The Final ArgumentThe Final Argument

Socrates’ replies to Cebes’ by Socrates’ replies to Cebes’ by presenting a final argument for the presenting a final argument for the immortality of the soulimmortality of the soul

Some forms are inseparable from Some forms are inseparable from the things that have it—they are the things that have it—they are essential forms. Cold is essential to essential forms. Cold is essential to snow, heat is essential to fire, snow, heat is essential to fire, oddness is essential to the number 3oddness is essential to the number 3

The soul is that which brings life to The soul is that which brings life to the body. There can be no soul the body. There can be no soul without life, therefore, the life is without life, therefore, the life is essential to the soulessential to the soul

But if life is essential to the soul, But if life is essential to the soul, then the soul cannot die.then the soul cannot die.

Therefore the soul is immortalTherefore the soul is immortal

CriticismsCriticisms

Argument assumes that to be alive a Argument assumes that to be alive a body must possess a separate body must possess a separate “thing” a soul“thing” a soul

The proper conclusion is not that the The proper conclusion is not that the soul lives forever, but that if there is soul lives forever, but that if there is a soul, there must be life—a soul, there must be life—

Just as fire is hot implies that if there Just as fire is hot implies that if there is fire, there is also heat.is fire, there is also heat.

The main questions of the The main questions of the RepublicRepublic

Is it better to be just or unjust?Is it better to be just or unjust? What is it for a person to be just?What is it for a person to be just? What is an ideal city? What makes the What is an ideal city? What makes the

ideal city a just city.ideal city a just city. Plato connects these moral questions Plato connects these moral questions

with fundamental issues in with fundamental issues in metaphysics and epistemology: what metaphysics and epistemology: what is knowledge? What is the true nature is knowledge? What is the true nature of reality?of reality?

Book II of the Book II of the RepublicRepublic

Glaucon and Socrates distinguish Glaucon and Socrates distinguish three different kinds of Good?three different kinds of Good?

Which kind is justice?Which kind is justice?

The three kinds of goodThe three kinds of good

Good in itself (intrinsically goodGood in itself (intrinsically good Good in itself and for its Good in itself and for its

consequencesconsequences Good only for its consequences (or Good only for its consequences (or

only good as a means)only good as a means)

Glaucon argues for the view that Glaucon argues for the view that justice is a good, but only for its justice is a good, but only for its consequences, and is in fact bad in consequences, and is in fact bad in and of itselfand of itself

Socrates holds justice is good in Socrates holds justice is good in itself and for its consequencesitself and for its consequences

The Ring of GygesThe Ring of Gyges

Suppose you had a ring that would make you Suppose you had a ring that would make you invisible (allowing you commit injustice invisible (allowing you commit injustice without being discovered).without being discovered).

If such a ring were available how would a just If such a ring were available how would a just person’s actions differ from an unjust person’s actions differ from an unjust person?person?

(1) If there would be no difference, that shows (1) If there would be no difference, that shows we only think of justice as good as a means.we only think of justice as good as a means.

(2) If the just person remains just even though (2) If the just person remains just even though he can get away with being unjust, then that he can get away with being unjust, then that shows that people consider justice to be shows that people consider justice to be good.good.

Glaucon: Justice is good as a means Glaucon: Justice is good as a means of avoiding of avoiding sufferingsuffering injustice. We injustice. We agree to abide by the rules of agree to abide by the rules of morality so that other people don’t morality so that other people don’t harm us, not because its bad to do harm us, not because its bad to do harm (injustice) to other peopleharm (injustice) to other people

If the Ring of Gyges example is If the Ring of Gyges example is persuasive, it tells us that we think of persuasive, it tells us that we think of morality in terms of external rewards.morality in terms of external rewards.

It does not tell us however that justice It does not tell us however that justice really is only good for its rewards.really is only good for its rewards.

People could be simply mistaken: they People could be simply mistaken: they might think justice is only good for its might think justice is only good for its consequences, while really its good for consequences, while really its good for its consequences and for its own sake.its consequences and for its own sake.

We need to first discover We need to first discover what justice iswhat justice is

Socrates: Justice is easier to Socrates: Justice is easier to discover in a city, then in an discover in a city, then in an individual, so lets discover what individual, so lets discover what justice is in a city first, then we can justice is in a city first, then we can better see how justice applies to better see how justice applies to individuals.individuals.

So they begin to discuss what an So they begin to discuss what an ideal city would be likeideal city would be like

How should the work be How should the work be divided in the city?divided in the city?

People should perform only one task.People should perform only one task.

Why?Why?

People have different natural talents. People have different natural talents. A well run city will have each person A well run city will have each person do what they are by nature best do what they are by nature best suited for.suited for.

If you work at one task regularly you If you work at one task regularly you will get better at that taskwill get better at that task

372a-372c Socrates describes an 372a-372c Socrates describes an ideal city.ideal city.

But Glaucon objects.But Glaucon objects.

The first ideal city lacks luxuries, it The first ideal city lacks luxuries, it is a simple city.is a simple city.

Socrates says while the simple city Socrates says while the simple city still strikes him as ideal, it might be still strikes him as ideal, it might be useful to look into a wealthy, useful to look into a wealthy, “feverish,” city.“feverish,” city.

What new thing do we get What new thing do we get with a wealthy, feverish with a wealthy, feverish

city?city? WAR!WAR! We need warriors.We need warriors. Following the principle of Following the principle of

specialization, these warriors need specialization, these warriors need to be those who are best suited for to be those who are best suited for the task, a professional army.the task, a professional army.

They also need to be trained They also need to be trained appropriately.appropriately.

Warriors need to be Warriors need to be trainedtrained

Music and gymnasticMusic and gymnastic Both liberal arts and physical Both liberal arts and physical

training train the soultraining train the soul Strict censorship of literary works. Strict censorship of literary works.

Only those works that contribute to Only those works that contribute to the virtues of the guardians (later the virtues of the guardians (later called auxilliaries)will be allowed.called auxilliaries)will be allowed.