special days’ that the emperor many ‘special days’ that the emperor Marcus Aurelius passed a decree Marcus Aurelius passed a decree limiting them to 135 a year limiting them to 135 a year