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TheFoundationsof19thCenturyLiterature
are,notsurprisingly,inthe18thcentury
EnglishLiteraturethroughtheages
1. 1400’sChaucer-verse2. 1600’sShakespeare–stageplays3. 1720–177018thcenturyclassics-books4. 1770–180018thcenturygenrefiction-books5. 1800–190019thcenturyliterature,booksand
periodicals
Somegreat19thcenturyliteratureSenseandSensibility(JaneAusten)
1811PrideandPrejudice(JaneAusten)
1813MansfieldPark(JaneAusten)
1814Frankenstein(MaryShelley)
1818LastoftheMohicans(JamesCooper)
1826LastDaysofPompeii(Bulwer-Lytton)
1834PitandthePendulum(EAPoe)
1842 CountofMonteCristo(AlexanderDumas) 1846
JaneEyre(CharlotteBronte) 1847WutheringHeights(EmilyBronte) 1847TenantofWildfellHall(AnneBronte) 1848VanityFair(WilliamThackeray) 1848WomaninWhite(WilkieCollins) 1860GreatExpectations(CharlesDickens) 1861LornaDoone(RDBlackmore) 1869FarfromtheMaddingCrowd(ThomasHardy) 1874DanielDeronda(GeorgeEliot) 1877
AnnaKarenina(LeoTolstoy) 1877
BodySnatcher(RLStevenson) 1884
WomaninGreen(ArthurConanDoyle) 1886
ThePictureofDorianGray(OscarWilde) 1891TheTimeMachine(HGWells) 1895
TheImportanceofBeingEarnest(OscarWilde) 1895
Dracula(BramStoker) 1897
LordJim(JosephConrad) 1900
Mydiscussiontodayof18thcenturyliteraturewillbein3parts…
1. Thecontextof18thcenturyliterature–whatwashappeningintheworldthatinfluencedliterature
2. Periodicalsofthe18thcenturyandtheireffectsonprintingandonnovels
3. Thecontentof18thcenturyliterature–thetopicsandformsthatevolvedinliteraturea. Theclassicnovels,1720-1770b. Thegothicromancenovels,1765-1800
DomesticEnglishEconomicChanges
• Theindustrialrevolution,1760-1830,madesweepingchangestotheEnglisheconomy
• Spinningjenniestookthespinningofwool(andcotton)fromcrofterstofactories;loomspoweredbywaterwheelsinthosefactorieswovecloth,trainsandcanalsmovedfinishedproducttocitiesandports
• Thisindustrycreatedthefirstindustrialists,increasedEnglishexports,andincreasedEnglishimports
• Anditcreatedtheworkingclass–inmilltowns,whosetimeandmoneybecameavailabletobuyperiodicalsandbooks
Religiouschanges• TheReformation,leadbyMartinLuther,wasinitiallyareactiontocorruptionintheCatholicchurch,particularlythesaleof‘indulgences’– Note:theprintingof‘indulgences’wasalucrativepartoftheprintingtradeintheearlydays
• TheReformationcreatedademandforprintedpropagandapromotingallelementsofthisschismwithinChristianity
• Jacobism–themovementinEnglandtoplaceaCatholickingonthethrone–alsoincreaseddemandforprintedpropaganda
PoliticalChanges
• TherepercussionsoftheEnglishcivilwar(1642)involvedmuchprintedmaterial
• TheFrenchrevolutionof1789-1799involvedtheuseofmuchprintedmaterial
• TheAmericanrevolution(1776-1780)alsoinvolvedmuchprintedpoliticalmaterial
• Authoritiesattemptedtosuppresscivilunrestbydirectcensorshipandbytaxationofpoliticalliterature–neitherofwhichwassuccessful
• Newspapers(andperiodicals)flourished,andservedthehungerofthepopulaceforinformation
SocialChanges(literacy)• Compulsory,taxpaid,primaryeducationwasnotapartofthe18thcenturyinBritain(oranywhereelse)
• Butnewswasnowinprint,sothedemandforliteracygrew
• Thatdemandwasfilledbyindividualteachers-for-pay:– Inavillage,aninstructorcouldbepaidtoteachreadingskillstochildrentooyoungtoworkthefieldsorthefactories.Forthewealthy,governessestaughtreading.
– Everyfamilysoonhadoneyoungmemberabletoread,andthatpersonwouldread(usuallythebibleorthenewspaper)tothefamilyintheevening.Achangefromtellingstories.
SocialChanges(humanrights)
• TheBritishEmpireabolishedslaveryin1833,butwellintothe19thcenturywomenhadessentiallynorightsandlittleaccesstopayingjobs
• Howeverwritingnovelswasremunerativeandrespectableforwomen
Technologicalchanges(books)
– Relativelyinexpensiveprintingpresseswithmoveabletypereplacedhandletteringandfixed-blockletteringforprintingallkindsofmatterincludingbooks
– Papermakingevolvedfromcottonbase,tolinen(flax)base,topulpwoodbase
– Sellingbooksevolvedfromprintshopstolendinglibraries(andlatertobookandpapershops)
– Printer/publishersbeganpurchasingmanuscriptsfromauthors,printingbooksattheirownexpense,thenofferingthemforsale
JohannGensfleischzumGutenberg1394–1468
• Jobprintingbeganwiththemoveabletypeprintingpress
• Asdiduniformeditions,proof-readtext,andlargequantitiesofbooksorpamphletsprintedquickly
• Establishmentof‘standard’fonts• Resultingthefastspreadofknowledgeacrosspoliticalboundaries
• LossofLatinasthelingafrancaofEuropeamongeducatedpeople
InEngland,moveabletypeprintingpresseswereintroducedbyWilliamCaxton
• CaxtonwasasuccessfulbusinessmaninBrugesandin1471startedprintinghisownbooks
• In1477CaxtonissuedthefirstbookprintedinEngland
• DuringhislifetimeCaxtonpublished90books,74ofwhichwereinEnglish,therestinFrench,German,andLatin
• By1500hisheirshadprintedover800items,40%ofwhichwereforgrammarschoolstudents
Someunexpectedchanges
• Printedbooksandperiodicalssustainedregionallanguagesifbookswereprintedinthatlanguage.Forexample:Welshsurvived,Cornishdidnot.
• PrintedbooksstandardizedEnglishgrammar.
Ahandoperatedmoveabletypeprintingpresses
Papertrivia…
• cast-offclothing(madeofwoolandcotton)wastheoriginalbasematerialforthepaperontowhichbooks,periodicals,andnewspaperswereprinted
• ragpickerscouldmakeagoodlivingin18thcenturyBritain
Periodicals
Periodicalsplayedacentralroleintheliteratureofthe18thcentury,andanevengreaterroleintheliteratureofthe19thcentury
BritishnewspapersThefirstdailynewspaper,TheDailyCourantbeganPublicationinLondonin1702JonathanSwiftandDanielDefoewere‘journalistpublishers’intheearly18thcenturyIn1720therewere12LondonNewspapers,by1767therewere53newspaperspublishinganincredible11,000,000copiesannually(thepopulationofBritainAtthetimewasonly10,000,000)TheLondonTimes,begunin1788,grewtobecomethemostinfluentialnewssourceontheplanet
Inthe18thcenturynewspaperswerenotreadonceanddiscarded
• Incities,newspaperscouldberentedforanhour
• Acopyofanewspapermightbereadbyfourorfivepeopleoverthecourseofaweek,beforeitwasdiscarded
• Inremoteareas,anewspapermightstillbesaleableweeksafterpublicationsinceitwasoftentheonlysourceofnewsandentertainment
Britishnewspapertrivia
• This is Times New Roman font
• It was invented by The London Times to aid legibility in the days of low tech printing
ThecontentofEnglishLiteratureevolvedquicklyinthe18thcentury
• 1721–1761‘theclassics’:Defoe,Richardson,Smollett,Fielding,Sterne
• 1765–1790thebirthofgothicfiction:WalpoleandReeve
• 1790-1800:Theproliferationofgothicromances,epitomizedbythenovelsofAnnRadcliffe
‘theclassics’of18thcenturyliterature
(ThePilgrim’sProgressbyJohnBunyan1684)RobinsonCrusoebyDanielDefoe1719ClarissabySamuelRichardson1740RoderickRandombyTobiasSmollett1748TomJonesbyHenryFielding1749TristamShandybyLawrenceSterne1761
TheBirthoftheGothicRomanceasagenreofliterature
TheCastleofOtranto,byHoraceWalpolepublishedin1765TheOldEnglishBaron,byClaraReeve,publishedin1777
Thegothicromance• Thefirstgenredominatedbyfemaleauthors• Combined,history,travel,andromancewith,forthefirsttime,thesupernatural
• Painterlyscenery(oftengoingonforpageswhilethestoryisonhold)
• Theywereusually:setinthepast,incontinentalEurope,involvingamolderingcastle,amysteriousvillain,evilpriests,ahero,avirtuous,lacrymoseheroine,andyes,attheend,virtuewasrewarded
• SirWalterScottwasa‘romance’writerthoughnotagothicromancewriter(andhewasafanofAnnRadcliffe)
Terror
• ThegothicnovelswereRomances,buttheyreliedonterror,andthesupernatural,fortheirsuspense
TheReignofTerror,1793-1794,shookthemonarchiesofEuropemorethantheFrenchrevolutionitself
Inliterature,terrorisfear,oftenoftheunknownorthesupernatural,whilehorrorincludesrevulsion
HoraceWalpole
• HisnoveltheCastleofOtrantoprovidedthestagesettingforvirtuallyallgothicnovels:theancientcastle,withsecretpassages,dungeons,torturechambers,ghostswithclankingchains,mysteriousevilinhabitantsand/orprisoners,deepforests,andcraggymountains,ashininghero,andvirtuousheroine
• Intheend,virtuousbehaviorisrewarded,andreasonovercomessuperstition
ClaraReevesaidthatshedesiredherbookstoinclude…
“…asufficientdegreeofthemarveloustoexciteattention,enoughofthemannersofreallifetogiveitanairofprobability,andenoughofthepathetictoengagetheheart…”
‘novel’versus‘romance’
• The(primarilyrealistic)‘novel’hadprobability,truth,andauthenticity,whichthegothicromancedidnothave.
TheMysteriesofUdolphobyAnnRadcliffe
Themostfamous,andmostinfluential,gothicromanceofthe18thcenturyIthasremainedcontinuouslyinprintsincefirstpublishedin1794Mrs.Radcliffereceived500BritishPoundsforthemanuscript–anunheardoffigureforthedayHerbookwasfavorablyreviewedbycriticsincludingSirWalterScott,JohnKeats,andSamuelTaylorColeridge
TheItalianbyAnnRadcliffePublishedin1796,whenshewas33andattheheightofherpopularity,shewaspaid800poundssterlingforthemanuscriptItwasher5thbookin8yearsandthelastshepublishedinherlifetime–althoughshelived26moreyearsSetinsouthernItalyin1750afeudalareawithaforeignking,andTheInquisition,butwiththepeoplereadyforrevolutionandfreedomThestoryisadefenseofromanticloveand,asalways,Radcliffeexplainsthesupernatural
Radcliffe’sinfluenceAsachildtheyoungFyodorDostoyevskywasdeeplyimpressedbyAnnRadcliffebooks.InDostoyevsky’sWinterNotesonSummerImpressions(1863)hewrites:"Iusedtospendthelongwinterhoursbeforebedlistening(forIcouldnotyetread),agapewithecstasyandterror,asmyparentsreadaloudtomefromthenovelsofAnnRadcliffe.ThenIwouldravedeliriouslyabouttheminmysleep."AnumberofscholarshavenotedelementsofGothicliteratureinDostoyevsky'snovels.
Radcliffe’sinfluence
• JaneAusten,ofcourse.NorthangerAbbeyisalovingparodyofGothicsingeneralandTheMysteriesofUdolphoinparticular.
• Balzac’snovelofthesupernaturalL’HeritagedeBirague(1822)followsthetraditionofRadcliffe'sstyleandparodiesit.
• EdgarAllenPoe’sshortstoryTheOvalPortraitdrewfromUdolphoandmentionsRadcliffebyname(somewhatdisparagingly)intheintroduction.
RadcliffetriviaInthe2007filmBecomingJaneActressHelenMcCroryplaysAnnRadcliffe.ThefilmdepictsRadcliffeasmeetingtheyoungJaneAustenandencouraginghertopursuealiterarycareer
ClermontbyReginaMariaRocheIrishborn,Mrs.Rochewrote16novelsoverthecourseofherlonglife,romances,gothicsand,lateinhercareer,regionalIrishstories.HerthirdnovelTheChildrenoftheAbbeyoutsoldRadcliffe’sUdolphoTodayherbestknownworkisClermont,agentlegothicromance.She,likeRadcliffe,includeddidacticpurpose,butunlikeRadcliffe,leftthesupernaturalunexplained
FromReginaMariaRoche’sobituary
“…thisdistinguishedwriterhadretiredfromtheworld,andtheworldhadforgottenher.Butmanyyounghearts,nowold,willremembertheeffectuponthemofhergracefulandtouchingcompositions,andacknowledgeherlosswithamelancholyfeelingofregret...”
FromGentleman’sMagazine,July1845
TheMonkbyMatthewLewisTheMonkdirectlyreflectsthehorrorsoftheFrenchrevolutionandRobespierre’sReignofTerrorMatthewLewisreadbothOtrantoandUdolpho,butTheMonkismuchmoregraphicandviolentthanothergothicromancesofthedayLewiscompleteTheMonkwhenhewasonly21yearsoldin1796.ItbecameanimmediatebestsellerItdescribesthefallfromgraceofex-monkAmbrosioandincludesblasphemy,blackmagic,torture,rape,andmurder
WereGothicRomancesdetrimentaltomoreseriousliterature?
• No,becausetheybuiltareadershipthatmoreseriousliteratureneededtosurvive–forexample,JaneAustenwasnotabest-seller
• Genreliteraturedidnotdisappearinthe19thcentury-the‘pennydreadfuls’ofthe1890’swerevastlypopular
• ‘serious19thcenturyliterature’includedtalesoffantasyandterrorthatdrewonthetropesofthegothics–WomaninWhite,JekyllandHyde,Dracula,etc.
JaneAusten’sfirstbookmarkedtheendof18thcenturyliteratureandthebeginningof19thcenturyliterature
Everythingchangedin1811
Insummary• Inthelate18thcentury,moveabletypeprintingpressesandthe
availabilityofpaper,revolutionizedtheproductionofprintedmaterial
• Thephysicalform,methodofcontractingforpublication,andmethodsofdistribution,ofthepopularnovelwereestablishedinthelate18thcentury
• Periodicalsandnewspapersbegantheirastronomicalgrowthinthelate18thcentury
• Bookcontentevolvedveryquicklyfrom1765to1800,culminatinginthegothicromancenovel,whichestablishedalargereadershipforallliterature
• Womenwriterswrotethemajorityofthegothicromances• 19thcenturyEnglishliteraturebeganwithJaneAusten,whoseroots
weredeepin1790’sgothicromance
Tworeferences
Anoldbook,firstpublishedin1932,butafascinatingsurveyofaveryobscuretopic
A1955,verythorough,surveyoftheevolutionofprinting