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6/6/2010

Ambakisye-Okang Quaashie Nantambu Olatunde Dukuzumurenyi, PH.D.

FULA HISTORY & CULTURE

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The Fulani People The Fulani people call themselves Fulve*

(Pullo, in singuler).They were originally

nomadic herders, traders and farming people

living throughout West Africa. Today the

majority of fulani people live urban centers.

While their origins are disputed, Arab writers

recorded their existence over 1000 years ago.

However experts believe that they originated

from a region that occupied the present day

Northern Senegal. Over the centuries, they

migrated with their cattle to occupy vast

areas in the Sahel and Savannah regions of

West Africa and evolved into many subgroups

with a variety of designations including Fulve,

Jelgove, Gurma, Gorgave, Fellata, Fula,

Fulakunda, Bororos, Wodaabe, Peul, Pulaar,

Halpulaar, Liptaako, Toucouleur, and Tukolor.

Presently, they live in communities

throughout much of the West-Africa, from

Senegal to Cameroon and as far east as

Sudan and Ethiopia.The fulani range covers

an area larger than continental United States and western Europe.

Historically, the Fulani played a significant

role in the rise and fall of ancient African

empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai and the

Mossi states.

They greatly contributed to the spread of Islam throughout Western Africa.

More recently, slavery and colonialism dispersed Fulani throughout the Middle

East, the Americas and Europe. American history books are full of individuals of

Fulani origin who have distinguished themselves in North and South America

and the Caribbean.

Fulve have rich traditions and fascinating way

of life. They have had a significant social,

religious and political impact in West Africa.

As minorities in most of the West African

countries where they reside, the Fulani are

steadily mixing with local dominant cultures.

The phenomenon of local integration,

combined with the impact of colonization and

westernization, has slowly eroded the Fulani

language and traditions.

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If nothing is done to maintain their culture and language, the Fulani will simply

vanish in a few generations. Without an awareness of the unique richness and

formidable contribution of the Fulani traditions and without a serious effort to

conserve and sustain the Fulani heritage, their culture may be lost forever. It is

increasingly important to preserve this ancient culture. Jamtan.Com will

explore the history, traditions and many aspects of Fulani culture to promote a

better understanding of the Fulani people.

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*Note; The letter V is read as a sound close to Bh which does exist neither in

English nor in French.

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Society & Culture

Notion of a culture

The African diversity is bewildering. First, there

are some Fifty Countries, Thousand of Ethnics

groups and Tribes, Thousand languages mixed

with foreign languages such as Arabophony,

Anglophony, Francophony, Lusophony, and

Hispanophony. Then, consider the prevalent

religions, starting from the traditional ancestral

African beliefs to the monotheistic religions such

as Christianity and Islam. And finally, the entire

diversity spectrum is

super imposed on the real traditional cultures such as the Malinkes, the

Bantus, the Hausas, the Yorubas and Fulani that span several modern Africa

Countries.

How can one speak of a single culture since African culture is not easy to

comprehend?

In spite the Diversity, and the subsequent vast number of subcultures, it is

very possible to find a foundation of shared history, values, traditions,

attitudes, and ways of live that bind together a group of people and defined

them as culture.

From this diversity, several distinctions could be made

based on physical appearance, languages and religion. In

Africa and everywhere else in the world the most enduring

distinction is language. A person mother tongue is still one

of the most important indices of cultural identity and

therefore a Culture is best defined as people sharing a

common language. Such are the Fulani of West Africa who

shaa large degree of kinship Fulani are the quintessential

people of primarily West Africa that embodies all of this

diversity.

The Fulani are so scattered across West Africa that their

attitudes and sense of identity varies so considerably from

place to place. Intermarriage with various groups and the

lack of it in others cases has resulted in the variety of

modern Fulani groups. Indeed, diversity is an separable

part of Fulani's past and present traditions. The variations

manifest them selves in their physical features, their social

structure, their settlements and their daily occupation.

However, their pastoralism, their cultural concept of

Pulaagu and their religion have helped them maintain their

distinctiveness.re language, history, ways of life and They

are also held together by a common language, although

this is being rapidly lost. Religion plays an important

part in

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their live but it is their common background and history and their resilience in

surviving in the hash Sahel environment which are really their strongest

attributes. Indeed many Fulani suffered greatly in the drought which affected

the Sahel region of West Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. But even when

Fulani are forced to settle, many of their attitudes to life, their beliefs, an much

of the social structure acquired during the pastoral period, survive.

The Fulani were originally nomadic

herders, traders and farming people

living throughout West Africa. While

their origins are disputed, Arab writers

recorded their existence over 1000

years ago. Over the centuries, they

migrated with their cattle to occupy

vast areas in the Sahel and Savannah

regions of West Africa and evolved into

many subgroups with a variety of

designations including Fulbe, Fellata,

Fula, Fulakunda, Bororos, Wonaabe,

Bauchi, Peul, Pulaar, liptaako, and

Toucouleur. Presently, they live in

communities throughout much of the

region, from Senegal to Cameroon and

as

far east as Sudan. While most commonly called Fulani in current literature,

they prefer to be called Fulbe.

Historically, the Fulani played a significant role in the rise and fall of ancient

African empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai and the Mossi states. They

greatly contributed to the spread of Islam throughout Western Africa. More

recently, slavery and colonialism dispersed Fulani throughout the Middle East,

the Americas and Europe. American history books are full of individuals of

Fulani origin who have distinguished themselves in North and South America

and the Caribbean.

The Fulani Social System

As mentioned earlier in the text, the

traditional social system is fairly complex.

Intermarriage with various peoples of some

groups has resulted in the variety of

modern Fulbe groups. Furthermore, the

concept of ethnic group or tribe is not a

reference for many Fulanis.

Fulanis and Africans in general traditionally

liked to identify themselves and others by

the social group titles. However, Three-tire

distinctions can be made when considering

Fulanis social systems: The major groups

and the social groups more often called

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casts. The major groups are:given in the

communities section.

The social groups are in general

The Fula or Fulani society also has three castes: The Rimbe consist of the Fulbe proper who

raise cattle and who have the political power. Three other main groups are the Neeybe who

are craftsmen including the Maabube and the Lawbe, who are also praise singers and

genealogists and mentioned below among the non-pastoral nomads. Jeyaabe or Muccube who are the former slaves,

The Cast System

Yaya Wane in his study Les

Toucouleurs du Futa Toro

(stratification social) has divided the

Fulani society in three major Classes:

Rimbhe, Neenbhe, Jiyaabhe which can

be grouped as follow: The Traditional

occupation within the Cast System in

Futa Tooro is also provided below.

Social Groups Work Functions Titles

Social Groups Work Functions Titles

Rimbhe-Ardiibhe

Can hold leadership in

village, serve as Iman,

etc.

Fulbhe, Toorodbhe

Rimbhe-Huunbhe

Free born, noble in class

but generally in service

to a leader

Sebhbhe, Jaawambhe,

Subhalbhe

Neenbhe-Fecciram-

Golle Artisans, Product

Maabubhe-Sanoobhe,

Waylubhe, Sakkaebhe,

Lawbhe

Neenbhe-Naagotoobhe-

Naalankoobhe performers, historians

Wammbhaabhe,

Maabhubhe Suudu Paate

Jeyaabhe/Jiyaabhe Captives of war laborers Maccubhe

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The Traditional occupation within the Cast System in Futa Tooro

Tooroodo (sing), Toorodoe (Pl) leaders, Iman, Farmers

Cuballo (sing), Subalbhe (pl) The Subalbhe. Specialized in fishing and river matters.

Jaawando (sing), Jaawambhe (pl) Courtesans, diplomat intermediaries

Tooroodo (sing), Toorodoe (Pl) leaders, Iman, Farmers

Cuballo (sing), Subalbhe (pl) The Subalbhe. Specialized in fishing and

river matters.

Jaawando (sing), Jaawambhe

(pl) Courtesans, diplomat intermediaries

Ceddo (sing) leaders, courtesans, support position to

leaders

Baylo (sing), Sebhbhe (pl) leaders, courtesans, support position to

leaders

Mabe (sing) Maaabubhe (pl) Weavers and Pottery makers

Labbo (sing) Lawbhe (pl) Woodworkers

Sakke (sing) Sakkebhe (pl) Leathers Workers

Gawlo (sing) Awlubhe (pl) Singers, genealogist Griots

Bammbaado (sing)

Wammbaabhe (pl) Griots, Guitarists

Maccudo (sing) Maccubhe (pl) Servants, entertainers

Explication of major social groups below

They have four main branches, each descending

from a common ancestor, the Wollarbe or

Dayebe, the Ouroube, the Yirlabe or Yillaga and

the Ferobe. But normally the Fulbe identify

themselves by their local territorial lineages.

Within these there are the migratory groups they

belong to, which are led by an ardo or 'guide'.

The Fula or Fulani society also has three castes:

The Rimbe consist of the Fulbe proper who raise

cattle and who have the political power. Three

other main groups are the Neeybe who are

craftsmen including the Maabube and the Lawbe,

who are also praise singers and genealogists and

mentioned below among the non-pastoral

nomads. Jeyaabe or Muccube who are the former

slaves, some of whom are weavers among the

Tukulor, also described below.

Other descriptive terms used of various groups are: Fulbe Mbalu or Sheep Fulani are small

groups in various countries herding sheep rather than cattle. Fulbe Ladde or Na'i or Bush or

Cattle Fulani are found in different areas. There are a few clans that are completely

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nomadic, with grass or mat huts. Many migrate between rainy season and dry season

villages. Some are semi-sedentary, and rely on the crops of the surrounding farmers. Some

are prosperous with small herds; the men migrate with the cattle for part of the year

leaving their families at home.

Fulbe Ouro or Settled Fulani, who have settled for various reasons such as farming and

education, etc. In Nigeria they are called Joodiibe or Fulbe Gariri. Those that have lost their

cattle, are the poorest and despised by other Fulbe.

The influence of the Toroobe paved the way for the pastoral Fulbe to move south into these areas for pasture.

Wodaabe (see below) have their own form of Pulaaku called Mbodangaaku that unites them

or 'holds their hands together'. A sense of responsibility to their fellow Wodaabe involving

hospitality and generosity binds them together

Divisions of Fulbe

Fulbe Waalo and Fuuta Tooro. The waalo is the floodplain on the south bank of the Senegal

River where crops can be grown as the floods recede each year during October - November.

This is distinguished from the Jeeri or Ferlo, which is the slightly higher ground south of the

Senegal River that stretches south to include the course of the Ferlo river. In its centre is

the town of Lingeer (Linguere). On the Jeeri crops can grown only in the rainy season.

The Fulbe of the Futa Tooro live mostly in La Region du Fleuve of the Department of Podor,

that is a region 250 km. long, south of the Senegal River between just south-west of Podor

and Matam to the east. The Fuuta Tooro group of the Ururbe travel the furthest from near

Njum to between Mbede and Haare Law.

The Fulbe have attempted to maintain both their pastoralism and also engage in cultivation,

for keeping one's herd is security against poor harvests. They have tended to divide the

family with the father cultivating the field and the children looking after the cattle. But

neither can be done successfully, and many Fulbe farmers and sedentary herders are being

forced to move into the Ferlo, the area of the Fulbe Jeeri, so that there is a degree of conflict between these two groups of Fulbe.

Fulbe Jeeri: in the centre of northern Senegal and a large number of diverse lineages still

follow a semi-nomadic life, but this total possibly includes the Fulbe of the Waalo. They are

named for the Jeeri or central region of dry higher ground south of the Senegal Valley,

where most have lived since the 15th century. The Fulbe Jeeri can be divided between those

groups who live in the areas of the old pre-colonial kingdoms nearer the coast, and those on

the Jeeri further into the centre of Senegal. There are Fulbe Jeeri in Mali and probably

others in the west of Gambia.

The Jeeri is a wind-swept, semi-arid area receiving sparse rainfall, crossed by the Valley of

the Ferlo River and numerous dry valleys and river-beds which have pasture only during the

rainy season. The town of Lingeer (Linguere) forms the centre around which the various

groups of the Fulbe to be found. The Fulbe on the Jeeri are divided into two major groups

called Laccenaabe, or Fulbe of the Lacce area and the Jeenglebe or Jengeloobe. The former

has twelve clans. Some of these are related to those among the Waalwaalbe and with whom

they have contact when they migrate northwards in the dry season. The Jeenglebe consists

of three groups located south of the railway between Louga and Lingeer and southwards to

the Saalum Valley.

The Fulbe Jeeri living on the Jeeri are family groups linked together by descent, who are still

nomadic, or semi-nomadic as cattle raisers and with flocks of sheep and goats. During April

the Fulbe Jeeri plant crops of millet, peanuts and beans on the Jeeri. In the following

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months during the rains they care for their animals and maintain their camps. After the

harvest in October, when the rains are over, they move out of the Jeeri because in the dry

season the watering holes dry up. They move either to the north towards the Waalo or

south to the peanut basin, to return to the Jeeri in the following April.

This movement was modified in the 1950s when artisan wells were drilled at 30 km.

intervals on the Jeeri. The constant supply of water is making it possible to cultivate fields

where the ground was previously too dry. Sedentary Fulbe and Wolof farmers have been

encouraged to settle on the Jeeri and graze their herds close to the wells, so that the wells

near the Ferlo valley are becoming surrounded. The pastoralists are finding it increasingly

difficult to move their herds close to the water. The water from the wells does not guarantee

pasture close to the villages, as the pastoralists once found out to their cost. In the drought

of 1972-73 many Jeerinkoobe decided to stay by the wells to have water, however they

soon ran out of pasture and lost many animals.

Having learned this hard lesson, the Fulbe Jeeri have continued to be highly mobile, owning

large herds of cattle and, more importantly, sheep and goats of which they have flocks of

500 to a 1,000 animals. Since the drought, the rainfall has been better, so that in most

years, the majority of the Fulbe Jeeri are able to stay some 15 to 20 km. distant from the

wells in the dry season and get better pasture than the farmers close to the wells. This has

enabled them to adopt a semi-nomadic life style with semi-permanent camps for the

families in reach of the boreholes, while the men travel with the herds looking for pasture.

In this way the herds get the best of the pasture before the herds of the sedentary peoples,

and they only need to go to the wells every second day. This means they move camp

several times in the year to 'rotate' the herds over the pastures. But other Fulbe Jeeri

continue to be truly nomadic with the whole families travelling outside the Jeeri in the dry

season for pasture using straw huts, which that take apart to carry with them.

In the past the Fulbe Jeeri have found dry season pasture in forest reserves established by

the French to the south, where agriculture was banned. There is no pastoral alternative to

these reserves because the surrounding country is heavily populated and cultivated by

Serer and Wolof peoples

West and south of the Jeeri region there is the area once occupied by the ancient kingdoms

of Njambur, Kajoor, Bawol, Siin and Saalum. Here are other groups of Fulbe Jeeri. They are

in the region of Njambur, Kajoor, Baol, Siin and Saalum in Senegal. These have had greater

contact with the farming communities and so have more incentives to settle.

The Fulbe in western Mali are located

in Nioro and Kayes. Many of these

originated from around Podor, in the

Fouta Toro area of Senegal, but there

are other villages of Fulbe that have a

different origin. They spend the rainy

season in some thirty villages in a 30

km. radius, mostly south-west of Nioro

around Govmanwe. In the dry season

they migrate some 200 km. south-

westwards to the area north of

Bafoulabe. Others are based around

Segala and migrate southwards to the

Senegal River Valley north-west of

Bafoulabe.

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Others are found 50 km. north-east of Kayes close to Kontela. They speak Pulaar.

Maasina (Macina) and Nampala Fulbe, Mali: These Fulbe are the central part of a number of

interrelated areas of Fulbe, from Dilly and Nara through to northern Burkina Faso. They use,

or have used in the past, the flooding of the Niger in its delta in central Mali as part of their

migratory pastoralism. of the Fulbe in the Maasina region. The Fulbe live among many other

peoples, including thousands of Bella, Moors, Tuareq, Bozo, Songhai and Dogon, and the

estimate of their population may be affected by the fact that their social organisation, called

the wuro, or a residential community, often includes more than the Fulbe.

Each wuro (Fr. Ouro) is under the leadership of an Ardo, jooro or dioro who negotiates the

use of the pastures with his opposite numbers. The wuro may have several thousand heads

of cattle, so reciprocal renting of pasture between the wuros is often necessary in the dry

season, during May to July. At this time the Fulbe get permission at 'gates' such as near

J'Afarabe and Yuwaru to move into the flood plain of the Niger River to use the fresh

pasture until July.

When the river floods in the months from

August to December the Fulbe migrate north-

westwards into the Sahel, to avoid the mud

and flies during August to October, going as

far as to the south of ema in Mauritania, a

distance of over 300 km. In the 1990s many

have turned to the south into farming areas,

because of the threat of attack by the Kel

Tamasheq. They return to the Niger flood

plain in November, and so start the cycle

again. Nomadic groups include the

Cookinkoobe, Naasaadinkoobe and Sonnaabe

migrate from the north. Others have

abandoned going into the Delta, pasturing

their cattle in localised areas.

The Fulbe live in semi-permanent villages,

which also have one or two families of a

craftsman caste,

probably Lawbe or Inadan, working in work, leather, and gold and silver and also ex-slaves

called maccube, who nowadays have to be paid to do menial work, such as cultivation,

sweeping and carrying.

Jallube herders (sing. Jallo) in the Douentza or Hayre region of Mali live in camps a few

miles from villages of the Riimayde, the former slaves of the Fulbe, who are sedentary

cultivators of millet. The Riimayde were either slaves of individual Jallube or of clans; but

these arrangements were abolished in 1945. The Jallube themselves grow millet during the

rainy season and trade milk with the Riimayde for millet, spices and other goods. The

Jallube also cultivate as the Riimayde do it for them, and also herd the animals of some of

the latter.

The Jullube migrate for the dry season, north towards the Delta or southwards. Some move

the short distance to the fields of the Riimayde, the rest travel some 30 to 100 km. to the

fields of Dogon farmers. They return before the rainy season in July to September to plant

again. The men are responsible for both the herding and the cultivation of the millet. The

women are responsible for the milking. According to pulaaku Jallube fathers neither eat

with, or speak to their sons, even though the sons do all the cultivation and herding for

them, Instructions have to be passed by intermediaries.

Burkina Faso has quite a few Fulani in the north-east. Jelgoobe, Djibo, northern Burkina

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Faso. The Jelgoobe claim to be descended from two chiefdoms who migrated from Haire

region of Mali by 1750. According to their oral traditions, they arrived from Maasina in Mali,

driving the cattle of the Jullube in the 17th century, because of famine and the political

struggles of that region. But they did not escape these entirely, for they became in 1824 the

eastern edge of the Islamic Diina kingdom of Aamadu Seeku, based in the Maasina, but

rebelled and had their leaders killed. They appealed to the Mossi king of Yatenga, who

attempted to impose Mossi rule. The Jelgoobe threw off both until the French arrived in

1864.

They continue a very independent group. Many Fulbe have migrated eastwards to Oudalan,

Liptako, Yagha and into Niger who continue to call themselves Jelgoobe. These and other

Fulbe of different origins and varied dates of arrival are called Fulbe Jelgooji, like the Fulbe

Kelli, who became subject to the Jelgoobe. But some of the Riimaybe, ex-captives, who

possibly gaining their freedom in the conflict with the Mossi around 1834, live in the town of

Djibo and speak the language of the Mossi. The town is about 25% Mossi, a further 18% are

also Riimaybe speaking Fulfulde.

In this region 72% of the population are of Fulfulde speaking and culture, but only 44% are

Fulbe, the rest being Riimaybe former slaves, who now have independent farming

communities. The Fulbe living in the surrounding hamlets speak Fulfulde and insist on

keeping cattle to have status as cattle owners in the Fulbe tradition. Many migrated south

during the droughts of the 1980s. But since then those that remained have prospered better

than the farming population. This has been helped by new water holes and a cattle market

in Djibo. They have a Inadan craft community, maabube - griots, living with them.

Queguedo Fulbe, to the west of Tenkodogo in south-east Burkina Faso, are an example of

small groups of Fulani who are settling among other ethnic groups to have a specialised

pastoral role. They came from Maasina in Mali and work as herders for the Mossi, as well as

having cattle of their own. While both sides profit from the arrangement, they tend to

mistrust each other, the Mossi claiming that the Fulani tend to 'lose' only Mossi cattle. The

advantages to the Mossi include keeping their cattle separate from their crops. Another

reason used to be, keeping the cattle hidden from the tax inspector! But this tax had been

abolished. These Fulbe migrate with the cattle herds, going north out of the area during the

growing season. The Fulbe also do some cultivation, but have portable houses that can be

moved.

Niger has close to a million Fulbe, including the Bororo, right across the southern part of the country and west and north of Agadez. There has been a response of a few dozen.

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Traditions

Greetings

Greetings in Pulaar are formed from a

series of questions from what we call the

greeting sequence. The questions may be

about family, health, work, the weather,

etc., and will vary slightly depending upon

the time of day. The questions from the

greeting sequence always require one of

the standard replies: Jamtan, Jam solo, or

Ko mawdhum. Greetings are highly

ritualized, and at this point in the

conversation no one expects to hear the

truth about you health, family problems, or

whatever.

All encounters with everybody should always begin with a greeting meaning

several appropriate questions from the sequence and a handshake. It is

normally the person who arrives who should begin the greeting. In fact,

greetings could be viewed as the fulfulde equivalent to English expressions

such as Pardon me or Excuse the interruption. In other words, greetings are

the mark of politeness themselves. Foreigners who customarily fail to greet are

viewed as being very impolite.

Greetings normally take the form of one person asking several questions.

When he pauses, the other person asks in his turn. Then there may be a slight

pause and the whole thing will begin again. The length of the greeting will

depend upon how well two people know each other, how long it has been since

they have seen each other, and upon the respective age and status of the persons involved.

Finally, you should notice some of the

body language, gestures, and tone of

voice which go with greetings. When

you are meeting a stranger or someone

older than yourself, it would be

considered impolite to look him or her

directly in the face. Instead, greetings

are often mumbled quickly and in a low

tone of voice, with the two participants

looking at the ground. To Americans

this attitude seems to signal disinterest

in what one is doing. But in this case it

actually means the opposite. It simply

means that you are showing respect for

the person you are greeting. (See also

Family)

(Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo)

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Politeness

You will find the concept of being polite is something

quite different from what you are accustomed to. For

example, there is no real Fulfulde/Pulaar equivalent

for the English expression thank you. A jaaraama can

be used as thank you, but it is used much more

sparingly than the English expression. In your day to

day contacts with people it is simply not necessary to

automatically use expressions such as excuse me,

please, pardon me, thanks, I'm sorry to bother you

but..., etc. The nearest Pulaar equivalents to these

expressions tend to be reserved for a more serious

and important context. They are not used every time

one interrupts another person. (In fact, the whole

concept of interrupting is an American concept in

which we express the

cultural value that time is money, and in which we try to minimize daily human contacts to

a business rapport.)

In English we probably would have said Excuse me, but could you piease show me where

the road is We would have marked the sentence several times with words of deference and

politeness. We must show the other person that we know we are interrupting him, even

bothering him. That is our formulaic way of being polite

On the other hand, in Fulfulde/Pulaar it is perfectly polite to simply state a request. People

expect all sorts of human interactions during the day. There are, however, certain very

important signs of respect and politeness which Americans tend not to recognize at first.

Most important is, once again, the greetings. Correctly greeting people is one of the most

important signs of respect that you can show them. You should never ask anybody for something without greeting them first.

Politeness is a very important and admired behavior in

Fulani society.That behavior must be transparent in all

social interactions including greetings, exchanges, and

conversations.People are very sensitive to looks,

attitudes, and communications styles. A polite behavior

is specially expected between young and older. Some

attitudes that are frowned upon include starring at an

older person and talking back.

In order to develop the complex web of social

relationships which will make your stay in any village

or town enjoyable, you should get in the habit of not

only greeting the people you happen to run into on the

Street or in business, but also of deliberately going to

visit someone you haven't seen for a while for no other

purpose than to greet them. Passing by someone's

house even for only five minutes will please them

enormously.

Secondly, it is not considered impolite to interrupt

others by greeting them when you arrive, even if they

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are talking between themselves. In fact, to enter a

room and fail to greet everybody(including shaking

hands) would be seen as rude. Also, always

acknowledge the presence or arrival of someone else.

You should not simply walk past people, even if you have already greeted them earlier.

When someone else comes into your presence you can always say A arli. When you arrive,

you can always say Mi artii (I have returned). (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo)

Daily Planning (See also Education)

Telling time by the hour and the minute is

something which Pulaar don't probably have

much use for. However, people mark the

times of the day either by noting the

position of the sun or by the five Muslim

prayers which are called out from the

mosque. The times of day which (subaka,

weeti, kilkilde, jamma, etc.) are units of

time more or less measured by the position

of the sun. This is one factor that divides

everyone's day, and people make their plans

accordingly. Furthermore, one of the ritual

obligations of all Muslims is to pray five

times a day at specified times. People will

therefore use these points of time as a

reference.Most educated urban dwellers,

however, use standard time.

Daily activities change according to the

season of the year. Being part of a rural

farming community will make it important to

know the yearly seasonal cycles.

Daily activities for both men and women change with the season. It is important in planning

work projects to go by seasons since people are much busier during certain seasons than

others. Periods of time which can be effectively exploited for various purposes depend upon

weather, the seasonal flow of work, seasonal migration patterns, and times of the year

when money and leisure time are available. (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja

Diallo

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Holidays

The most important holidays of the

year are religious holidays. Of the

four, Koorka and Taaske (Ramaan

and Koriete) are the most

important. Koorka (from the verb

hoora, to fast) is the month of

fasting prescribed by Islam. The

month ends with a day of

celebration. called Juulde Koorka.

Haaraan, or the New Year, is the

only non religious holiday we

discuss. Maawluudu commemorates

the birth of the Prophet

Mohammad. Taaske is the Day of

Atonement which reminds

Muslims of the covenant between God and Abraham. (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo)

Culture Clash

THE AMBIGUOUS ADVENTURE by C. H. Kane

Culture clash is dangerous to the individual who

experiences it in many ways. It can cause, for

example, the loss of faith, the rejection of one's

values, and then the adoption of alien customs.

Thus, the recipient of the new foreign culture

always faces many difficulties with his own people.

As a result, this person will live isolated from his

people as they will do to him.

The culture clash problems are particularly

dangerous to some African students. This is the

case with the main character of the novel under

study here. Diallo went to Europe and learned

philosophy, science and technology. From this

point, the study of Kane's novel here is based on

the episode of initial stage of culture clash with the

first contact of Diallo (in Paris) with the European

culture.

The second stage is Diallo, the student, alien at home with a foreign culture. This culture

clash puts him in an ambiguous situation first. Then, Diallo faces the tragic death under the fool man hands as the final main stage in the novel.

17 | P a g e

The Concept of Cousinhood

Fulani communities such as HaalPulaar of

Senegal, have instituted a unique custom

and code of conduct called dendiraagal, to

govern not only the relationship between the

members of the family and of the society but

also between members of the community

and other ethnic groups. The dendiraagal or

cousinhood, is a tool to express a friendly

and fun relationship and to induce a fun and

non-threatening interaction between people.

It aims at establishing a closer relationship

between individuals at three different

levels:the first or close level, the median

level and the extended level.

The first level concerns particularly the link

between the respective descendants of a

brother or a sister. In this society the term

cousin is applicable to the children of ones

mother's brothers or father's sisters. The

children of ones mother's sisters and father's

brothers are called brother and sister, not

cousin in Pulaar. This first level is limited

only to the family or clan. In reality two

particular kinds of privileged kinship emerge

from the definition of the cousinhood in

Fulani Society. On the other hand, these

privileged relations concern a person and his

mother's brother and, on the other hand, the

relation concerns a person and his father's

sister. The respective descendants of one's

uncle and one's aunt are called, collectively

"dendiraave" or cousins.

The second or median level, concerns the relationship of cousinhood that exists

between groups within a society of the Fulani through the patronymic of the

individuals. People who are not biologically related, but who stand in the

relationship of dendiragal because of their last names or clans : between clans,

such as between the Sih family and the Njaay family, or between Bah and Dialo for example. See Table of Dendirabhe below.

These relationships are known as Poking fun or joking relationships. That is,

whenever cousins see one another, they tease or joke with each other. This

kind of familiar behavior may go on even between two strangers who discover

that they are cousin. In the relationship of dendiraagal, there is a concept of

sharing and that of a leader and follower, but always in good and friendly humor.

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Table of Dendirabhe

Last Name Cousin

Bah Diallo

Sih Njaay

Jallow Bah

Njaay Sih

Kan Bah

Joop Jeng

Cultural Cousinage

Finally, at the third, extended level, dendiraagal reaches the trans-societal

level, and deals with other cultural groups. It fosters a sense of good neighbor

relation that the Fulani and their neighboring communities maintain. Fulani

People has shown a great sense of cooperation and friendship with the all other

groups they have settled with or whose land their vast herd cross during

transhumance periods. The concept of cousinhood is extended to them as

well.This has done well to avoid conflict in the regions they inhabit, and to

foster an harmonious relationship and peaceful cohabitation with the others

ethnic groups for centuries. The relationship between Fulve and Maouri in Niger

and that between Halpuular-en and the Serer are some of the shining examples of the extended cousinhood.

Links to Fulani Cousins and Neighbors

Serer (Senegal)

Jola (Senegal)

Wolof (senegal)

Maouri (Niger)

Gobirawa (Niger)

Kanuri (Niger)

Wangarawa (Niger)

Bambara (Mali)

Dogon (Mali)

Hausa (Nigeria)

Manlinke (Guinea)

Soussou (Guinea)

Ewe (Togo)

Mina (Togo)

Kabre(Togo)

Djerma (Niger)

Arabs (Chad)

Gorane(Chad)

Fon (Benin)

Adja(Benin)

Yoruba (Nigeria)

Baya (Central Afrique)

Mandjia (Central Afrique)

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Gurunsi (Burkina)

Senufo(Burkina)

Lobi(Burkina)

Bobo(Burkina)

Akan (Cote D'Ivoire)

Mandinka (Gambia)

Sarakhule (Gambia)

Akan (Ghana)

Moshi-Dagomba(Ghana)

Ga(Ghana)

Ewe(Ghana)

Balanta ( Guinee Bissau)

Manjaca( Guinee Bissau)

Mandinga( Guinee Bissau)

Mande (Mali)

Songhai(Mali)

Tuareg(Mali)

Moors (Mauritania)

Harateen(Mauritania)

Arabs (Sudan)

For more information click le following link:

http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people.html

Fulani Pathways

Pulaaku

Central to their life is their code of behavior

called Pulaaku, which enables them to

maintain their identity across boundaries and

changes of life style. Pulaaku has been

described as 'Fulaniness' , decorum, good

manners, and pastoral chivalry. Pulaaku

involves important virtues such as, munyal,

which is patience, self control, mental

discipline, prudence; semteende which is

modesty and respect for others, even for

enemies, and also hakkille, wisdom,

forethought, prudence in managing his

personal affairs and giving hospitality.

The Pullo, as the Fulani call themselves, is trained to be stoic, never to show

his feelings. He is disciplined, thoughtful and proud but respectful. He also

tends tohave a deep emotional attachment to cattle. It means that one is a

better person if one is self-sufficient and relies on few personal possessions and comforts.

20 | P a g e

Pulaaku implies that one can

manage onself well and also that

one can manage one's herd well.

The Pullo or Fulbe male sees his

people as having a priestly role to

maintain the triangular

relationships of interdependence

between himself, his wife and

family, and his cattle. Indeed,

many Fulani groups give to their

cattle individual endearing

names.His cattle give a man milk

and prestige, and is treated like an

extended family rather than just

an economic asset.

In return he gives them pasture, water and protection. The wife contributes

food preparation, dairy production and fertility. Therefore the man has both skill as a herder but also wisdom and character to fulfill his responsibility.

To appreciate the moral principles governing the Fulani life, one must have a

deep understanding of the notion of Pulaaku or Fulaniness. Pulaaku along with

their cattle, language and religion, is the basis of their extreme pride or

dimmaaku/dimaanku. As Riesman (1977:128) say, Pulaaku is an exact

structural equivalent of the English word chivalry and, like it, designates at

once certain moral qualities and a group of men possessing these qualities. It

is both the appropriate code of Fulve behavior and simultaneously refers to the group of men who embody it.

The dominant traits of Laawol Pulaaku or the Fulani way are munyal, hakkiilo,

semteende, sagata and an intimate understanding of both the Fulfulde

language and people.

Munyal is a cross between strength and courage in adversity and a stoic

acceptance or endurance of the supposedly pre-ordained vicissitudes of life. It

is often translated as patience.

The word hakkiilo (hakkille) (intelligence or common sense) conveys a blending

of prudence and shrewdness in livelihood management and face to face

encounters. Semteende (shame) is best described both as a lacking of

restraint (gacce/yaage) and self-control in daily social interaction, and

evidencing a weakness when facing adversity (Riesman 1974). It is most often

translated as shame. The French term pudeur or informed sense of decency is

closer to the mark. In essence it represents any revelation of weakness or non-

conformity to the code of pulaaku. When someone acts shamefully Fulve say o

sempti meaning they shamed themselves, or alternatively, o alaa semteende

(o ala gacce) meaning they have no shame. In other words a pullo must know

of the social constraints on behavior and be able to avoid contravening them in

all situations, especially in front of his in-laws. But not having semteende a

pullo would escape from social constraints. A true pullo is in total control of his

emotions and impulses (Kirk-Green, 1986).

Semteende, is also a lack of pulaaku (or even a fear of lacking it) is the

motivating force for the Fulani to behave as Fulani. Without cattle it is difficult

to exhibit pulaaku and if one has no longer any cattle then one has probably

21 | P a g e

not acted as a pullo. In pre-colonial times, loss of cattle was shameful. It

implied that one was not man enough to defend his herd and by implication,

not brave enough to get some back. These days the shame is attached to

inadequate shepherding ability in the face of a degrading environment.

Sagata means brave in the senses of both courage of a warrior and hard work

of any person. It is often used to congratulate someone for their valor and

accomplishments.

More often, Pulaaku is characterized by the taste or ndaku for cows and an

intimate knowledge of cattle husbandry, self-control over physical needs and

impulses, and the choice of stimulation over comfort. One must not express

any discomfort in public, whether it be a pain, physical or moral (such as

grief), or a need (like hunger, thirst). Of course one does not enact pulaaku all

day, but for limited periods of public interaction. Thus as Riesman (1975:45-

47) maintains, there are formal and informal aspects of life and behavior and

these are not always easy to differentiate.

Pulaaku, must be passed on by each generation as high moral values of Fulve

otherwise it will disappear, which it seems to be when herds are lost and clans

break up to seek for work in the settled society. It is taught by any Rimve

relative, or perhaps by his parents and also by mawdo laawol pulaaku, a leader

of his clan. To be a true Fulani, and described by terms such as O waadi, or

banti, or teendru Pulaaku, means he not only speaks the language but knows

how to live as a Fulani.

The Fulani pathways (Laawol Fulve):

Munyal = patience, self control, discipline

Gacce/ Semteende = modesty, respect

Hakkille = wisdom, forethought, managing it's own Sagata /Tiinaade= courage, hard work

Adapted from : Weekley, Paul, University of Western Sydney

(...Among the Fulbe Jelgobe of Northern Burkina Faso, thesis)

Initiations

Children begin to acquire knowledge of their ancestral ties to Fulani family when they

accompany and assist their parents in work and social interaction. They travel to the

farm, to market and to the compounds of friends and relatives. They are sent running on

errands to deliver yams, to fetch water, to bid a neighbor visit, to perform countless tasks

assisting in the progress of daily life and sociality. Through this participation in quotidian

existence they gain an emerging sense of the cultural environment. They learn also about

friendship and the importance of cousinhood(link to Cousinhood )Simple as it is, this rite

embodies a fundamental relationship between individual, family, cattle and land which is

the crux of personhood in Fulani society.

As children grow up they learn to have a particular kind of relationship with their bodies,

one which links their sense of their own masculinity with the ancestral traditions of Fulani.

They will wait until the auspicious moment to perform important initiations such as

circumcision, sharo, and cattle herding. Various rites and performances are specifically

22 | P a g e

aimed at somatically transmitting the knowledge of the Fulani person. Whether this

knowledge is embodied in aesthetically structured performance, such as the guerewol

dance of the Wodhaabe, or in a more arduous task such as the cattle crossing of the

Jafurabe of Mali,the performed aspects of ancestral practices are considered crucial to the

preservation of Fulani identity, and the Pulaaku.

Circumcision

When a child reaches the age between 8 and 15, he

goes trough the special ritual of circumcision. In the

Fulani society, the traditional ritual of circumcision is a

big event that required the participation of all the

segments of the society; each social class, and each

member of the family has a specific role according to his

relationship with the candidate to the circumcision.

The traditional ritual of circumcision in the Fulani society

focused on religious and cultural perspectives. It is

rooted in the belief in the myth of androgyny, in the

primitive animist societies where the ritual was required

for gender, sexual identity, and in the strong belief in

the Sunna of Muslim societies where the ritual is

required for purification. In the past, it was done

following certain traditional rules among which the

choice of the "Selbe-coach", the

participation of the group, the isolation, the initiation for individual socialization. Here, the

ritual has many goals like fecundity, sexual determination, gender determination, and

integration into adult community. It also reinforces the Fulani values of courage, patience,

self control, and mental discipline which are the fundamental attributes of Pulaaku.

In this society, female circumcision is done in the same context as male circumcision with

which it shares the same origin, the same significance. In addition, the female

circumcision has the justification of a protection of the girl's virginity and the sexual

intercourse control.

Today, the western influences on the traditional ways of life, the advance of medical

sciences, and urbanization, have produced great changes to the traditional rituals of

circumcision. Now, the operation is done in hospitals without isolation or initiation. It is

done just for conformity. So, the traditional justifications of the ritual have lost their

values. Nowadays, the discovery of medical complications has changed the view about the

ritual, and especially the female circumcision. Throughout the world, female circumcision

has met strong opposition and has been abandoned on the whole in many societies.

23 | P a g e

Sharo

The institution of vital importance to the nomadic

Fulani, and all kinds of customs and ceremonies has

arisen around it. One such ceremony is the sharo, a

public flogging that is a test of manhood. Not all

Fulani nomadic groups observe this ceremony or

insist on it before a young man may marry. For some

it is merrily a sport, indulged in for its own sake.

Probably the keenest exponents of the sharo are the

Jafun Fulani found in Nigeria.

The sharo is a test of endurance; a youth is

expected to undergo severe flogging in public without flinching. It is normally staged

twice a year, during the dry-season guinea corn harvest and the Muslim festival of Id-el-

kabir. It may occasionally be held during a marriage, at the naming ceremony of the

firstborn child of a renowned sharo exponent, to honor a chief, or as a contest between clans.

The sharo is a festival in its own right and attracts Fulani from far and near. It is usually

held in a marketplace and lasts for a week. Men and women gather at the marketplace all

dressed up for the occasion. Although various kinds of entertainment are available the

maidens dance, performances by well-known minstrels, and all kinds of tricksters these

are only a prelude to the main act. The young men who are to be flogged are attended by

their seconds (those who might act in their stead should they be unable to finish the act)

and surrounded by a small crowd of relatives, friends, and well-wishers. When the sharo

is about to begin, young men carrying staffs and pretending fierceness clear the ground of

spectators. The tempo of the music, provided mainly by drums, quickens; the youths cry

shrilly and recite incantations.

At this point one of the young men to be flogged comes

out and strikes a defiant pose with one leg crossed

over the other and arms raised clutching either a staff

or a mirror into which he gazes with apparent

indifference. Another young man of about the same

age and size approaches, wielding a strong, supple

cane about a half inch thick, and moves around the

victim taking careful aim. Without warning he lands the

whip heavily on the other's ribs, sometimes drawing

blood. Blow upon blow may be struck, with the victim

shouting for more. Other youths acting as referees

observe the proceedings closely, ensuring that the

blows are fairly struck. The

point, however, is that the victim does not flinch but shows utter indifference to pain and

even sneers at his attacker. If he is able to achieve this, his family and friends surround

him with joy, offering gifts and congratulations. Even the belief that the youth may have

fortified himself with charms and pain-resistant drugs does not dim the joy. He has now

displayed his manhood and is considered worthy of a wife. Incidentally, the Fulani have

herbal medicines that heal the wounds fairly quickly, leaving only scars that the youth

may display for all to see.

24 | P a g e

From The Fulani by Pat I. Ndukwe

Test of endurance an honor avec le fichier pdf

Art Society

Rock Art Paintings

Fulani art and culture is manifested in art,

dance, language, literature, folklore, music, and

even the environment. The Fulani people are

well known for the delicate decoration of

utilitarian objects such as milk bowls that reflect

their nomadic and pastoral lifestyle. The history

of the Fulani in West Africa begins in the fifth

century A.D. Islamized early on and traveling

constantly, they did not develop a tradition of

figural, sculpted art. The complex nature of art

among Fulani is widely recognized but still

understudied.. In this site the following is the

described

Like most Art in Africa, the Fulani Art shows rich traditions, histories and life

styles. Fulani's artifacts depicting the early life of the people date back to

thousands of years. The Among the most ancient of the art are the rock

paintings from Tassili N'Anger (6000B.C). Examination of certain rock paintings

in the Tassili-N'Ajjer suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the

region by at least the fourth millennium B.C. Tassili-N'Ajjer in Algeria is one of

the most famous North African sites of rock painting. Scholars specializing in

Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still

practiced by contemporary Fulani people.

At the Tin Tazarift site, for instance, historian

Amadou Hampate Ba recognized a scene of the

lotori ceremony, a celebration of the ox's

aquatic origin. In a finger motif, Ba detected an

allusion to the myth of the hand of the first

Fulani herdsman, Kikala. At Tin Felki, Ba

recognized a hexagonal carnelian jewel as

related to the Agades cross, a fertility charm

still used by Fulani women.With the

disappearance of many traditions and other

aspects of African culture, works of traditional

African art are becoming more and more

scarce. Fulani artistic, combining the useful and

the beautiful, have developed diverse traditions

of Pottery, Jewelry.

Textile, and Body Adornment, such as Hair Braiding, Cicatrisation

(scarification), and Body Painting. Working generally within their own social

system or as part of gender role, the Fulani artistic has displayed a talent

admired by many people from within and outside the Fulani group.

25 | P a g e

Due to their nomadic life style, Fulani did not Manufacture their own art object

which they ordered most of time from a neighboring ethnic group such as the

Dogons, the Tuareg, and Yoruba. They also entrust members of specialize

castes with the fabrications of their object. These specialized castes include for

instance: Maabube who do Pottery and Weaving; Lawbhe who are the caste of

Woodworkers, Waylubhe the Caste of Blacksmith and Jewelers; Sakkabhe

caste of leatherworkers; Wammbaabhe caste of Griot and Guitarist and

Awlubhe caste of Griot Genealogist. Therefore, the label Fulani art may often

reflect ownership rather than manufacture.

Fulani Aesthetic

Bracelets, Earrings, Necklaces, rings, Beads, leather gris-

gris, amulets, knife handles, and sandals are decorated

with geometric designs that reflect Fulani symbolism .

Objects are tinted in bright colors of red, yellow, or white

and green, and often feature long fringes. Some of the

designs are cross ethnic: the zigzag bordered by parallel

lines, for instance, is shared by Fulani and Dogons alike.

Fulani aesthetic expression is, with exceptions, inscribed

on objects or sites of an ephemeral nature. Above all,

Fulani people are known for their mastery of verbal art

expressed in

song and poetry. They are also renowned for their elaborate art of body adornment. Men

and women alike are fond of tattooing. They wear amulets (lohol) as both protective and

decorative elements. Women wear heavy twisted gold earrings (dibi), gold necklaces

(caaka), and copper or white metal bracelets, round or open with bulging extremities, and

delicately engraved with dotted lines. Blacksmiths used to make heavy and thick anklets

that gave young Wodaabe women a "cowlike" step, much appreciated in this herders'

culture. Women from other Fulani groups wore copper or brass leg ornaments or anklets

made by the lost-wax casting process. These rings might once have served as currency.

Men's clothing includes a conical herdsman hat in red, black, and natural color made of

woven raffia and leather, with geometric design in the form of a cross, complete with a

prominent button, the "Mount of the world." Men also wear leather or baggy fabric pants,

and use woven blankets with geometric patterns. Wodaabe people are famous for

organizing male beauty contests, know as yaake or gerewol. Fulani women also specialize

in the decoration of calabashes and wooden bowls (la'al kosam). The Fulani people have a

rich heritage of crafts, including textiles, wood-carving, and mud architecture. Body adornment and hair decoration stand out among the people's most distinctive arts.

26 | P a g e

Body Adornment

Body modification and adornment is a universal

culture. All civilizations have attempted to change

their body in order to fulfill their cultural construct of

beauty, religious and/or social obligations. The Fulani

are an exceptionally beautiful people who take great

pride in their appearance. They are known for their

adherence to tradition and fierce resistan. Ear piercing

is widely practiced piercing among the Fulanis. Ear

piercing mark the life stages of an individual and his

group affiliation. Ear cartilage piercing among Fulanis

also emphasized Beauty and Wealth. ce to any other

influences.Henna, also known as Puudi in Pular is the

painting of portions of the body using temporary ink

(usually a dark orange color) made from the herb

henna. The patterns of henna painting vary

from culture to culture, but in the Fulani culture black henna is used as a temporary

tattoo covering entire hands, forearm, feet and shin during weddings, baptism, and special holidays.

In Traditional cultures people used body paint, scarification, and/or tattooing for wars,

different clans and family purposes. The most well known Fulani group who use body

panting extensively is the Wodaabe.

Hair Decoration

Gourds or Calabashes whether decorated or

not, basically fulfill practical functions in the

daily activities of the Fulani family. Cut into

contains of various shapes and sizes, they are

used for serving foods and drinks, for milking

cattle and are carriers vessels. However, the

decorated ones have additional value.

They are highly prized objects of prestigious

and aesthetic value. Used has containers for

food and drink they embellish the service; as

tools in the dairy trade they attract

customers, thereby Women generally put on

elaborate and colorful scarf around their

head. However, among young women the

care of the hair is the one aspect of personal

adornment to which they pay much attention.

For instance, during

the Diafarabe cattle crossing festival, one of the biggest Fulani festival in Mali, girls dress

up to welcome their boyfriends when they return from months herding cattle in the

desert. Most important to them are their hair decorations. They may take about four or

five days to dress their hair for the festival, about two more days to plait the braids, and

27 | P a g e

then two or three more to weave in the coins and the amber.

The hair styles are so elaborate that they are giving special names. The hair styles are

elevated to the level of pure artistic form. The hair style depends on the locality, sex, age

and social status. However, there may be preference for design which is convenient for

their household activities which involve carrying loads on their heads. (See more on PDF)

Jewelry

Jewelry has a special place among Fulanis.

Jewelry has been a symbol of status and

wealth, created to decorate and adorn and

used for trade. From Senegal in the west to

Cameroon in the east, Fulanis strive to acquire

jewelry Cudaari in Gold, Silver, Bronze, Beads,

Amber etc.., The among of jewelry worn

depends on the place the subgroup to which

they belong as well as their age, gender and

time. The necklaces, aprons, cache-sex

jewelry, denote age, status and social

condition. They were worn to attract attention

and protect against evil. Men wear minimal

jewels until their middle age. The Women

however, put on lavish style of jewelry on

them.

Amber and Beads

Fulani women are readily recognizable by their

exquisite adornments--large gold earrings

known as kwottone kanye, heavy silver rings

and bangles, and hairdos that incorporate large

amber beads, glass beads. Fulani women

generally receive their jewelry on the death of

her mother or at marriage as a dowry from her

husband. Adornment is a distinctive African way

of showing of their beauty. Cowry Shells, Beads,

Amber, Silver and gold are part of the panoply

used for personal adornments.

The cowry shell has long been a very important

element in our jewelry. As the first universal for

of currency used on the African continent, it is

symbolic of wealth. It also symbolizes the

connection of African people to each other.

Beads have played an important role in throughout Africa. While glass beads are perhaps

the most recognizable form of adornment in Africa today, these items did not receive

widespread acceptance until the fifteenth century when Europeans began importing beads

for trade purposes. Despite the widespread use of glass beads, stone and organic

materials (e.g., seeds, bone, teeth, shell, ostrich eggshell) have remained integral

components in personal ornaments throughout the country. The earliest known African

28 | P a g e

beads are disk-shaped ostrich eggshell beads that date to circa 10,000 B.C. Ostrich

eggshell beads are still used today in the creation of personal ornaments by a variety of

groups in Africa, including the Fulani.

Amber is a fossilized resin, generally tree sap, light yellow to deep brown, opaque to

translucent, which give off an evergreen fragrance when burned with a hot needle. This

will distinguish it from other amber-like beads. Amber is worn by many traditional African ethnic groups.

The Meaning and History of the Cowry Shell

The ever popular cowry shell has

many uses and meanings. It has

shown up in the form of money,

jewelry, and even religious

accessories in almost every part of

the world. Found in the islands of the

Indian Ocean, the cowry shell soon

gained popularity throughout much of

ancient Africa, where it has been used

as a monetary unit.

Its influence, however, also spread to China, where it was used as a form of currency to

such an extent that the Chinese used its shape to form their pictograph for money! Today

excavations have found some of the money of ancient China in the form of brass and

silver cowry shells. Wherever the cowry shells were found, it seems as if they were

thought of as wealth. Spiritually,

according to African legend if you are attracted to cowry shells you could be family to an

ocean spirit of wealth and earth. It also represents Goddess protection which is very

powerful and connected with the strength of the ocean. Throughout Africa, and South and

North America, the cowry symbolized the power of destiny and prosperity. Thought of as

the mouth of Orsisa Divinities, it also is believed to have taught stories of humility and respect.

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Dress and Decoration

The Fulani are known for ther elaborate body

adornment from the striking clothes they wear with

flair, to the ponderous gold jewelry & the tribal

tattoos. Elaborate gold earrings worn by women are

an indication of wealth and status. They reflect the

importance of gold in the trans-Saharan trade

Textiles

There are several artisan castes among the

Fulani people, including the Maboube,

hereditary weavers. Their most important

traditional products are blankets, known as

Leppi Chianiadhe or khasa, which are woven

from hand-spun sheep's wool. They are six

to eight feet long, made up of narrow strips

sewn together, often with stripes and

patterns in red and black on white. Khasa are

woven to order and used by men who camp

out in the desert with their herds of cattle.

Batik and tye dye cloth of various pattern are

well known internationally. Mudcloth is also

popular among many African ethnics groups

including Fulanis. Mud dye has been used for

many centuries to pass African culture from

generation to generation.

Mud Cloth Paintings

Mud Cloth Paintings are made using an

ancient and extensive process. The

fabric is all hand spun making a

number of individual cloth strips. Each

strip of cloth is then sewn together.

The entire piece of fabric is then dyed

in tea made from Bogalon tree found in

Mali, West Africa. The tea acts as a

fixative for mud painted designs that

are hand painted using specially

prepared mud. Some parts of

30 | P a g e

the fabric are then bleached after the entire process is complete to produce the white areas

The Making of Mudcloth

The making of mudcloth is a time-consuming process, normally taking four days to a week

to complete depending on weather. Each piece is made of 100% cotton, and is completely

and totally hand-made. Normally mudcloth is made totally from scratch. The men start the

process by weaving cotton thread on a loom. The loom is normally hand-held and makes a

strip of cloth five to six inches wide. For a normal sized ( 6'x45") piece they will weave nine

panels and then sew them together. From then on the women have traditionally painted and designed the cloth.

A mudcloth artist is much

like any western artist

dealing in a specific field.

Each concept must be taught

and learned over a long

period of time. A person

wishing to work in the art of

mudcloth has to be taught

how to make each of the

different dyes out of organic

substances, as well as how each of the substances will react with the fabric and fixatives.

The first step in making the cloth is to set it in a solution that dyes the cloth yellow and acts

as the fixative: typically this is a tea made from the Bogolon tree which is native to Mali,

West Africa. The mud designs are then hand painted onto the cloth with the tea acting as a

fixative for the mud dye. The mud used to make mudcloth is usually mixed with water and

then set aside to sit for about one year.

Using twigs or metal instruments the artist will paint the designs with the mud, being sure

to saturate the area so it will not wash out. The fabric is then washed and another layer is

applied over the first. The fabric is then dried and put in an organic solution to make the

patterns appear darker. Finally, on black and white fabric, a soda is painted on to the areas that have no patterns. This bleaches the fabric causing it to regain its original cotton white.

The Colors of Mudcloth

A mudcloth artist is much like any

western artist dealing in a specific

field. Each concept must be taught

and learned over a long period of

time. A person wishing to work in the

art of mudcloth has to be taught how

to make each of the different dyes

out of organic Each color in a

mudcloth sheet has its own meaning.

The most traditional coloring has

been the black background

31 | P a g e

with white designs. This is typically used for story telling or the portrayal of a proverb.

Another color popular among hunters, and the Fulani people is the rust. This color is

preferred as it does not show dirt and also as it is supposed to represent the strong

supernatural powers that protect the hunter. The rust color signifies blood either from the

hunt, or from warfare. Because mudcloth is made from the soils, it has been useful to both

groups as a form of camouflage.

White mudcloth is perhaps the most difficult fabric to make as it is easy to stain with the

dye: it is typically worn by girls and women in ceremonial events. Another color rarely seen

is gray, this color is worn as camouflage by hunters. The cream color is the natural color of

the mudcloth before it has been dyed. Many of the other colors also represent meanings.

Recently many colors have been added to the traditional colors. Bright reds, purples,

yellows and oranges are all new colors that are being developed by new artists. Many

people of older generations view the newer colors with disdain as they are not made in the

traditional ways.

Patterns of Mudcloth

Mudcloth is often meant to be interpreted, and many times there are long discussions on

how the patterns should be put together. Many times there is no symbolic meaning: the

colors and patterns are simply meant to be beautiful. People often attach symbolic meaning

behin the design of their fabric.

(From http://www.adire.clara.net/francophone.htm)

Blankets and Covers of the Sahel

The Sahel, where most Fulani live, is an arid

region south of the Sahara. The area reaches

both extreme heat during the day and also can

get very cold at night. Throughout this area wool

or cotton blankets and cover cloths are used

both for warmth in the cold nights and as

protection against mosquitoes. Mande speaking

weavers (Mande, Bamana, Maninka, Mandingo,

Yarse, etc) would seem to be the most

widespread and influential producers of these

cloths, but distinctive types are also made by

the Fulani (Peul), Hausa, and Dogon among

others. All utilize a weft faced weave structure,

producing bands of designs across the cloth

strips. This appears to be an ancient technique

in the area as it is used on Tellem textile

fragments dating back to the C11th &12th

found in Bandiagara, Mali. Through the twentieth century some cloths, such as Fulani kaasa

and arkila, continued to be woven in long established designs, while many other new styles

developed to make vivid and inventive use of the full range of imported dyed cotton that

became available.

Fragment of a rare and beautiful type of Fulani wedding blanket called an "arkilla jenngo".

These spectacular cloths of up to 6 or more metres length were woven only by a few

Maabuube (the sub-group weaving clan or the Fulani) weavers primarily for use by certain

32 | P a g e

noble Tuareg families. Chiefs have used Fulani blankets for centuries to line ceremonial

litters, cloak important drums, and various other display purposes.

(From http://www.adire.clara.net/francophone.htm)

Fulani Wedding Blanket

Fulani wedding blancket display beautiful

and popular design patterns. An

interesting aspect of the textile fractal

(See box below) pattern was noted by

the famous mathematician

anthropologist, Dr. Ron Eglash: "The

weavers who created it report that

spiritual energy is woven into the pattern

and that each successive iteration shows

an increase in this energy," "Releasing

this spiritual energy is dangerous,

and if the weavers were to stop in the middle they would risk death. The engaged couple

must bring the weaver food and kola nuts to keep him awake until it is finished."

African Fractals

Fractals are characterized by the repetition of similar patterns at ever-diminishing scales.

Fractal geometry has emerged as one of the most exciting frontiers on the border between

mathematics and information technology and can be seen in many of the swirling patterns

produced by computer graphics. It has become a new tool for modeling in biology, geology,

and other natural sciences.Anthropologists have observed that the patterns produced in

different cultures can be characterized by specific design themes. In Europe and America,

we often see cities laid out in a grid pattern of straight streets and right-angle corners. In

contrast, traditional African settlements tend to use fractal structure--circles of circles of

circular dwellings, rectangular walls enclosing ever-smaller rectangles, and streets in which

broad avenues branch down to tiny footpaths with striking geometric repetition. These

indigenous fractals are not limited to architecture; their recursive patterns echo throughout

many disparate African designs and knowledge systems including : traditional hairstyling,

textiles, sculpture, painting, carving, metalwork, religion, games, practical craft,

quantitative technologies, and symbolic systems. By Dr. Ron Eglash

Habitat and architecture

The habitat ranges from simple temporary

huts to elaborate structures. Generally

nomadic Fulani women, who often are in

charge of building the family tents or

temporary shelters, weave wall and floor

mats. However, many houses and even large

buildings are built from mud bricks with mud-

plastered walls. Larger structures, such as

mosques have wooden supports built into

them. The supports stick out, giving the

appearance

33 | P a g e

of spines. The habitat ranges from simple temporary huts to elaborate structures. Generally

nomadic Fulani women, who often are in charge of building the family tents or temporary

shelters, weave wall and floor mats. However, many houses and even large buildings are

built from mud bricks with mud-plastered walls. Larger structures, such as mosques have

wooden supports built into them. The supports stick out, giving the appearance of spines.

The most famous mud building is the mosque at Djenne, a town built on an island in the

Niger river. The current mosque was built on an old site in the early 1900s.

Calabash Decoration and Wood carving

Gourds or Calabashes whether decorated or not,

basically fulfill practical functions in the daily

activities of the Fulani family. Cut into contains of

various shapes and sizes, they are used for

serving foods and drinks, for milking cattle and

are carriers vessels. However, the decorated

ones have additional value.

They are highly prized objects of prestigious and

aesthetic value. Used has containers for food and

drink they

embellish the service; as tools in the thereby performing some economic functions. They

are also an extension of the seller's appearance.

Calabashes are engraved with a combination of abstract and figural motifs and colored with

pigments. In the cow-centered Fulani culture, milk bowls are also important objects for the

household. They are used as storage containers for fresh, curdled milk and grains. An

artifact, symbol of the pastoral life and of the cooperation between men who keep the herd

and women who milk the cows, the la'al kosam encapsulates Fulani identity. Because of

their delicate chiseling, smoke-derived patina, and exquisite decorative treatment, bowls

and calabashes could be considered as the true focus of aesthetic efforts of the Fulani

people. The decorations on the calabashes are the Fulani only graphic expressions, the

truest representation of the artistic skill and vision.

Wooden masks and figures are not widespread in

Fulani society. However The caste of lawbe is

specialized in woodcarving. They make elaborate

figurines and furniture which they sell in the tourist

market. West Africa is home to many master wood

carvers. They use simple hand tools to produce

incredible works of art. Wood carvings are hand

crafted from ebony or other hard wood trees. Ebony

is an exceptionally hard and beautiful wood found in

the Sahara desert regions of Africa. Its exceptional

density makes it not only very heavy, but also gives

it an incomparable sheen when

polished. Ebony normally is brown on the outside of the tree; and black on the inside.The

carvings often come as a beautiful mixture of black and brown; as well as the pure black

wood that is most well known. Each has its own special beauty. Like any wood, ebony is subject to drying and cracking: especially in dry climates

34 | P a g e

Brass Artwork

All brass items are made of solid

brass using the Lost Wax Method.

This is an exceptionally labor

intensive process where a wax

mold is formed by hand, over an

open fire until the mold is exactly

as intended. The wax is then

dipped into very fine powdered

mud several times; being allowed

to harden between applications;

this forms a clay casting around

the mold. The clay is then heated

until the wax melts and is

poured out of its casting. Finally, molten brass is poured into the casting replacing the old

wax mold.

The clay is then broken away from the brass; leaving a solid brass ornament. Each piece is

individually made. No two are exactly the same because the mold is broken in the process

of making the piece. These will retain their original brilliant look indefinitely as each work is solid brass; not just plated.

Pottery

In many African societies, Pottery is used for many

functions from household use to ritual practices.

Cultural stability and the environment determine

most of the time the type of pottery used by one

culture. Fulani pottery styles are characterized by

very recognized decorations. In the Fulani society,

a special caste called Maabube do the actual

fabrication of the pot. There is a considerable

variation in the shape, the concavity, and the neck

and rim forms. Because they are difficult to handle

the pots have short life expectancies and the large

majority are transported within short distances,

making their production localize and their

distribution limited

Paintings

Apart from such crafts as Jewelry

making, bronze-casting, wood carving,

leather work, pottery and weaving, a

form of artistic expression that has

quietly gained a stronghold but has not

been given its due recognition in Fulani

painting. As a medium of artistic

expression, painting is not completely

new in the country.The two groups of

rock paintings in parts of Sahara Tassi

35 | P a g e

Najjer are the attributed to Fulani.

Body paintings and

decoration for ceremonial rites and festivals are also a common practice . The designs and

decorations used in body painting possess esoteric connotations and the human body so

painted at times in varied contours, visually becomes a really beautiful "living art piece".

Another form of artistic expression closely akin to painting that has been in practice for a

long time is the multicolored decoration of the inner and outer walls of houses with beautiful

and elaborate symbols and designs. Some of such designs have their origin in the Islamic

influence . Since Islam forbids representation Human and Animal forms, Fulani sculpture

and wood carving is not as developed as in other cultures such as Dogon and Benin.

Those who have gained prominence at home and abroad in this field within a relatively short

time include Kalidou Kasse and Sow A large number of the works of Modern Fulani painters

can be found in many galleries and private collections in Africa and elsewhere. Looking at

art as the umbilical cord between men and their culture, Kalidou Kasse has been called the

brush of the Sahel, painting pictures that have been exhibited in Germany, USA, France,

Egypt. See Slides show pictures(lvre 32)

Literature

The African Oral Tradition (see box below:

African Orature) is one of narration, poetry,

proverbs, jokes and riddles. Most of Fulani

literature is and remains oral. The Griots told

of the achievement of the braves. Fulanis are

fond of oral poetry, saying in rims stories,

riddles and proverbs.

The most striking aspect of Fulani oral poetry

is its rhythm. Indeed, rhythm is the most

important defining characteristic of African

poetry: It is its very essence. The skillful use

of numerous linguistic resources in this poetry

is obscured in English, which is insufficiently

flexible to convey many of the verbal and

aesthetic nuances of the Fulani originals. In

any case, the poet is as indispensable to

Fulani society as any other individual. Steward

and artisan of the word,

crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds and

exploits, he remains the genuine promoter of cultural and social values.Source: Sow, Abdoul

Aziz. Fulani Poetic Genres.(Special Issue: Oral Literature) Research in African Literatures

24.2(Summer 1993): 61(17pp). Full text available at COCC: Infotrac 2000 Expanded Academic ASAP Article A13891469.

On the other hand Fulani writers preferred to write in Arabic. However, when the European

languages were introduced during the colonial period, many African authors including Fulani

began writing in French, English, Spanish, or Portuguese. In 1950, Amadou Hampate

36 | P a g e

published his Peul poetry in French. Cheikh Hamidou Kane wrote the much celebrated Adventure Ambigue in 1961.

Fulani Poetic Genres.

Abstract: The Fulani people of the northern

Senegal River have songs which fit poetic

genres. There are different songs for

fishermen, weavers, warriors, hunters, cattle

drivers, women griots, merchants, nomad

entertainment, shepherds, lullabies, eulogies,

rejoicing, mockery and special occasions. As

elsewhere in Africa, literature among the

Fulani is essentially oral and musical. It is

lyrical, and it is by its very nature literary, as

is every word that transcends the merely

denotative or communicative functions of

language. Sung, chanted, declaimed, recited,

set to rhythm, or supported by gestural or

musical accompaniment, it is magnified to the

status of art - a verbal art so pure and so

complete that writing, far from assuring its

diffusion, merely impoverishes and

weakens it by restricting its range of expression (Seydou 178) [qtd. by Sow]. The most

striking aspect of Fulani oral poetry is its rhythm. Indeed, rhythm is the most important

defining characteristic of African poetry: It is its very essence. The skillful use of numerous

linguistic resources in this poetry is obscured in English, which is insufficiently flexible to

convey many of the verbal and aesthetic nuances of the Fulani originals. In any case, the

poet is as indispensable to Fulani society as any other individual. Steward and artisan of the

word, crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds

and exploits, he remains the genuine promoter of cultural and social values.By: Sow, Abdoul

Aziz. Fulani Poetic Genres. Research in African Literatures 24.2 (Summer 1993): 61 (17 pp).

Rpt. Infotrac 2000 Expanded Academic ASAP: Article A13891469. For more information

about Fulani Litterature click here

African Orature

African ORATURE Ancient writing traditions exist on the African continent,

as shown earlier in this timeline, but most Africans are primarily oral

peoples, and their art forms primarily oral rather than literary.. In contrast

to written "literature," African "orature" is orally composed and transmitted,

and often created to be verbally and communally performed as integral

part of dance and music. Oral arts and traditions of Africa are rich and

varied, developing with the beginnings of African cultures, and continuing

to flourish today.Power of the World: In traditional African cosmologies, the

spoken/performed word animating the creative process, is considered to

have special powers to evoke spiritual and communal forces and ferment

inner life. African oral arts often combine religious, artistic as well as social

functions: e.g., to convey wisdom, teach ethics and social codes of

conduct; teach religious beliefs and communal values, celebrate cultural

37 | P a g e

heroes and revered ancestors, & explain the origins, history, and

development of states, clans, and other important social organizations.

Mutere calls African oral arts art for life sake.Dr. Mutere's African Culture

and Aesthetics.

Dance and Music

What ever the tribal or ethnic group, Music

and Dance forms are at the centre of all

African arts and culture. Music plays an

integral role in the celebration of life's many

rituals and accompanies everyday activities.

The Fulani music is as varied and rich as its

people. The numerous sub-groups all

maintain unique repertoires of music and

dance. Songs and dances reflect traditional

life and are specifically designed for each

individual occasion. Music is played at any

occasion: when herding cattle, working in

the fields, preparing food, or at the temple.

Music is extremely important to the village

life cycle with field cultivation,harvest and

winnowing of millet performed to the rhythm of the songs and drums. Fulani herders have a

special affinity for the flute and violin Nianioru. The young Fulani shepherd like to whistle

and sing softly as they wander the silent savannah with cattle and goats.

The well known tunes include: Lele made popular by Samba Diop, Yela sung by women at

the drum of Gourds, and the more recent wango dance. The truly Fulani instruments are the

1 string viola of the Fulani (nianioru), the flute, the two to five string lute hoddu or molo,

and the buuba and bawdi set of drums. But they are also influenced by the other

instruments of the region such as the beautiful West African harp, the kora, the balafon.

Entertainment is the role of certain casts. The performance of music is the realm of

specialized casts. The Griots Awlube recite history of the people, places and events of the community.

Steward and artisan of the word, crystallizer of

the people's collective memory, eulogist of the

ancestors' noble deeds and exploits, griots are

the genuine promoter of cultural and social

values. Wambaabe are expert virtuosos in string

instruments. Apart from the griots, and

wambaabe, other casts such as the blacksmith

caste (Wailuube) are masters of the drums

especially the talking drum.Though not

preeminent in nomadic Fulanis, drum buuba is

played at all occasion in more settled Fulani

societies..

Certain buuba instruments can even talk by imitating the tonal patterns characteristic of

the language

Traditional lines are being blurred by modern mobility and changes. Nowadays, Music and

38 | P a g e

dance are performed by all segments of the society, the motivation being no longer cast but

talent.

Modern Musicians

There is a growing numbers of famous Fulani

musician know all over the world. They include

Baba Maal, Demba Dia, Aisha Khalil

Baba Maal is one of African pop musician.

Maal produced great traditional records,

notably Baayo (Mango 1991), his band

releases never quite earned him the media

spotlight. The magic of Baba Maal's

exceptional musicality lies in its combination

of delicate acoustic sounds--principally

plucked string instruments from the 21-string

kora to a French folk harp--and ballsy electric

pop. Maal's sharp, gale-force voice easily cuts

through all this, keening and caressing by

turns, but never lost in the action.Malick Sow

Musician :Welnere Founder Welnere ( =

happiness in pulaar) was founded by Malick in Brussels in 1995 with three goals : be a link

between the various hapulaar (peuls or fulani) communities in Europe, let the european

public become more familiar with hapulaar music from the Senegal river and eventually

bring back to Africa a new music, being the crossbreed of african and european influences

Welnere is becoming increasingly famous in Europe (Belgium, France, the Netherlands,

Switzerland, Italy, etc.) and has released in August 98 it's debut CD "Danniyanke" on the

new Yoff label, which has been founded by Baaba Maal and Jumbo Vanrenen. Reviews of the CD have been excellent, especially in the specialized press (World, Le Disque Africain).

39 | P a g e

Origins

Some believe that they are from a

Semitic origin. According to the

tradition, the ancestors of Fulani is

Jacob son of Israel, son of Issac,

son of Abraham When Jacob left

Canaan and went to Egypt where

Joseph was established. The

Israelites prospered and grew in

population while living in Egypt.

Fulani people descended from

them. After a long time a new

Pharaoh who did not

know about Joseph's fame in Egypt, came to power. He made the Israelites

work hard at slave labor. The Pharaoh oppressed the people, including

Fulanis who were rich in cattle. They emigrated from Egypt, some of them

went back to Palestine and Syria under Moses guidance and the other

crossed the Nile with their cattle and headed west. They took the name of

fouth or foudh meaning those who left. A group from the latter moved

along the edges of the Sahara to Touat-Air and then to West-Africa.

Those who came to Masina (in present day Mali) spread to the neighboring

regions where they were rejoined by Fulani groups from Morocco. It has

established that about 700AD, Fulani groups from Morocco, moved

southward, and invaded the regions of Tagout, Adrar, Mauritania, and Fuuta

Tooro. The cradle of the Fulani group is situated in the Senegal River valley,

where Fulanis established kingdoms. Until the beginning of the IX th

Century..Around that period they continued their migration in the regions of

Bundu, Bambouk, Diomboko, Kaarta, and Bagana

Finally those who where concentrated in the Ferlo from the XI to the XIV

century moved in various groups to the Fuuta Jalon, to the Volta river basin

, to the Gurma, to the Haussa land, and to the Adamawa, Boghirme,Ouadai

Other versions of the Fulani origin include:

a- The mixing between the proto-Berber from North Africa, and the

Bafur (the people who populated the Sahara)

b- Issued from Asiatic pastoral tribes that invaded Africa, crossed the

Sahara and dispersed through all the West-Africa Sahalian zone

c- The Anthropologists declare that the study of many Fulbe cranian

structure has indicated that they are intimately linked to the

Ethiopians and that both types are very similar to the Egyptian crane

structure. According to the eminent Anthropologist Mr. Verneau, the

Fulbe origin has to closely link the Egypt.

40 | P a g e

Genesis

The History section examines the topics

relevant to the Fulani Historical experience.

It describes their uncertain Origins, the

impact of Islam, Colonization, Slavery and

the Diaspora on their culture. Some Fulani

Historical Figures are also described

including: Usman Dan Fodio, Umar Talll, A.

Bamba, el-hadj Malik Sy, M.Diakhou Ba,

Alpha Yaya, Bocar Biro, Lamidho Bayero,

Alpha Mamadou Diobbo, Sr. A. Bello, A

Ahidjo. The overall historical Time line of

Fulani people is shown below.

The History section examines the topics relevant to the Fulani Historical

experience. It describes their uncertain Origins, the impact of Islam,

Colonization, Slavery and the Diaspora on their culture. Some Fulani Historical

Figures are also described including: Usman Dan Fodio, Umar Talll, A. Bamba,

el-hadj Malik Sy, M.Diakhou Ba, Alpha Yaya, Bocar Biro, Lamidho Bayero,

Alpha Mamadou Diobbo, Sr. A. Bello, A Ahidjo. The overall historical Time line

of Fulani people is shown below.

Origin

The early origin of Fulani People is most fascinating and shrowed in mystery

with widely divergent opinions. However, it is generally recognized that Fulani

descended from nomads from both North Africa and from sub-Sahara Africa.

They came from the Middle-East and North Africa and settled into Central and

West Africa From the Senegal region they created the Tekruur empire which

was contemporary to the Ghana empire. Then, they spread in all the countries

in West-Africa, continuing to lead their nomadic life style. They created here

and there mixed states where they sometimes were the dominant group. But

more often, they were absorbed by the indigenous population whom they had

dominated.

Early European Commentaries on Fulani Origins

Date Observer Situation Fulbe

claims

Observer's

claims Reference

1785-7 Golbéry residence

in Senegal India

Tauxier, 29,

109-10

1790s

Winterbottom

and

Matthews

journey to

Futa Jalon Arab

Judaeo-

Syrian Tauxier, 29

1818 Mollien

journey to

Futas and

Bundu

Arab from

Sahara Voyage, 162-3

1824,1826 Clapperton journeys

to

Arab,

Uqba

Second

ExPedition,

41 | P a g e

Northern

Nigeria

337-8

1826

Lander

journey to

Northern

Nigeria

Arab,

Uqba

eastern

origin

Last

Expedition, 11,

24-6

1840s d'Eichtal

synthesis,

from

Europe

Arab

Malaysian

or son of

Ham

'Foulahs

1842-3 Thomson residence

in Futa Arab CMS Archives

1846-7 Raffenel journey to

Karta

Arab ,

Uqba

Nouveau

voyage, 11,

310

1850 Hecquard

journey to

Futa jalon

& Bundu

Arab Voyage, 314

1851-5 Barth

journey

through

Centr.

Sudan

Arab

distant

eastern

origin

Travels III,

110-15

1850s Wilson missionary

in Gambia

son of

Ham

Western Africa,

79

1860 Lambert journey to

Futa Jalon

Arabs

of Fez Voyage, 40-1

1879-81 Lenz

journey

across

North and

West

Africa

eastern

origin,

Hamitic

Timbouctou,

11, 266-77

1887-9 Binger

journey

across

West

Africa

eastern

origin Niger, 1, 390-3

1912 Delafosse

French

colon.

official

Arab Judaeo-

Syrian

Haut-Sénégal-

Niger. 1, 207

Note: For references, see bibliography. Tauxier refers to Louis Tauxier, 1937

Moeurs et histoire des Peuls, Payot.

1935 - Les races de l'Afrique, -TAUXIER (L.)

42 | P a g e

Early history

Archeologists have found stone tools indicating a

human presence dating back over 10,000 years in

Fulani regions, such as present-day Senegal and

the Gambia. They have also found clusters of

stone circles, (See Gambia Stone Circles in file

fototraite) some nearly 2,000 years old that

probably had religious significance. Archeologists

have also found iron-smelting sites dating to the

4th century C.E., indicating the development of

me

Tallworking skills among the region's people. By this time speakers of West

Atlantic languages (which belong to the larger Niger-Congo family of

languages) had probably settled in West Africa.

The late Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop discovered linguistic and

cultural similarities with ancient Egypt, indicating that most of West African

people had migrated from the Nile River valley.

The development of metal working technology by the

4th century C.E. may have contributed to the rise of

the region's first centralized state, the Tekruur

kingdom in the Senegal River valley. This kingdom

stretched across the central savanna into the Sahara

to the north. Tekruur, who was mostly populated by

Fulani, had extensive contact with peoples from

North Africa, including the Zenaga Berbers.

After their conversion to Islam beginning in the 8th

century C.E., Berbers brought Islam to Senegambia.

The Zenaga founded a monastery, probably along the

Senegal River, around 1040. This hermitage housed

an ascetic Islamic sect known as the Almoravids who

swept north and, over the course of the century,

conquered Morocco and established a Muslim kingdom in Spain. The sect's

leader, 'Abd Allah ibn Yasin, converted the Tekruur king, War Jabi, and

many of the Fulani people to Islam.

During the 13th century, as Tekruur fell under the dominance of the Mali

empire to the east. Later on through nomadic life styles and holy wars,

Fulani expanded their living range further east to Fuuta Jalon, Macina,

Bhundu, to Adamawa.

43 | P a g e

Versions of Fulani Origins

Ethnologists and others have

been provoked to seek the

origins of the Fulani far outside

their present habitat, in remote

periods and states of society,

and to describe the successive

migrations which are supposed

to have brought them into their

present habitat before

documentary evidence from the

West and Central Africa became

available. Considerable

ethnological debate has

surrounded the widely divergent

hypotheses of the origin of the

Fulani. Tauxier (1937) lists the

majority of these.

Jewish or Syrian origin and suggested a migration westwards along

the North African littoral, southwards into the West-Africa and,

thence, in historical times, eastwards. According to Some writers

(e.g. Guiraudon, 1888; Delafosse, 1912; Morel, 1902)

Ethiopian affinities and inferred a prehistoric movement westward

from Ethiopia into the West- Africa. According to Mollien, 1820;

Seligman, 1930; Barth, 1857-8

Fulani were North African Berbers, According to. Passarge, 1895;

Meyer, 1897; Crozals, 1883

Compromised between the Berber and Ethiopian theories. According

to Bayol, 1887; Machat, 1906; Gautier, 1935; Palmer, 1923, 1928,

1936) which

Hindu Origins According toGolberry, 1805; Binger, 1892), Malayo-

Polynesian (EichTall, 1841

Gypsy theories complete the list of elaborate surmises on Fulani origins

The myths of the Fulani themselves do little to confirm hypotheses linking

them with events of the Classical or Near Eastern world. They often describe

the marriage of a Muslim Arab or Moor with a negro-African woman which is

blessed with children. One infant is left in the care of an elder brother while

their mother goes to draw water. It cries and is comforted by its brother in

an incomprehensible language which the mother overhears on her return.

She runs to tell the father, who takes this as a sign, predicted by the

Prophet, that the child will be the founder of a new people who do not speak

Arabic, but will be the saviors of Islam. This child is the ancestor of the

Fulani. In some versions his brothers learn the new language, Fulfulde, from

him and found the four great branches of the Fulani people. In all its versions

44 | P a g e

(e.g. Madrolle, 1885; de St. Croix, 1944) this myth relates the racial affinities

of the Fulani, their linguistic peculiarities, and their historical role in the

West-Africa.

A common version of the Origin of Fulani

common version (de St. Croix,

1944; Stephani, 1912) runs

somewhat as follows. The first

Fulani to own cattle is expelled

from a Fulani settlement. The

context of this expulsion is not

stated. He wanders alone in the

bush, enduring great hardship. A

water spirit appears and tells him

that if he obeys his orders he will

acquire great wealth and be the

envy of those who despised him.

In one version he waters all the

wild animals in turn, until finally,

in reward for his

exertions, the spirit sends him cattle to water. In another version the Fulani

is enjoined to wait patiently by a lake until the source of his future wealth

appears. The water spirit then tells him to lead the cattle away and never to

fail to light a fire for them at dusk, lest they revert to their wild state and

leave him. The settled Fulani despise the nomad and pour ridicule upon his

harsh way of life. But he takes a wife from them, and his progeny are

eventually able to pursue their pastoral existence without intermarriage with

those who spurned their ancestor. While explaining and justifying the way of

life of the cattle-owning Fulani, this myth retails a stereotype of the relations

of Pastoral and sedentary Fulani.

The search for the origins of the Fulani was based on racial and linguistic

criteria, and attempts were made to link these with Classical, Biblical, and

Near Eastern history.

Mass Migration

Although the details of these migrations may be

open to doubt, their general sense is quite clear.

The general mass movement of the Fulani (known

by one or other of their various names) within the

West-Africa has been from Senegal eastwards.

The periods at which stages of this movement

were accomplished are not so clear. It appears

that the exodus of the Fulani from the kingdom of

Tekruur in Senegal occurred in the eleventh

century A.D. (Delafosse, 1912). It is clear that by

the time of the rise of the Fulani Muslim States in

the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the

Fulani formed more or less

substantial minorities in the various regions in which their Holy Wars were

fought, since these were in no case invasions, but insurrections. Since that

period, largely owing to the pacification of hitherto inaccessible areas by

colonial administrations, Fulani have penetrated farther into areas such as

45 | P a g e

the Jos Plateau in Nigeria and parts of British and French Cameroons. It may

be concluded that the present distribution of the Fulani was more or less

completed during a period of at most eight hundred years.

There is little doubt that the main impetus of this vast ethnic movement was

provided by the pastoral elements of the population. The transhumance

systems of the Pastoral Fulani have probably always been of a conservative

nature, involving close knowledge of the grazing potentialities of relatively

limited tracts of country. The independence of the simple or compound

family with its own herd has militated against the formation of extended

kinship groups having well-defined grazing and water rights in specific tracts

which might be defended by force. Thus herds have been maintained, not by

cattle-raiding, feud, and war, but by the continuous adjustment of

transhumance patterns to subtle changes of an ecological nature. The

resultant movement may be described as migratory drift, and it is this type

of movement which accounts for the spread of Pastoral Fulani

populations. Indeed, Pastoral Fulani have always formed minorities within

wider societies, and intolerable political conditions within these have been

countered by a more dramatic form of movement migration from the scene

of war, excessive tribute, and the like. Pastoral Fulani have remained

pastoralists, in the sense we have described, only by continuous seasonal

movement, which develops imperceptibly into migratory drift, and by

periodic migration. They have left behind them Fulani populations more

closely wedded to the soil, the semi-sedentary and sedentary populations.

Islam

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

began preaching in Mecca Saudi

Arabia. After his death in 632.

Islam grew, and little by little reached lands far from Arabia in Asia, Europe, and Africa.

Islam spread in West - Africa through commerce. Timbuktu, Jenne, and Gao in present

day Mali became great cities of commerce. Both as a sedentary and as a nomadic

people, Fulanis have played an important part in the history of West- Africa. A number

of West-African kingdoms and empires had strong Fulani influence. The Fulani became

Muslims in approximately the 11th cententury AD. With the Almoravids they conquered

lands all the way to Southern Spain and destroyed the Empire of Ghana. From 1750 to

1900 they engaged in many holy wars in the name of Islam. During the first part of

the19th century the Fulani carved out two important empires. One, based on Massina,

for a time controlled Timbuktu; the other, centered at Sokoto , included the Hausa

States and parts of Bornu and W Cameroon. The Fulani emir of Sokoto continued to rule

over part of Northern Nigeria until the British conquest in 1903.

46 | P a g e

Islam and Fulani

Many West African Empires have

endured for centuries, while, others

were short-lived. Cities were

established, and within their walls

were to be found not only the pomp

of the king's court and the splendor

of his military power, but also more

peaceful manifestations of urban

culture. Some cities became centers

of Islamic learning. Most displayed

considerable diversity in their arts

and crafts, whose practitioners were

organized into guilds under the

king's patronage. Many were

commercially important, not only

gathering into their markets the

produce of the surrounding

countryside, but also maintaining a

far-flung caravan trade with

other West African cities and with commercial centers on the opposite

Maghrebine shore of the sand sea which is the Sahara. Many of the urban

populations of the West- Africa could truly be called cosmopolitan. The city

was the nodal point of the State, which more often than not was described

by the city's name. Surrounding it to a greater or lesser depth was the city's

countryside, from which produce was drawn and to which the city's products

percolated. Within this area, as in the city itself, the affluence of the State

was maintained by the arts of peaceful administration, in the levying of all

manner of tolls and taxes, the quid-pro quo of which was effective defense.

Still farther out was the zone entrusted to governors who, though often

residing in the city, were responsible for the defense of its various, sectors,

and the safeguarding of such trade routes as passed through them. Here

public administration was manifest not in tax, but in tribute, collected from

populations only loosely bound to the State. The affluence of the State did

not depend solely on the maintenance of a vigorous internal and external

trade, fostered by peaceful conditions. Apart from the trade in gold, salt,

and diverse consumer goods, one of the principal resources of the West-

Africa was its human material, in the form of slaves. These were sought in a

more distant zone outside the governors' domains, which was a no-man's-

land between one State and the next. In the Islamic era in the West Africa,

these zones assumed a dual importance and the activities of States in them

had an ideological as well as an economic impetus. They lay outside Dar-el-

Islam, the Community of the Faithful; their populations were either to be

subdued and converted and thus brought into the web of Muslim State

administration. Thus on the States' peripheries the art of government

merged into the art of war. Where the territorial interests of one State

collided with those of its neighbor, the slave-raiding column became an

instrument of aggression. Here too, ideological reasons were brought to

bear, and accusations of backsliding in the faith were used as justifications

for extending territorial claims.

47 | P a g e

Islamic Expansion in West Africa

The State was thus committed

to a ceaseless course of

expansion; trade had to be

guaranteed and tax and tribute

levied in order to support

further military endeavors in

the name of Islam, which, if

successful, brought not only

new wealth but also new

administrative problems.

This expansion was facilitated

by geographical and

technological considerations.

The savannah zone of the

West- Africa rarely affords

natural barriers upon

which a frontier line can be established. The horse was widely used in

warfare and made possible military formations of great mobility. It was

therefore not surprising that, in periods of affluence, the nominal boundaries

far outran the area which could be effectively administered, and that in

periods of adversity the periphery of the State was quickly overrun.

Moreover, at all points in the territorial organization of the State a strong

governing hand was required. At the centre, in the city, there were the

inevitable court intrigues; merchants with diverse and distant connections;

peripatetic Muslim preachers and holy men. In the countryside the pagans

were always seeking to avoid taxation. In the governors' domains, military

forces at the disposal of local commanders might be indispensable to the

State, but were equally likely to be used against the ruler. Here, too, the

tribute paying populations might be of diverse ethnic origins, with their own

local traditions and religions, eager to regain a semblance of autonomy, and

willing to ally them with any power that would help them. Outward again,

the no-man's-land was the home not only of pagan tribes jealous of their

time-hallowed customs, but also of bands of freebooters, selling their

services at will.

48 | P a g e

Conquests: Fuuta Jalon, Fuuta Tooro, Massina. Soko

Muslims scholars called sub-Sahara

Africa Bilal al Sudan (Land of the

blacks) within the Dar al-Islam (the

realm of Islam). Indeed, many West

African Empires and kingdoms that

have endured for centuries began to

witness during the eighteenth and the

nineteenth centuries, far reaching

reformist movements that redrew the

West African historical setting and

were only halted with the arrival of

the European Colonization. All the

leaders of these movements were

Fulani from various regions of West-

Africa. These leaders/scholars

mobilized herders and farmers from

the Fulani as well as from other ethnic

groups to launch holy wars and to

establish formidable Islamic states in

little more than 100 years.This

expansion was facilitated by

geographical and technological

considerations. The savannah zone of

the West- Africa rarely presents

natural barriers upon which a frontier

line can be established. The horse

was widely used in warfare and made

possible military formations of great

mobility.

Cities were established as

administrative capital, but also

centers of Islamic learning. Most

displayed considerable diversity in

their arts and crafts.The city was the

nodal point of the State. In the

countryside, as well as in the city

itself, the affluence of the State was

maintained by the arts of peaceful

administration, in the levying of all

manner of tolls and taxes.

49 | P a g e

Fuuta Jalon

The most spectacular contribution to the history of West Africa was the Fulani

creation of Muslim States. These Muslim States arose within a century in

widely separated parts of the West Africa, and at one juncture, before the

arrival of the French and English Colonizers, it seemed likely that they would

be united under a single leader Umar Saidu Tall. The first movement occurred

in Fuuta Jalon (present day Guinea), the second in Fuuta Toro (present day

Senegal), the third in Masina (present day Mali) and finally the most notable

the Sokoto Caliphate (present day Nigeria, Cameroon).

During the seventeenth century this well endowed highland area was the

scene of a considerable immigration of Fulani pastoralists who, although of

different clans, were all Muslims of the Kadiriya persuasion. In 1725 a Muslim

Fulani known as Alfa Ba put himself at their head and declared a Holy War

not only against the pagan Sosso and Mandingo inhabitants but also against

the pagan Fulani dynasty which ruled the country. Alfa Ba died during the

course of preparations for the Holy War, but his son, a holy man, known as

Ibrahim mo Timbo or Karamoko Alfa, continued his work with the aid of a war

leader, Ibrahim Sori. They conquered and converted by force all except the

least accessible parts of the country and established a territorial organization

which, although much modified, is the basis of present-day administration.

50 | P a g e

Futa Toro

The second Muslim Fulani State was Fuuta Tooro, which, during the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had been ruled by a pagan Fulani

dynasty, the Denianke. In 1776 the Muslim Fulani minority rose under Abd-

el-Kadr Toorodi and established the Muslim State. In Fuuta Tooro there was

little of the internal dissension seen in Fuuta Jalon. Abdel-Kadr had both

preached and waged war, and his kingdom consisted of provinces under the

rule of Muslim divines. The State expanded after the death of Abd-el-Kadr in

1788 and its dependencies in the Senegambia region Dimar, Damga, and

Boundou, were in situ on the arrival of the French.

Masina

The Bamana kingdom of Masina was the scene of the creation of the next

Muslim Fulani kingdom. Masina is a region located in central Mali and

northern Burkina Faso. Here the Muslim Fulani had for long been tributaries

of the Bamana.Following the collapse of Songhai Empire in 1591 by the

armies of al-Mansur of Morocco number of small kingdoms Masina, Gonja,

Segou, Kaarta strove to dominate the western Mali, but continual strife and

economic decline were the only results. In 1818 Seku Ahmadu, a Fulani

51 | P a g e

Muslim introduced a theocratic state in Macina. During his rule an empire

embracing the whole of the Niger River region, from Jenne to Timbuktu, was

created. Upon his death in 1844 his son took power, but in 1862 Macina fell

to another Muslim reformer, al-Hajj Umar.

Masina saw the achievements of great leaders such as Ahmad Al-Kabir,

Ahmad Al-Tijani, and the Kunta leader Ahmad Al-Bakkay.Many cities

flourished including Jenne, Nioro and Hamdallay.Hamdallay is a now shadow

of what it used to be during the glory days of masina.Prior to the arrival of

the French when Segou was powerful and practicing traditional religion,

Hamdallay was the center of the Fulani's emerging Masina Islamic Empire

and a center of Islamic education at the time. Currently it is not even

labeled on most maps.(More about Masina in Communities Section)

Sokoto Caliphate

The greatest feat of empire-building on the part of the Fulani was the Jihad

of Usman dan Fodio, who established a widespread empire in what, is now

Northern Nigeria, both founding new States and usurping the rule of the old-

established Hausa kingdoms. The mixing of pagan with Muslim practices and

other errors disquieted Nafata, king of Gobir, who, although formerly a pupil

of Usman's, saw in these activities a threat to his position at the centre of

the pagan rites of kingship. Before his death, Nafata made proclamations

designed to restrict the effect of Usman's efforts. His son Yunfa was more

energetic and in 1803 attacked Gimbana, an important Muslim village,

destroying the scribes' writings and carrying off their wives and children. In

February 1804 Usman declared a Hegira or Flight from Degel, which was a

demonstration of defiance of the constituted government. It took the Muslim

leader into an ill-administered part of the kingdom, from which messages

might be sent to Fulani communities urging them to join the instigator of the

rising, and from which the first deployments of insurrection might be made.

Usman was speedily joined in his flight by a considerable number of fervent

supporters. In June 1804 Usman met Yunfa in battle at Kwotto lake and

defeated him. The victorious Muslim army proclaimed Usman Commander of

the Faithful (Arab. Amir al Muminin; Hausa Serkin Musulmi; Ful. Laamiidho

Julbhe) and he was thenceforth known as Sheik or Shehu. He declared Holy

52 | P a g e

War against the enemies of Islam and, in the next decade or so, Shehu, or

his son and successor Bello, gave the flag of Holy War to trusted followers

who took existing kingdoms by insurrection or carved out new ones by war.

Usman himself retired early to a life of contemplation, and is revered to this

day as a saint.

By 1810 four of the seven Hausa States were taken by the Fulani, and the

city of Sokoto, from which the Empire was to be governed, had been

established. During the next twenty years, Fulani dynasties were set up in

other States, principally Ilorin and Nupe. During the same period new

kingdoms were established, chief among which was Adamawa. On the

eastern borders of the Empire developments took place with which we shall

be more concerned later in the text. Bornu resisted the Fulani invaders, but

in large portions of its western territory small kingdoms, such as Hadeijia,

Katagum, Bauchi, Misau, and Gombe, were established by the Fulani. The

history of the Fulani States during the nineteenth century is one of attempts

at expansion and internecine strife, which neither the military power of the

suzerain State of Sokoto nor the religious authority of its ruler were able to

compose. Nevertheless, on their arrival in Northern Nigeria, the British

recognized the legitimacy by conquest of the Fulani rulers, and the present

Emirs of the States are for the most part the descendants of the flag-bearers

of the Jihad.

Dinguiray, Segou, Nioro & Bandiagara

The final movement of Fulani Islam was the rise of Umar Saidu Tall. He was

born in 1797 into a family of holy men of Podor in Senegal. He went on the

pilgrimage in 1827 and studied in Mecca, Medina, and Cairo. He returned to

the West- Africa in 1838 and was well received in Bornu, Sokoto, and

Massina. The Fulani rulers of Sokoto and Massina gave him their daughters in

marriage. He attempted to seize power in Fuuta Tooro but was unsuccessful,

although he succeeded in raising followers prepared to preach the Holy War

elsewhere. He moved to Dinguiray in Fuuta Jalon, which he established as a

fortress and centre of learning. He led a Holy War in the Bambouk country

and by 1861 had established his son as king of Masina. Under his hand, Nioro,

53 | P a g e

Bandiagara, and Segou became important religious centers. He was seen as

the potential unifier of all the Muslim Fulani empires and States of the West-

Africa. However, in 1857 he was stopped at Khosso by the French colonial

power.

Holy Men

Role of Holy Men

Muslim holy men are a special breed of specialists in

Islam. They hold a particular place in the Fulani society.

Many of these Holy men go on to become leaders or

spiritual guide with a large following. Their

specialization comes from their knowledge of Quran and

Hadith. It also alludes to a special relation with the

higher power which is manifest in their possession of

sanctity (barka or baraka) a term common to many

West- African Islamic groups and to the Berber dialects

of Maghrebine North Africa. Sanctity may be inherited

genealogically, or acquired from one's teachers.

Ultimately, barka derives from Allah

himself, through the Prophet and his Companions. Holy men may belong to

one or other of the Islamic fraternities Kadiriya, Tijaniya, Mahdiya, and

Murids etc, which ramify throughout the West- Africa. Holy men live on the

fees, obtained by the performance of their special tasks, which have the

quality of alms for the Muslim donor. But many also have farms, or are

craftsmen or traders. They may work alone in a community or they may

form hamlets, around which they farm, and from which they travel in pursuit

of their calling.

The term holy man covers many degrees of proficiency in magic, Islamic

ritual, law, and tradition, but in general the status of a holy man depends

upon his ability to read the Arabic of Koranic texts and such Maghrebine

writings as are copied and circulated in the West- Africa. Some holy men are

little more than magicians or diviners, fashioning amulets, making

decoctions of the ink in which pious texts have been written, manipulating

sand patterns, or telling the stars. Others have received a more extensive

grounding in Muslim ritual and dogma after years of study by rote in a

Koranic school. In addition to practicing as magicians and diviners, they may

instruct others in the niceties of religious observance, or officiate at naming

ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. They may compose disputes by

recourse to the principles of Islamic law as they understand them. They may

acquaint their listeners with details of the lives of Islamic divines who have

attained sainthood, and whose tombs they have visited. Yet others achieve a

wider fame after making the pilgrimage, studying in Cairo, or traveling

between West- African centers of learning. They establish their own

followings and schools, with whose members they have a continuing bond

wherever they may be.

Each holy man has his own sphere of influence, proportional, we may say, to

his barka. As we shall see, in the past, Muslim divines had great influence in

the States of the West- Africa, converting princes, reforming systems of

administration, and, in the last resort, leading popular uprisings. Men of this

caliber are today found in high administrative or judicial posts, their Tallents

54 | P a g e

curbed, perhaps, by the demands of European government. Their religious

zeal, we may rest assured, is no less fervent. Others remain in the

background, maintaining their links with the Islamic Middle East, leading

their fraternities, and encouraging the dissemination of their doctrines. Yet

others have a more restricted sphere of action in the towns and country

districts, continually transmitting by precept and example the fund of Islamic

learning, the observance of its rites, and the rudiments of its law. Finally we

come to the holy man of the village the scene of compromise and the

amalgamation of Islamic popular beliefs and practices with those of pagan

origin and sometimes of Christian dissemination.

Their efforts at proselytism are, at best, circumscribed by their own narrow

vision; or, at worst, merely batten on the credulity of those who seek their

aid. But whatever their accomplishments or fields of activity the holy men

are the spearheads, blunt or keen, of an Islam which is distinctively West-

African.

The Rise Fulani Tooroobhe

But in affirming the importance of the pastoralists in

dispersing communities of Fulani throughout West-

Africa, the role of holy men of Fulani descent should not

be minimized. They served to crystallize these groups

into self-conscious communities which later became the

nuclei of Fulani States. For the pastoralists the savannah

grassland of the West- Africa was a vast potential

grazing ground. For the holy men it was a field of

missionary and reformist endeavor among the courts of

pagan and Muslim rulers no less than among Fulani

populations. It is often supposed that Fulani were

converted to Islam before the eleventh century owing to

the efforts of Malikite Mauritanian Arabs in Senegal

(Delafosse, 1912). These were fortified by the

establishment of the Almoravid Empire on the ruins of

the kingdom of Ghana (Bovill, 1933). These events gave

rise to the Fulani Tooroobhe (those who pray to Allah).

The Fulani Tooroobhe of Senegal

themselves moved eastwards in the wake of the Fulani migrations, initiating

members of Fulani sedentary communities and forming their widely

dispersed brotherhoods. These men not only preached among existing Fulani

communities wherever they found them, forming links based on their own

influence with the central authorities of the alien States; they also often

formed the foci of new communities drawn together by real or imagined

persecution and cemented by a common language and common faith. Such

dissident communities were formed by the Flights of holy men and were

located in ill-administered parts of the States in which they were found.

The rise of the Fulani Muslim States through the activities of the Fulani holy

men thus depended in large measure on their influence among communities

of their own people.

background, maintaining their links with the Islamic Middle East, leading

their fraternities, and encouraging the dissemination of their doctrines. Yet

others have a more restricted sphere of action in the towns and country

55 | P a g e

districts, continually transmitting by precept and example the fund of Islamic

learning, the observance of its rites, and the rudiments of its law. Finally we

come to the holy man of the village the scene of compromise and the

amalgamation of Islamic popular beliefs and practices with those of pagan

origin and sometimes of Christian dissemination.

Their efforts at proselytism are, at best, circumscribed by their own narrow

vision; or, at worst, merely batten on the credulity of those who seek their

aid. But whatever their accomplishments or fields of activity the holy men

are the spearheads, blunt or keen, of an Islam which is distinctively West-

African.

Important Historical Personalities

Usman Dan Fodio (1754-1817)

Usman Dan Fodio was a Fulani from Degel in Gobir. He was brought up

strictly in the Maliki rite and at an early age found his vocation as teacher

and writer, but above all as a preacher.In the 1790s, He began a holy war,

swept through Hausaland and, repulsed only by the eastern empire of

Kanem-Bornu, engulfed Adamawa, Nupe, and Yorubaland to the south.

After the invasion by the Fulani of the northern provinces of the Oyo, the

emirate of Ilorin to the northeast became the base from which Islam was to

spread among the Yoruba. Usman, who was more a scholar than a

statesman, ceded the practical direction of the eastern part of the empire to

his son Muhammad Bello, who settled in Sokoto, and the western (with its

capital at Gwandu) to his brother Abdullahi. In the late 19th century British

rule over ended their domination in Nigeria.

Nana Asma'u, (1793-1865), Teacher, Poet & Islamic Leader

Nana Asma'u (1793-1864) was a poet, teacher,

and role model for Muslim women.

Nana Asma'u was the daughter of Shaykh

Usman dan Fodio, leader of a jihad to reform

and purify Islam in the Sokoto region of what is

today northern Nigeria. Her half-brother was

Muhammad Bello, who became caliph of the

region and whose descendents still hold that

office. Nana Asma'u was a remarkable woman

who was devoted to the cause of purifying

Islam and unifying the region. She established

a group of literate women teachers (jajis) who

carried her teachings, written into her poems,

and disseminated them to illiterate women

throughout the community. One stunning

example in the book is the poem "Be Sure of

God's Truth" (pp. 120-

126), which reaches out to ordinary

people (men and

56 | P a g e

women) with advice on the behavior of good Muslims anywhere. She was a

scholar of Islam and a key advisor to her father as he waged a jihad to bring

Islam to the population of what is now northwestern Nigeria. Asma'u's

literary legacy, consisting of 65 poems in Arabic, Fulfulde, and Hausa,

constitutes one of the largest existing collections of 19th-century materials

from the region. Her poetry has been transmitted over the years and is

familiar to Hausa Muslims today, attesting to the power and continued

relevance of her convictions and achievements. She is portrayed in the book

entitled:

One Woman's Jihad Nana Asma'u, Scholar and Scribe; By yeverly B. Mack

and Jean Boyd

El-Hadj Umar Tall (1797-1864)

El Hajj Umar Tall was a muslim religious and

military leader in W Africa. Declared a holy war in

1852. In several engagements (1857-59) against

the French in Senegal, he was repulsed. Thereafter

he turned eastward, conquering the kingdoms of

Segu and Massina and sacking Timbuktu.

CHEIKH Ahmadou Bamba Khadimou Rassoul (1852-1927)

Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba whose true name is

Ahmed Ben Mohamed Ben Abib Allah was

born about 1852, called by the community

Khadimou Rascal, the servant of the prophet.

Like a considerable number Black apostles of

Islam, he was of Fulani origin that four

generations earlier came from Fuuta Tooro to

settle in the Wolof countryside. Cheikh

Ahmadou Bamba then left Cayor to come to

settle at MBacke-Baol the village of his

ancestor. He founded close to Me Backe-Baol

his own village, called TOUBA, which today

has become the large religious metropolis,

sanctuary of Mouridisme and an annual place

of pilgrimage of the Black Muslim world. The

French authorities bothered by the increasing

influence of Ahmadou Bamba, exiled him in

1895 to Gabon where he remained for 7

years, 7 months and 7 days. He returned to

Senegal continued to preach, to write and to

oppose the French.

57 | P a g e

El Hadj Malick Sy

El Hadj Malick Sy was born in 1855 in a village

of Gaya in Northern Senegal. He studied Quran

and went to Mecca. When he came back from

Mecca he started preaching the Tijaniya, and

Islamic Suni. He settled in Tivaoune (Senegal)

in 1902 and began organizing the Gamou, a

well established holiday celebrating the

Birthday of Prophet Muhammad. He fought

against poverty and ignorance in the villages as

well as in the cities. He was called the Maodho,

the Guide.

Alpha Yaya Bocar Biro

Apha Yaya

was a King

of Labe in

Fuuta Jalon,

he was one

of the most

controversial

figures in

the history

of Fuuta

Jalon.

He was tricked byFrench colonials and

was sent in exile in Mauritania where

he died in 1912. His ashes were

returned to Guinea in 1969. He

inspired the Guinea National Anthem

which was derived from a song by one

of Alpha Yaya's griot

Bocar Biro

was the last

great

Almamy of

Fuuta Jalon.

He fought to

consolidate

his power

and to

safeguard the

independence

of Fuuta

Jalon.

In alliance with Samory Toure, he

resisted the French conquest of

Guinea. He was killed by the French

army at the battle of Poredaka in

1896. He belonged to the African of

great destiny who valiantly gave their

lives to oppose colonization.

58 | P a g e

Sr. Ahmadu Bello (1910-1966)

FSir Ahmadou Bello was a teacher, farmer,

administrator, politician, statesman and a religious

leader. He was one of the founding fathers of

Nigeria. His effort and others led to attainment of

independence by the country in 1960. He

encouraged both Islamic and Western education. He

preached religious tolerance and honesty. He

established Ahmadou Bello University, a Teaching

hospital, the Nigerian newspaper, radio-television

Kaduna, the northern Nigeria housing corporation

and several others. Ahmadou Bello received honors

and awards at home and abroad during his life

time.He was made a Knight of the British Empire. He

was

Ahmadou Ahidjo

Ahidjo, Ahmadou , 1924-89, president of the United

Republic of Cameroon (1960-82). A Muslim Fulani

chief's son, he served with the French during World

War II. Entering politics in the French Cameroons,

he became vice premier (1957) and premier (1958)

of the territory. With the Cameroon Republic's

independence (1960), he was elected its first

president. He also became president of the

Mouvement d'Union Camerounaise, which favored

continued strong ties with France. He persuaded the

British-administered Southern Cameroons to unite

(1961) with the Cameroon Republic in the Federal

Republic of Cameroon. He was reelected president in

1965, 1970, 1975, and 1980 .see book pdf

59 | P a g e

Kingdoms and Empires with Fulani Presence

Ghana Empire (c~700-1240) Kaya Magnan

Ghana (Wagadu), the earliest

known empire of the western

Sudan, first entered the historical

consciousness of North Africa near

the end of the eighth century but

probably originated long before.

The empire's legacy is still

celebrated in the name of the

Republic of Ghana; apart from

this, however, modern-day and

ancient Ghana share no direct

historical connections. Despite

early texts that discuss ancient

Ghana, such as The Book of

Routes and Kingdoms by the

eleventh-century Andalusian

geographer Abu cUbayd al-Bakri, it

remains very much an enigma.

Famous to North Africans

as the "Land of Gold," Ghana was said to possess sophisticated methods of

administration and taxation, large armies, and a monopoly over notoriously

well-concealed gold mines. The king of the Soninke people who founded

Ghana never fully embraced Islam, but good relations with Muslim traders

were fostered. Ghana's preeminence faded toward the end of the eleventh

century, when its power was broken by a long struggle with the Almoravids

led by Abdullah ibn Yasin. Ghana subsequently fell to the expanding Soso

kingdom.

Tekruur (850ad), Dia Ogo, Warjabi Ibn Rabis

Islam was accepted as early as 850 AD in the Kingdom of Tekruur, situated

on both banks of the Senegal, by the Dia Ogo dynasty. This dynasty was

the first West African people who accepted Islam . It was for this reason

that Arab Muslim historians referred to Bilâd al-Tekruur as The land of the

Black Muslims. Warjabî ibn Rabis, was the first ruler of Tekruur, in whose

reign Islam was firmly established and the Islam ic shariah system

enforced. This gave a uniform Muslim law to the people of the region. By

the time the Al-MurabiÏûn or Almoravids began their attack on Tekruur in

1042 A.C., Islam had made a deep impact on the people of that area. Al-

Idrissa in 1511 A.C. described the Tekruur country as secure, peaceful and

tranquil. The capital town of Tekruur was also called Tekruur which had

become a centre of commerce and merchants used to bring wool to sell

there from Maghrib, taking away with them gold and beads in exchange.

When the Kingdom of Tekruur fully converted to Islam in the mid-11th

century, it participated in establishing the Almoravid state, centered in

60 | P a g e

Morocco. After 1087 the Almoravids kingdom began disintegrating, the

Tekruur kingdom started to strenghten on the banks of the Senegal river .

Tekruur's people were the first of the West African kingdoms to have a

strict interpretation of the Islamic faith and to wage wars against people

who weren't Muslim. Tekruurian soldiers were allied with the Almoravids

and in 1056-1057 they waged wars against pagan Ghanaians. At the end of

the 10th century War Diabi took power and converted to Islam. Tekruur,

situated on the Senegal River and the Transsahara roads, was a powerful a

rich kingdom whose principal activity was trade of gold and beads. It came

under the domination of the Ghana Empire in the 11th century, of the Mali

Empire in the 13th century and of the Djolof Empire in the 14th century. At

the end of the 15th century the Tekruur was conquered by Koli Tenguela, a

Fulani from the south who gave it its independence and created a new

dynasty, the Denianke and a new kingdom the Fuuta Tooro.In the 16th

century the Fuuta Tooro conquered the neighboring states of Djolof and

Cayor. The Denianke dynasty was replaced by Muslim clerics led by Thierno

Sileyman Baal in 1770. Islam became the guiding principal of the civil

society. Almamy Abdul Kader was selected the 1st Almamy (Leader of the

Believers) See also Halpulaar.

61 | P a g e

The Almoravids (1090-1147)

History

1039: The Almoravid leader Abdallah bni Yasin declares

holy war against the Sanhaja Berbers.

1054: The Almoravids start their conquest of Maghreb.

1062: The Almoravids establish their capital in Marrakech

(today's Morocco).

1082: The Almoravids take control over Algiers.

1085: The Almoravid leader Yusuf bni Tashufin sets over to Spain, and

establishes himself in Cordoba.

1102: Valencia falls to the Almoravids

1147: Marrakech falls to the Almohads, and the Almoravid leaders move to

first Spain and then the Balearic Isles.

The Almoravids were a group of Muslims, originating in southern

Mauritania/ Northern Senegal of mixed Berber and Fulani people that built

an empire in Maghreb and Spain in the 11th and 12th centuries. Their

Muslim orientation was one of simple and basic rules. Their theological

foundation had been formed by Ahdallah Abdallah bni Yasin.The Almoravids

were based on military commanders who also were administrators, called

themselves jurists (fuqaha). Their theology was based on a strict Malikite

version of Sharia (Islamic law).Architecture from the Almoravid period is

characterized by simplicity, and with little decoration.

Kanem-Bornu (1097-1150)

At about 800 CE, the Kanuri people of the Lake Chad region, under the

leadership of their legendary king Dugu, formed the beginnings of the

trading empire of Kanem, and later Bornu. At about 1085, with the

influence of Islam having entered the region some time before, the first

Muslim ruler, Houme of the Sefawa dynasty, came to the throne. And,

under Mai (king) Salma (1194-1221) Islam became the state religion.

Under the reign of Idris Alooma (1580-1603), the now merged Empire of

Bornu-Kanem regained much of its influence with its borders encompassing

62 | P a g e

Murzuk to the north and Darfar in the east. In the 1800's the Kanuri were

faced with invasion from the Fulani armies that had already conquered

Hausaland.

Mali (1238-1468)

In the early thirteenth century, the exiled

prince Sundiata Keita ("the hungering lion") led

a Mande revolt against the powerful Soso king

Sumanguru Kante that marked the ascension of

the Mali empire. After Sundiata, the most

famous ruler of the Mali empire is Mansa

Kankan Musa I, who came to power several

decades after the death of his legendary

predecessor. Musa's hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca)

of 1324-25 drew the attention of both the

Islamic world and Europeans. Accompanied by

an enormous entourage, Musa apparently

dispensed so much gold in Cairo that the

precious metal's value plummeted and did not recover for several years

thereafter. The image of Mansa Musa bearing nuggets of gold was

subsequently commemorated in maps of the African continent.The

fourteenth-century traveler Ibn Battuta visited ancient Mali a few decades

after Musa's death. north and Darfar in the east. In the 1800's, the Kanuri

were faced with invasion from the Fulani armies that had already conquered

Hausaland.

It was from one of Mali's former

conquests, the kingdom of Gao,

that the last major empire of the

western Sudan emerged. Although

the city of Gao had been occupied

by a Songhai dynasty prior to

being conquered by Mansa Musa's

forces in 1325, it was not until

much later that the Songhai

empire emerged. It began to rise

in 1464 when Sonni cAli Ber came

to power. Sonni cAli conquered

much of the weakening Mali

empire's territory as well as

Timbuktu, famous for its Islamic

universities and the pivotal trading

city of Jenne. Following Sonni

cAli's death, Muslim factions

rebelled against his

63 | P a g e

successor and installed Askia Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as

the first ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the

Songhai empire reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as

centers of Islamic learning, and Islam was actively promoted.

Fuuta-Jalon (1727)

Fuuta Jalon is a highland region, in central Guinea, W Africa. Largely rolling

grassland the region is inhabited by the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, and

Gambia rivers rise there. Since the 18th cent. It has been a stronghold of

Islam until the arrival of the French colonizers.About 1727, the Fulani of

Fuuta Jalon were led by Karamoko Alpha who established the Almamya

(Leader of the Believers). The Almamy was selected between two families,

The Alfaya Family and The Soriya Family. See table of The Almamies of

Fuuta-Jalonbelow.Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first ruler

of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the Songhai empire

reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as centers of Islamic

learning, and Islam was actively promoted.

Fuuta Jalon is a highland region, in

central Guinea, W Africa. Largely rolling

grassland the region is inhabited by the

Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, and Gambia

rivers rise there. Since the 18th cent. It

has been a stronghold of Islam until the

arrival of the French colonizers.About

1727, the Fulani of Fuuta Jalon were led

by Karamoko Alpha who established the

Almamya (Leader of the Believers). The

Almamy was selected between two

families, The Alfaya Family and The

Soriya Family. See table of The Almamies

of Fuuta-Jalonbelow.Muhammad

(formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first

ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592).

Under the Askias, the Songhai empire

reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne

flourished as centers of Islamic learning,

and Islam was actively promoted.

Table of the Fuuta-Jalon Almamya

Sovereign Almamies of Fuuta Jalon

Ibrahima Sambeegu, called Karamoko Alfa mo Timbo 18

years

Ibrahima Sori Yero Poore, called Ibrahima Sori Mawdho(1730-

1764),

34

years

Alfaya Soriya

64 | P a g e

3th. Alfa Saalihu (son of

Karamoko Alfa)(1764-1770) 4 years

4th. Saadu(son of Sori

Mawdho)(1784-1791/95)

6

years

5th. Abdullaahi

Baademba(1796/97-1813)

16

years

6th. Abdul Qaadirison of Sori

Mawdho, Pathe

d'Umaru1805-1813/25)

13

years

7th. Bubakar Zikru(1813-

1814)

9

months 8th. Yaya (1825-1833/37)

8

years

9th. Bubakar Mawdhoson of

Abdullaahi Baademba(1814-

1839/42)

25

years

10th. Umaruson of Abdul

Qaadiri(1837/42-1871)

29

years

11th. Ibrahima Sori Daara son

of Bubakar Mawdho(1843-

1873)

30

years

12th. Ibrahima Sori Donhol

Fella (1871-887/88)

19

years

13th. Ahmadu Daara (1873-

1894/95)

18

years

14th. Bubakar called Bokar

Biro (1889-1896) 6years

Source: Laing, Hecquard, Lambert, Bayol, Noirot, Madrolle, Arcin, Saint-Pere,

Marty, Tauxier, Vieillard, Sow, Diallo

Non-Sovereign Almamies of Fuuta Jalon

In 1912, the French administration officially cancelled the functions of Almamy.

The Almamies of the period are:

Almamy Sori Yilili. Soriya (1896-1897)

Almamy Umaru Bademba. Alfaya, (1896-1912)

Almamy Baba Alimou. Soriya (1897-1906)

Almamy Bokar Biro II (1906-1912) Almamy Aguibou. Soriya,

Masina (1818-1853) Sheik Ahmadu

The Masina is a region located in central Mali and northern Burkina

Faso.Following the collapse of Songhai Empire in 1591 by the armies of al-

Mansur of Morocco number of small kingdoms Masina, Gonja, Segou,

Kaarta strove to dominate the western Mali, but continual strife and

economic decline were the only results. In 1818 Seku Ahmadu, a Fulani

Muslim introduced a theocratic state in Macina. During his rule an empire

embracing the whole of the Niger River region, from Jenne to Timbuktu,

was created. Upon his death in 1844 his son took power, but in 1862

Macina fell to another Muslim reformer, al-Hajj Umar.

65 | P a g e

Bhundu (1690)

About 1690, Malick Sy, a Fulani religious scholar from Fuuta Tooro, obtained

from the Tunka(King) of Goye at territory between the Faleme River and The

Gambia River, he called Bhundu. He proclaimed the Holy war opposed the

kingdom of Goye and grew his kingdom. Bhundu prospered under Malick Sy

reign and his descendants, the Sissibe.

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Sokoto (1809-)

The Fulani Empire of Sokoto was

the last of the five great empires

that rose and fell in the Sudan

between the eighth and twentieth

centuries. It was founded by three

men of the same family, probably

the most remarkable triumvirate

that Africa has yet produced, and

it

developed a society which, in its heyday, was perhaps better governed and

more highly civilized than any other that Africans had until then evolved.

The late author, who for over twenty years was an Administrative Officer in

Northern Nigeria, the core of the Sokoto Empire, was an accomplished

Hausa scholar who also published a volume of translations. He was

therefore able to supplement the established English and Arabic authorities

by introducing new information gathered from Fulani and Hausa sources,

much of which he collected himself in the course of his service. More

important still, every chapter of his history is illuminated by an intimate

knowledge of the country and genuine sympathy with its people

Special Historical places

Sokoto (Nigeria)

city (1987 est. pop. 164,000), NW

Nigeria, on the Sokoto River. It is the

commercial center for a wide region and

a collection place for hides, skins, and

peanuts. Rice and tobacco are grown for

local consumption. The city has cement,

pottery, and leather tanning and dyeing

industries. Sokoto was founded in 1809

by Usman dan Fodio, the Fulani leader

who established a large Muslim empire

including most of N Nigeria. It became

the capital of the empire and was built up

in the 1820s by Muhammadu Bello, dan

Fodio's son. In 1903, Sokoto fell to

British forces under Frederick Lugard .

The assassination of the Sultan of Sokoto

in 1966 was a cause of the Nigerian civil

war (see Biafra, Republic of ). The tomb

of dan

ABubacar Sidiq Sultan of Sokoto

Fodio and other shrines in the city have made it a place of pilgrimage for

Muslims.

67 | P a g e

Bornu (Chad)

Former Muslim state, mostly in NE Nigeria, extending S and W of Lake

Chad.

It began its existence as a separate state in the late 14th cent. From the

14th to the 18th cent. Bornu exported slaves, eunuchs, fabrics dyed with

saffron, and other goods to N Africa. Bornu reached its peak under the mai

(ruler) Idris Alawma (ruled 1570-1610), when it was the leading state in

the central Sudan region. Bornu declined from the 17th cent. In the early

19th cent. it was severely threatened by the Fulani but maintained its

independence when Muhammad al-Kanemi (ruled 1814-35), who

established a new dynasty, revived the state. However, Bornu began to

decline again after c.1850 because of weak rulers, and was conquered

(1893-96) by the forces of Rabih, a Sudanese slave trader. In 1898, Bornu

was divided among Great Britain, France, and Germany. In 1922 the

German portion became part of the British Cameroons mandate of the

League of Nations.

Idris king of Kanem-Bornu

Bornu Royal Court

Touba (Senegal)

Touba was founded by Ahmadou

Bamba. It is a Holy City in

Senegal West Africa. Touba is

considered by many Mourides as

very important. Pilgrims come to

Touba at any time, but the high

point of the year is a mass

pilgrimage called the Grand Magal

(48 days after the Islamic New

Year), which celebrates Bamba's.

return from exile. At this time,

about half a million Mouride

followers flock into Touba from all

over Senegal and Gambia

Touba Mosque

68 | P a g e

Kano (Nigeria)

One of the oldest kingdoms of Africa created c998. Kano became vassal of

Bornu in the 18th century. In 1807, the Fulbe Jihad killed the 42nd King

and replaced his Habe dynasty with a new dynasty of Emirs. On 3/2/1903,

Kano became part of the Northern Nigerian British protectorate. Today, the

State of Kano with capital named also Kano..

Kano

Dinguiray (Guinea)

El Hajj Umar was a prestigious as a religious

leader. He went to Fuuta Jalon in 1849. He

established his following in Dinguiray where he

declared a jihad in September 1852 against all

non- believers. In a decade, he conquered the

Western Suan including Dinguiray, Bure, Segou,

Kaarta and Macina. By 1863, his envoys demanded

tribute from Timbuktu.

El Hajj Umar Mosk

Fez (Morocco)

Fez is a Holy city very much respected by a

large number of Fulani who belong to the

Tijaniya, a Sufi Muslim order. The Tijaniya

order was founded by Cheikh Ahmed Tijane

who lived in Fez (Morocco). The order

flourished all over West Africa, including

Senegal with the Teachings of Cheikh Ibrahim

Niass. Many members of the Tijaniya order

go to Fez for pilgrimage. The beautiful

Kairouine mosque of Fez was founded in 859

by Fatima, a wealthy woman refugee from

the city of Kairouan (Morocco).

Fez

69 | P a g e

Tivaoune (Senegal)

Fez is a Holy city very much respected by a

large number of Fulani who belong to the

Tijaniya, a Sufi Muslim order. The Tijaniya

order was founded by Cheikh Ahmed Tijane

who lived in Fez (Morocco). The order

flourished all over West Africa, including

Senegal with the Teachings of Cheikh

Ibrahim Niass. Many members of the

Tijaniya order go to Fez for pilgrimage. The

beautiful Kairouine mosque of Fez was

founded in 859 by Fatima, a wealthy woman

Elhajj Malik Sy and Entourage

refugee from the city of Kairouan (Morocco).

Timbuktu

A Historical city

What major city in the West African empire of Mali was once a worldwide

cultural center, with vast libraries, rich universities and a thriving gold trade? The answer is Timbuktu.

What earned this "Town of the 333 Saints" its symbolic power to fascinate?

Even today, the "Pearl of Medieval Mali" is renowned the world over because it

was, in its heyday, among the most radiant seats of culture and civilization in

the world. In 1354 the great Muslim explorer Ibn Batuta (1304-1377) wrote of

his visit to Timbuktu and told of the wealth and gold of the region. Thus, Timbuktu became renown as an African El Dorado, a city made of gold.

Testimony to this is found not only in history books, but also in the unique

earthen architecture, of which some of the finest examples are the mosques of

Djingareyber, Sankoré and Sidi Yahia. In 1988, Timbuktu was designated a

United Nations World Heritage Site and efforts are underway to preserve and

protect the city and especially its centuries-old mosques. UNESCO included all

three Mosques in the World Heritage List.

Timbuktu, also spelled Tombouctou or Timbuctoo, is a city in the West African

nation of Mali. It is historically important as a post on the trans-Saharan

caravan route. It is located on the southern edge of the Sahara, about 8 mi (13

km) north of the Niger River. Timbuktu was a centre for the expansion of

Islam, an intellectual and spiritual capital at the end of the Mandingo Askia

dynasty (1493-1591) and home to a prestigious Koranic university. Three great mosques built at that time, using traditional techniques, still remain.

70 | P a g e

Timbuktu was founded about AD 1100 as a seasonal camp by Tuareg nomads.

After it was incorporated within the Mali Empire, probably in the late 13th

century, the Mali sultan, Mansa Musam, built a tower for the Great Mosque

(Djingereyber) and a royal residence, the Madugu (the former has since been

rebuilt many times, and of the latter no trace now remains). Shortly after this

the city was annexed by the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga, but when the North

African traveller Ibn Battutah visited in 1353, he found it again governed by Mali.

In the 14th century Timbuktu became an important focal point of the gold-salt

trade. With the influx of North African merchants came the settlement of

Muslim scholars. It made little difference that the Tuareg regained control of

the city in 1433; they ruled from the desert, and, though they plundered periodically, trade and learning continued to flourish.

In 1468 Timbuktu was conquered by Sonni 'Ali, the Songhai ruler. He was

generally ill-disposed to the city's Muslim scholars, but his successor--the first

ruler of the new Askia dynasty, Muhammad I Askia of Songhai (reigned 1493-

1528)--reversed the policy and used the scholarly elite as legal and moral

counselors. During the Askia period (1493-1591) Timbuktu was at the height

of its commercial and intellectual development. Merchants from Wadan, Tuwat,

Ghudamis (Ghadames), Augila, and the cities of Morocco gathered there to buy

gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza and for North

African cloth and horses. The city's scholars, many of whom had studied in

Mecca or Egypt, attracted students from a wide area.

The city declined after it was captured by Morocco in 1591. Two years later the

city's scholars were arrested on suspicion of disaffection; some were killed

during a struggle, others were exiled to Morocco. The small Moroccan garrisons

could not protect the Niger Bend, and Timbuktu was repeatedly attacked and

conquered by the Fulani, Bambara, and Tuareg until 1893, when the French

captured the city. The French partly restored the city from the desolate

condition in which they found it, but no railway or tarmac road ever reached it.

In 1960 it became part of the newly independent Republic of Mali.

Timbuktu is now an administrative centre of Mali. Small salt caravans from

Taoudenni still arrive in winter, but there is no gold to offer in exchange, and

trans-Saharan commerce no longer exists. Although there is air service, the

city remains most easily accessible by camel and boat. Islamic learning

survives among a handful of aging scholars, and a Lyc e Franco-Arabe teaches Arabic to the younger generation. Pop. (1998) 36,000.

From: Encyclopedia Britannica

Leo Africanus: Description of Timbuktu

from The Description of Africa(1526)

71 | P a g e

El Hasan ben Muhammed el-Wazzan-ez-Zayyati was born in the Moorish city of

Granada in 1485, but was expelled along with his parents and thousands of

other Muslims by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492. Settling in Morocco, he

studied in Fez, and as a teenager accompanied his uncle on diplomatic

missions throughout North Africa and and to the Sub-Saharan kingdom of

Ghana. Still a young man, he was captured by Christian pirates and presented

as an exceptionally learned slave to the great Renaissance pope, Leo X. Leo

freed him, baptised him under the name "Johannis Leo de Medici," and

commissioned him to write in Italian the detailed survey of Africa which

provided most of what Europeans knew about the continent for the next

several centuries. At the time he visited the Ghanaian city of Timbuktu, it was

somewhat past its peak, but still a thriving Islamic city famous for its learning.

"Timbuktu" was to become a byword in Europe as the most inaccessible of

cities, but at the time Leo visited, it was the center of a busy trade in African

products and in books. Leo is said to have died in 1554 in Tunis, having reconverted to Islam.

What evidence does he provide that suggests the importance of learning in

Timbuktu?

The name of this kingdom is a modern one, after a city which was built by a

king named Mansa Suleyman in the year 610 of the hegira [1232 CE] around twelve miles from a branch of the Niger River (1).

The houses of Timbuktu are huts made of clay-covered wattles with thatched

roofs. In the center of the city is a temple built of stone and mortar, built by an

architect named Granata, (2) and in addition there is a large palace,

constructed by the same architect, where the king lives. The shops of the

artisans, the merchants, and especially weavers of cotton cloth are very

numerous. Fabrics are also imported from Europe to Timbuktu, borne by

Berber merchants. (3)

The women of the city maintain the custom of veiling their faces, except for

the slaves who sell all the foodstuffs. The inhabitants are very rich, especially

the strangers who have settled in the country; so much so that the current

king (4) has given two of his daughters in marriage to two brothers, both

businessmen, on account of their wealth. There are many wells containing

sweet water in Timbuktu; and in addition, when the Niger is in flood canals

deliver the water to the city. Grain and animals are abundant, so that the

consumption of milk and butter is considerable. But salt is in very short supply

because it is carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles from Timbuktu. I

happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty ducats.

The king has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots. One of these ingots

weighs 970 pounds. (5)

The royal court is magnificent and very well organized. When the king goes

from one city to another with the people of his court, he rides a camel and the

horses are led by hand by servants. If fighting becomes necessary, the

servants mount the camels and all the soldiers mount on horseback. When

someone wishes to speak to the king, he must kneel before him and bow

72 | P a g e

down; but this is only required of those who have never before spoken to the

king, or of ambassadors. The king has about 3,000 horsemen and infinity of

foot-soldiers armed with bows made of wild fennel [?] which they use to shoot

poisoned arrows. This king makes war only upon neighboring enemies and

upon those who do not want to pay him tribute. When he has gained a victory,

he has all of them--even the children--sold in the market at Timbuktu.

Only small, poor horses are born in this country. The merchants use them for

their voyages and the courtiers to move about the city. But the good horses

come from Barbary. They arrive in a caravan and, ten or twelve days later,

they are led to the ruler, who takes as many as he likes and pays appropriately

for them.

The king is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the

city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does

business with them, he confiscates his goods. There are in Timbuktu numerous

judges, teachers and priests, all properly appointed by the king. He greatly

honors learning. Many hand-written books imported from Barbary are also

sold. There is more profit made from this commerce than from all other merchandise.

Instead of coined money, pure gold nuggets are used; and for small purchases,

cowrie shells which have been carried from Persia, (6) and of which 400 equal a ducat. Six and two-thirds of their ducats equal one Roman gold ounce. (7)

The people of Timbuktu are of a peaceful nature. They have a custom of

almost continuously walking about the city in the evening (except for those

that sell gold), between 10 PM and 1 AM, playing musical instruments and

dancing. The citizens have at their service many slaves, both men and women.

The city is very much endangered by fire. At the time when I was there on my

second voyage, (8) half the city burned in the space of five hours. But the wind

was violent and the inhabitants of the other half of the city began to move their belongings for fear that the other half would burn.

There are no gardens or orchards in the area surrounding Timbuktu.

Translated by Paul Brians

(1) Mansa Suleyman reigned 1336-1359. The city was in fact probably founded

in the 11th century by Tuaregs, but became the chief city of the king of Mali in

1324.

(2) Ishak es Sahili el-Gharnati, brought to Tinbuktu by Mansa Suleyman.

(3) By camel caravan across the Sahara Desert from NorthAfrica.

(4) 'Omar ben Mohammed Naddi, not in fact the king, but representative of the

73 | P a g e

ruler of the kingdom of Songhai.

(5) Such fabulous nuggets are commonly mentioned by Arab writers about Africa, but their size is probably grossly exaggerated.

(6) Cowrie shells, widely used for money in West Africa, sometimes came in

fact from even farther away, from the Maladive Islands of Southeast Asia.

(7) A Sudanese gold ducat would weigh .15 oz.

(8) Probably in 1512.

Library of Congress Exhibits :

Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu

June 24 - September 3, 2003

Situated on the edge of the Sahara Desert, Timbuktu was famous among the

merchants of the Mediterranean basin as a market for obtaining the goods and

products of Africa south of the desert. However, Timbuktu's most famous and

long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is the scholarship

practiced there. By at least the fourteenth century, important books were

written and copied there, establishing the city as the center of a significant written tradition in Africa.

These ancient manuscripts cover every aspect of human endeavor. The

manuscripts are indicative of the high level of civilization attained by West

Africans during the Middle Ages and provide irrefutable proof of a powerful

African literary tradition. Scholars in the fields of Islamic Studies and African

Studies believe that analysis of these texts will cause Islamic, West African,

and World History to be reevaluated. These manuscripts, surviving from as

long ago as the fourteenth century, are remarkable artifacts important to

Malian and West African culture. The exhibited manuscripts date from the sixteenth to eighteenth century.

The manuscripts on view are from the Mamma Haidara Commemorative

Library and the Library of Cheick Zayni Baye of Boujbeha, two of the most

noteworthy institutions in the Timbuktu area. As part of its continuing effort to

create a universal collection of recorded knowledge from all geographic areas

and all historical eras, the Library of Congress is particularly proud to have the

opportunity to exhibit these important cultural artifacts from Mali. The Library

is also pleased that copies of these manuscripts will be deposited in its collections and will be available for use by researchers and scholars.

74 | P a g e

Sources

Library of Congress

Unesco World Heritage

CEDRAB: The Centre de Documentation et de Recherches Ahmad Baba at

Timbuktu

The Portuguese First

aThe first sustained European interest

in Africa developed through the

efforts of Henry the Navigator, prince

of Portugal. Numerous expeditions

were sent out after 1434, each

extending European knowledge of the

African coastline southward, until, in

1497 and 1498, Vasco da Gama

rounded the Cape of Good Hope and

reached India. The Portuguese

explorations were motivated by a

variety of impulses: a desire for

knowledge, a wish to bring

Christianity to what they perceived as

pagan peoples,

the search for potential allies against Islamic threats, and the hope of

finding new and lucrative trade routes and sources of wealth. Wherever the

Portuguese and the English, French, and Dutch who followed them, went,

they disrupted ongoing patterns of trade and political life and changed

economic and religious systems.With their exploration of the lower Senegal

River in 1444, Portuguese navigators became the first Europeans known to

visit the West Coast of Africa. The Portuguese soon began to export slaves.

Until the end of the 16th century the Senegambian region was the most

important source of slaves for the transatlantic slave trade. During the 17th

century other European states challenged Portuguese commercial dominance

in the region. The Dutch built a series of coastal forts, the most famous of

which on Goree Island quickly developed into a major slave-trading station.

75 | P a g e

Trade Routes in Africa

The Portuguese established a chain of

trading settlements along the West

African coast. Elmina, founded on the

Gold Coast in 1482, was the most

important; in fact, it was only on the

Gold Coast and in the Congo and

Luanda areas that trade was really

lucrative. African gold, ivory, foodstuffs,

and slaves were exchanged for

ironware, firearms, textiles, and

foodstuffs. The Portuguese trade

attracted rival European traders who, in

the 16th century, created competing

stations or attempted to capture the

existing trade. In western Africa the

new trade had profound effects. Earlier

trade routes had been oriented

northward across the Sahara, primarily

to the Islamic world. Now the routes

were reoriented to the coast, and as the

states of the savanna declined in

economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and

power. Struggles soon developed among coastal peoples for control over

trade routes and for access to the new firearms introduced from Europe. In

the 19th century, contact with the Europeans began when the first

European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth

(German) Rene Caille.

Slave Trade

The most horrible trade ever humanity engaged in was the Triangle Slave

Trade between Europeans and Africans to the America. Over400 Years Africa

was robbed of more than 200 millions of its best, brightest and strongest

76 | P a g e

inhabitants. Against guns alcohol and trinkets, Europeans purchased slaves

from Africa took them to America where they sold them for labor to

purchase sugar, tobacco and cotton. (Picture from fototraite) Though slavery

existed long before the arrival of the Europeans, under subject of the Muslim

religion in the eleventh century the exportation of African slaves increased

and in time Europe and West Africa found themselves exchanging guns for

slaves. Yet, the definition of slavery in Africa was not tantamount to the

American or European vision of slavery. Slavery in Africa was a symbol of

honor and not an instrument of wealth and greed. African slaves were

permitted to live very normal lives. They had sanction to marry, own

property, and customary legal rights. Many of them had significant skill and

learning. While in America slaves underwent brutal beatings, hard labor, and

lack of respect.

While some slaves shipped to Europe and America had previously been

African slaves, many enslaved had been innocent bystanders. It was not

uncommon for the Europeans to hide and wait for an African to come along,

and then kidnap him. The retrieval of slaves was also obtained through

Africans convicted of a crime. It was also likely for Africans of a tribe to be

captured by an enemy tribe as a prisoner of war and then exchanged for

goods. This lasted from the 15th to the 19th century, devastating the lives

of at least twenty million Africans. All forced into foreign enslavement,

exported in exchange for imported goods. This is known as the slave trade.

With the rise of the slave trade to the Americas, wars over the control of

African commerce became more intense. During the latter 18th century,

sentiment in Great Britain turned against the slave trade. Following the

Mansfield decision of 1772, which freed slaves in Great Britain, plans were

made for a West African colony for former slaves. The first attempt (1787-

1790) at Saint George's Bay (in present-day Sierra Leone) failed; a second

attempt was made by abolitionists, who in 1792 founded Freetown in the

same area. When the British outlawed the slave trade for British citizens in

1807, they saw Freetown as a desirable base for naval operations against

such trade, and in 1808, Sierra Leone was made a crown colony. The

example of Sierra Leone appealed to Americans interested in black

colonization, and in early 1822 the American Colonization Society succeeded

in establishing its colony, Liberia, at nearby Cape Mesurado.

Then France and Great Britain

The Portuguese established a chain of trading

settlements along the West African coast.

Elmina, founded on the Gold Coast in 1482,

was the most important; in fact, it was only

on the Gold Coast and in the Congo and

Luanda areas that trade was really lucrative.

African gold, ivory, foodstuffs, and slaves

were exchanged for ironware, firearms,

textiles, and foodstuffs. The Portuguese trade

attracted rival European traders who, in the

16th century, created competing stations or

attempted to capture the existing trade. In

western Africa the new trade had profound

effects. Earlier trade routes had been oriented

northward across the Sahara, primarily to the

77 | P a g e

Islamic world. Now the routes were reoriented

to the coast, and as the states of the savanna

declined in

economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and

power. Struggles soon developed among coastal peoples for control over

trade routes and for access to the new firearms introduced from Europe. In

the 19th century, contact with the Europeans began when the first

European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth

(German) Rene Caille.

Partitioning Africa

As European private interest in Africa

grew, the involvement of their

governments multiplied. The French

began the conquest of Algeria and

Senegal in the 1830s, but the

systematic occupation of tropical

Africa did not occur until the second

half of the century. As European

citizens and administrators

penetrated inland, they encountered

resistance from dominant peoples

and welcome from subordinated

peoples seeking allies or protectors.

From about 1880 to 1905, most of

Africa was partitioned among

Belgium, France, Germany, Britain,

Italy, and Portugal (see Scramble for

Africa). In 1876 King Leopold II of

the Belgians established the

International Association of the

Congo, a private company, for the

exploration and colonization of the region. His principal agent for this task

was Anglo-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley. By 1884 the intense

rivalry of the European powers for additional African territory, and the ill-

defined boundaries of their various holdings, threatened their international

relations. A conference was then called at Berlin, Germany, to which the nations of Europe, together with the United States, sent delegates.

At the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884 and 1885 the powers defined

their spheres of influence and laid down rules for future occupation on the

coasts of Africa and for navigation of the Congo and Niger rivers. Among the

important provisions of the General Act of Berlin was the rule that when a

power acquired new territory in Africa or assumed a protectorate over any

part of the continent, it must notify the other powers signatory to the

conference. During the next 15 years, numerous treaties were negotiated

between the European nations, implementing and modifying the provisions

of the conference. Two such treaties were concluded in 1890 by Britain. The

first, with Germany, demarcated the spheres of influence of the two powers

in Africa. The second treaty, with France, recognized British interests in the

region between Lake Chad and the Niger River and acknowledged French

influence in the Sahara. Other agreements, notably those between Britain

78 | P a g e

and Italy in 1891, between France and Germany in 1894, and between

Britain and France in 1899, further clarified the boundaries of the various

European holdings in Africa.

British Expansionism

The British desire to suppress the slave

trade found expression in attempts at

redirecting African commerce toward other

exports, such as palm oil, in heightened

missionary activity, and in the imposition of

British government jurisdiction over

properties previously held by British

merchants. Such developments frequently

involved Britain inadvertently in struggles

with African states and led to its

assumption of sovereignty over certain

African territory. On the Gold Coast, the

British government took control of a series

of forts in 1821. Through

misunderstandings the first of a series of

Ashanti-British wars occurred from 1823 to

1826; these conflicts were to continue

intermittently

until the end of the century. Although the government gave up control of

the forts in 1828, it again assumed jurisdiction in 1843. British authority

over the Ashanti, however, was not firmly established until 1900. In the

Niger Delta of Nigeria, the British abolition of slavery brought about a shift in

trade from slaves to palm oil, and in pursuit of this commodity Britain

required a nearby port; in addition, the British were eager to eliminate the

middlemen in delta states such as Calabar, Bonny, and Brass. In 1852,

therefore, they forced the ruler of Lagos to accept British protection, and in

1861 Lagos was annexed as a crown colony.

African Resistance

No African states had been invited to the Berlin

conference, and none signed these agreements.

Whenever possible, the decisions made in Europe were

resisted when applied on African soil. The French faced

a revolt in Algeria in 1870 and resistance from 1881 to

1905 to their efforts to control the Sahara. In the

western Sudan the Mandinka ruler Samory Toure and

Ahmadu, the son and successor of al-Hajj Umar of the

Tukolor state, attempted to maintain their

independence. Both were defeated by the French,

however, Ahmadu in 1893 and Samory five years later.

Dahomey was occupied by French

79 | P a g e

forces in 1892, and the Wadai region was the last area to fall to the French,

in 1900. British administrators encountered similar resistance from the

Boers in South Africa during the periods 1880 and 1881 and 1899 to 1902.

British and Boer settlers conquered Matabeleland in 1893, and three years

later both the Matabele (Ndebele) and their subordinates, the Shona,

revolted. Revolts broke out in Ashantiland in 1893 and 1894, 1895 and

1896, and 1900 and in Sierra Leone in 1897. The British conquest of the

Fulani Hausa states was resisted from 1901 to 1903. Sokoto revolted in

1906. The Germans faced the Herero insurrection in South-West Africa from

1904 to 1908 and Maji Maji revolt from 1905 to 1907 in Tanganyika. Only

the Ethiopians under Emperor Menelik II were successful in resisting

European conquest, annihilating an Italian force at the Battle of Adwa

(Aduwa) in 1896.

Changing of a Continent

Once the territories were conquered

and pacified, the European

administrations began to develop

transportation systems so that raw

materials could be shipped more

easily to ports for export, and to

institute tax systems that would force

subsistence farmers either to raise

cash crops or to engage in migrant

labor. Both policies were well under

way when World War I (1914-1918)

disrupted these efforts. During the

course of the war, the German

territories in West and South-West

Africa were conquered and later were

mandated by the League of Nations to

the various Allied powers. Thousands

of Africans either fought in the war or

served as porters for the Allied

armies. Resistance to the war was

limited to the short-lived 1915

rebellion of John Chilembwe, an

African clergyman, in Nyasaland (now

Malawi).

After World War I, efforts for the exploitation of the colonies were tempered,

and greater attention was paid to providing education, health services, and

development assistance and to safeguarding African land rights.

Nevertheless, the white settler colonies, such as Algeria, Southern Rhodesia

(now Zimbabwe), and Kenya, were given considerable internal self-

government. Southern Rhodesia was made an internally self-governing

crown colony in 1923 with virtually no provision for African voting. During

the interwar years, various types of African-organized protest and nationalist

movements began to emerge. On the whole, however, membership was

limited to Western-educated African groups. Mass parties developed only in

Egypt and Algeria, where large numbers of Africans had abandoned their

traditional way of life and were developing new identities and allegiances.

Ethiopia, which had earlier successfully resisted European colonization, fell

to an Italian invasion in 1936 and did not regain its independence until

80 | P a g e

World War II (1939-1945). With the coming of the war, Africans served in

the Allied armies in even greater numbers than before, and the colonies

generally supported the Allied cause.

Diaspora

Diaspora is the migration or the mass dispersion of peoples of a common culture.

Historically, these movements tend to be for survival, or involuntary. They may be

the result military occupation, systematic persecution, servitude, enslavement, or

laws by which the dominant society defines an ethnic group as marginal,

undesirable, or subordinate. In a broader sense, Diaspora is an understanding of

peopleness, their intergroup relations, and resulting social changes due to

geographical mobility and geosocial displacement. For Fulani people Diaspora is and

has been an integral part of their lifestyle throughout History. First, their nomadic

style of cattle herders required them to move across vast expanses of lands. Then,

they carried the banner of Islam in many parts of West Africa. Their holy wars

stopped only when Europeans came to Africa, conquered them and took them with

others Africans into slavery to the Americas and the Caribbean.

Current Fulani Diaspora

Social and cultural changes cause first by the European colonization, and then by

economic hardship and drought provoked a no less significant migration toward the

other parts of Africa, Europe and America. There are significant number of Fulanis in

non-traditional Fulani areas including Gabon, Congo, Egypt, Marroco, France, Italy,

England and USA.

81 | P a g e

Historical Diaspora in the Americas2

Africans who came to the Americas and the

Caribbean were from the Great Empire of Ghana,

Mali, Songhay and the kingdoms of Fuuta Jalon,

Fuuta Tooro, Massina and Bhundu. They were :

Mande, Fulani, Khassonke, Sarakhule, Yoruba

etc.., see box: Where in Africa did African

Americans Originate. African tradition and culture

has not died out among black people in the New

World, despite many attempts to extinguish it.

Many captives, who came to the New World, came

from proeminent and powerful families. They were

teachers, religious leaders, cavalries leaders,

artists, artisans and students of law.

The Africans continued to promote their culture and to use their language

(Gullah) to help facilitate the communication among various tribes. The

impact of Africans in the New World is most felt in art and culture from five

African groups - Yoruba, Kongo, Ejagham, Mande and Fulani. A significant

part of these cultures have maintained in the New World, which includes the

United States, Cuba, Haiti, Trinidad, Mexico, Brazil and other places.

Diaspora invariably leave a trail of collective memory about other times and

places. But while most displaced peoples frame these attachments with the

aid of living memory and the continuity of cultural traditions, the memories

of those in the African diaspora have been refracted through the prism of

history to create new maps of desire and attachment. Historically, black

peoples in the New World have traced memories of an African homeland

through the trauma of slavery and through ideologies of struggle and resistance.

8 Africans taken into slavery who became well known in America are: Ayub

Job Djallo, Kunta Kinte, Yarrow Mamood, Ibrahim Abdul Rahman ibn Sori,

Umar Ibn Sayyid, Sali Bilali, Ben Ali-Bilali

82 | P a g e

Where in Africa did African Americans Originate?

Lists the demographics

of identifiable regions

providing slaves for

export between 1711-

1810. Taken from P.D.

Curtin's, "Atlantic Slave

Trade."Some people

complain that the term

"African American" is a

little vague because it

refers to such a huge

and diverse continent.

The question is

sometimes asked,

"From where in Africa

did African Americans

come?" Many people in

my parents generation

(born 1920-40) thought

that this question could

not be answered. Then

came "Roots." Here is

some more information

that might help African

Americans develop a

more personal

connection with the

regions

that this question could not be

answered. Then came "Roots." Here

is some more information that

might help African Americans

develop a more personal connection

with theregions and peoples of

Africa. This information comes from

P.D. Curtin's book, "Atlantic Slave

Trade" p. 221. Obviously, this is not

the only version available, but Curt

in is a heavyweight on the subject

(along with W.E.B. DuBois, R.R.

Kuczynski, E. Donnan, Davies, H.S.

Klein, etc) and I like the way the data is presented

Other possible groups that maybe

should be included as a "Ancestral

group" of African Americans, and in

what region:Fulani, Tuareg,

Dialonke, Massina, Dogon,

Songhay, Jekri, Jukun, Domaa,

Projected exports of that portion of

the french and english slave trade

having idenfiable region of coast

origin in Africa 1711-1810

Senegambia (Senegal-

Gambia)*

5.8%

Sierra Leone 3.4%

Windward Coast (Ivory

Coast)*

12.1%

Gold Coast (Ghana)* 14.4%

Bight of Benin (Nigeria)* 14.5%

Bight of Biafra (Nigeria)* 25.1%

Central and SoutheastAfrica

(Cameroon- N.Angola)*

24.7%

Senegambia

Wolof, Mandingo,

Malinke, Bambara,

Papel, Limba, Bola,

Balante, Serer, Fula,

Tucolor

83 | P a g e

Tallensi, Mossi, Nzima, Akwamu,

Egba, Fang, and Ge.I've long

associated some of the above

names with political divisions,

cultures, regions, languages, and/or

dialects. If you have information

that would remove, add, or move

one of the above, please post it and

we'll all be better informed.I'll admit

some of my biases and motives

now. I hope this discussion will lead

many African American to feel

proud of the achievements of these

groups, to feel angry towards

governments and agencies that

exploit them, and to feel sympathy

towards their suffering. If that leads

to political action and realignment

of American resources and polices

towards the region, then it could

become important for some groups

to get on this list. Nevertheless,

Kwame Bandele

Sierra Leone : Temne, Mende, Kisi,

Goree, Kru.

Winward

Coast (incl.

Liberia)

Baoule, Vai, De, Gola

(Gullah), Bassa, Grebo.

Gold Coast Ewe, Ga, Fante,

Ashante, Twi, Brong

Benin &

Biafra

Combined

Yoruba, Nupe,

Benin,Dahomean (Fon),

Edo-Bini, Allada, Efik,

Ibibio, Ijaw,

Ibani,Igbo(Calabar)

Central &

Southeast

Africa

BaKongo, MaLimbo,

Ndungo, BaMbo,

BaLimbe, BaDongo,

Luba, Loanga,

Ovimbundu, Cabinda,

Pembe, Imbangala,

Mbundu,BaNdulunda

Fulani Time Line

Fulani Chronology

6000 BC The River People emerge along Nile, Niger, and Congo Rivers

(West-Central Africa); the Isonghee of Zaire (Republic of

Congo) introduce mathematical abacus; and Cyclopean stone

tombs built in Central African Republic area. Spread of

agriculture south of the Sahara Desert supporting a growing

population, which mastered animal domestication and

agriculture, and forced the San groups into the less hospitable

areas.

4000 BC Ancient African civilizations of the Nile Valley are established &

flourish

300s AD Empire of Ghana emerge (in present-day Mali)

400s AD The Ghanaian empire becomes the most important power in

West Africa

400s Fulani migrate southward from present day Morocco and

Mauritania

610 AD Beginning of Islam

639-641

AD Khalif Omar conquers Egypt with Islamic troops

750 (circa)

AD

Kingdom of Kangaba, from which the empire of Mali emerges, is

founded (Present-day Mali). Songhai state emerges (Present-

day Mali)

800

(circa): AD Kingdom of Kanem emerges (present-day Lake Chad region)

84 | P a g e

800s AD Tekruur founded (Present-day Senegal)

1000s AD Kingdoms of Tekruur and Gao flourish in West Africa due to

gold trade

1050 AD Islam introduced to West-Africa

1050-1146

AD

Almoravids, Berber/Fulani Muslims from Southern Mauritania/

Northern Senegal , take over Morocco, Algeria, and part of

Muslim Spain; they invade Ghana in 1076, and establish power

there.

1062 AD Almoravids found capital at Marrakech

1100 AD Ghana empire in West Africa declines

1147 AD Almohads, Berber Muslims opposed to Almoravids, seize

Marrakech and go on to conquer Almoravid Spain, Algeria, and

Tripoli

c.1150AD Empire of Ghana at its height

1230 Kanem at its height

1235 Great warrior leader Sun Diata founds Mali empire in Present-

day Mali West Africa; it expands under his rule

1240

(circa) Mali absorbs Ghana and Songhai

1250 (circa) Tekruur absorbed by Mali

1324 Emperor of Mali, Mansa Kankan Musa, goes on a pilgrimage to

Mecca, Arabia

1325 (Circa) Empire of Mali at its height

1340 Songhai independent from Mali

1352 Ibn Battuta, Berber scholar, travels across Africa and writes an

account of all he sees

1386 State of Bornu established (present-day Lake Chad region)

1400s Wolof Empire founded (Present day Senegal)

1420s Portuguese sailors begin to explore west coast of Africa

1439 Portugal takes the Azores and increases expeditions along

northwest African coast, eventually reaching the Gold Coast

(modern Ghana).

1441 Beginning of European slave trade in Africa with first shipment

of African slaves sent directly from Africa to Portugal.

c.1450 Nomadic Kunta Arabs began to preach and spread mystic Sufi

Islam throughout the western Sudan. The Fulani, a nomadic

pastoral people, moving slowly eastward from Senegal, also

gain converts for Islam through mid-16th century.

1462 Sonni Ali becomes ruler of the Songhai and goes on to build an

empire

1490(circa) Mali eclipsed by Songhai Empire

1500s Songhai empire in West Africa enters period of greatest

expansion and power under Askia Mohammed Toure

85 | P a g e

1510 Start of Atlantic Slave Trade

1515 (circa) Songhai at its Height

1526 Bornu controls Kanem

1550

(circa) Wolof Empire dissolved. Mali ceases to exist

1560s First Portuguese embassies in Timbuktu, West Africa

1562 Britain begins its slave trade in Africa. Slave Trade increases

significantly with development of plantation colonies of the

Americas, especially in Brazil. Other countries involved in the

European slave trade included Spain (from 1479); North

America (from 1619); Holland (from 1625); France (from

1642); Sweden (from 1647); and Denmark (from 1697).

1590 Songhai defeated by Moroccans

1591 Kanem-Burnu at greatest extent

1670 Fulani people gain control of Bhundu in Senegal with Malick

Sy,and Sissibhe

1670 French settle in Senegal

1650 Fulani migrate into Fuuta Tooro and Fuuta Jalon

1673 Unsuccessful Fulani Holy war in Fuuta Tooro

1725 First successful Fulani holy war in Fuuta Jalon

c1775. Fulani Muslim cleric Alfa Ibrahim appointed Commander of the

Faithful in Fuuta Jalon in West Africa

1725 Second successful Holy war launched in Futa Toro

18th Century Between 1450 and 1850, at least 12 million

Africans were shipped from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean--

the notorious "Middle Passage"--primarily to colonies in North

America, South America, and the West Indies. 80% of these

kidnapped Africans (or at least 7 million) were exported during

the 18th century, with a mortality rate of probably 10-20% on

the ships enroute for the Americas.

1832-3 British abolish slavery in West Indies.

1863 Emancipation of slaves in the United States in midst of Civil

War.

1800 Fulani Islamic Holy war : States of Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Wuli

and Bhundu in existence

1804-1809 Fulani Holy war in Haussaland led by Usman Dan Fodio; Sokoto

Khaliphate established

1804-

1809

Haussa states defeated by Fulani Holy war. Sokoto Caliphate

founded by Fulani (Present-day Nigeria)

c.1820 Fulani emirate founded in Adamawa, West Africa

1820 Fulani in Mali, West Africa, found and rule Hamdallahi caliphate

1827 Independent Islamic state of Massina Eshtablished

1830 Sokoto Khaliphate reaches the greatest extent

1852 Fulani leader al-Hajj 'Umar launches holy war along Senegal

86 | P a g e

and upper Niger rivers to establish Islamic state

1862 Macina conquered by Fulanis from Fuuta Tooro

1863 El-Hajj 'Umar takes Timbuktu

1870s-

1880s

Second Mandinka Empire established (Present-day Senegal) as

successor to the Empire of Mali

1871-1912 Global European Imperialism at its height: The "scramble for

Africa" proceeds.

1879 Rabi B. Fadl Allah begin to build Empire (Present-day

Chad/Nigeria)

1880s

(circa) European imperial scramble for Africa begins

1884-5 Berlin Conference: Intense rivalries among Belgium, France,

Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and Portugal for additional

African territory, and the ill-defined boundaries of their various

holdings, instigate the Berlin conference.

1893 Kanem-Bornu defeated by Rabih b. fadl Allah

1893 French defeat Fuuta Tooro Empire

1895 France forms federation of colonies that become French West

Africa.

1903 British conquered the Sokoto Caliphate

1904 French create federation of French West Africa

1914-1918 West-Africa troops fight on both side in World War I.

1920s Pan-Africanism and the Diaspora. Pan-Africanist ideas of unity,

shared identity and roots among Africans and their descendents

of the Diaspora* .

1920 Pan-African Congresses meet in Paris, fueled by anti-colonial

unrest and African nationalism esp. among black missionary-

and Western-educated elites. This unrest is expressed in strikes

in Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Nigeria of British West

Africa

1930s Negritude, a French-language literary movement, began in

1930s Paris of modernism, surrealism, and jazz among French

colonial subjects most in Paris to finish their educations.

Leopold Sedar Senghor, was a leader and militant

communicator of the concept of Negritude, Poets Leon-Gontran

Damas, Birago Diop, David Diop, and Martinique-born Aime

Cesaire also associated with the movement

1950s Cheich Hamidou kane (Senegal) , with Ambiguous Advanture,

and Camara Laye (Guinea) alomg with Cameroon's Mongo Beti

and Ferdinand Oyono are remarkable writers on cultural chocks

and psychological insights resulting from the influence of

colonization.

1939-1945 West-African troops fight on allied side in World War II

1950:-

1970

West-African Nations become independent from European

Colonial rules

87 | P a g e

1960s-

1980s Recurring drought causes famine in Sahelian countries

1963 Organization of African Unity founded

1974 Nigeria becomes leading oil producer in Africa

1976 Cheikh Anta Diop (Senegal, 1923-1986), publishes the

influential and controversial book, The African Origin of

Civilization.

1990 Dramatic freeing of long-time black political prisoner Nelson

Mandela by Afrikaner President de Klerk in South Africa.

1994 Wide spread unrest and economic hardship in Francophone

countries after CFA franc is devaluated.

2001 The African Union (AU) replaces the Organization of African

Unity (OAU) after 38 years in existence.

---------------------------

Time Line Charts

Africa in Antiquity, 500 B.C. - 400 A.D.

Nok Culture 500 B.C.-200 A.D.

Africa in the Middle Ages

ANCIENT KINGDOMS & EMPIRES

Ghana

7th-13th

c.

Tekruur9th-

16th c.

Almoravids11th-

12th c.

Kanem-

Bornu11th-

12th c.

13th- 16th Century

Mali 13th-16th c. Songhay 15th-16th

c.

17th- 18th Century

NEW KINGDOMS

Fuuta

Tooro

1770-

1900

Bhundu17th-

19th c.

Fuuta Jalon

1725-1899

Massina1818-

1853

Segou

1650-

1818

Kaarta

1753-

1893

19th Century

Sokoto Adamawa19th- Ashanti 17th Liberia 1821- Sierra Leone

88 | P a g e

1804-

1903

20th c. c.-1901 1847 1808-1880

Colonial Period & Independence

Niger

since

1960

Nigeria

since

1960

CameroonSince

1960

Dahomey/Benin

since 1960

Togo

since

1960

Burkina

Faso

since

1960

Ghana since

1957

Cote

D'Ivoire

since 1960

Mali since

1960

Chad

Since

1960

Sierra Leone

since 1961

Guinea

since 1958

Guinea

Bissau since

1975

Cape Verde

since 1975

Senegal

since 1960

Chad

Since

1960

Gambia since

1965

Mauritania

since 1965

Introduction to the Fulani Family

It is important know that all

African cultures are characterized

by their fluidity. Sociologically,

acculturation, assimilation and

adaptation are always taken place

among Fulani. In addition to the

changes brought about by human

survival needs, and changing

times, the local African

governments are constantly

effecting changes among the

people. These changes are placing

on the Fulani forces that

significantly affect their lifestyle.

Traditional occupations such as: farming, fishing, artisans, jewelers,

weavers, pottery makers all introduce variations in the basic family living.

It is important first to understand the social group which each family

belongs to, in order to truly be able to appreciate the family structure.

Therefore, generalization about any aspects of Fulani culture is not easily

89 | P a g e

made. However, traditionally, the foundation for the basic unit of social and

economic life is laid with the legal union of man and wife in marriage. Through

their offspring and through possible subsequent marriages, the household will

continue its expansion and may form a compound family consisting of the

household head, his several wives and their respective children.

The Fulani family is patriarchal. The husband is Jom Galle, head of the family,

while the wife is Jom Suudu, head of the household. The husband/father is the

one to make all the important decisions and represent the family. The

decisions of the father can be discussed, but the father is always to be

respected and never to be proven wrong or embarrassed in front of his wives

or children. The father/husband is considered the provider of food, clothes, shelter, and medicine.

Women exert a certain amount of power in the day to day running of the house

especially during the frequent absences of the father. It is frequent to have

husband and wife jointly assume full responsibility for the household in such

matters as herd and land that is sufficient for their sustenance. Often, it is the

wives who get involved in various money making adventures to make ends meet.

This section will introduce the Household, the Daily Life, the Social Life, and

the Family relations. The Elders, Women and Youth and all aspects of Village Life will be described.

Additionally, cultural notes highlight important aspects which are not readily

recognized and appreciated by non-Africans.

Kinship-Enndham

The idea of family and kinship bonds IS Cherished by all Fulani. This idea

revolve around the lineage legnol, Kinship jiidugal, Relatedness bandiraagal

And Many Other terms of endearment Which are Held in high regard by the

Fulani. The basic elements of kinship Among Fulani are based on generations,

age and gender. The Seniority and kinship are vital to the structure of Fulani

ménage. Being patrilineal and patrilocal, celebrities gain Their last name

Yettore, By Which They Are Identified first. The Summary of Organizational

lineage IS Traced from a common ancestor and His descendants. They Live In

The Sami compound and members Cooperate in daily life activities. A cluster of

lineages constituted a clan. Kinship and regional groups Regulate Conflict Within and Between groups.

Politically a leader of a territorial ARDHO group plays a major role.

Patrilineages serie important part in Regulating, a day to day matters, and

control of cattle, marriages, and inheritance. All activities related to kinship are

seen in the nature of the steady state Fulani culture, and are summed up in

the label of Pulaaku. The code of conduct Pulaaku stresses the symbolic

importance of cattle, the respect of senior citizens and the love of mother. It

Also Portray the perfect Fulani have one who's stoic, reserved, patient and

gentle in Demeanor.

90 | P a g e

Kinship Terminology

Fulani kinship term could "ambiguous prononcer to People of Other Cultures,

Because The kinship terms can Be Used to Refer to Specifying a range of

personal gold person. Fulani preferred to call someone by a kinship term

whether or not related They Are. For example Baaba IS father goal it is

Possible to Call Also Baaba all related and friends of the father. Same goes for

Neena gold mother brother / sister migniradho Gold's / daughter bhidho.

Another interesting aspect Is The use of the diminutive el and the possessive

pronoun am, Which are combined as Elam and added at the end of a word to

stress kindness and good feelings about somebody or something. For example

mignelam Which mean my dear little brother / sister. The Use of el by Itself IS

diminutive and am by Itself IS possessive. Purpose and consoling the MOST interesting kinship terms are kawiragal and dendhiraagal

Kawiragal

The terms kaaw gold Gorgol Relationships are very special in the Fulani

society. Kaaw Is The brother of the mother or the Maternal Uncle, "whereas

Gorgol IS Used for the sister of the father or paternal role of a aunt.The Gorgol

Becomes more apparent at the time of marriages. She organizes and

arrangement Many aspects of the wedding. As the chief confidant, she Gives

advice relevant future flange. The Gorgol Also Does the final preparations

Including bathing and clothing, Before the flange moves to the home of the

groom.

A kaaw IS regarded one of the dearest mum on Which a child can have. This IS

leap Further Strengthened by the fact That Has the birth name for the phrasal

Child Is Often the Name of Loved uncle. The uncle Becomes Therefor the

tokora Child Of The Golden Loved namesake. A tokora IS responsible for

buying gifts is the day of the naming ceremony, as well as "for-fulfilling certain

droits THROUGHOUT the life of the child. Many in this respects The

Relationship Between Uncle and His nephews IS Closer Than That Between the

Children and Their biological father. This uncle Has Many Responsibilities and

obligations nieces and nephews Towards Loved. He Contributes to Their

naming ceremony and later to Their wedding. Often drake Their main adviser

and initials' em in Many Aspects of Life. Theys May inherit cattle-through Him.

Theys May go to Him in time of Need, and Move event has been "Into Loved

compound.It Said That It Is The Loved uncle Who Will Guide nephew or niece to Paradise in the here after.

Dendiraagal

Is very Valued Dendiraagal relationship to Fulani society. Usually the term

translated as cousin in dendirabhe Fulani Has A Broader Meaning. The Meaning

Can Be Explained in Three levels: the first level IS dendiraabhe kosam. The

first level Concerns particularly the link Between the respective offspring of a

brother sister gold. In this society the term cousin IS applicable to the Children

of the brothers of the sisters of the mother or father ET. The Children of the

sisters of the mother and the brothers of the father are brother and sister

Called, not cousin in Fulani. The respective descendants of the uncle and aunt

are the Called, Collectively dendiraabhe gold cousins. The second level of

Dendiraagal includes people Who are not related purpose Biologically Have

91 | P a g e

Their last name dendiraagu relationship. Finally, The Third Kind of Dendiraagal

Is The Relationship Between clans or ethnic groups. See Cousinhood.

Family Relations

Cousinhood: Relationship Between Last Names

An interesting custom in the Futa IS sanakuyaagal (Dendiraagal) Or joking

Between clans. Here's how it works: the tease the Diallos Baldes gold Bahsas

And The Sows joke with the Barrys. For example, a Barry Might call a thief Sow

(gujjo) Gold Donkey (Mbaba) And Otherwise ridiculous Their character and

lineage, all in good fun. The cross-cousins do not Have to Know Each Other

well-to-play start insulting Each Other.

Family terminology

The words brother, father, mother, uncle, etc.. are Applied e loosely in Fulani

society. Someone's brother May in fact Be Loved half-brother, cousin, a distant

relative, someone from the Sami village, or just a good buddy. Father can

mean uncle grandfather gold; my child "could be my sound, daughter, nephew,

grandchild, etc..

If you want to Establish the exact genealogical relationship, You Need to ask

questions Specifying: Do You Have the Same Mother? Is he your mother's

older brother?

Family Relations

The Principles for Organizing Family Relationships are quite different from That

of the Western countries. Howeve, There are a few "general principles Which

Will Help You Understand how families are arranged.

In the first place, Family Relationships are arranged to LUKAS classificatory

lines, Rather Than Simply biological lines. This Means That There ya une CF

firefighters group or class of people "Who can fill" any relationship slot. For

example, one Does not Say Baaba (Father) only to one's biological father. All

of the father's brothers are Also Called Baaba, And They Have Special

Privileges and Responsibilities visa vis Their Niece and nephews. This title of

Baaba furthermore May Be Extended to include all of the father's cousins, all of

Loved And Then age-mates!

One says neen (Mother) to one's biological mother and all of Her Sisters. If It

Is Important to Distinguish the biological parents, you can say Baaba am tigi (My real father), etc..

Secondly, relationships are Distinguished Between the mother's side of the

family and the father's side.

Importance of Names

Names are more Than What goes Into annum Identity Card. Names are Given

92 | P a g e

to Strengthen family, friendship and community. Also Reflect Naming Practices

in the sense Which IS EACH person Understood, at a "fundamental level, to Be

a living manifestation of the cumulative force of paternal descent Loved. Men's

and women's names Consist of Their Given names Followed by Their father's

last name Yettoode. This Is Usually the Extent to Which a Given name is for

social or legal purposes. Purpose is personal Understood's full name is to go on and on, from father to father ad infinitum.

Communities in West-Africa, the Fulani have SUCH, Often people ask

Foreigners to choose a local name by Which They Will Be Called. It Is very important to people "That They Be Able to remember and use your name.

This helps Strengthen the friendship Between the foreigner and the local

population.

The importance of names and naming Shows Up in Several Ways. The first

event in a Child's Life Is his or her naming ceremony. This is the underinsured

motorist seventh day after a child's birth. Children are named after the

parents' brothers, sisters, mother, father, or in Honor of someone else. Both

mother and father choose a first name to "give to the child. Howeve, in the

patrilineal society, the last name of the father Is That. For example, for a boy,

the mother can choose Demba, and the father Yero. The Mother's Side of the

Family and Her Friends Will Call the child Demba, On The Other Hand, the

father and His Family and Friends Will Call Him Yero. The person from Whom

the name is phrasal and all the persons of the same first name are the child's

tokora, Or namesake. A tokora IS responsible for buying some gifts are the

day of the naming ceremony, as well as "for-fulfilling certain droits

THROUGHOUT the life of the child. Sharing a common name Creates a special bond.

The family name of An individual "Often Will Tell You Which ethnic group from

HE IS. A sample of Fulani names is: Jallo (gold Kah), Soh, Bah (gold Balde),

Ban, Sih, Dem Kaan Njaay, Sekka, Caam, An, Jaaw, etc.. One of inmate

admitted Showing respect for Another person Loved Is To call out a greeting

family name When did you meet and have a good-bye as you are leaving. For

examples of Fulani first names click here.

We are related, you and I.

When you meet someone, after the Preliminary greetings, you Will Be Asked

your last name and your town of origin. The Hand Reason For That Is To

Identify a Potential Relationship Between Gold Lineage celebrities. Genealogy

Is a Highly Valued tool for this kind of exchange. In the olden days people

Knew Their genealogy and very well could "Quickly Identify Relationship

Between families. Howeve, then this is now a dying art.

Sending Kids we Errands

In MOST African cultures, a year can ask "any adult child to run for a year

Errand Them, Regardless Of whether or not the Child Is related to 'em, or

93 | P a g e

whether They Know the child at all. Child in this context means clustering

anyone younger and / or lower in status "clearly Than militaire armes. In the

absence of telephones, faxes, vehicles, etc.. Often then this is the MOST

effective way to send a message, gold candles Obtain sugar at the last minute,

transport heavy objects, etc.. A lot of Some reward 'may be appropriate "Is

Not Obligatory goal.

Visiting the sick

The Fulani, like MOST people, like to Be When They Are Sick visited. It is nice

to Bring food gifts ou autres. In Case of Illness Involving year has extended

hospital stay and / or the purchase of medicine, a gift of money IS appropriée.

Are you better?

When you tell someone you're sick, They Will ask you: Are you feeling better?

If you answer That, no, you're not at all Better yet, They Will sponds: OK. But are you feeling better? The correct answer is yes,

Regardless of how you feel.

They Are Wishing You well, not really inquiring as to your health. By Saying Yes you are Really Saying If God wills it I Will soon be better.

Fulani Household

The family constituted the foundation of the society. The legal union of man

and wife in marriage Is a moral and social act Highly RespectEd by Fulani.

Marriage therefore Generally Within The IS group or clan. Through Their

offspring can Subsequent marriages and-through, the ménage Will ITS

continues expansion and May form a Compound Consisting of the family head

ménage, Loved Several Wives and Their respective children. When the first

child gets married, the ménage Enter a new phase. It May Still expand as the

result of new births to junior wives Mainly, the goal at the time même ménage

Will Be subject to reductions. Eventually, complete dissolution underinsured

motorist When All Have married offspring. Man and Wives Then take up his

residence with Their Eldest Usually Which Will mean Several homesteads and

distribution over the separation of a Man from Loved junior wives. The elders

Will Spend Their Last Days On The Periphery Of The homestead of Their Sons;

est aussi cette WHERE They Are Buried.

It Is of great Interest to see What Happens Between the Two extremes of the

Life History of simple and compound families, the major hazards to ASSESS to

Which They Are Exposed DURING Their growth to maturity and Subsequent

dissolution. For a ménage a year to act as independent self unites That Is

Sufficient for Labor and food at all seasons There Should Be a particular

Balance Between the human group and the herd associated with it. While the

large herd Should Be Enough to Meet the Needs of the subsistence group, It Is

Equally clear That There Should Be Sufficient Humans tend to the cattle and to

take full advantage of Their Resources.

94 | P a g e

Status of Women

Fulani Women

Celebrated for Their beauty and grace, the Fulani women are the pride and the

gem of the

Celebrated for Their beauty and grace,

the Fulani women are the pride and the

gem of the Fulani society. With Their

thin, aquiline facial features, Fulani

women are Known for Their attractive dress and hairstyles.

Their exquisite gold earrings off

Adornments of Known As kootone

kang, heavy silver rings and bangles,

and hairdos That Incorporate large

amber beads are well reconnu Beyond Their traditional borders.

Their clothes Often Have a background

color of yellow and / or red. Their hair

IS long braided am and is 5 long braids

That Into Either hang from gold

Sometimes Their Heads are looped On

The Sides. It Is common for the women

and girls around new serie Attached to

Their braids. Some corners of

contention are very old and Have Been

Down In The PASSED family.The

women enjoyMany are wearing

bracelets Their Wrists.

Like the men, the Women Have Their faces around you Markings Their Eyes

and Mouth That They Were Given as children.

Marriage

Fulani women enjoy Greater Independence and Freedom of Movement Than

Surrounding women of Muslim populations. Women are segregated "Sometimes men from you as far as Circumstances Allowed.

Traditionally, When Being MOST marriages arranged by the families or the

clan, A Woman Has Little Selecting a choice of husband in Fulani Traditional Societies. Howeve, There are a few "exceptions.

In the "celebrated well Wodhaabe, Women Have a Choice in Selecting Their

Gerewol husband" during the dance. In the western cities WHERE IS influences

prevalence, women are increasingly Choosing Their husband Without the

95 | P a g e

assistance of the family. Although Divorce Is Easy to Obtain if the marriages

Does not work, Marriage Is a Highly Valued social act. Couples and Their family

to go to plan weddings Much length, commits wide dépenses and Performance

elaborated wedding ceremonies. Marriages are arranged and Organized largely

by women. In fact, women take care of the great majorité Of The Family And

The village activities. In Addition To Her ménage SUCH're cooking chores,

fetching water cleaning, milking and butter and milk product preparation, Often

she hold to have basketball SUCH Specifying specialty weaving, calabash

decorating, cloth dyeing. Their product selling at the market place is well

activité économique year Appreciated by the family. Traditionally women do

not Own cattle, howeve this is changing. The family supplemental revenu IS

MOST of the time in the control of women. Perhaps women Is The MOST

important? S role as custodians of the family traditions, history and lineage.

Aspects of Polygamy Fulani

Polygamy ya une ancient form of marriage practiced by Many societies. Many

religions Have Encouraged the practice of polygamy, the Hindu religion DID not

set limits to the number of wives a man May have. The Muslim religion is the

Other Hand, allow a Man to Have Many have as four wives. As Fulani Muslim

men can marry up to oven wives.

Status of Women

Several studies That Have shown, although women Represent Half of the

World? S population and one Third of the official Labor Force, THEY RECEIVE

only 1% of the total global income and less than 1% Own of the World? S property.

In a ménage Given, A Woman Has Often revenu less, less and less nutrition

Wealth Than a man, and yet the ménage IS Mostly, if not Solely, we depend

That Woman? S Labor for the generation of products and income. Cette est

aussi true in West African Society Including the Fulani. The status of women can Be Understood in Two point of views: Islam and Modernity.

Since MOST Fulani are Muslims, the status of Fulani women can Be Better

Understood from an Islamic point of view. Before the arrival of Islam, women

in nomadic societies Most Likely Did Not occupy a high social status. Against

Injustice Was Probably more women Pronounced DURING pre Islamic times,

When Were the worst conditions Their THEY "could be. Women Were Deprived

of Everything: The Right to Life (as a daughter), to honor, to Fair Treatment,

to protection, to ownership and so on., Mothers and wives have. Then IS

regarded Islam as a religion That Significantly Improved the condition of

women.

First of all, female infanticide and Islam Abolished Equal Rights Gave women to

men. Malthus, have a daughter, wife and mother, a woman Was Endowed with

SUCH Many rights have the right to inheritance, maintenance, education,

protection, freedom of speech, the right to take part in activities SUCH Many

have wars and so on (see table below: women and Islam). Islam grants the

wife the right to dissolve the marriage-through What Is Known As Khulaa and

she can sue for divorce in a case of cruelty or desertion Without Any Other

96 | P a g e

reasons. Among the rights attributed, to women in Islam are the right to

choose a husband and the right to education. Women are free to choose Their

Religion in Islam and are Encouraged to contribute "With Their opinions and

ideas. In short, Islam Gave 'em all human, civil, social, politique and Economic rights.

Practical Knowledge

African Women Have a deep and concrete KM of their Environment. In pastoral

societies have SUCH the Fulani, Women Have Detailed KM of the dynamics of Their ecosystem and of the influence of livestock on it.

THEY can monitor the condition of range-through milk production, animal year?

S Appearance, wool production, manure production, etc.. Women Have A

detailed frequently KM of Water Resources, Including Their quality and

quantity. Theys Understand certain animal diseases, symptoms, treatments

and pharmacology, and herding practices Designed to Reduce disease incidence.

Poverty and Marginalization

Poverty and marginalization of Even male-headed Households HAS year added

adverse effect on women. In the Case of Marginalized pastoralists Recently,

Many of the traditional systems of Wealth Redistribution Have Broken Down, and social networks are not as dependable As They Once Were.

Issues and Obstacles

The recognition of the human rights for all: rights to life, Dignity, Justice,

freedom and Equal Access to public goods and économiques Including

education, health-care and banking are the "fundamental Prerequisites To The

Successful development of the continent.

Yet, African Women Still Do face particularly great challenges. Adult female

literacy in 1992 Was Only 45% in sub-Saharan Africa, as Compared to a 59%

average for all Developing Countries. Maternal rats mortalité Averaged 606 per

100.000 live births over the period 1980-1992, as Compared with seven for

the U.S. and 351 for All Developing Countries. African Women's Work For

Some accounts to 80% of food production, little benefit derived THEY goal from

government programs favoring international gold cash crops for export.

Women are particularly vulnerable Victims of the continent's internal Conflicts

and Natural Disasters Drought and floods have SUCH. Levels of domestic

violence against women are very high, and Even less well Reported Than in Many Other Parts of the World.

Howeve, In some areas, African Women Have Made Significant advances.

Women's groups Focused on legal reform, violence against women, conflict-

resolution, economic empowerment and Other exits are Growing around the

continent. Over the decades Since 1960, the gap in primary school have

narrowed rats Enrollment Enrollment Grew Much More Rapidly Than for Boys

for Girls. For sub-Saharan Africa as a Whole, by 1990 primary school female

97 | P a g e

HAD Enrollment Reached 85% Of That of boys. In government, African

Countries are ahead of the rest of Much of the world. Five African Countries Are

Among the top 15 in the world percentage of women in National Parliaments

Their ranking ahead of Many Developed Countries. Have women benefited too Fulani of the progress to Some Extent.

Fulani Women Have Occupied high government and business jobs.

Nevertheless Still There Are Problems persist Including land tenure system,

education, transition from pastoral life to urban life and access to government facilities.

. Women and Islam

"Full Person

"Spiritual Equality

"Can Initiate Divorce

"Right to Inheritance

"Freedom to Own property

"Freedom to Own and Operate Business

"Equal Pay

"Their Freedom to use money as THEY

please

"Total Control of Their Wealth

"Right to vote

"Right to keep name after marriage

Their Own

"Women Have the right to remarry and are Encouraged to do so

"A Woman Has final approval" was

arranged by marriage partner Her

parents.

-A Woman's Testimony Is Worth

Half of a Man? S, Especially In Civil boxes.

-A woman's share of inheritance

Year Is One-half of a male relative?

S in the Sami category. Polygamy Issues.

The husband-Is The head of the

ménage, Is The Final Authority, and

Obedience Has due and cooperation from Loved wife.

-Men must pay a dowry to Their

Wives. This money goes to the wife,

not Her Father, and It Is Her

private property to do with As She

Sees said. Moreover, She is Able to keep it Even after a divorce.

-Women can inherit property from

Husbands, fathers, brothers,

Mothers, and sons, and It Is Their

personal property to keep and use

as THEY see fit.

Adapted from:

Women Livestock Managers in the Third World

by M. Niamir-Fuller (IFAD, 1994) and Other Sources

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Role of Women

Traditionally, the Fulani woman's roles included the care Have all of ménage

tasks. Several hours Theys Spend Preparing the evening meal. Theys retrieve

water from the well has bucket or Two at a time and Often must carry it on

Their Heads over long distance back to Their home.

These women gather firewood Also, milk shake in numb to make butter and

pound millet by hand as part of labor-intensive cooking practices.

Also responsible for ltr laundry, Collecting wood, caring for small children and

shopping for ingredients for Their cooking. In addition to the thesis tasks Also

Spend time working women batik and tie dye, and weaving with dried grass to

make mats or Other Useful Items. Many of 'em sell milk or milk products in

order to make money and purchase personal and family needs.

Fulani women, Who are in charge of building Often the family tents or

temporary shelters, weave wall and floor mats. Beside nomadic architecture,

They specialize in the decoration of wooden bowls and Calabash (lahal kosam).

Often seen They Are Carrying Their milk products are stacked in thirds Their

Heads in calabash bowls.

Calabash are pyro-Engraved with a combination of figurative and abstract

motifs and colored with pigments. In the Fulani cow-centered culture, milk

bowls Also important are the objects for ménage. They Are Used as storage

containers for fresh, curdled milk and grain. An artifact, symbol of the pastoral

life and of the cooperation Between Men Who keep the herd and milk the cows

Who women, the lahal kosam Encapsulate Fulani identity. Because Of Their

delicate chiseling and exquisite decorative Treatment, and calabash bowls

Could Be regarded as the true focus of aesthetic efforts of the Fulani people

The men take care of the cattle and the women take care of the dairy

products, all ménage chores, meal making, milking cattle, selling milk products

And They Are not Allowed to get involved in grazing, movement or selling the

cattle. The division of work IS very strict Used To Be Between Men and women.

Howeve Things Are Changing Fast.

A study cited the Case of the Fulani in northern Nigeria. Here Traditionally

Women Have Dominated the dairy production and marketing system, although

men milk the animals. Fulani Women Have considerable milk-processing

expertise. THEY can transform milk at least six Into different products and are

Constantly Experimenting With New Ones.

Their role prononcer Though May did menial Times, They Always Have Carried

On The Burden of the family survival. These elusive, delicate, and Frail looking

women are the backbone of the Fulani culture. THEY carry the family Wealth

Literally, traditions and aspirations are Their Heads. One em is the tradition,

the prosperity, and the survival of the group. Despite Countless barriers, Fulani

women and Their African sisters are responsible for over 80% of the food

production, 80% of the water management and 100% of child rearing in Many

Parts of West Africa.

100 | P a g e

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Youth

Children Are The recipient of

the cultural legacy of all

societies. Theys representing

The pivotal and crucial

gateway for cultural survival.

Howeve, for African children,

and Specially Fulani, There

Are Competing and

relentless forces bearing on

Their Bringing up.

Traditional Way of Life Is

Competing Against, foreign

religions, foreign

Cultures and Modernity and Not Always winning. All thesis influences to fight

African children live in Contradictory and Confusing paths ways. In Some boxes

are assimilating well the Children of thesis Many signals, goal MOST of the time

Have Been weak results.

The life style of Fulani, nomadic gold Settled, by and large Has changed

Because Of The Effects of Several external events and pressures. It Is Difficult

to Pinpoint exact causes and times of change, Since It Has Been Generally a

gradual process instigated by the Interplay of Several different factors "Applying pressure on the traditional Sami child education at the time.

Education of the Young in Traditional Knowledge is based on on-the-job

training, lessons Given any rights of initiation, and children's games.

Traditional Education in General Than Costs less modern education, and That

Has the advantage are not the Children Withdrawn from the work force. Formal

Schools Provide the needed literacy in modern times, Their goal is Too foreign

content to the Pastoralist. Mostly irrelevant Theys teach values, Rather Than

the Value of Land, traditions and cultural survival. Educational Traditional

techniques May Still Be intact strength goal IS ITS Rapidly Diminishing. In this section, Their conditions, Their Education and initiations are Examined.

Family Education

Fulani children begin to learn Their roles very early. While Fulani Their families

would prefer children to Islamic schools expected to study and memorize Koranic verses, Many Can not AFFORD the fees of the schools.

Boys Follow Their fathers to learn how to tend the cattle or work in the millet

field. When the boys Reach the age of about 10 They Are in charge of could

Following The cattle. Girls Also help with the cattle if only aim Until about the

age of 9 or 10. Other common jobs for young girl is gathering firewood and

Helping to look after Their younger siblings. The traditional rites of passage for

102 | P a g e

girls HAD largely fallen out of practice by the time African Countries Gained

independence in 1960. Howeve, Girls Are Taught By The older women how to take care of the home and how to Be a good wife When They Are Married.

Character Building Vocabulary

As part of the training Pulaaku for character building, some concepts are Introduced to the young early in life:

Courage: (Jaambaraagal)

The sense of courage and Chivalry IS Most often illustrated in Legends

(Daarol). This ideal form of behavior in the society IS Known As jaambaraagal.

It Is a spirit or ethic of Behavior in Which one shows courage, reserve,

hospitality, and Generosity. To Be Called a jaambaro someone Who Is To Be Admired thesis possessive traits.

Hospitality: (Teddugal)

To Treat someone with respect, high regard, to respect someone, by extension, to show hospitality

(In this context, means clustering Showing hospitality Providing the guest

(kodho) with the best possible accommodations, killing a chicken, sheep, gold

bull for Him, and giving him / her a gift of money, clothing, grain, etc.. When

ET leaves. One of the true marks of a noble and unfailing hospitality Was Loved Generosity.)

Shame: GACC

GACC ya une action WHICH IS shaming gold Shameful. That is: to show

cowardice, to fail to Properly welcome a guest, to fail to Be Generous Towards

someone of a lower social rank, to Be selfish, or to be jealous.

Self-Control: Kersa

To Have a Proper Sense of Shame, modesty, reserve, stoicism Kerse, shame,

modesty, reserve, shyness, self-control. This is a quality of character WHICH

IS Much Appreciated Ful6e in culture. It Implies a sense of self-control and

self-restraint, "as well as a sense of Pride and Dignity. Someone with Kersa

never begs From Another, goal Is Always Ready To Give When To Him Another

edible. Through a high degree of self-control ET can hide fear, bread, hunger

and thirst, fatigue, etc.. It Is a quality associated with WHICH IS and

Demanded from the noble class Toorobhe and Fulani). One of the worst insult

That can Be directed towards a new noble born person Is To Say 0 hersataa

(He has no shame). It Implies A Lack of Dignity and proper decorum, or someone Who Can not Withstand pressure (social or physical).

Traditional Education

Children begin to Acquire KM of Their ancestral ties to Fulani family When THEY

103 | P a g e

Accompany and assist in Their parents work and social interaction.

Theys family follow the cattle; THEY travel to the farm, to market and to the

compounds of friends and relative. Ltr feels Running Errands are Deliver to

food, to fetch water, to bid a neighbor visit, TO PERFORM Countless tasks

Assisting in the progress of daily life and sociality. Through this participation in

quotidian existence THEY year gain Emerging sense of the cultural

environment. Theys discover the names of places and in doing so learn That

residential compounds are Known by reference to the Men Who Originally cleared the bush and the site Established as cultural space.

It Is a Reality Lived Which Develops over time-through everyday experience.

Have the child Navigates this field, Tending to the small Responsibilities

Assigned to him or her, this landscape of names Begins to take shape: the

names of the dead, Of Those Who herded the cattle people, cleared the land,

built the compound, Farmed Conceived the land and the people. The

descriptive KM, Technology and Organizations Used by pastoralists to manage

natural resources Their, Have Been PASSED Evolved and down the generations.

In general, young children start to learn About their physical environment as

soon As They learn to play games with clay or wooden animals, twigs, fat, etc..

The games Usually Reflect real-life experiences, Being Chased by're SUCH lions

guarding imaginary golden cows Against raiders. As soon as They Are Old

Enough, and Pastoral Between the age groups varied, They start the long

process of apprenticeship and learn-by-doing, "under the guidance of Either

Their father elder brother gold, gold Under griots, Blacksmith, and Other Specialized younger craftsmen (see BOX).

When a boy Reach The Age of seven gold eight Loved father Will Provide Him With A sawru a polished long stick.

These ET learns to use in contests with Other boys, to use in games of Koora

gold bugaal katti. He Also May Develop Loved hunting skills using the stick, Because ET must Eventually kill a small pray.

Boys over 15 years old do Their Work "under the direction and supervision of

Their fathers. THEY dig wells and water the herds, while younger brothers Their help by running Errands for em.

Others rituals, Which mark the coming of age of young Fulani boys include

initiation ceremonies have SUCH the gerewol, The Sharo and Other herding events.

"During the Sharo, boys are hit with a thick stick, and are not allowed to show

signs of pain. Masina Fulani transhumance "during the young adults must leave

home to take Their family's cattle Hundreds of miles away and return for

grazing Successfully and Safely home after Several months in the Sahel.

Children's plays Reflect the adult world. For example, Fulani children play a

104 | P a g e

game of hyena, sheep and shepherd ², or play with clay or wooden toys and

animals Representing plants3. In West Africa, Traditional Education is based on

informal apprenticeship with kin and early participation in the work force.

Special skills, SUCH as medicine, music, crafts, etc.. Acquired-through are

more formal apprenticeship with Specialized persons. Other special skills, tree

felling have SUCH, hunting, and metallurgy are Taught by Religious Leaders

DURING ceremonies4 initiation. Among the Fulani of northern Senegal, children

start at a very pastoral droits young age (5-6), Naturally Progressing from

their play to Actually guarding calves in the compound5. Almost in all groups,

the father Teaches Loved sounds by going out first with 'em either' giving

hands-on responsibility ", and the Knowledge is firmly Already Established by ages 9 or 10.

The Knowledge of range and livestock husbandry Among the Fulani IS PASSED

we have young boys (7-8 years) are Taken to camp and learn from first hand experience Which fats are good, noxious, etc..

At 8-10 years old, children start to learn Wodaabe about herding by Being

Assigned to watch over the calves near the camp. Between 10-12 years THEY

start to herd Shoat alone in the bush, and at 15 THEY herd cattle on Their

Own. Wodaabe girls start at 9-10 years to make butter, at 11-12 years to

pound millet, and at 14-15 years to milk cows. The Fulani of Mauritania Say

That the initiation of the Pastoralist begins at the entrance to the livestock

kraal, and ends "at its exit, ie at age 63. Consider Theys pastoral education to

Encompass Three phases: initiation Which Takes the first 21 years, Which

Takes the driving range next 21 years, and teaching Which Takes the last 21 years11.

Formal Education

In West Africa There Are Three Fundamentally separate education systems:

the indigenous system, Quran schools, and formal European-style education

institutions.

In the Rural Areas the WHERE majorité Lived, Learned children the skills of

farming and Other work, "as well as the droits of Adulthood, from participation

in the community. Often this process Was Supplemented by age-based schools

in Which groups of young boys in community Responsibilities Were instructed

by mature men. Apprentice Systems Were Widespread THROUGHOUT all

occupations, the trainee Provided service to the teacher over a period "of years

and it Loved Eventually Struck out own. Herding, cultivation, building trades,

and all indigenous crafts and services from leather work to medicine PASSED Were down in families and Acquired-through apprenticeship training as well.

Islamic Education Was part of Religious Duty. Learned Children up to one or

Two chapters of the Quran by rote from a local gold Čierno mallams, Or

Religious Teacher, Before They Were Five gold six years old. Religious learning

included the Arabic alphabet and the UK & to read and copy texts in the

language, Along with giving further texts required for daily Prayers. Any

Islamic community Provided instruction in SUCH a teacher's house, was sold to

a tree Thoroughfare, or in a local mosque. This primary level Was the MOST

widespread. A smaller number of young Muslims giving further wished Who,

105 | P a g e

Who cam gold more gold from wealthier homes Educated, Derwent is to

examine the meanings of the Arabic texts. Later, grammar, syntax, arithmetic,

algebra, logic, Rhetoric, jurisprudence, and theology Were added; thesis

subjects required specialist teachers at the advanced level. After this level,

students Derwent Traditionally it to one of the famous Islamic centers of

learning.

For The Vast Majority, Muslim Education Was Delivered "under the tutelage of

informally ciernos, Mallam gold ulama, Religious Scholars Who Specialized in

learning and teaching. THROUGHOUT the colonial period ", a series of formal

Muslim schools set up and run Were on European lines. These Schools Were

Established in Almost all major cities. These Were notable in Kano, WHERE

Islamic brotherhoods year Developed impressive number of schools. Theys

catered to the Children of the Devout and the well-to-do Who wished new serie

Their Children Educated in the New and Necessary European learning, goal

firmly Within a Religious context. Suche Were Influential schools have a form

of local private school Retained That the predominance of Religious gains Modernized Within a school system.

Western-style education Came to West Africa with the missionaries and the

colonial administration in the mid-Nineteenth Century. Progress in Education

Was slow steady aim THROUGHOUT the colonial era Until the End of World War

II. By 1950 Many Developed Countries HAD a three-tiered system of primary,

secondary, and higher education based on the British, French, Spanish or

Portuguese models of wide participation at the bottom, sorting and Vocational

Training Into academic at the secondary level, and Higher Education for Small

Destined for elite leadership. The languages of instruction in local languages

Were not aim en français, French, Spanish and Portuguese Universal Primary

Education policy in official Became Many West African countries. Secondary and postsecondary Levels Also Grew dramatically.

The Almudos

106 | P a g e

As with all Moslem boys, Education Begins

with the study of the Koran WHICH IS

Taught by Either the father or by the Čierno

(also Called marabout). Students in Islamic schools, are Called gold Talabas Alumdos.

Almudos are young boys, Generally Between

8 to 15 of age. The boys learn the Koran

from the marabout and pay for Loved Him

by sharing the Teachings Proceeds of Their

daily begging. Almudos are found in all West

African cities with large Muslim populations

Perhaps due to the marginal nature of the

land THEY occupy It Has Been a long

tradition of the Fulani men and young boys

That leave the village soon after the harvest

in November and support Themselves

Elsewhere Until They Are needed for the

next farming season. When a Village Has A

bad harvest Many of the young boys will be

a sealed envelope Their Parents to the

village marabout Who Will take a year to

urban area em Where They can survive by

begging Until Conditions Improve in Their

home villages. That the almudos stand out

as the MOST Disadvantaged Children in

Urban environments IS Because They Are

Made Visible Rural Poverty in the city.

Children in the almudos' home villages are in

Generally no purpose if They Are Better not

visible in the city streets Where They Can Be

seen by the urban population .. These

Children Who Live Mostly in the street do not

SEEM to Be Affected By The Typical street

kid SUCH Problems have Criminality

cynicism and Other Bad Behavior. THEY SEEM Goal To Be Remarkably well

balanced, Resourceful and hardworking. Nevertheless, the 1970s and 80s

Years of Drought Has created annually in the numbers of grandir talibes. Ltr

REDUCED TO begging and living harsh realities. The marabout That argues The

Guiding Principal of the education of the talibe Is To learn the purpose Quoran

Also to learn the Meaning of Suffering in order to Be Ready to Face Life's

Circumstances. Howeve, THEY APPEAR to Be Problems related to child abuse

and neglect.

107 | P a g e

Wisdom Voices

The Ancestors

Africans in general and in Particular Fulani are

Strongly Attached to the idea of Ancestors. With a

deep hunger to Know Their heritage, They cherish

Their ancestry to the facts of divinizing. The

Ancestors are seen as the link Between the past and

present, the vehicle Between here and infinity and

the holder of all That Is Learned. During, Conflicts,

the Wisdom of the Ancestors Sought after IS to Bring

Back Peace. During, Period of hardship, the acumen

of Ancestors IS Invoked to Bring Back abundance.

Ancestors teach practical ways of transforming

Difficulties Into endless possibilities, the purpose of-

fulfilling of life, and of Showing the way to happiness

and peace.

The Living Wisdom of African People is practical, feet-

on-the-ground and concrete. It's a beautiful and

simple philosophy

day to day based on experience and grounded in practicality. The Ancestor

Teach That It Is essential to learn to Communicate with Each Other, about the

basics of life, about culture and Its Practices

Older Relatives

For African people in Much Has the family "wider circle of members Suggests

Than the Word in Western cultures. In traditional societies, the family includes

children, parents, grandparents, uncles, aunt, brothers and sisters Who May

Have Their Own Children and Other immediate relative. This extended family

can from few "Have to Several dozen of persons. It Is The Practice in Fulani

society "as well as others to send children to live for months or years with

Some older relative. Of all the family members are the MOST RespectEd the grandparents.

Tano Is a word for grandparents in the Fulani language. The word Refers to

the grandparents as well as "direct to Their siblings and Their fellow age-

mate. Are knowledgeable about the elder of the family history and history of

the lineage. In practical terms he / she Has a great role to play in Educating

the child, as well as "in Cultivating Peace and Harmony Within The Family and the community.

The legendary Amadou Ba oz Hampate Said That Every Man That old Died in Africa IS equivalent to a library Being burn.

In Many Parts of Africa, elders Have mastered memorization techniques and

Have Become the living repositories of the Collective Wisdom Accumulated by

the community. Ltr human like walking libraries, and are Able to put

something of extraordinary Feats In A Surprisingly Accurate Manner. They Do

108 | P a g e

so for the benefit and survival of the People and of Their Culture.

The old Fulani Has KM and the Wisdom of the ages. He Is The guardian of the

family kinship and connoisseur of the clan history. He Is The taking of the

Ancient secrets of the village management practices, of the traditional healing

practices of the list overall and authority "of the laawol Fulbe (Fulani the way of the Wisdom).

Every Story Has a older relative to tell. When THEY tell stories about Their

Own Lives and stories are giving further and Preserved for future generations

PASSED Down, It Is Called oral history. In the Fulani society, older relative

can Be very helpful in piecing together the family history. Often There Is At

Least one person in a family who's very knowledgeable of the family history and genealogy.

Inauguration of Čierno Wan Wanve from Mboumba, Senegal

The inauguration of Mr. Mamadou Wane

Hamat have the Čierno Wan-Wanve

who performed in July 2000, in

Mboumba, SenegalWest-Africa. The title

of Wan-Čierno Wanve Is The very

special to the Fulani of Futa Toro in

Senegal. Čierno IS teacher, has

knowledgeable personality in the

Islamic Religious Society of Senegal.

The Corresponding terms in Other Parts

of the Muslim word are: malam,

modibo, ustaz, etc. ulama. Whereas

year Almamy Is a Religious Leader Who

has Originally leads at prayer times and

allow extension of the term Took A

more and Secular Meaning politique.

Malthus almani of the Futa Toro and

Futa Jalon of giving further Assumed

not only the title of defender of the

faith's goal of political leaders Aussi.

The Wan-Wan gold Wanve clan as well

as "Other notable families in Futa Toro

could" Provide Both titles of Čierno and

Almamy..

The selection of the Wan-Čierno Wanve Is Done by a select group of wise men

from the village of Mboumba. The Selection Criteria are based on a number of

Factors Including Wisdom, Character, Knowledge, Contribution to the

Community, Social Rank and Age. This long tradition has been "Honored In

The Wan Family and Other families in West - Africa, Including Senegal, Mali,

Mauritania and The Gambia. The ceremony, Which last up to Two Weeks who

performed in a dignified and formal inmate admitted. Before the ceremony, a

special individual "From Another Known Whose Family Is To function

organizes the opening of the Čierno IS selected. The ceremony IS Witnessed

109 | P a g e

by community and by the Whole "responsible authority" figures. The Čierno IS

seated on a specially made carpet with two hands Loved it the Quran. Drake

dressed in a special gown with head wrapped in a Loved large white turban

and heavy Symbolizing Responsibility, Honesty and Justice. The Čierno,

personifies all That Is noble, good, and wise in the Fulani People. His

functions, HE IS Still dutifully performing are Vast and Varied. All Individuals

from the Wan Family, Their Affiliates and all the notables and prominent

families can call on Him for advice, naming ceremonies and weddings, conflict

mediation and special blessings. Will He keep the title of Wan-Čierno Wanve

for Life. It Is important to note That There are Also SUCH titles Elsewhere in

Futa Toro, for example Čierno Barov. See Picture

Notion of Person in the Fulani and Bambara Traditions

In the Fulani and Bambara Traditions (the only traditions to make reference

Which I Will Because I Know I Believe Them) Two terms are Used to

Designate the person. For the Fulani, and They Are Neddo neddaaku; for the

Bambara, They Are Maa and Maaya. The first word means clustering the

Person and the second the People of the person. MONSTER, tradition Teaches

That There Is INITIALLY Maa, the Person-receptacle either 'Maaya, ie, the

various aspects of Maa Maa-Contained in the receptacle. As the Bambara

expression says: Maa ka ka ca Maaya has kono Yere. The People of the person

are in the multiple person. One Finds desired exactly the concept Sami Among

the Fulani.

The concept of the person IS Malthus, from the outset, very complex. It

Implies year multiplicity interior - gold concentric superimposed plane of

existence (Physical, Psychological and spiritual at various levels) - as well as a

constant dynamism. Existence, Which Begins with design, IS Preceded by a

cosmic pre-existence WHERE IS man reputed to resides in a kingdom of love

and harmony Called Benke-so. The birth of a Child Is Regarded as tangible

proof That a piece of detached and anonymous existence Was incarnated in

order to Accomplish a Mission On Our Earth. The naming ceremony or Baptism

DURING Togo golden Which has first name is Given to the newborn Has a

special importance. The Togo defines the little individual ". It Locates Him Within the larger community.

Three types of birth can take place: an abortion or good-ji, Literally Spilled

water, Regarded as unfortunate, a birth That has been "Carried to full term,

Called banngi, regarded not only a happy event for the parents, aim for the

Village , and the tribe was larger plane for Humanity as a Whole; finally, a

birth after nine months more Than, Called menkono, gold nyanguan, Literally,

long time belly, prelude to the birth year of extraordinary Being, the

nyanguan , the super-sorcerer, Who Comes Into the World Powerful rich with

potential. The development of the personal Will take place at the Rhythm

Established by the Period of great bodily development, Each Of Which

matching to a degree of initiation. The purpose of induction Is To "give the

person a moral Psychological and mental power and aids Which conditions and sum the perfect realization of the individual".

According To Tradition, the Life of a Normal Man Is Composed of Two great

phases: one ascending to sixty-three years of age, comme au descending to

110 | P a g e

one Hundred and Twenty-six years of age. Each phase of thesis IS made up of

Three broad segments of vingt-one years Comprising Three Periods of seven

years. Each segment of vingt-one years defines a degree in initiation, and

seven years of EACH period "marks a threshold in the evolution of the human

person. Malthus, for instance, in the first seven years of existence, During

Which the person-in-training Requires the Utmost care possible, a Child Will

Remain Closely connected to Mother Loved it Depends Whom ET for all

aspects of life Loved. From seven years to Fourteen years, hey sides around

the middle Him am and is Influenced by it, goal ET Every Day Feels the Need

to Refer back to Mother Who Loved Loved Remains point of reference. From

Fourteen to Twenty-one years of age ET expect the School of life and studies

with Masters ITS, and gradually moves away from the influence of Loved mother.

The age of Twenty-One marks a very important threshold, Since It Is the Age

for ritual circumcision and initiation Into the ceremonies of the gods. "During

the second Twenty-One Years of His Life, A Man Will Mature The Teachings

That He Received" during the previous period ". THROUGHOUT That Time, HE

IS Expected to Be on the lookout for wise men, and if it should "That One Of

Them Happen grants him / her a word, It Is a favor gold as a test and not

Because ET Has a right to it. At forty-three years of age, On The Other Hand,

HE IS Supposed to Have Reached maturity, for all intents and Purposes, and

to figure Among the Masters. Having the right to speak, ET uses it to teach

others That Which Has Learned ET and matured "during the first Period of Two

Loved life. Finally, at sixty-three years of age, the great ascending phase

ends. Regarded as drake HAVING Completed Loved active life and is No

longer constrained by "any obligation to continue to teach. He Is Not

prevented from doing so howeve, if then this is gold Loved Loved calling capability ...

The Entire Body Has A symbolism WHICH IS has quite precise. The head, for

example, represents the level of the Highest Being, pierced by seven wide

opening. Each of contention Is The port of entry to a state of Being gold

world, am and is Guarded by a divinity. Each entrance Provides access to a

new interior door, and so on to infinity. The opposite IS regarded the primary

facade of the deeper habitat of the people of Maa, and exterior signs

(gestures, expressions) allowed one to decipher the persons selected from a

lot of contention. Show me your face, and I will tell you the Manner of Being

interior of your people, says the proverb. Each matching interior to Being a world rotates around Which year central axis or point ...

.... The concept of the unity of life goes hand in hand with the "fundamental

concepts of balance, exchange, and Interdependence. Maa, Who contains in

Himself all year element of Existing Things, IS Called to Become Guarantors of

the equilibrium of the exterior world, & Events Of The Cosmos. To the Extent

That He Loved returns to true nature (That of primary Maa), man APPEAR in

the world, as the axis Whose It Is intended to keep the external multiplicity from falling Into Chaos ...

.... To Conclude, I draw attention to the fact That tradition IS Concerned with

the human person as multiplicity year interior, unfinished at The Beginning,

Called to order and Unify Himself For The Purpose of Finding Loved Right Place

111 | P a g e

Within unities more Vast Than the human community and the Whole "cosmos.

Synthesis of the universe and the forces of Crossroads of Life, Man Is Therefor

Called to Become The equilibrium point Where It Will Be possible to combine,

Him-through, the various dimensions of Which Is The bearer ET. Then ET Will

Truly Deserve the Name of Maa, Maa-Ngala interlocutor of Guarantors and of the balance of creation.

By Hampate Ba

ENDNOTES

For a more Detailed discussion of the creation myth, see Bâ Hampate. 1981.

The Living Tradition, General History of Africa, Vol. 1, Methodology and

African Prehistory, J. Ki-Zerbo, ed. (Berkeley, CA: University of California

Press and Unesco): 168-170.

112 | P a g e

Village Life

As opposed to the true Nomads, They

Once Were, Constantly on the Move

With Their large herds of cattle, a

larger number of Fulani are

increasingly Settled Leading a lifestyle.

Theys May Send Their transhumance

with cattle in Specialized livestock

herders Who take Between Mountains

and lowland pastures in search of

green pasture FOLLOWING exchange

in climate and vegetation. By and

large, Settled Fulani are pastoralists

Becoming Who tends to

Their farms haveas well as animals SUCH keep cattle, sheep and goats. The

Fulani majorité of today live in villages with the traditional mud-walled huts or

straw Replaced by brick and cement houses with corrugated metal roofs. Often

houses are walled compounds Located in WHERE and one man has more wives

or live with Their Children and Other extended family members of An

For example, the Fulbe Futa are patriarchal, order the mother has some

exertion Amount of Power in the day to day running of the house "during the

frequent absences Especially of the father. The husband / father Is The one to

make all the important decisions and representing The family. The decisions of

the father can be discussed, the father goal Is Always To Be RespectEd and

Never to Be Proven Wrong or embarrassed in front of wives or Loved Children.

The father / husband IS regarded the provider of food, clothes, shelter, and

medicine, intended Often the wives are the ones Who get involved in various money making adventures to make ends meet.

Socializing in the Village

Village Life Is Tied Together Through

cooperation and socializing. The

survival of the village depends on the

villagers sharing and Helping Each

Other. Everyone is related in Some

Way, so the Whole "village is Like a

big family. People help Each Other

With Their work and when to not

working They Are, They Spend Most

Of Their Time socializing and joking

and talking-telling.

Neighbors share meals by Bring Their

meals together in What is similar to a

pot-luck.

113 | P a g e

THEY take turn in doing so What is Called tumbudu. Neighbors help Also Look

after Each Other 'children. Children Often Spend the night in Their House of

Their Friends Children Behave Badly gold relatives.If Outside the home, "any

adult can discipline Them and Will carry the misbehavior to the parents.

Children and young adults form age group of Sami Called Fedde. Furthermore,

HAVING gone-through circumcision and Other initiation rites of the same

people are tied together by Fedde bonds of friendship and Solidarity

THROUGHOUT Their Lives.

Celebration

The villagers gather together to Celebrate holidays, to Celebrate Weddings and

births, deaths to mourn, to bid farewell to travelers to greet 'em and Their

upon return. The Whole Village participate way in contention events. In large

gatherings, men and women tends to Socializer separately.

A wedding celebration in the Village can last anywhere from 3 to 7 days.

Everyone join in Preparing the food and decorating the bride's and groom's

houses. For more information click on Ceremonies.

Village Housing

Fulani villages are Several types of

Ranging Some hamlets to big towns.

While the hamlets Have huts, tents ou

autres simple structures, the big village

can exhibit graceful style of the housing.

The thick walls Have houses made of

mud mixed with straw and cow dung.

The thick walls keep the house cool in

the summer and warm in the winter.

Each House is Surrounded by high mud walls That was fenced off courtyard.

Enters One-through a tall, majestic

gateway WHICH IS Usually decorated

with colorful designs and symbols. The

spacious courtyard Has year

earth floor. Children play There and adults sit on elevated wooden decks,

Called danke, gold THEY sit on the ground is colorful mats Called daago, while

THEY relax and Socialization. During, hot summer nights, the family sleeps CF

firefighters "under the stars in the fresh air of the courtyard.

A typical house includes a living room for guests, bedrooms, a storage room,

and a large kitchen. The outdoor courtyard Also includes year for summer

living room, kitchen and baking year outdoor area, and in a shady spot, the big

clay jars for cooling drinking water.

A house includes a big kitchen with plenty of room for a lot of women together

to cook and visit. For social occasions, women gather in the kitchen and the

courtyard to help in the preparation of food for large numbers of guests, male and female

114 | P a g e

While women work in the kitchen Preparing food for guests, a few "women

tended the children in a room nearby. This room opens onto the courtyard, so It Has Plenty of light and fresh air.

Arts and crafts

During, down times, When the bulk of the farm work and herding Is Done Is

Not a major concern, Generally village artisans at work Their arts and crafts.

Theys Produce: Sneakers, Leather goods, handmade pots, and blankets woven

from sheep's Tunics wool. Artisan work Is Done To The cast system LUKAS am

and is Often based on gender. For example do Maabubhe cloth weaving, wood

carving and lawbhe waylubhe jewelry and metal work. There Are Also The local

tailor can sew beautiful Who handball gold machine embroidery, the traditional

healer, the teacher and the merchants.

Food

Much of the Food That people eat in

the Village Comes from Their farms or

nearby villages. Theys grow sorghum,

millet, maize and rice, "as well as

vegetables, beans, fruits, and dates.

Most families raise chickens, ducks,

goats, sheep, and cattle for meat. In

addition, chickens and ducks Provide

eggs, while goats and cows milk for

drinking and Provide for making butter

and yoghurt. The villagers buy sugar,

coffee, spices, cooking oil, and rice

from small shops in the village or

nearby

markets.

In the kitchen, girls and older women cook Other foods. Any event or social

gathering in the Village includes a feast, so part of the event for the women

includes gathering to help with the cooking while THEY Socialize. Meals Consist

of whole grain millet gniri made from sorghum with sauces made from

vegetables and lamb, beef, chicken or fish. The women arranged the food on

trays Which are Carried out to the guests. People love to share Their cooking,

so you see Before meals Children Carrying Their Mothers from food to Other

families, Especially to old or sick Neighbors. Theys Also carry food out to the

farms, people working in the WHERE Stop Their Work fields to gather and eat.

Until a few years ago, charcoal, wood and cow dung Were the only fuels for

cooking. Now the villagers Have access to bottled gas and the women enjoy

using gas stoves for the sacrifice part of cooking.

Cattle

Traditionally the Fulani are MOST important Amongst the group of cattle

herders in West Africa. Because Of Their Migratory Movements With Their

herds, the Fulani are Scattered across Presently West Africa, From Senegal to

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Ethiopia. In Many areas ", They mix farming with herding. This is true for Many

of the Fulani in Senegal, Mauritania , Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger who. Who

Farm "during the rainy season, goal depends upon Who Primarily for Their

cattle Their subsistence.

There Are Three Ways in Which a family can Be Supported by Their animals.

First, the milk from the TOWS Is a staple food am and is Consumed in large

quantities. Secondly, the Milk Consumed IS WHICH IS not traded for a

measure of millet Sometimes gold for cash. This activity of the women IS

cippal Known As (to trade or sell milk). THEY walk to the town in the mornings

curateur in order to trade Either soured milk (Kossam kaadham) or fresh

butter (nebbam keccam) or a form of heated butter WHICH IS nebbam sirrnëj

like oil. Normally THEY do not sell fresh milk bhiradham What They earn in this

way Often Provider Major portion of the revenu familial. In fact, They May Be

Able to supplement the grain Needs of Their family for a "substantial part of

the Year in this way. Finally, a family Will sell year animal (preferably a sheep

or goat Before a cow) When THEY must make a large purchase. For example,

They Will Probably Need to buy a few "sacks of grain (millet and rice)" during

the year Since They Do not cultivate a Sufficient Amount "during the rainy

season. The money to buy grain, cloth, sugar, tea, etc.. Usually Comes from a

year selling animals. Rarely are Animals Killed for Meat. Traditionally year

animal Killed Was Only ritual occasions we have SUCH a wedding or naming

ceremony, or in order to welcome a guest. Because of this, people eat meat

very Rarely.

Crop Cultivation

It Is a form of agriculture in Which crops are Produced only Enough to Meet the

Requirements of the family. In good years, There 'may be a surplus to sell and

put aside for hard times. Subsistence farmers "Primarily Rarely use fertilizers

and the sizes of Their farms are very small. The Whole System is farming

based on human and Labor draft animals. The key implements are the hoe,

Jalo, the ax, jambere, and the Matchette jasi. Type of crops grown depends

upon the climate and environment. Whereas people in the forest belt grow root

crops like yams and cassava, plantains, palm oil; Their Counterparts in the

savanna grow millet, sorghum, maize, cassava cassava, peanuts, beans, sweet

potatoes.

Today, a large proportion of Fulani life revolve around the river or water points.

The rivers Provide water for drinking, cooking, and washing "as well as for

irrigation. The rivers' flood yearly Provides Fertile silt for agriculture. The Fulani

cattle herders are Traditionally Turning Into more and more farmers ", Who

work the land with the help of Their Families. Everyone, Including the Children,

Has a Job to Do, Especially in times of heavy work like planting or harvest.

Animals like cows, donkeys, camels and work Along with the People, Preparing

the land, plowing, and harvesting the crops. Theys Also carry people and Their

crops Between the village and the fields.

In the Midst of the Sahel, the rivers' yearly flooding not only Brings Abundant

water, drank Also Renew the soil by depositing banks ITS Along a rich load of

silt from upstream. In the fields flooded by the rivers, the villagers plant crops

like quick-Growing beans, sorghum, and vegetables.

Fishing

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Fishing, wandade, IS Among common dwellers and giving further coastal living

around rivers, lakes and creeks. In the Senegal river, The cast engaged in

fishing Is The Subalbhe. The cast Methods Used dug-out canoes include, net,

hooks, spears etc.. Modern Technology Has Brought the outboard motor, order

the Use of large trawlers not common.

The Market Place

The market plays a very important role in the Life of the Fulani men and

women. They Will take and Their Donkey carts, taxis or walk the bush Several

kilometers to the various weekly markets. Many Fulani women sell milk

products Their, straw mats, calabash bowls, homemade soaps and Other

assorted marchandises. Theys Meet with the women from villages comme au

and catch up on the latest births, deaths, marriages and Other Important

News. Others come to, like the women, catch up on the latest news from

around the Greater area. The men Congregate Around the comité Called the

Daraal. The site location is Daraal IS Usually the Outskirts of the larger towns.

Many come to buy or sell There cattle, goats or sheep. That est aussi WHERE

ITS gets the meat market supply. Markets in between men women gold May

occasionally visit One Another In Their Homes.

Schooling

When They Are Seven years old, children go to public school. Generally, There

Is only one elementary school in the Village. For middle and secondary school,

students Have to go to boarding school in a nearby town and only come home

one weekend and holidays.

In the past, children to Islamic schools Derwent Mostly, parents and schools

with suspected viewed: Western. Howeve Nowadays, everyone is happy in

school has a new serie Their village. Parents take the Education of Their

Children gravement, and When They Are Proud Their children do well in school.

Students respect the teachers very much. When the teacher Enter the

classroom, the children stand politely with Their Hands Behind Their backs.

Also Theys Stand When They Ask golden answer questions.

For the MOST part, children walk to and from school Every Day.

There are No day-care centers in the Village. While the parents are working,

children are cared for by sisters and brothers Their, Their grandparents, ou

autres on. Children learn Many Things Outside of school. Theys learn from

watching older people As They Work. Also learn from Theys Helping Their

parents work in the gold fields in the house. All the adults in the Village

participate way in Teaching young people how to Behave and how to Cooperate

in the Life and Work of the village community.

Religion

As Highlighted by A Mazrui, in the popular TV series Africans, Most people in

West Africa Have a triple Religious heritage. People are Muslims, Christians,

and believe in Some African traditional religions. The Fulani people in villages

are Muslims. Their Religion is Called Islam and Their holy book Is The Quran.

THEY believe in one God, Allah in the Arabic language, and That Was

Muhammad the Last Messenger from God.

Muslims pray five times a day. On Friday at noon, The villagers go to the

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mosque to pray together. After THEY pray, celebrities and friends on Their visit

and eat together.

Religion is the core of life in the Village. It's everywhere. It's life itself.

Once a year, "during the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk.

They Do not eat or drink Anything "during the daytime for the Whole" month.

During, Ramadan, the days are very quiet in the Village. At sunset, people

gather to eat Outside Their houses and share food with Their Neighbors and

passers-by. At the end of Ramadan, There Is a special four-day holiday, Eid al-

Fitr Called. Everyone dresses up in new clothes, Visit their relative Exchanges

gifts, and shares in special holiday meals. Theys Also go to the graveyard to

visit the grave of Their Ancestors and on.

Once in a Lifetime, Every Muslim IS Supposed to make the Hajj pilgrimage

gold, to Mecca, The Holy Place of the Muslims. For a community member

RespectEd, It Is a dream come true to make this trip to Mecca. The Whole

village gathers to say farewell to People Who we leave the pilgrimage. At

pilgrimage time, There Is a four-day holiday, Eid al-Adha Called. Every family

sacrifice a sheep and shares the meat with others.

The importance of Islam in the IS villages underscored by The Tremendous

role Played by Religious Teachers and cleric. Theys KM impart to the youth, the

divine and interpret the daily Laws. Even THEY get involved in the mental and

physical healing.

Traditional Medicine

The medicine in the Village IS made from plants and minerals found in the

area. Roots, seeds, leaves, and flowers are Used to prepare remedies for

Ailments and Illnesses. The Fulani Have Tested and Developed thesis remedies

over Thousands of years. A large percent of villagers use traditional medicines

Still That Which They Know and Trust. Learned Religious persons, sernabhe

(singular Čierno) Also Provide health related advices.

Relatively Recently, health center, with modern drugs, Have Been Built in

larger villagers. Hospital Also can Be found in the regional capital. Spice shop

in town markets sell traditional medicines as well as herbs and spices.

Transportation

Transportation Within The Village and Its surroundings Remains In Some Ways

the way it has-beens for Thousands of years. Often people walk, ride horses,

donkeys, bulls, camels gold. Donkeys, camels and Bulls carry heavy loads from

place to place. A simple wooden sailboat or dug-out canoe IS Carrying Used for

people, animals and marchandises Across the rivers Where They exist.

Villagers ride donkeys to travel short distances in and around the village.

More modern transportation moyen de Aussi are used. These include simple

donkey and horse carts, "as well as small pickup trucks. There are no regular

buses, Because of the few "Paved roads are. People travel to nearby

marketplaces to gold in the regional capital of contention pickups gold in

nozzles.

Village customs

Traditions Overview

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Greetings Greetings in Pulaar are Formed from a series of questions

from What we call the greeting sequence. The questions'

may be about family, health, work, the weather, etc..,

And Will vary Slightly DEPENDING upon the time of day.

The usual greetings are: no Mbadha? Jam Wone e ma?

Meaning how are you? Are you in peace? The questions

from the greeting sequence require "Always one of the

standard replies: Jam tan, Jam solo gold Ko mawdhum.

Greetings are Highly ritualized, and at this point in the

conversation no one Expects to Hear the truth about you

health, Family Problems, or whatever.

All encounters with everybody should "Always begin with

a greeting Meaning appropriée Several questions from the

sequence and a handshake. It Is Normally the person

arrived Who Who should "begin the greeting. In fact,

greetings "could have viewed: Be the Pulaar au français

equivalent expressions have SUCH Excuse me or sorry the

interruption. In Other Words, greetings are the mark of

Politeness Themselves. Foreigners Who are customarily

fail to greet've viewed: Being very impolite.

Greetings Normally take the form of one person Asking

Several questions. When ET breaks, comme au person

Asks in His turn. Then There 'may be a slight pause and

the Whole "Thing Will begin again. The length of the

greeting depends upon how well Will two people know

Each Other, how long it has been "Since THEY Have Seen

Each Other, and upon the respective age and status of

the persons Involved.

Finally, you should "sacrifice part of the record body

language, gestures, and tone of voice Which go with

greetings. When you are meeting a stranger or someone

older Than Yourself, It Would Be regarded impolite to look

him or her in the face Directly. Instead, greetings are

mumbled Quickly and Often in a low tone of voice, with

The Two participants looking at the ground. To

Westerners this attitude Seems to signal disinterest in

What One Is Doing. Purpose in this case it means

clustering Actually the opposite That You Are Showing respect for the person you are greeting.

Respect

As in Many languages have SUCH French, older people,

authority figures, and strangers are Referred to in the

plural. Also in this Pular fixe When Referring to someone

in the Third Person; When Referring to your father, for

instance, would you say Respectfully: theyare sleeping

Rather Than HE IS sleeping.That 's the easy part. Things

To complicata Furth, There Is aspecial vocabulary of

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respect, verbs like to come to sleep gold gold gold head

nouns like handball Have Completely different forms

When Applied to someone of status.

Body Language Shaking hands with Both Hands, and holding your

forearm or elbow, are signs of deference. SO IS looking to

the ground or away from the person you are greeting.

Looking someone straight in the eye, can have construed

Be Aggressiveness

On Being Polite You Will Find the concept of Being polite IS something

quite different from what you with are accustomed to. For

example, There is No real equivalent for the Pulaar

Français expression thank you. A jaaraama can Be Used

as thank you, drank It Is Used Much More Than the

sparingly Français expression. In your day to day contacts

with people It Is not Necessary to Automatically Simply

use expressions have SUCH excuse me, please, excuse

me, thanks, I'm sorry to bother you but ..., etc.. The

nearest equivalent to Pulaar thesis expressions tends to

Be reserved for a more serious and important context.

They Are Not Used Every Time Another person one

interrupts. In fact, the concept of interrupting the Whole

"Is a Westerner in Which concept we express the cultural

value That Time is money, and we try in Which daily to

minimize human contact to a business report.

We must show comme au That person we know we are

interrupting Him, Even bothering Him with words of

deference and Politeness. That is our way of Being polite formulaic.

On the Other Hand, It Is Perfectly in Pulaar Simply polite

to state a request. People expect all sorts of human

interactions "during the day. There are, however, some

very significant signs of compliance and Politeness Which

tends not to Recognize Westerners at first. Most

important is handler, oz again, the greetings. Correctly

greeting people Is One Of The MOST important signs of

respect That you can show 'em. You should "never ask anybody for something Without greeting em first.

In order to Develop the complex web of Social

Relationships Which Will make your stay in "any village or

town enjoyable, you should"

get in the habit of greeting not only the people you run to

Happen on the Street Into Gold in business, purpose of

Deliberately Also going to visit someone you have not

seen for a while for no purpose Other Than to greet 'em.

Passing by someone's house for only five minutes Even Will please em enormously.

120 | P a g e

Secondly, It Is not impolite to interrupt others regarded

by greeting Them When You come, Even If They Are

Themselves Between talking. In fact, to enter a room and

fail to greet everybody (Including shaking hands) would

have seen Be tough. Also, always ACKNOWLEDGE the

presence or arrival of someone else. You should "Simply

not walk past people, Even If You Have Them Already

greeted earlier. When someone else regulation comes into

your presence You Can Always Say A? Articles. When you arrive, You Can Always Say Mi? Artii (I Have Returned).

Honoring

Someone

Teddingol Teddungal gold is literally to make heavy and

means clustering to take

gravement, to respect, or to honor. Teddungal Is The

Corresponding noun, Gold compliance Meaning honor.

A useful phrase to indicate where and That IS a gift,

made in the spirit of friendship and respect, and not as a

payment or business transaction, IS Ko teddungal mo? It.

Out of respect to you.

You Can Always Give Thanks by Saying it jaraama Albarka

gold.

Saying Good-

bye

Although this sequence of Particular Saying good-bye May

sound strange to you right now, you Will Find yourself

repeating words exact thesis Many Times. When you

announce your intention to leave (by Yehiya Gold Saying

Mi Mi hootii, People Will Normally protest, insisting That

You stay longer. It Is a sign of Politeness to ask a guest to

stay longer to wait for the next meal, to OR Events Spend

the night if HE IS away from home. When this Happens

You Can Simply repeat your intention to leave.

As you leave, you have someone Will Accompany short

distance. This sign of respect and pleasure at the visit

Which IS something you should "Also show to your

guests. Never Say Goodbye Simply inside of the house

and let your guests depart alone. Walk em at least you as

far as the front gate, and offer to carry "any packages.

When You Have gone as far as you "intend to go You May

Say: Mid haadhii dho I? M Stopping here. At this point,

Will Be felt greetings to the others and blessings Withdrawals.

Waynade IS Saying good-bye or farewell for longer trips.

Significance of

Kodho, Guest

Kodho Comes From The Word Meaning to resident hotde

gold to Inhabit. When someone with horns to a family

resides where, he / she IS Their kodho. The Concept of

kodho Is One Which Does not Have An exact translation

121 | P a g e

Into Français. It Is a concept rooted in the WHICH IS

WHERE Culture Is Not emphasized individuality. In this

culture, everyone Is a member of a family, a clan, a

village.

Imagine a stranger who's traveling. He arrived at a village

for the first time. It Is late in the day, and ET Wishes to

Spend the night before traveling Furth. The first thing

should "do ET Which Is To contact the head of the village,

Known as the ARDHO Farba joomwuro gold. Since There

Are No hotels, It Is The Farber Who will tell Him Where He

can Spend the Night. He Also Will Instruct someone to

prepare food for the kodho. In this sense, can mean

kodho Both stranger and guest. In Spite of this fact, ET

Has Entered Into a Relationship Somehow with the

village. He Simply Can not pay money for services and

intransitive independent and anonymous.

Furthermore, if a family migrates Into a new area looking

for new pasture for cattle Their land to farm gold, It Is the

ARDHO, arba gold Joom Wuro Who Gives Him permission

to stay, permission to draw water from the well, to build a

house was piece of land, to farm a certain plot. A stranger

arrives and Simply Can not start using the resources of

the village. He Must Be the kodho of someone who's

Already in the Village we Westerners tend to think in

terms of Arriving in a "town and renting a place to stay,

have individuality. Although this can Happen in larger

towns today, This Was Traditionally unimaginable. And It

Still Can not Happen in a smaller town.

Furthermore, It Is not really the preferable way to

Proceed. A newcomer should "Always Be the kodho of

someone in the Village Who Then Becomes Loved njaatige

host. THROUGHOUT Loved stay ET Will Be Known As so

and so? S guest. When people ask you Who are you

implying What is your relationship to the village to explain

Them That You Are The kodho of SUCH and SUCH a

njaatigi. You Have a Role thereby place with gold THE

ENTIRE village. You are no longer individual "year, by

order of the Social unit linked to the rest of the

community. This is a very important concept Since no one

can imagine year existence alone in a village setting.

Village Life is communal, and Being by someone? S

khodho you enter Into That community

Taboos

In the Fulani culture There Are Numerous taboos. Taboos

Regarding When to wash clothes, When to get a hair cut,

getting up in the morning from the left foot, etc.. Taboos

related posture and body languages are The Foremost

Also numerous.One of taboos has married woman says

"should never speak the name of Her husband, Her in-

laws or her first born child. Even If There Is Another

122 | P a g e

person by the name Sami, She is forbidden to call Them

by Their name. Another taboo In Some Fulani groups IS

Against eating goat's meat. The Fear Is That if someone

eats goat's meat he or she Will Become a leper. Yet

another taboo IS an Infant Against drinking goat's milk. It

Is Believed Will the child itch if he or she drinks the milk.

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The Habitat

Here too, One can not speak of homogenous habitat. Fulani are Often

Identified by Their rental. For example, one can find in Senegal Fulani Jeeri, In

the desert as opposed to Fulani Waalo Who Live Along the Senegal River and in

Nigeria, the Fulani Jos, Jos Plateau from the IS Differentiated from the Fulani

Katsina, Katsina from the province. Their housing and living conditions

depends on influences from the immediate environment and Surrounding

crops.

For the Fully nomadic Fulani is the practice transhumance, the seasonal

movement in search of water, Strongly influenced settlement patterns. The

basic settlement Consisting Of A Family and Their Dependence IS Called

Wuuro. Those Who Remain nomadic Fulani gold semi-nomadic Have Two major

types of Settlement: dry season, October to May, and wet season June to September.

Howeve, a large number of semi-gold Settled Settled Fulani live in rural

settings. Due to tradition and Their reserved nature tend THEY new serie Which

Communities are spread out. Each Village May Have a population of as Many as

100 or more, or order the homes are huts in Scattered groups of Two Three

gold.

In the Typical family compound THEY Have a grass hut with room for as Many

as Three beds inside. These beds are Raised off the ground, with a firm

foundation wooden Covered by a millet stalk mat. Ltr very hard, do get one goal off the ground away from the sacrifice part of bugs.

Nowadays, the traditional homes built with mud walled hut are Replaced by

brick and cement houses with corrugated metal roofs. Often houses are walled

compounds Located in WHERE and one man has more wives or live with Their Children and Other members of An extended family.

Outside a fire or fire place IS WHERE IS made centrally located Between the

huts as the women tended to work together. A very large pestle and mortar for

the Are Always nearby pounding of the grain gold sauce ingredients. A matte

gold Possibly found a small stool IS Outside the hut for just sitting. Some Have

Reasons to be a straw shade shelter

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Food

Dinner's Almost Ready

The Fulani are sacrifice part of the MOST hospitable people you'll ever meet,

and it's hard to go anywhere Without Being Fed. Hour Before Dinnertime,

you're bad at having to Be Told to stay and eat (it's Almost ready). Feel free to

accept or turn down invitations argument as you see him, drank Always Find

Some polite ways to decline.

Meal Time

Meals are Normally Served in one large bowl. At meal time everyone gathers

around the bowl. Before and after meal was a bowl of water for washing Will

Be Provided your hands. Always eat with your right hand only! The host or

hostess Normally Will Say bismillah in the Name of God as a signal to begin

eating.

Usually Conversation Is Kept to a minimum while eating. You should "eat only

from the square in front of you Directly. If you want a piece of vegetable or

meat from the center of the bowl, break off a small piece and put it in the

square in front of you. When You Have finished you should "move away from

the bowl, Rather Than Waiting Until everyone is finished. People That You Will

Always protest "should" eat more, in Which box Mi haarii Is The appropriate "reply. Something to drink only after Provided IS the meal.

In a large village compound and the men women eat separately. The Children

May Also Be Given A Separate Bowl, DEPENDING upon how many years people

live in the compound. As a guest Often You May Be Given A Separate bowl to

eat from in a room by yourself, as a sign of respect. People are, however, if

you want Often Pleased to eat with 'em. (Although You Should not INSIST on

this if you are only a guest for a day or two. In That Box, let 'em decide upon

the arrangements.) Male guests "should only eat with the men not given if

They Are A Separate bowl. Female guests eat with the women alone gold.

When the food is Served, everyone Will Automatically invites you to eat with

'em at Their bowl. I'm his box, Simply say Mi haarii Proper and wait for the group to eat with gold for your Own bowl.

If you enter a compound at meal time you Will Always Be Invited To stay and

eat. In turn, you should "Always invite people to join you if THEY find you

eating. People Never Consider How Much There Is food to feed over how many

people. They Are Concerned only to share with What They Have everyone

present. If you do not want to eat, say Mi haarii. If people are stressed, eat

only one or Two handfull of Food and Then say Mi haarii. It is more polite to taste a little bit to Than refuses to share in a meal Entirely.

Sharing a meal

In Rural Areas "as well as in the Cities, meals are Eaten together in one large

bowl. In a small family, everyone eats together in a large dish. Howeve, for

large family holidays gold DURING There Are Separate dishes for men, women

125 | P a g e

and children. Before eating people inside thoroughly wash Their hands. Here,

There Are No lengthy Prayers Before eating, a simple Bissimilay Would Be

Enough. People eat in front of 'em and are considerate of the others. After the

meal people washed Their hands and "give thanks: Attaya. In this society It Is

not impolite to burp Witch Is The sign somebody That Has Eaten well. The

family share cola nuts May gold tea Attaya Afterwards. Cakra IS Often Served as dessert.

Drinks

Muslims areas in contention There Are No Elaborate drinks. Meal "during the

time the only available drink water IS. Served in golden calabash gourd. In

addition to the proverbial tea daily, and the morning coffee, sauf drinks are

Offered Tuffam Has Watered down milk sour Served With or Without sugar,

ginger , A ginger drink and Roselle follere, A drink made from hibiscus

flower year. In the larger towns, soft drinks, and Other Modern Beverages are Served Also at special occasions.

Tea ceremony

Drinking Tea Is an important social function. A great deal of ceremony

surrounds the making and serving of tea. Every day, families or tea-drinking

groups to take part in Meet the ceremony of The Three teas. It could "Be done"

any time a day, drank usual in the Afternoon. As The Saying Goes: The first

cup IS strong like life; the second is sweet like love, And The Third is sweet

with mint. The ceremony Is very formal, and serving tea is important way of

welcoming year someone: if strangers visit, They Will Always Be Offered tea and dates.

Making tea

Empty a bag of tea leaves Into the teapot, and add appropriate "Amount of

Water. Bring it to boil in a special tea pot. Then put fresh mint and sugar in the

tea pot Directly Into a second gold teapot for a Better Mix. To serve, hold the

pot to high and it Into a series of small glasses. Holding the pot high foam And

Also Creates cool the tea so That It Can Be Quickly drinkable. People take time

over the tea, chatting around the teapot on the stove. Both young and old enjoy drinking tea.

The Cola Nut, Goro

After a copious meal, holidays and ceremonies DURING Especially, a cola nut

IS Used to complete the meal. The kola nut is broken Into small pieces and shared Between family and friends.

The kola nut Has A Very Special Meaning in West African cultures. It Is Used to

seal agreements and contracts. For example, It Is Widely Distributed at weddings, naming ceremonies, and conflict mediation.

The kola nut symbolization understanding, friendship and unity. (See Pictures

126 | P a g e

127 | P a g e

Ceremonies

Age & Birthdays

Traditionally, the Fulani do not make a big deal out of birthdate, and It Is not

unusual for someone Not to Be When They Were sour desired exactly how old or born They Are.

Bringing gold Sending Gifts

The concept of Addenda Hunde Golden Neldal Bringing gifts extends to coming

back When gold from a trip abroad while Sending a gift. It Is Not a bad idea to

pick up a few "inexpensive gifts or trinkets for your friends and family while

you are away in the big city gold Some foreign land. It Is like sharing your experience and Remembering the person.

When you come back from somewhere, You Will Often beasked won ko

ngaddan dha me? Did you bring me Anything? Do not take this too gravement,

and do not worry That You Should Have Brought 'em something. KB weltaare

ngaddumi. Brought happiness.You I can just make something up Also if You Did not Bring Anything.

Gifts and hospitality village

Gifts are important year of hospitality part on Both ends: the guest with gifts

May Bring 'em to present on arrival (neldugol; the gift IS neldaare nden), And

the host May offer the visitor a departing gift to take home with them

(fandugol; the gift IS fandaare nden)

If you are going from a town to a village, take That Are not readily available

items: bread, tea, sugar, cola nuts, and candy. Canned sardines and Other

Things are well received; N IS cash. In return You May Be Given peanuts,

fonio, rice, gold Even a chicken gold goat If They really like you.

Gifts at ceremonies

You should "bring a gift to naming ceremonies, weddings, funerals, etc..

Usually cash is your best bet: it's easy to carry, it's Always welcome, and you do not Have to worry about Unintended symbolism.

Naming Ceremony

Living in a village or town, Often You Will Participate In The kinds of family

events are regularly Which "celebrated by everyone. Naming ceremonies are

one of the major family events for families and Which Neighbors get together.

Naming ceremonies follow Muslim practice, and take place seven days after the

birth of a child. The day of the ceremony naming the imam from the mosque

horns early in the morning. Heb listings the Name of the child for the first time.

A sheep IS Killed Usually, preparations and get Underway to cook for all of the

People Who Will Spend the day at the compound. If you are Attending a

ceremony naming, you should "plan to arrive in the morning. You Will Be

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Served Usually a bowl of millet and milk first. Later, There Will Be Budhi (Millet

patties) or fritters (WHERE French influence exists), and grilled meat, lunch,

and ataaya (Tea). Although People Will pass by all day long, the family MOST

Receive the guests in the morning and over the lunch hour. You should "bring a gift of money for the parents.

The Child Is Always named after someone. Then this person Becomes the

child's tokora, gold namesake. The bonds are special tokora Has the day of the

naming ceremony. Beside Contributing to the share of the Day for dépenses,

the tokora Will Also distribute money and cola as a Way of Celebrating the honor.

Holidays

The Most Important of the Year are holidays Religious holidays. Of the furnace

discussed here Koorka Korite gold "during the Islamic month of Ramadan and

gold Taaska Tabaski" during the month of. Tabaski and Korite Are The MOST

important. Koorka From The verb Hoora, To fast Is The month of fasting

prescribed by Islam. The month ends with a day of celebration. Called Juulde

Koorka. Haaraan, or the New Year, not only Is The Religious holiday we

discuss. Maawluudu commemorates the birth of the Prophet Mohammad.

Taaska Is The Day of Atonement Muslims Which Reminds Of The Covenant

Between God and Abraham. Generally meals "during the holidays are: Caakri,

Grilled meat Michou SALTE bassi. Caakri IS millet flour cooked with milk.

Bassi Salte IS millet couscous with meat sauce and vegetables. Click here for Recipes.

The Habbanaya

The cows are treasured Certainly the MOST of the animals the Fulani herd. The

cows are so special, Many People Can not Say That a person speak Fulfulde If

He Does not Own a cow. The Fulani tradition of giving to Have a habbanaya -

That Is a cow WHICH IS loaned to Another Until She calves. Once the calf

weaned IS It Is Retained and the cow IS ITS Returned to owner. This

habbanaya Is a Highly prized animal. Upon receipt of this gift, There Is a

special ceremony in Honor of the gift. The recipient buys and special treats for

guests Neighbors Loved this event in Which the habbanaya IS Given a name. The habbanaya Is Never To Be Struck Under Any Circumstance.

Gerewol Has the Cure Salé

The Cure Sale Is One Of The brightest and biggest celebrations in West Africa.

It underinsured motorist Just Before the rains come, and Is a of socializing and

catching up, as herders Meet Around the rich salt deposits Located Between In

Gall and Tegguiddan Tessoumin. year in area west of Agadez in Niger. Theys

rest and wait for the blessed rain. One of the highlights of the Cure Salé Is The

famous men's beauty pagean the Gerewol, a festival by the nomadic Fulani Held Wodaabe.

This Much Anticipated gathering Takes place at the end of the rain season,

around September / October. Gerewol IS first and Foremost a marriage

129 | P a g e

market. The men make up Their Lips, Eyebrows, Cheeks and with natural

cosmetics. Theys fantastic wear jewelry in the form of feathers, pearls,

amulets. Young men dress in ostrich-feather capes, leather belts trimmed with Cowry shells, ceremonial axes.

The gerewol Is a contest, a Dance of Youth Before elders. A delegation of girls,

Picked by the elders, jointly decided EACH year on the MOST beautiful man.

Young men dance together, arm in arm, in a line, to lavish the attention of

girls with comic expressions and songs. Theys a slow dance, stamping rhythm

in song while praising the charms of the young women. These young women

are graded in order of beauty. No drum-ming the dance accompaniment.

Meanwhile the young women dance nearby, by Way of Choosing Also song the

MOST handsome and best-dressed youth. The best gold oven Three young

men and women are paired off I'm his order, while the rest got off together

They Will. Each pair IS Expected to Spend the evening together. Although a

reconnu form of courtship, the dance gerewol Does not Necessarily Lead to

marriage. Since different lineages Bororo Celebrate Their Gerewol At The Same Time, Several Gerewol Occur over a six-week period ".

Sharo

The ceremony Sharo Demonstrates The Greater community to a Young Man

That Has Come of age. In it, young boys take turns hitting One Another With

Their walking sticks across the chest. No outward show of pain can Be shown.

It Is common for the boy to shout Being hit gold laugh after HE IS stricken.

Although adolescents Have Died in this ceremony, young men are Eager to

Participate and display Their scars with pride. In Some boxes Fulani man has

regarded Is Not a true Fulani UNLESS ET Has Participated in this show of

strength. In Niger the ceremony IS Against the Law aim Will Young men gather

at a local market and Have the ceremony away from the eyes of the Local

Authorities.

The naming ceremony unlikable, no special activity associated with this

opportunity IS. It Is Meant to mark the end of puberty and the introduction of

the Initiate Into Young Adulthood and the added responsibility "of looking after

the herd.These traditions are Meant to Ensure That the functions of the family

and lineage are Fulfilled and Its norms of conduct have bewitched and

perpetuated gains. Few of contention practices are now Observed by the Town

Fulani, Representing What May Be Described As A Cultural Difference between

the nomadic and Settled Fulani.

Festivals

There are Many local festivals That dates back to the Time Before the arrival of

the major religions, and Which are Still occasions for masquerade and dance.

The local festivals cover year Enormous range of events, from harvest festivals

and festivals Betrothal, to the chief of a New Investing and dances funerals.The

oz That Were Performed by members of Each village now Have Been Taken

Over by professional troops, Who round villages EACH performing at local

Muslim festival.The year revolver Around the Three Major festivals, Id Al Fitr, Id al-Kabir and Id al Maulud.

130 | P a g e

Fifire

In the Futa Toro Fishermen Participate in the Fifire Which highlight the alligator

hunting season. Fishermen decorate Their canoe and Their spear in vivid

colors. At the beat of the calabash in the water the crocodile are attracted by

the sound of the beat. Their emergence from the water signals the Beginning

of the fifire. All the events are punctuated with the songs of Pekan and

Gunshot.

Daydare

Daydare IS similar to fifire Without the crocodile hunting. The colorfully-

dressed groups of fishermen, decorate and race canoes Their Along the river

Accompanied by songs and drumming.

Guri Baali

Guri Baali IS Performed When All the Fulani shepherds get together to show

how well groomed THEY Have Their flock. Theys ran Followed by the animals,

jumping over bushes and Other Many obstacles and Performance acrobatic

moves.

Circumcision

When A Child Reach The Age Between 8 and 15, ET goes trough the special

ritual of circumcision. In the Fulani society, the traditional ritual of circumcision

That Is a big event required the participation of all the segments of the society,

social class EACH, and EACH member of the family role LUKAS Specifying Has

A Relationship With The Loved to candidate to the circumcision . See Initiation

Marriage

The process of getting married can Be

Divided Into Several steps. The initial step

Called the IS djamal, the commitment. At

this stage the man's family Approaches the

family of the woman to have the Chat

Desired marriage. The Next Step Involves

the older male members of Both families

Who Will Go To The golden mosque to the

woman's family compound, to the marriage

tie. This step IS Called the Kumala, from the

verb to tie humde Meaning. The symbol of

this Step Is The Sharing of Cola (feccugol

goro) WHICH IS Provided by the man's

family. Once this step has been "Taken IS

regarded the couple married. But It Still May

Be Several months, or long-lived event,

Before the woman moves Actually Into Her

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Husband's compound. Here, the real

wedding ceremony starts Called yangge. In

Senegal, the IS Kumal Generally in

the late after-noon. At That Time the bride's party starts Her Yang, WHICH IS

similar to the bridal shower. That evening, friends of the groom take the bridle

away in What Is Called ndiftungu. The friends of the groom Will take the bridle

at the groom's mother to show Her Allegiance. There she learn about the May

customs and dress of Her new family. She gets prenuptial counseling and

Other advices Regarding family life. The Whole "ceremony of the flange to the

grooms house moving IS Called kuurtungol Then start the dambordu, WHICH

IS annum expensive step, and Involves many days of festivities. Which "during

the wedding up seven days, the flange IS dressed in beautiful gowns, Her

braided hair IS in special way with gold, amber and Other jewels, and finally

Her hands and feet are painted with henna. (See pictures)

Bargaining

I Have No Change

In Western Countries, merchants are expected to change the time

Have THEY open the door for business. It Is Not Generally n in

Developing Countries of West Africa. There Are Not Enough small bills

to go around. Has no one ever changes. Even a merchant in His shade

May Be Unable to take well to 5000Fcfa bill for a 1000Fcfa item. It's

worse things in the market, WHERE Even a gold 1000Fcfa 500Fcfa Bill Can Be Hard to break.

So, it countries to Be prepared. Get enough small bills Before you leave

home. There are no credit cards, yet, in villages and small towns.

How to bargain

When you are quoted a starting price That Is Two Gold Three Times

the normal price for the item, do not get angry and assumes the

vendor IS Trying to rip you off. The first price is Usually high. Before

the bargaining starts It Helps If You Know What the cost item is Supposed to ask around and What It's Worth To You.

Take Into account your time and energy What Is Worth To You. Is it

really worth a half hour of to get Arguing from FCFA 11.000 to FCFA

10.500?

Walking Away Is The surest way to find out if the vendor can not really

come down "any Furth. Do not start bargaining UNLESS you're serious about buying the item.

Go shopping with a Pullo and see how it's done. Take it easy. Keep it

friendly and fun. It Does not Have to Be adversarial.

When not to bargain

132 | P a g e

You must bargain for Some Things, but not for everything.

You do not bargain Generally For The Following:

Anything costing less for less 500F Than Than a U.S. $ 1.

Already Items Grouped Into little batteries: most items in a

store mayonnaise, sardines, Coca-Cola

cooked food.

Other Items That Have Agreed-upon Generally Prices Rice, Salt,

Sugar, Powdered milk, meat, bread, etc..

Public Transportation Bus have SUCH There Are A Few

Exceptions Official Prices set by the government.

It Is Generally appropriate "to bargain for tourist items and

handicrafts large quanties of Anything big, expensive house Things Delawares and someone's services

Bush-taxi travel

No Amount of advice here could "Properly prepared you for the

experience of traveling in West Africa. Here are a few "basic pointers:

Your options are minibuses minibuses kaar, small vans and station Berlin

family cars. The minibuses are cheaper, the taxis are faster and marginally more comfortable.

Most taxi parks Have a syndicate of Drivers That Which controls for

first leaves. UNLESS you want to hire because you can not CF

firefighters annually choose Between coaches. All vehicles leave Only

When full (and we do mean full). You May Also Have goats, sheep or

chicken live as fellow passengers. Passengers are Generally Accommodating and friendly. There are no fixed schedules.

Most vehicles are old and Poorly Maintained; breakdowns are the rule,

not the exception. Expect to stop Often to push for the golden sandy from muddy road.

The worst roads get the worst taxis. As a rule, fares are fixed. You

Will, howeve, need to bargain with the boys at the station For Who

handle your bags, the price is unusual for oversized luggage or bikes

eg. A single reasonable sized bag "should cost nothing.

Begging and Asking for Money

You Will see a large number of beggars in the streets of the big cities.

You are Also Most Likely to Run Into celebrities Asking you for money

for One Reason or Another. One can Identify Three types of groups:

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the gnaagotoobhethe, the talibe Almudos gold, and the poor.

First, There Is a cultural aspect That Gives right to a category of

people have SUCH the griots and gnaagotobhe gnegnbhe to ask for

money. They Ask money to noble families DURING weddings, naming

ceremonies etc.. Then, There Are The Almudos. The Almudos are

permitted by Their school to beg for subsistence and Their For That of

Their School. Does Islam allow begging as part of the charity or alms giving a fellow Human Being That can give-to a less Fortunate brother.

Finally, There Is the Poor. Whether or handicapped Simply bankrupted

by économique hardship, the poor make up the Majority of the

beggars. As Drought, civil strife and wars in the continent multiply,

Displaced People flock in large numbers to the cities searching for a better life.

Someone coming from the Developed Countries "should expect to Be

Often Asked for money. After All There Is That the presumption has everyone from Wealthy Wealthy Country is Himself.

Common Sense Should Be the Guide thesis in boxes. It is OK to "give a

tip for a service, or if one feels like it. One should "take the fact of

Being Asked for money in stride and not Bring Forth the Whole" theory

of political economy, nor engages in a full fledge Psychological

Analysis of Cultural Gaps. The good counsel Is To Be prudent in

managing one's money in a foreign country and enjoy one's travel.

Religious Activities

God Willing

The Will of God Alla jabhii So God Willing Literally means clustering, If

God accepts and Is a common response to see you tomorrow ou autres

assertions about the future. Even the firmest of arrangements Will

Always Have someone with this caveat.

Women and Islam

The Fulani people are not as strict with women as Other Islamic

societies, women are not segregated "from men in day-to-day Life, and

They Are not required to cover general faces.In Their Heads gold, as in

MOST of the World, Women Have a Harder Time Than Men getting

respect and Being Taken Outside traditional female roles gravement.

Although foreign women Receive more respect for Being Simply

Foreigners, and In Some boxes are Treated as honorary men, They Will

Still Find That They Are Likely accorded less respect Than Their male

peers.

Polygamy

Many Men Have two, three or oven wives. This complicata Family

134 | P a g e

Relationships from a Westerner's point of view co WHERE wives, half-

brothers, etc.. are new concepts.

Ramadan Fasting

"During the month of Ramadan (Sumayee) Which falls at different

times of the year, Since the Islamic lunar calendar IS, Muslim adults

fast" during the day and eat only at night. To fast IS hoorde hoorugol gold.

Some Foreigners choose to fast for One or Several days, as a gesture

of Solidarity. If you're not fasting, be as discreet as possible about

eating or drinking "during the day.

Prayer Times

One of the ritual obligations of all Muslims pray five times Is To a day at specified times:

Dawn Fajir,

tisbar noon,

Afternoon takussan

sunset futuro, geye evening.

People Will Therefor use points of contention have a time reference.

Telling Time

Punctuality

Except for Religious droits, punctuality Is Not a particularly important concept

in West-African societies. Nevertheless you Will Find people in the remotest

villages That Carry watches as a decorative item. Nowadays, watches are part

of the Even Panoply of ceremonial gifts ie weddings, etc. Tabaski.

Marking Time

Telling time by the hour and the minute something IS Which Probably you will

not Have Much for use in Pulaar. Howeve, people mark the times of the day by

noting the position Either of the sun or by the Five Muslim Prayers Which are

Called out from the mosque. In addition to e gnalowma jamma, Day and night,

the times of day are as Follows divide:

"During the day time: Subak (Morning) fegnange (Mid-day) kikidhe (Late after noon)

At night: kikidhe jamma (Evening) nder Jamma (Middle of the night) weendogo

(Dawn). These are the units of time more or less Measured by the position of

the sun. Other units are: weet , Day time, hiiri, Evening time, nang fudhi sun

135 | P a g e

rise, nang muti, Sun set. The cardinal directions Subsequent are: was nang,

East, towards the sun rises and from Which hirr nang, The west, the sun sets

WHERE. In the Case of Specifying Futa Toro Rewo Is The north and worgo the

south. Factors That It Is thesis divide everyone's day, and people make plans accordingly Their.

Daily activities LUKAS changes to the season of the year. Being part of a rural

farming community Will Make it important to know the yearly seasonal cycles.

Daily activities for Both Men and women change with the season.

Seasons

Life in a village revolve around life sustaining Two farming activities and / or

herding cattle. These activities change periodically with the seasons of the year.

There Are Three major seasons in the year. They Are Known As Ndungu,

ceedhu, and dabbunde. Ndungu, Is The rainy season. It extends Roughly

Between the months of July-through late September. In a good year, the Sahel

region May Receive 300-400 mm. of rain water, and Rain Will Come Every

week or so. In bad years it has rain May only couple of times THROUGHOUT

THE ENTIRE season. Ndungu, IS dabbunde Followed by, or the cold season.

Dabbunde runs from October to February. For Westerners, it IS by far the

pleasantest season. in Futa And The Easiest to work in. It gets quite chilly at

night, and at Noon Even the temperatures are pleasant. Ceedhu, Or the hot

season, in February or March Begins and continuous Until the rains begin. It Is

a Time Marked by hot, drying winds from the North. Farmers Have DURING

few "activities this time of the Year," whereas herders must work very hard to find water and pasture for Their animals.

In Fulani areas, LUKAS daily activities changes to the season of the year. In a

rural farming community It Is important to know the yearly seasonal cycles.

Daily activities for men, women and children changed with the season. This'

may be important in project planning Since people are Much busi DURING

certain seasons Than others. To be effective in one's own work, It Is Better to

divide up the Year Into Periods of Time Which Can Be Effectively Exploited for

various Purposes DEPENDING upon the seasonal flow of work, seasonal

migration patterns, and times of the Year When money and leisure time are

available. In a sense, has seasonal work plan would make more sense Than

Any kind of daily schedule, and Work Should Be Set goals accordingly

Farming

From the point of view of the farmer, the region of northern Senegal IS Divided

Into Two very different ecological zones: the waalo And The jeeri. The waalo

Which Is The land lies next to the Senegal River and flooded WHICH IS Every

year "during the rainy season. In dabbunde, When the floods retransfer, This

land is planted with millet, rice, vegetables and Some. The jeeri Is All the land

to the south of the river WHICH IS not flooded. Water in the jeeri Comes from

very deep wells, or from pools of water slowly evaporate Which after the rainy season. The jeeri IS planted with millet "during the rainy season.

136 | P a g e

For people living near the river, The year is Divided Into the season for the

farming jeeri (During the rains) and the season for the farming waalo (After

the rains). The jeeri Does not Produce Enough to sustain a family agriculturally

THROUGHOUT the year. Those Who are Not Able families to plant a second

crop in the waalo Their herds depends upon for a major share of Their

Livelihood. I'm his first box depends upon the THEY milk to drink and secondly

upon milk products to sell or trade for millet and rice. Finally, They May

occasionally sell animals in order year was Staff to Meet Need for cash.

137 | P a g e

Evolution of Fulani Communities

Numerous writers of The Work On The Fulani Makes it Clear That No simple

formula for the evolution and differentiation of Fulani Communities can Be ugly

down. Communities of pastoralists persist, and Will continues to do so in Their

present form in regions of the savannah belt WHERE sedentary populations

reposer at a low density. Administrative action coupled with ecological réforme

May create demarcated areas "WHERE cattle-raising Will it flourish more akin

to a Basis ranching; Enclosure May lead to mixed farming. Communities of

semi-sedentarists do not Represent year internship in the inevitable process

towards a new sedentary way of life; THEY ARISE May-through Poverty in

cattle, gold ITS reverse.

It Is Believed That nomadic Fulani started "to leave Futa Toro in Senegal,

looking for new pastures and water for Their herds around the year 1000.

Following The next four-five centuries, THEY HAD MOST spread over the area

of the Sudan-west of Lake Chad. By the 16th century THEY HAD Established

Themselves at Massina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and Were Proceeding

Eastward Into Hausaland. Some Settled in the 19th century at Adamawa (in

the northern Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to Pursue a pastoral

life; some, howeve, particularly in Hausaland, Gave Up Their nomadic pursuits, Settled Into Existing Urban Communities.

The Oldest Plantagenet sources mentioning the Fulani Empire in the Baghirmi

(Southeast of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most Probably, the

Fulani Were Welcomed by the local ruler, As They Brought 'em with cattle and

constituted a market for Agricultural Products. The groups of nomadic Fulani

Had to pay a tribute in cattle to the local ruler, Malthus recognizing Loved

autorité. With time, a group of sedentary Fulani Began to emerge. These Often

Educated Muslims have Distinguished Themselves Were Highly Appreciated and

by the local rulers for Their services have civil servants, teachers and legal advisers.

The Fulani cam Into contact with Islam Already Before Their emigration from

Senegal. Conversion to Islam Was Widespread Especially Amongst The

sedentary Fulani, while the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) Were less receptive to

Islam. Amongst the Bororo, Islam never created Profound exchange of

mentality, ugly goal as a thin shell above-the traditional cultural heritage, and

this is pretty Much Remains how the situation today in the small societies of

Bororo = remaining. The sedentary Fulani in Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, Masina, "as well as giving further in Haussaland, Were Strongly Influenced by Islam.

Although Fulani are all over West Africa and Other Parts of Africa, the website

will focus only Jamtan we Fulani areas WHERE HAD Historically Significant

impacts. These regions intersect Which Almost all new West African nations

include: Adamawa, Kano, Katsina, Masina, uta Jallon, Futa Toro and the Bororo

/ Wodaabe.

138 | P a g e

The Adamawa Fulani

The ancient Emirate of Adamawa Was a proportion of

the Sokoto Caliphate, the politically dominant empire of

the Central Sudan in the 19th century. Adamawa Was

Known As The wild east of the Caliphate, Fulani

Settlers Were Occupied The Vast highlands of Northern

Cameroon and Provided for the Slavic empire from the

Neighboring areas.

One nomadic Fulani started "That suppose to leave

Futa Toro in Senegal, looking for new pastures and

water for Their herds around the year 1000. Following

The next four-five centuries, THEY HAD MOST spread

over the area of the Sudan-west of Lake Chad. By the

16th century THEY HAD Established Themselves at

Macina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and Were

Proceeding Eastward Into Hausaland. Some Settled in

the 19th century at Adamawa (in the northern

Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to Pursue a

pastoral life; some, howeve, particularly in Hausaland,

Gave Up Their nomadic pursuits, Settled Into Existing

Urban Communities.

The Oldest Plantagenet sources mentioning the Fulani Empire in the Baghirmi

(Southeast of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most Probably, the

Fulani Were Welcomed by the local ruler, As They Brought 'em with cattle and

constituted a market for Agricultural Products. The groups of nomadic Fulani

Had to pay a tribute in cattle to the local ruler, Malthus recognizing Loved

autorité. With time, a group of sedentary Fulani Began to emerge. These Often

Educated Muslims have Distinguished Themselves Were Highly Appreciated and

by the local rulers for Their services have civil servants, teachers and legal advisers.

The Fulani cam Into contact with Islam Already Before Their emigration from

Senegal. Conversion to Islam Was Widespread Especially Amongst The

sedentary Fulani, while the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) Were less receptive to

Islam. Amongst the Bororo, Islam never created Profound exchange of

mentality, ugly goal as a thin shell above-the traditional cultural heritage, and

this is pretty Much Remains how the situation today in the small societies of

Bororo = remaining. The sedentary Fulani in Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, Masina, "as well as giving further in Haussaland, Were Strongly Influenced by Islam.

The Sokoto Caliphate of

Adamawa 'may be seen as the last link in a chain of empires Being Islamized in

the Sudan-belt "during the last grand movement of Muslim expansion in Africa.

With the Outbreak of Jihad in the West African Futa Jallon (in modern Guinea)

in 1725 Stated the Age of An Islamic Fundamentalist and more militant,

Promoted by the Fulani, sharply contrasting Earlier the spread of Islam by

139 | P a g e

peaceful Muslim traders.

Haussaland (in modern Northern Nigeria) Was Loose Groupings of nominally

Muslims, small kingdoms shrugged. They Were united by a common language

and culture, and the large center area Was year of trade and education,

politically and Highly Economically Developed. It Is Assumed That Began to

Settle the Fulani in the 15th century here. A Relatively high proportion of

contention Fulani Establishing Themselves in the towns Haussa Were Educated Muslims, assimilating well Into Haussa culture.

In 1804, Fulani in Haussaland rebelled Against Their Rulers Haussa. Was the

rebellion led by the Fulani Uthman dan Fodio, One of the MOST reconnu Muslim

Intellectuals of the region. It Originated in the public denunciation of the

Administrative and Religious Haussa Circumstances in the kingdom of Gobir by

dan Fodio. Shrugged aristocracy, Claiming to Rule in Accordance with the

principles of Islam, in reality only nominally Were Muslims. As Dan Fodio's

denunciation only led to Further Oppression of Faithful Muslims, hey Called was

rebellion. As the appeal for conquest spread all over Haussaland, Fulani

Muslims and Other Gathered around dan Fodio and Participated in the fighting.

Dan Fodio led em to success. Already in 1810, Almost all the kingdoms Haussa

Were subjugated. Muslim Fulani empires Were Established and call emirates.

The caliphate of the Fulani Was To Become The biggest and most influential empire of Central Africa in the 19th century.

The Emirate of Adamawa

Independently of the conquest in Haussaland, a local Fulani rebellion Took

Place in the so-Called Fombina - the southern country (Referring to the lands

in the south of the Bornu empire Nowadays Northern Adamawa). For Some

Time, a modest group of Fulani HAD Been Settled in towns and villages Ruled

by non-Muslims, so-Called Kirdis. The areas "of the Diamare pity and the

Benue lowland pastures were excellent and attracted more and more Bororo.

Around 1800, the local Fulani rebelled Against the ruling GISIGER-Kirdi, and

Were Sustained By The Muslim Sultanate of Mandara Neighboring. Based on

Their strong Cavalry and Their Strategic methods, They Conquered the urban

centers soon, and about 1810 the hand of the town GISIGER, Marva (Fulfulde:

Maroua) Fell Into Their Hands. As early as one year after the appeal of holy

war by dan Fodio, in 1805, the Mobido Adama Ba-clan of the white flag of the

Received the jihad, and the title as chief of command in Against the Kirdi

Fombina. Adama Malthus Received the title of emir Lamido Fombina gold, have

IS ET Normally Called in European literature. He Loved Established

headquarters in Gurin by the River Faro purpose to it later "Moved by the River

Benue Yola in 1841. Fombina later "Became Known as Adamawa, named after

founder ITS Adama.

The new alliance with the Fulani from Haussaland And The Religious Dimension of dan Fodio's jihad Gave new strength to the rebellion of the Fulani Fombina ..

About 1850, the conquest of Adamawa in general Was Fulfilled, Some with 40

Established lamidats and MOST of the indigenous population subdued by golden rule Fulani living as Refugees in marginized areas.

140 | P a g e

The large number of lamidats Were to Develop in the European colonial

conquest Before decades.

From the 1850es onward, European explorers visited Adamawa; in the 1890s,

the British ROYAL NIGER COMPANY, French and German explorers competed

for Obtaining treaties with the Emir (Lamido). In 1901 Germany and Britain

partitioned the Emirate, the larger part of It Became part of German Kamerun,

the smaller western part, with the capital Yola, part of British NORTHERN

NIGERIA. The Germans had MILITARY RESIDENTURE Established in Garu, close

to Yola, Where They stationed a company of soldiers, to Discourage Obviously the Adamawans from rising in revolt.

After 1901, the emirs Yola Has HAD to accept British domination Bobo Ahmadu

Ahmadu Was deposed and exiled in 1909. The larger parts of their territoire,

Now Located in German Kamerun Was Lost to Their influence was only part of

it Being Granted to Britain by the League of Nations in 1922 as a part of the mandate of British Cameroons.

Adamawa's Emirs

Independent Emirate Emirate of Yola Under British Protection

1848-1872

1872-1890

1890-1901

Lawal

Sanda

Zubeiru

1901-1909

1909-1910

1910-1924

1924-1928

1928-1946

1946-1953

Bobo Ahmadu

Iya

Abba

Muhammadu Bello

Mustafa

Ahmadu

Lamidos

House of Modibo Adama

1848 - 1872 Bin Hamman Adama 1797 - 1872

1872 - 1890 Sanda bin Adama, brother

1890 - 1901 Zubeiru bin Adama, brother, deposed by the British, Killed while

fighting the Germans (2) 18 .. - 1903

1901 - 1909 Bobbo Ahmadu bin Adama, brother, installed deposed by the British and 18 .. - 1916

1909 - 1910 Iya Mohammed bin Sanda, Sanda of its bin Adama (s.a.),

141 | P a g e

abdicated.

1910 - 1924 Abba Muhammad bin Bobbo Ahmadu, his Bobbo Ahmadu bin Adama of 1 ... - 1924

1924 - 1928 Muhammad bin Ahmadu Bello, great-grandson of Adama Modibo

(1771 - 1848; st 1806 - 1848) 1 ... - 1928

1928 - 1946 Muhammad Mustafa bin Muhammad Abba (sa) 1900-1946

(1) Most of Its territoire howeve Became part of German Cameroon.

(2) In order to escape French influence, accepted protection ET Of the R.N.C. as early as 1893.

Notable Adamawa Fulani: Modibo Adama and Ahmadu Ahidjo

Modibo Adama

In the early 1800? S Modibo Adama Brought the news of Usman dan Fodio? S

jihad in Sokoto in northern Nigeria What is now. At That Time, It Was regarded

Hausaland. Encouraged Modibo Fulbe from the area to join in the jihad or holy

war. Dan Fodio Was Asked to come and help, and Fulani families in Joined the

Fight. Theys enslaved or drove out all non-Fulbe. The ruler of the area Lived in

Yola (present-day Nigeria), Was Called a laminate, and heads of families have

HAD chiefs Under Him. This made the Fulani jihad the rulers of the area, And

They named it after Modibo Adama Adamawa, Their first leader.

Ahmadu Ahidjo

Ahmadu Ahidjo Was a Pullo (singular for Fulani) of Common Origin. He HAD

Been to Western schools and tried to get northerners from Cameroon to Be more active in politics.

In 1946 He Was Elected to the Territorial Assembly.

ET Founded in 1948 the Friendship Association of Benue.

When a coalition government Was Formed, He Was Deputy Prime

In 1958 ET Helped create the Union of Cameroon.

By the time Cameroon ITS got independence on January 1, 1960, Ahidjo Was

Already head of state, to lead the first after independence. Ahidjo

Strengthened the Muslims, the north section of Cameroon, the Fulani and

Especially

Languages

One could "Malthus say, That There Was Many of Languages Before the arrival

142 | P a g e

of the Fulani. To contribute "Even more to the confusion, the Muslim

conquerors Brought with Them Even More, Differing languages, Fulfulde,

Haussa, Kanuri and Arab. There was an Obvious Need for a lingua franca for all

of the new entity have Adamawa Was shaped. In general, Fulfulde Was To

Become The new lingua franca of the region, although different languages Kirdi

Were prevail in certain areas. This have a contrary to the rest of the Sokoto

Caliphate, WHERE Haussa Became the pre-dominant language, ALSO Among

the Fulani. In the lamidats of Ngaoundere and Tibati, the language Mbum

Became Widespread've got the Fulfulde, Even in the royal courts. Nowadays,

French, and to a certain degree, Français Has Taken Over the role as lingua franca in Adamawa.

Traditions

The Fulani nomads live in camps while wet season planting and harvesting. The

pastures are lush and green, and the cattle graze freely. These camp consisted

of beehive-like huts made of woven twigs, leaves, and grass. "During the dry

seasons THEY camp in portable huts, moving the cattle or sheep to well-Watered lands in the flood pity.

Adamawa Fulani men hunt, trade livestock, and tending to the herds. While the

older men exercise the leadership of the tribes, It Is the duty of the younger

men to move the herds. Young boys are responsible for Helping Their older

brothers with the herds. The women milk the cattle Usually butter and sell in the markets.

The Fulani are a Proud People Who Teach Young Children To Have Their Tribal

Dignity. Fulani children are required to Love Their Mothers and Their respect

for elders. They Are Also Taught to hold on to Strictly Pulaaku important gains have SUCH Generosity, honesty, and modesty.

While Fulani children are infants Still, marriages are arranged for Them by

Their Parents. When A Boy Is Initiated Into manhood, hey moves Into A

Separate hut. This hut Will Eventually Become The Loved home of bridegroom.

Young girls look forward to Being married, Since This Will Give Them A Higher social status. Having Many children Will Also Bring Them honor.

The Fulani serie unusual way of Initiating Boys Into manhood. The young boys

must beat Each Other Across the chest with walking sticks while Showing no

signs of pain. THROUGHOUT the Rest of Their Lives, thesis scars are proudly

have shown signs of courage.

There are Many taboos Within The Fulani culture. For example, They Are a first

forbidden to call his daughter by name gold. When in public, wives must stay

at a distance, are intended Watched over by Their Husbands. Goat Meat May Be Eaten and not only beef IS Eaten at formal ceremonies.

Culture Shock (nderkaaku)

The Revolt of Young Fulani herders in Adamawa

With the exchange Introduced by the modern currents, the Fulani of Adamawa

143 | P a g e

in the Ngaoundere area are increasingly distraught by The Changing

Relationships between parents and children. When young adults THEY Become,

boys do not obey Their fathers anymore. Theys escape for a life of adventure,

in Called nderkaaku the local Fulani language. The parents are Offended by this

situation, Even Though It Has Taken Many place for generations. This is

Especially true for a family Without cattle. To seek fortune Their Own

Elsewhere, the Young Men Have to leave home. The Inheritance Law Which Favors The Eldest est aussi Another source of rebellion.

The pervasive influence MOST Purpose Is The City Life. When the young men

take the cattle to the urban markets, They learn about modern life and Become

Their Further remote from rural families. Though Overall, despite the family

Disapproval, this rebellion IS seen as inevitable Exchange Which May Events Contribute to the Enrichment of the family to a dynamic and Fulani diaspora.

Glossary of Terms

acephalous

From Greek, aképhalos, Meaning headless, or Without head. Term Used for

Societies Without defines leaders. Acephalous societies Were the norm in Many

Parts of Historical Africa, in Particular in the tropical rainforest areas.

ardo

Fulfulde ar'do, plural ar'du'be. In Adamawa, ardo Could Be translated as chief

of the district. Mostly a term of a clan leader of the Bororo. In Several dialects, ardo means clustering leader of a group of Fulani, gold Simply leader.

Bororo

Fulfulde Mbororo. Originally a condescending term, the nomadic Fulani Describing. Alternative terms are Cattle-Fulani Fulani gold-Bush.

Emir

Arabic amiir: Actually Meaning Commander, Leader, Prince, Emir. Emir Is The

MOST common term in European literature for rulers in Adamawa ou autres

places Being direct subjects to the Sultan of Sokoto. The correct term in

Fulfulde would Be laamii'do (Contrary to laam'do, WHICH IS Called Lamido in European literature).

Emirate

Imaara Arabic, plural imaaraat: Actually Meaning Power, Emirate. In this

context it IS Referred to as a Fulani empire, headed by Emir year.

Fombina

Fulfulde Fommbina: Actually Meaning The South. Early term Referring to

144 | P a g e

Adamawa.

Jihad

Arabic. "Jihad Has Two meanings: one, non-violent Within militaire armes

Struggling For A Life of Virtue, comme au, fighting for justice, a supreme goal

in Islamic Teachings.

Kanuri

Kanuri Kanuri: Actually Meaning a person of the Kanuri people, or Kanuri:

Language or culture of the Kanuri people. Important people and language of

the central Sudan. The Kanuri Were the people heading The Powerful Bornu Empire.

Lamidat

This Word Is a European construction and does not exist in Fulfulde, WHERE IS

Called Laamu this unit. The Word Is Constructed Of The Fulfulde word and the

Arab emirate laamii'do. Malthus, Lamidat means clustering Fulani empire headed by a Lamido.

Lamido

Fulfulde laam'do, plural laamibe. Originate in the verb laamaago; governance /

head, and Is a term Describing the ruler of the Gutman Of A Lamidat, Which in

turn IS subject to year emir.

Mayo

Fulfulde maayo: River.

Modibo

Fulfulde moodibbo, plural moodi'b'be: loanwords from the Arabic mu'addib:

Term Describing year Educated Man, Normally a Koran teacher in school.

Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate term Is The European form. It Has Its origin in the

capital of the empire, Sokoto. The term caliphate in reality IS Misleading. The ruler of the empire Called Himself musulmi Sarkin, or ruler of the Muslims.

Sufism

Within Islam, the Sufism IS Characterized by mysticism. While Islam Normally

Emphasize the great distance Between God and man, and thereby Often Does

not Meet The Needs of the Faithful to Come Into Contact with the

transcendent, Sufism opens a door-to-the unity with Allah. For example-

through the Leading Life Of An asceticism or suggestive Practicing exercises,

145 | P a g e

Each and everybody could "get to feel the closeness of Allah, howeve after

going-through a long process. Sufism, Malthus, WAS more popular Than

orthodox Islam, and more suited for Therefor the spread of the religion or

mission. From the 12th century, Sufism has Widespread Became popular

version of Islam Amongst ordinary people, the poor and the illiterate. In Africa

it Gained great popularity and Became widespread.

Abstract from: Rise and Fall of the Adamawa Emirate

By Rainer Chr. Hennig (translated introduction to thesis, 1993)

The Bagirmi

People name: Bagirmi Fula

Language: Bagirmi Fulfulde

The Fulani are Bagirmi sub-group of The Much larger Fulani tribe has spread

across That Is Much of West Africa. The Mostly Bagirmi are found in the

Countries ofChad and Central Africa. (See statistics below) The Fulani are

named and Grouped According To Their locations and occupations. The Fulani

are a Bagirmi branch of the Fulani Who occupy the region of south Bagirmi-

central Chad. Theys Have Also Eastward spread and are now in shares of the

Central African Republic. Their language, Fulfulde Bagirmi, Belongs to the West

Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family.

The Traditions of Bargirmi Fulani

Combining agriculture with herding, the Fulani are semi-Bagirmi sedentary

herdsmen. Some Other Fulani groups unlikable Whose families travel with 'em,

the home has Bagirmi Fulani hairpins Where They live for half the year.

"During the dry season, grazing ground and water When are scarce, They take

Their cattle from the homestead in search of greener pastures.

The head of the family, Loved Along with wives and younger children, stay at

home and Usually tends to a small herd and the crops. The young married

sounds and Their families leave with the rest of the cattle. Hence, the Fulani

can move and desire When THEY can pay Also Kinsmen and tends to Laborers

to the home vegetable gardens. In this way, They Can Be Rewarded and

enriched by the spectrum of Both ENDS: herding and agriculture.

At the homestead, agriculture Provider for the Livelihood of the People, with

pearl millet and sorghum as the staple crops. Corn, beans, peanuts, melons,

and cucumbers are grown Aussi. Horses, sheep, goats, chickens, and dogs are

Kept at the family farm, and Wild Rice is Gathered from the fields by the

women. Family lineages Settlements in the Sami village and family form

compounds. Polygamy (the practice of wife HAVING More Than One) IS

Commonly practiced. Saddle LUKAS IS Sometimes Picked to the number of

cattle she possessive Since cattle are a symbol of Wealth Among all Fulani. At

the markets, the trade Fulani Bagirmi Their dairy products for grain, farm

equipment, and cloth. Also the market place has got reservations for social

gatherings. Village dances and ceremonies are Held in the Market.

The Fulani Were one of the first groups in Africa to convert to Islam. Today,

the Bagirmi are 99.9% Muslim. Howeve, They Still continues to Practice Many

of Their old Fulani traditions. To a Fulani, the important Things in life are

family, cattle, strong morals, and beauty. Also Theys year value excellence in

poetry, singing, and dancing. To the Fulani children are symbols of the future.

For this Reason, a special ceremony Authority or to Celebrate the birth of his

firstborn was and the naming of a sound. The Fulani do not believe in afterlife

year. Instead, They Believe That a person lives from generation to generation-

146 | P a g e

through Loved Children. With a sound man's name was Will and features

remain.

Chad Statistics

Country: Chad

Capital: N'Djamena.

Official languages: French and Arabic.

Official name: Republic of Chad (Republic of Chad).

Area: 495.755 sq. mi. (1.284 million sq. Km). Greatest distance: east-west,

640 mi. (1.030 km) north-south, 1.097 mi. (1.765 km).

Elevation: Highest : Emi Koussi, 11.204 ft. (3.415 m.) Above sea level.

Lowest: Lake Chad, 922 ft. (281 m) Above sea level.

Population: Estimated 2000 population - 7,307,000; density, 15 persons

per sq. mi. (6 per sq. Km) distribution, 78 percent rural, 22 percent urban.

1993 census - 6,279,931.

Chief products: Agriculture: cattle, cotton, millet, peanuts, rice, sorghum.

Manufacturing: beer, cigarettes, textiles.

National anthem: The Chad (The Chadian)

Flag: The flag Has vertical blue, yellow, and red stripes. Blue symbolization

the sky and hope. Yellow stands for the Sun. Red Represents fire and unity

Money: Basic unit, frank. One hundred cents EQUAL one franc.

Central African Republic Statistics

Country: Central African Republic

Capital: Bangui.

Official languages: French ..

Official name: Central African Republic (Central African Republic).

Area: 240.535 sq. mi. (622.984 sq. Km).

Elevation: Highest :

Population: Estimated 2000 population: 3,731,000; density, 15 persons per

sq. mi. (6 per sq. Km) distribution, 39 percent urban, 61 percent rural.

1988 census: 2,463,616

Chief products: Products: Agriculture: bananas, coffee, cotton, livestock,

palm kernels, peanuts, rubber, sesame, yams. Forestry: timber. Mining:

diamonds, gold.

National anthem:

Flag: Horizontal blue, white, green, and yellow stripes are at the center

Divided by a red vertical stripe. A yellow star representing The Guiding Light

of the future. Red, white, and blue recall the UK flag. Green, yellow, and red

are for the People and Their unity.

Money: Basic unit, frank

Ref: The World Book

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The Bauchi Fulani

Some of the Fulani herds with Their travel, Some Are Settled, Some mix and

herding with farming. The Bauchi Fulani are nomadic herdsmen. A few

"hundred years ago, the Hausa Fulani of Conquered the northern Nigeria.

Though THEY continues to Dominate the Hausa, Fulani, the language and the

ADOPTED Have Some customs of the Hausa. The area Is a grassy THEY

occupy savanna with hot temperatures and high humidity. Lions, giraffes,

elephants, pigs and wild animals Are Among The Many That Inhabit the region.

Traditions of the Bauchi Fulani

Because the Bauchi Fulani are nomadic herdsmen, gold Bororo, Their

Livelihood IS Based on Their cattle. Owning cattle Is a symbol of health and

well-being Among all Fulani. In fact, a Man LUKAS IS RespectEd to the

number of cattle ET owns and He Knows How Much about herding. Will choose

Sometimes a man Loved LUKAS flange to the number of cattle she owns. Milk

from the cattle Is The staple food of the Fulani. Their daily diet includes

Usually milk, butter, and cheese.

Although the Fulani herds travel with Their, They Also Live With The Hausa

farmers "for part of the Year. Together, They make use of the fertile land

"during the rainy season. Many Hausa Become frustrated Because sacrifice

part of the crops' may be Eaten gold Trampled by the herds. Howeve, no ill

feelings linger, Since the manure left behind Provides fertilizer for the next season's crops.

A typical Bauchi Fulani family consists "of a Man, His Wife, and His Wives and

sounds with Their Children. THROUGHOUT the year, the families travel from

place to place with Their herds. Each member of the family Has Specifying

droits. The men's Responsibilities include herding the cattle, Tending to

politique affairs, Treating Illness, and making plans for traveling. The women's

milking the cows droits include, Preparing butter and cheese, making the

clothes and blankets, and Preparing the daily meals.

The younger boys help Their older brothers with the herds, while the girls help

Their Mothers. When a boy Reach the age of 12, hey Enters Sukaabe, Young

Adulthood gold. At That Time, HE IS Taught the rules of respect, courtesy, and justice to the strong LUKAS moral code of the Bauchi.

The Fulani Were one of the first people groups in Africa to Be Converted to

Islam, and today, Almost all of the Bauchi Fulani are Muslim. In Spite of Their

devotion to Islam, howeve, Many Fulani continued to observe Their sacrifice

part of pre-Islamic practices. The Bauchi Fulani feel very Strongly about

Morality. Their lifestyle embraces a high code of ethics, Which include

compliance, Generosity, modesty, and kindness. This code of moral behavior,

Called Pulaaku, Must Be Strictly Followed for the Fulani to Be regarded part of the Bororo, Who are the purist regarded Fulani group.

To the Fulani children are the future. They Do not believe in afterlife year, so

148 | P a g e

children are the only means clustering by Which THEY can live on from

generation to generation. Theys Believe That Their sound-through, Their

names and features Will remain. If a Fulani dies with no children, 'as if It Is ET dies fewer spectators.

Nigeria Summary background

Most of Nigeria's people live in rural areas. Since the mid-1900's, Many

Nigerians Have Moved to the cities. Lagos Is The nation's commercial center. Nigeria's other large cities include Ibadan, Kano, Ogbomosho, and Uyo.

The Country Has More than 250 different ethnic groups Hausa 18.5%, 18.5%

Yoruba, Igbo 14.1%, 4.9% Toroobe Fulani, Kanuri Yerwa 3%. These ethnic

groups Differ from One Another in language and in Their sacrifice part of

customs and traditions. The Three Largest ethnic groups are, in order of size,

the Hausa, the Yoruba, Igbo and the (also spelled Ibo). These ethnic groups

account for Three about three-fifth of the total population of Nigeria.

The Hausa people live in northern Nigeria and Primarily in the Neighboring

Countries of Niger and Chad. Most of em are farmers ", And Many Also

Craftworkers and work as traders. The Hausa Have Lived in the area for more

Than a Thousand Years. "During the 1200's, the Fulani, a people Who

Originally from cam What are now Senegal and Gambia, Began To Settle In

The Hausa territoire. The Fulani Took control of the region "during the early

1800's. Because of the intermixing of the Two Peoples, the group IS Sometimes Called the Hausa-Fulani.

The Yoruba live in the southwestern part Mainly of the country and in Benin

and Togo, Two Nations That lie to the west of Nigeria. Many of the Yoruba live

in cities and farm land in the countryside The surroundings. Several Yoruba cities, Including Lagos Were Founded Hundreds of years ago.

The Igbo has majorité form of the population in southeastern Nigeria. In

addition, a large number of Igbo live in Other Areas of the country. "During

the period" of British rule in the 1900's, Many Igbo accepted Western

education and ways of life more Quickly Than Nigerian ethnic groups comme

au. The Igbo Were Also more Willing to travel. As a result, the Igbo Held Many

important positions in business and government "during the period" of colonial rule.

Other ethnic groups in Leading the country include the Nupe and Tiv of central

Nigeria, the Edo, Urhobo, Itsekiri and of the Edo and Delta states, the Ijo of

the Rivers state, the Efik and Ibibio of the Cross River State, and the Kanuri of

northeastern Nigeria.

Français Is The official language of Nigeria am and is Taught in Schools

THROUGHOUT the country. Howeve, Français Is Not the Country's Most

Commonly Used Language. Each of the 250 ethnic groups more Than That live

in Nigeria Has Its Own separate language. The Three Widely Used languages

are MOST of the Three Largest giving further ethnic groups: Hausa, Yoruba,

Igbo and. A majorité of the People of Nigeria speak more Than one language.

149 | P a g e

Theys May use the language of Their ethnic group on MOST opportunities, and

use another language Français gold at Other Times. In addition, Nigerians are

Muslims Who uses Arabic while Taking Part in Religious various activities.In

the cities, Many Nigerians wear Western-style clothing. Purpose other city

dwellers and people in Rural Areas MOST wear traditional clothing. Traditional

garments for men and women in Nigeria include the long, loose dresses made

of white gold brightly colored fabrics.

The chief of Nigeria foods include yams, corn, rice, and beans. Also The

People eat plantains (a kind of banana) and the roots of the cassava plant.

Nigerian Food is cooked in palm oil Often golden peanut oil, and it 'may be

seasoned with red peppers Highly. Some Nigerian meals feature beef,

chicken, fish, or lamb. Aim in general, Most Nigerians do not eat meat Much.

Popular Beverages in Nigeria include beer and wine was made from That Is

the sap of palm trees. Some city dwellers Also drink coffee and tea. Nigerian

Muslims Who obeyed the Laws of Islam May not drink alcoholic beverages.

Nigeria Statistics

Country: Nigeria

Capital: Abuja.

Official languages: Français

Official name: Federal Republic of Nigeria

Area: 356.669 sq. mi. (923.768 sq. Km). Greatest distance: east-west, 800

mi. (1,287 km) north-south, 650 mi. (1,046 km). Coastline: 478 mi. (769

km).

Elevation: Highest : Highest: Dimlang Peak 6.699 ft. (2.042 m.) Above sea

level. Lowest: sea-level.

Population: Estimated 2000 population: 128,786,000; density, 361 persons

per sq. mi. (139 per sq. Km) distribution, 84 percent rural, 16 percent urban.

1991 census: 88,992,220.

Chief productsAgriculture: beans, beef and hides, cocoa, cassava, corn,

cotton, millet, palm oil and palm kernels, peanuts, rice, rubber, yams.

Mining: columbite, limestone, natural gas, petroleum, tin. Manufacturing:

cement, chemicals, clothing, food products, textiles.

National anthem: Arise, O Compatriots.

Flag:

Money: Basic unit, the naira. One hundred kobo EQUAL one naira.

Ref: The World Book

The Fulani of Benin and Togo

See also Bororo-Wozaave

Today, the Fulani are named and Grouped According To Their locations,

occupations, and dialects. TheFulani of Benin occupy the northern and

central regions of the country. They Speak Fulfulde, a Niger-Congo language.

150 | P a g e

Similarly, tET Togo Fulani are giving further Fulani living in the northern

regions of Togo, Who emigrated from Benin. Ltr Bororos, Nomadic

herdsmen gold, Who Their cattle and goats take from place to place in

search of new grazing land. They Speak Fulfuldee, From the West-Atlantic

branch of the Niger Congo language family. The Togo Fulani are very similar

to Their Neighbors in Fulani Benin in life styles and features.

The Benin and Togo are Fulani shepherds Primarily, With Their lives

revolving around the herds. In the rainy season, the cattle and goats graze

on the lush fertile land near the village. "During the dry season, the cattle

and goats are Taken to Other Areas, wells are dug WHERE wide for Their

watering. Other Areas These are crop lands Sometimes Belonging to nearby

farmers. Though Some crops' may be Eaten gold Trampled by the herds, no

ill feelings linger, Since the manure left behind Provides fertilizer for the next

season's crops. For the nomadic Fulani cattle Are Their MOST important

possessions Since THEY symbolization Wealth and status. The more cattle a

man owns, the more respect HE IS Given; and 'may be a flange phrasal

LUKAS To The Amount of cattle she owns.

The Fulani have consumed milk daily Their hand food. Milk Is very important

to Their Diet, eat little meat THEY Since few "and vegetables. Butter and

goat cheese are traded Often at the Markets for Grain and Other items. Millet

IS Used Each Day in a porridge for the evening meal.

"During the dry season, the Fulani live in portable shelters made of flexible

twigs Covered with leaves and grass mats. Temporary corrals for the herds

surround EACH hut. Boys over 15 years old do Their Work "under the

direction and supervision of Their fathers. THEY dig wells and water the

herds, while younger brothers Their help by running Errands for em.

"During the rainy season, the Wuro (village) Is The Center of Fulani society.

Women care for the Children; prepared butter, cheese, and daily meals,

tending to the gardens ménage; and gather wild rice and berries. The men

tend the herds and to make clothes Their Own. Making clothes Is a Way to

Express Himself and man can show Loved individuality and personality.

The Benin and Togo Fulani, Fulani like Many Other groups, Believe That It Is

a sign of Weakness To Be controlled by fear; Malthus, They Seldom show

fear in public. Fulani boys are Initiated Into manhood in a Somewhat unusual

inmate admitted Called Sharo. In the Sharo initiation Friends Who are

Being Initiated Beat Each Other With Their over-the-chest walking sticks. No

sign of pain Is To Be shown, and There Should Be a additional willingness to

Receive more afflictions. Some Have Died in this procedure, the purpose

That Many do live proudly show Their scars as marks of honor. The Fulani

Fear Being Alone Disliked gold. Theys Often talk with friends to Overcome

the feeling of loneliness. Howeve, this company IS Need for Concealed in

public, have tended to hide the Fulani Their feelings. Only Through songs Do

They express love gold Such Thing as The Need for others.

The Bororo / Wozaave

Overview

Language: Kano-Katsina-Bororo Fulbhe

151 | P a g e

HiringCameroon, Chad, and Nigeria.

Bororo-Wozaave (read as wodhaabhe) Peoples are acutually a subgroup of the

larger Fulbe-speaking Fulani. THEY prefer to Call Themselves Bororo. Fulani are

nomadic people has Who Have Been Influential in regional politics, economics,

and Western stories THROUGHOUT Africa for over a Thousand Years. Wodaabe

live in northern Nigeria, in shares of Cameroon, And chad. Have TheysPlayed a

Significant Role in furthering Fulani domination in the area. The height of the

Fulani Empire Was Between the early 1900s and early 1800s. Was this power

consolidé Under Usman dan Fodio and centered in northern Wa Nigeria. Dan

Fodio Was a Devout Muslim Who Used Religious fervor to ignite Furini to

Undertaker series of holy wars. Following The early success of Islamic warriors,

non-Islamic Fulani Joined Ranks With Their fellows to form extensive year and

Powerful Empire.

The Two Most Significant Factors in Political Systems Fulani are clientage and

competition. In order to gain office has politique Fulani man would Have to

compete Loved Among Fellows for the right to rule. He could "show politique

Loved Favor by Demonstrating That He Had a wide in the form of FOLLOWING

Individuals and families. By agreeing to Become The Client A Powerful Man of

Gold family, a subject would offer tribute in the form of gifts and support in

exchange for politique security. Often men Wozaave Held considerable

politique Power Within Their Own Communities nomadic, as well as "Within The

Communities in Which THEY Settled.

The Wozaave, Also Known as Bororo Achieved Numerous celebrity status-

through National Geographic articles, film and television documentaries. They

Are Known best for the Festival of Gerewol Which translate as Choosing the

best one. The event Is a show Consisting of a succession of ceremonial songs

and dances by young men Who Performed Parade Themselves in front of

women, Who Then the best thing from Among Them. These tall and handsome

men, dressed in traditional costume, Many Spend hours in front Themselves

Creatively adorning paint and make-up.

Traditions of the Bororo

Mainly nomadic Bororo are herders and traders.The Bororo Fulani follow the

traditions of Their ancestor, and are regarded the purist of all Fulani groups.

These nomadic herdsmen Consider the long-horned cattle to Be a prized

possession and Have Dedicated Their Lives to caring for Their herds. Owning

cattle Is a symbol of health and well-being Among all Fulani. In fact, the level

of a Man's Respect is based on the number of cattle ET owns and He Knows

How Much about herding. The cattle Have Their Own and names are Treated

with affection by the Bororo. Milk Is The staple food of the Fulani. Their daily

diet includes Usually milk, butter, and cheese.

THROUGHOUT the year, the Bororo Fulani travel from place to place with Their

herds. Each member of the family Has Specifying droits. The men's

Responsibilities include herding the cattle, Tending to politique affairs, Treating

Illness, and making plans for traveling. The women's milking the cows droits

include, Preparing butter and cheese, making the clothes and blankets, and

Preparing the daily meals. They Are Also required to obey Their husband's

152 | P a g e

orders. The roads THEY Established in western / centra Africa Provided

extensive links THROUGHOUT the region fostered That Economic and Political

Parties Between Otherwise isolated ethnic groups. Dairy products Produced

from cattle traded to sedentary farmers "Were agricole for products and luxury

items. These items could "Then to Be Traded trans-Saharan traders have SUCH

the Tuareg for shipment north. Fine woven cloth produced by the Wodaabe Was regarded a luxury item That Could Be Traded on the international market.

The Wozaave are found in Bongor Also, in Western Chad, "During the dry

season and move to the Kanem Prefecture, North of Lake Chad, During the

rainy season for June. At the end of August, or early September, THEY start

Their journey south with cattle, to take advantage of all the new growth of

grass. Some travel 800 km. (500 miles) south as far as the Central African

Republic. As well as cutting cattle with huge horns, the Bororo in Chad Have

long-legged sheep Which Have a black and white hindquarters front half.

Their Art is not only famous for using motifs from Their Way of Life, purpose

Also from the modern world. Celebrations are a time for dancing and singing.

The women are tattooed, and the men dress and make up to dance. Spend

long hours in Theys story-telling, for the Wozaave do not use Fulfulde

Plantagenet. . Children learn values and pride from the Fulani tribal elders,

Who are Eager to pass down the Fulani traditions.

The Bororo feel very Strongly about Morality, and Constantly Strive To Be

Generous, Honest, and Respectful. Ltr very reserved people, Who are shy and

modest in public. Family relationships are Therefor Restrained. Even Mothers

are not permitted to Be With Their infant sounds, Since The Bororo Feel That It

Is to Be Inappropriate for affection shown in public. The Fulani Also Have a

strong concept of beauty. Fulani infants Receive decorative scars on Their faces

have symbols of beauty. The Children Will Receive more scarring and strictures on Their Forehead As They grow older.

Cameroon Statistics (See Also Chad and Nigeria statistics Statistics)

Country: Cameroon

Capital: Yaounde.

Official languages: Français and French ..

Official name: Republic of Cameroon (Republic of Cameroon).

Area: 183.569 sq. mi. (475.442 sq. Km). Greatest distances north-south,

770 mi. (1,239 km) east-west, 450 mi. (724 km). Coastline, 250 mi. (400

km).

Elevation: Highest Mount Cameroon, 13.353 ft. (4.070 m.) Above sea

level. Lowest, sea level, Along the coast.

Population: Estimated 2000 population: 15,245,000; density of 83 persons

per sq. mi. (32 per sq. Km) distribution, 56 percent rural, 44 percent urban.

1987 census: 10,493,655.

Major peoples in size order

Adamawa Fulani 8.6%

Ewondo 8.1%

Cameroonian Creole 5.8% k

Major Religions

Christians 63.7%

Muslim 24.3%

Capital: Yaounde.

153 | P a g e

Bulu Fang 4%

Bamileke-Bandjoun 3%

Chief products: Agriculture and forestry: bananas, cocoa beans, coffee,

cotton, palm oil, root crops, rubber, timber. Manufacturing: Aluminum, beer,

cocoa, petroleum products, shoes, soap. Mining: petroleum.

National anthem: O Cameroon, Thou Cradle of Our Fathers.

Flag: The flag Has green, red, and yellow vertical stripes, with a yellow star

in the center of the red stripe.

Money:

Ref: The World Book

Fellaata

Overview of Sudan

The labor population groups in Sudan are: Arabs, Nubians, Beja, Fur,

Zaghawa, Masalit Daju, and Berti. Howeve There Is a Significant number of

West Africans Including Fulani.

People of West African origin in Sudan over a number one million and a half.

Together, West Africans Who Have Become Sudanese National and non-

national residents from West Africa make up 6.5 percent of the Sudanese

population. In the mid-1970s, West Africans HAD Been Estimated at more

Than 10 percent of the population of the northern provinces. Some

descendants of persons Who Were HAD Arrived five generations or more

Earlier, others Were recent immigrants. Some HAD come in self-imposed exile,

Unable to Accommodate to the colonial power in Their Homeland. Others HAD

Been pilgrims to Mecca, controlled settling Either way gold on Their return.

Many cam over decades in the race of the great dispersion of the nomadic

Fulani; Arrived others, particularly after World War II, as rural and urban Laborers gold to take up land as Peasant cultivators.

The Fellaata (See also Tekrur)

Nearly 60 percent of people included in the West African category Were Said to

Be of Nigerian origin (locally Called Borno after the Nigerian emirate That Was

Their homeland). Given Hausa dominance in northern Nigeria and the

Widespread use of Their language There and Elsewhere, Some non-Haus Might

Also Be Called Themselves as Hauser and DESCRIBE SUCH. Aim the Hausa

Themselves, particularly giving further along in Sudan, preferred to Be Called

Takari. Typically, the term Applied to the Fulani in Sudan Was Fellati, goal

Sudanese Also Used for Others That term West Africans. The dialect of Fellati Language is Called Gombe.

The Fulani nomads Were found in Many Parts of central Sudan from Darfur to

the Blue Nile, And They occasionally competed with indigenous populations for

pasturage. In Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various ways to the

presence of the Baqqara tribes. Retained all aspects Some of Their culture and

language. A few "HAD Become Much like Baqqara in language and in Others

respectively, although THEY Tended to retain Their Own breeds of cattle and

154 | P a g e

ways of handling them". Some of the Fulani groups in the eastern states Were

sedentary, descendants of sedentary Fulani of the ruling group in northern

Nigeria. Many Sudanese speak Arabic; Also Some speak Hauser and Songa have second languages.

Mahdist is group bilingual in Fulfulde and Sudanese Spoken Arabic. Few

Monolingual; MOST are children. Previous migration from Sokoto, Nigeria;

Maasina, Mali, and Liptaako Jelgooji, Burkina Faso, Adamawa and Gombe,

Nigeria, and the lineage Wodaabe Have Settled in Sudan. Some Also from

Cameroon. Predominant Fulfulde in Sudan IS Adamawa. Influenced by Arabic. Muwalid is group Monolingual in Sudanese Spoken Arabic.

The Sudan diaspora of the Hausa-Fulani

The Sudan diaspora of the Hausa-Fulani people Was Formed, definitively,

around the first decade of this century. The first settlement, in May Wurno is

the right bank of the Blue Nile, soon Became prosperous Enough for a few

"daughter Communities to Be Established in the Gezira area, The Land

Between the Two Niles. Presently, Almost all the population centers in Gezira

and the Blue Nile Along Have a foreign quarter Mainly Inhabited by people of

West African origin, the Majority of Hausa-Fulani Being thesis. Mostly sedentary ltr.

Beside, Along the pilgrimage road Between West Africa and Jidda-Makka, the

so-Called Alhaji Highway, Every Town Has A sizeable West African quarter,

Geneina and Nyala is from the Chad border and Bor Sudan to Suakin on the

Red Sea. There, Some Of The Gutman Percentages are Constantly on the move, the way to the gold back from Makkah.

People in the Sudan Hausa-Fulani community call Themselves tàkaarii. Singular

forms are Either gold tàkaarà tàkùruurù, Obviously Derived from year Arabic

denomination (sg. takruur, pl. Takaarii) of the Well-Known Senegalese ethnic

group, Tukulors. The hosts, Arab people, call contention Generally Diaspora

settlements Fellati quarters. The dominant language in the Diaspora IS

takaaranci, /-ANCI / Being Hauser suffix denoting language.

From May Wurno town down south to the Ethiopian border, There are quite a

few "Populous Hausa-Fulani settlements Scattered Along Both banks of the

Blue Nile. Here in this riverine strip, the lingua franca of the Diaspora IS

Filatanci, the Fula language. Members of the diaspora are Mostly trilingual:

Fula, Hausa / Takaaranci and Arabic. On the Other Hand, Alhaji Along the

Highway, the language is Hausa Diaspora / Takaaranci. Transient members are Hausa speakers Monolingual Usually with various degrees of fluency in Arabic.

The Revival Of The Fula language Along the Blue Nile

At the time of Jihad in Hausaland Around the Beginning of the 19th century,

Fulani jihadists HAD Hausanized Already Been inside thoroughly and Their

mother tongue Was Hausa, Usman dan Though Hodiyo and Their Loved

Children "could express thoughts in Fula. Aim the Fula language soon Became

obsolete in the Sokkoto Empire, and by the time of the last independent

Sardauna, Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru II, the Fulani ruling class Completely

155 | P a g e

abandonné the Fula language.

Therefor, May Wurno When Bello, Sultan of has its Attahiru, and His followers

Wurno Founded in May the town and started "the Sudan diaspora, the

language of the Diaspora Must Have Been Hausa. Purpose in the present, the

dominant language in the Hausa-Fulani diaspora is the Blue Nile upstream from May Wurno Towner IS Fula Along with Hausa / Takaaranci.

The revival of the Fula language is very enigmatic, Because The Diaspora

people Obviously Did Not Need To Introduce a New Language Other Than

Arabic, the language of Their host people. Also, There Existed No Fula group in

the Sudan to influence the Hausa-Fulani 'newly Established community and to

act as a model. This Question Was Answered ou partly by Mukoshi Ibrahim,

grandson of a Bello Wurno May. On the way to Gezira, the survivors Spent

Some Time in Adamawa, the WHERE Hausanization of the Fulani rulers Was

Not complete yet. There in Adamawa, Bello and His Party Were Given wives

and female slaves have sadaka. Theys continued together with the hijra thesis'

newly Acquired womenfolk. These women Were Mostly Monolingual, and spoke

only in Fula. Therefor, When the second generation Grew Up in the Sudan

diaspora, THEY BOTH Received Their mother's language, Fula, and Their

father's language, Hausa. That Was the Way in Which Fula Revived in the community.

In the kind of popular history, Many legends of communal foundation Contain

accounts of male members and female members hail from Who Two Different

ethnic groups live together aim to come, due to war, natural disaster or

slavery. Certainly, if the Adamawa women HAD not the language Brought Into

the community, it would impossible to find Have Been source material for the revival of the Fula language. ..

Ref: Ibrahim Hamza, Sean O'Fahey: Diaspora and Linguistic Atavism; Hausa

Language in the Sudan

156 | P a g e

The Fulakunda

The Fulakunda are a sub-group of the Fulani, on a vast cluster of peoples living

THROUGHOUT central and western Africa. Primarily They Live in Guinea-

Bissau, Senegal and The Gambia in small villages of round, mud, straw-roofed

huts. They Do subsistence farming of corn, millet, peanuts and rice.

As the Fulani migrated Southward to Guinea Bissau and-through "during the

Fifteenth Century, sacrifice part of 'em mixed with the Mandingo in the area.

Those Who Were intermarried with the Mandingo regarded black, gold preto.

These Fulani Became Known as Fula Preto, gold Fulakunda. They Speak

Fulakunda (a Fulani language), Which Belongs to the West Atlantic branch of

the Niger-Congo language family. The area lies THEY Inhabit Between Guinea

Bissau, Guinea, and Gambia. They Live Among the Fulani, Mandingo and Other Peoples in the forests of southern Senegal.

Although the mixed cultures Fulakunda Have and Have intermarried with Other

Groups in the area, They Still Practice Many of the customs and traditions of

the traditional Fulani. Their lives center around Their herds of cattle or sheep.

In fact, the more cattle one owns, the wealthier HE IS regarded to be. In

addition, Some are Fulakunda Hired as herdsmen for various kingdoms in the Sudan, just as Their fathers Were Before Them.

Mixing agriculture with herding, the Fulakunda consumes grains and milk as

Their staple foods. Seldom Meat Is Eaten. In fact, only DURING important

formal events, as the naming ceremony SUCH gold at the birth of a first sound

IS beef consumed. Even Then, It Is Usually Eaten only for ceremonial purposes. Donkeys, chickens, and dogs are Kept on the farms.

The Wuro (village) Is The Center Of Fulakunda Society. It Is There That the

women do MOST of Their Work. Theys prepare the evening meal, Which Takes

about five hours or oven. Theys gather grass and twigs Also for the

construction of Their huts. Milking the cattle and butter are Preparing Other

important chores. The men herd the cattle and dig wells. Sounds over the age

of 15 took Their fathers' work. The young men are directed and Supervised by

Their fathers.

At 15, a boy builds and living in His Own Begins hut, Which Will Eventually ET

Loved share with first wife. Subsequent Wives Will Be Given huts of Their Own.

A girl is Often slow to a man, to see if She Will work well with the first wife.

The prospective husband will visit and "give gifts to the girl's family Until the marriage IS official.

THEY LACK Although May is a western scholarly grasp KM book, They Are

regarded skilled social analysts. Some elders Have Traveled in Many Countries and know of the language, people, and culture of each.

The Fulakunda of Senegal are a Muslim people. Theys Strongly adheres to

good morals and Virtues Pulaaku Sucha have justice, honesty, Generosity, and

157 | P a g e

patience.

The Fulakunda think of the village as a place of rules and obligations, a place

for Socially acceptable behavior. The bush, On The Other Hand, Is a place of

freedom, Where They can act to LUKAS Their Own Needs.

The Fulakunda Hate To Feel Alone. Howeve, They tend to hide Their feelings,

and the Need for Love and Companionship Is Not Expressed in public. Only

Need-through songs is this Freely acknowledged.

Futa Jalon

A Brief History

Among the Numerous stories about the origin of the Fulani, the more recent

research in anthropology and linguistics to the day after media FOLLOWING:

The Fulani Originated From The Senegal river region. Theys Traveled Widely;

Some Wandered east, WHERE They Were Became Muslims, and West

Eventually Returned.

The Futa Jalon Was Settled by the Fulani in Two waves: the first, Possibly as

early as the

13th century, consisted of pagan (non-Islamic) Fulani Known As Pulli. The

second

Began in the 16th century and consisted of Muslim Fulani from Masina in What

is now

the republic of Mali.

This group of Fulani Originally shared with the Futa Jalon Other ITS Gutman,

non-

Muslim Fulani and Jallonke. Sometime in the 17th century, holy war on

pagans. Was this jihad and long bloody and featured a number of

atrocities.After the Jihad Around 1725, the Muslim Fulani HAD Established a

Federal Theocracy Under Islamic law, with a ruler in Central Timbo (Near

present-day Mamou), Has holy city in Fougoumba, and Seven Other Provinces

(diwe) with a certain Amount of Autonomy. Labe Quickly Became the Most

Powerful and wealthiest of contention, ITS Expanding borders to the north and

west Until It encompassed Nearly a year as long as area the rest of the

kingdom put together.

From the outset this kingdom Was Plagued by Power Struggle. The

descendants of the first Almaami (Imam / king) Quickly Split Into Two Houses,

the Alfaya And The Soriya, Which Fought more or less incessantly

THROUGHOUT the history of the kingdom.

For a while a system of bicephalism (Dual leadership lives) Was Formalized, in

Which There Were Always Two Almaamis, One from Each house, Who would

trade off power Every Two Years. In practice this didn? T work out very well.

The French Were Able to Establish Themselves in the surrounding areas all

along Before They Made "any Headway in the Futa. They Were Able to finally

capitalize on internal Power Struggle, and we Labe? S Hopes for Greater

Autonomy. In 1896, at the battle of Pore-Daka, The French Defeated the last

Almaami, Bocar Biro said Buubakar.

The colonial Authorities Moved Quickly to Consolidate Their Power over the

158 | P a g e

area, putting chiefs in place, dividing the Futa in order to Strengthen leaders to

support 'em, and little by little Diluting the Role of the Almaami. Ace Alfa Yaya

Watched Loved autorité slip away, hey tried to year organizes uprising Against

the colonists.He Died in a prison colony in the THEN Mauritania.

The People

Futa Jalon, highland region, c.30, 000 sq mi (77.700 sq km), central Guinea, W

Africa. Largely a rolling grassland (average alt. C.3, 000 ft/910 m), the region

IS Grazed by cattle of the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, And Gambia There rivers

rise. Futa Jalon IS Often Referred to as the head-waters of West Africa. Est

aussi Called It Land of WatersFruits, Faith and Freedom.

The Fulani of Futa Jalon people are a large group Located in the western

African nation of Guinea, Sierra Leone, And Senegal. The majorité live in the

Futa Jalon of Guinea, Year area of mountains and plateaus Consisting. Ltr

semi-nomadic raise crops and livestock as well as ". The high plateaus serve as

part-time pastures for Their herds.

Along the plateaus of the Fouta Jalon There are grassy fields of millet and pity.

Traditionally, the Livelihood of the Fula Jalon IS Primarily based on farming and

shepherding. Gathering forest produce, hunting, fishing, and trading are parts

of their daily Also lives. Staple crops include millet, rice, and peanuts. Cattle

herds, sheep and goats Along with, are the primary livestock. The cattle are

not the usual Fulani humped breed, a native Futa Jalon purpose breed That Is

resistant to the disease-Carrying tsetse fly.

Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, howeve, the women milk and take

care of the cattle. Women Also Care for the poultry and small livestock, "as

well as cultivate the gardens. Often women carry containers of milk and cheese

to sell or trade in local markets. With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until

THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family

compound and lives alone in a nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle.

This new compound Becomes the home of the wife's and His Future. The first

marriage of a Man Is Usually arranged by the man's father.

Children Belong To age-sets Until THEY sorry. An age-set IS Grouped At Three

year Gold oven intervals, With Every child born in years giving further

Belonging to That sets. The children in year age-set go to school together and

May Participate in Labor community, or help someone in Their May Set with

clamp-service. Each age-set Has a leader, a deputy, and a judge.

Although Futa Jalon villages are Scattered, EACH Has A Village and a short

central mosque. Houses Belonging To The Settled Fula Jalon are round with

mud walls Typically and thatched roofs. Each year hut Has encircling verandah.

The nomadic Fula Jalon lives in open, beehive-shaped huts without walls or

verandahs. Each hut IS Surrounded by a cattle corral.

The Main Cities in Futa Jalon are: Labe and Mamou. (Map of Guinea)

For more information see www.fuuta-jalon.net

Overview of Futa Tooro

The Fulani People Have Played a prominent role in West African History. As

cattle pastoralists spread across THEY 2,000 miles of savanna land, from

Senegambia in the west to Cameroon in the east, over the last one Thousand

Years. As Muslim Revolutionaries sacrifice part of em Established Islamic

159 | P a g e

regimes over the Last Three Centuries in oven Widely separated areas of the

savanna. It Was in contention areas "That THEY adapted the Arabic script to

the writing of Their language, Fulfulde, Developed and Other institutions for

the dissemination of Islam in West Africa. More Than Any Other single

people, the Fulani in the process Have Led whereby Islam Has Become The

majorité faith of the savanna region.

In Their pastoral and state-building roles, the Fulani Have Been Known by a

Variety of names. In the Français-speaking world They Are Often Called Fula,

a term derived from the Gambia and the Mandinka, Fulani, a term Which

Comes From The Hausa language, Fellati gold, Which Comes from Kanuri in

Nigeria, all use the Reflect Three terms of British colonial rule. In the French-

speaking world THEY Usually go by the expression Fulani, Which Comes from

pulmonary gold up llo, the singular of Fulbe: a speaker up llo Is One of

Fulfulde; this purpose Developed in French colonial Senegal. Before the

Islamic revolutions of contention MOST speakers would Have Been part of a

pastoral and nomadic life-style consists With The Original Meaning of the likely fullude verb, to disperse.

The traditions of dispersion of the far-flung Peul converges on the area

WHICH IS the subject of this anthology. Futa Toro matching to the middle

valley of the Senegal River. Today the north bank lies in Mauritania, Senegal

in the south bank. Futa Which Is The general name the Fulani Gave To The

Areas in Which THEY Lived, while Toro Is The Oldest region with the identity

in the middle valley, it lies in the western portion, around the towns of

Podoor and Njuma.

The linguistic evidence Also Suggests That this' may be the birthplace region,

close to the gold birthplace of the Fulani people. The comparative linguistic

work of Joseph Greenberg Has shown Fulfulde That Belongs To The West

Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. Within the Atlantic

sub-family, It Is Closely related to the other languages of the northern group,

Which include Serer, spoken by the people living Southeast of Dakar, and

Wolof, the tongue of the people just to the north of the Serer and

increasingly the lingua franca of all of Senegal. All Three Were Probably

languages spoken in southern Mauritania and Senegal River Valley in the first millennium AD the

The name of the dialect of Fulfulde spoken in Futa Toro and Used in this

anthology IS Pulaar. It est aussi comme au Applied to forms of Fulfulde

spoken in the Senegambian region: the speech of the pastoral Fulbe of the

Ferlo Steppe, the speech of the Gutman Fulakunda of it the south bank of the

Middle, Gambia, and the forms of the Gutman of Futa Jalon in the mountains

of Guinea. The people of Futa Toro, as a year of various ethnic groups

amalgamated attracted to the middle valley over the centuries, Have Come

to Call Themselves Haalpulaar'en, Those Who speak Pulaar, Since the

language is one of the Major Factors Binding Them Together. In Wolof,

French and Senegalese common use, are the Haalpulaar'en Called

Toucouleur, derived from Takruur, the name of the Ancient state contemporary with the Ghana Empire.

Over the centuries the liaalpulaar'en Have Introduced words and concepts

160 | P a g e

from a number of Neighboring languages. Berber and Arabic borrowing

Hassaniyya Reflect the northern Mauritanian gold influence. Soninke,

Mandinka and Wolof expressions Reflect the long period "of interaction in the

Senegal River valley. Classical Arabic borrowing show the long association

with Islam, while the French loan words Reflect Numerous contacts with the European merchants and colonial Authorities in the Last One Hundred Years.

The Strategic Setting

The migration traditions and linguistic evidence point to the Strategic Position

and economy of the middle valley of the Senegal River. It just lay Beneath

the Western Sahara and very close to the caravan routes Transsaharan

Which Developed in the Days of the Ghana Empire and the Almoravid

movement. The Mediterranean geographers locate the Muslim state of gold in

Takruur close to the middle 11th century the valley in. From the 16th to the

18th centuries Futa Was Often the subject of raids by Moroccan forces

Anxious to expand the influence of Their state and Acquire the Wealth in gold and slaves of the Western Sudan.

The middle valley Also Occupied A Strategic Position in Relation to the coast

and European penetration of the interior of West Africa. By LUKAS gold

Denying access to ships ITS leaders "could turn to European Their Own goals

advantage. The Fuutagkoobe, people of Futa, largely Were Successful in this

endeavor from the time of the first Portuguese activities in the 16th century

période Until the expansion of French Under Governor Faidherbe in the

1850s. After the mid-19th century, howeve, the Europeans Held the upper hand and the river Used As A staging area for the conquest of the savanna.

Closely Correlated with Strategic Position productivité agricole. The rains of

the summer months Watered the highland of the Jeeri crop, Which Futa HAD

in common with comme au Zones of the savanna. The rains Also Raised the

level of the river, Which in turn over Spilled ITS banks in the middle valley.

After the waters receded in December, the moist floodplain gold waalo Could

Be seeded with millet, sorghum and maize for a dry harvest season, just

WHEN OTHERS areas "Were Entering the hungry season. This additional

harvest was made Futa Breadbasket for the Surrounding Region and it drew

immigrants from all directions.

The French colonial concentration on the development of peanut cultivation in

Senegal western Has Overshadowed the central role of Futa Toro

économique. The conditions of near starvation and Drought in the last 15

years are the result of ou partly That neglect, goal THEY Also Have Brought

home to Senegalese, Mauritanian and international experts the centrality of

the middle valley to the Agricultural and livestock productivity of Mauritania

and Senegambia. It Remains to Be seen whether the recent Investments in

dams, irrigation and other projects Will Be Able to restore the Economic

Importance of the river area.

The Organization of Futa Tooro

The settlements of the middle valley in east-west Developed third

161 | P a g e

Corresponding to the main channel and the edges of the floodplain. One line

of related villages close to the southern edge of the average flood. There the

Gutman could "farm the floodplain (waalo) in the dry season and the Higher

gold 'eerie land in the rainy season. Their cattle graze Theys "could, sheep

and goats in the jeeri" during the wet months and in the floodplain after the

waalo harvest in February. Another line of villages lay Along the southern

bank of the river, the Livelihood of contention people cam from farming or

fishing waalo in the main stream and Its tributaries. A similar line of villages

dressed the north bank, while jeeri Some settlements Formed at Fourth and final tier, in the north Before the land Gave Way to steppe and desert.

The total distance from the southernmost to the Senegalese Northernmost

Mauritanian tier Was Rarely more Than 15 miles. Strong ties of kinship and

Economic Complementarity bound villages in the various third together. In

fact, Some villages in The Two areas waalo Were Completely abandonné

When the waters rose, and the Gutman Moved in with the relative in jeeri.

The larger and wealthier families HAD BOTH waalo and jeeri fields for farm

and pasture. If Mauritanian Moroccan gold Invaded from the north, everyone

would take refuge on the south bank. If some superior force pressed in from

the south, has less frequent occurrence, the People "could move to the north Side of the River.

This social organization and environment north-south Obviously reinforced

ties at the Expense of east-west linkage. THROUGHOUT The Known History of

Futa, Which Is To Say the Last Thousand Years, immigrants and dynasties

Have Sought Rarely SUCCEEDED goal in controlling the Whole "middle valley.

Theys Often Have Placed Their capitals in the central area, in order to survey

the Better Which stretch 250 miles from Dembac) Kane, at the Beginning of

the upper valley, to Dariana, at the lower edge of the valley, local and

regional chiefs aim Usually Have Been Able to Establish Their Own

relationships with Senegambian societies, Mauritanian confederations and the European ships.

For the sake of convenience the east-west Expanse Be Divided Into Three

can regions and nine provinces. The eastern area Has Somewhat less

floodplain farming. It blends Into The steppe to the south of Bunndu and Into

the densely Populated villages of Galam Gold On The Gajaaga east. In fact,

Many of Its people speak in addition to the Soninke and Pulaar Sometimes in

preference to; thesis Gutman Entered from the middle valley Gajaaga and

Have Maintained Their Parties With That region. The central zone Is The

MOST densely Populated hand. The arable lands are wide waalo, Partly

Because Two tributaries link up with the river here: the Gorgol is the north

side, the Duke Marigot is the south. The Suitability of area for the central

government reinforced STI Also Has population. The western area contains

the goal the sparsest Largest floodplain housing, in part Because Of The salt

content of this part of the Senegal River Sluggish, en partie Because Of The

pressure of Mauritanian and Fu16e from the north and south, and Perhaps

Because Of The "substantial migration of people for the holy war of Umar

Taal in the 19th century. Just as the Soninke language and culture Often this

IS in the east, and Wolof origins settlement in the region are strong, And

They Become Stronger As One moves Towards the west and the sduthwest.

Toro province Was Often politically dominant in this region and Formed a

162 | P a g e

counterpoise to the regimes in central and eastern Futa.

These dimensions of residence, occupation and origin Formed the Social and

ethnic structure of Futa. Some occupations Provided the class of identity

groups. Was this true for the fishing lineages (subalbe, singular _cubballo)

Who Lived in sacrifice part of The Oldest Along the river villages. It Was Also

The case for the craftsmen (neenbe, sg. Neeno) Who created metal, wood,

clay, leather and cloth Necessary Objects for the Whole "population. These

artisan crafts Their Transmitted to Their Children-through apprenticeship

systems, married Into lineages with the Saami occupation, and together

constituted What are Often Called the Hereditary caste of Fuutanke, and

MONSTER Senegambian Other Societies. Included In Their number are the

traditional Historians and musicians Commonly Known As g riots, politique

Who congregated at the short and Performed Many diplomacy and judicial

functions in addition to Their public performances. Fuutanke include awlube

griots (sg. ag WLO) Who constituted the main group Attached to local

dynasties, the maabube (sg. maabo), Who Usually combined weaving and

praise-singing, and wambaabe (sg. bambaado), Who Were Attached

characteristically to pastoral Fulbe lineages. All Three are Represented in the

anthology texts of this.

Farming Was the occupation of MOST of the rest of the Futa) ke, and

MONSTER Was Pursued by subalbe Many of the craftsman and groups. The

Largest group of farmers "Were the Sebbe (sg. ceddo) year term with

connotations Many Senegambian in use. In Futa it Refers to the persons of

non-Fulbe origin who, "Along with the Fulani, constituted the population of

the Earliest middle valley. By Their residence THEY Became Haalpulaar'en in

time. In a second context are the Sebbe Contrasted with Those Who Practice

Islam. This Was Certainly the original box with the Sebba, And They Have

Never Learned constituted the Muslims of the Society, object in time THEY

DID Become Practicing Muslims like comme au Gutman. A Third In setting

the term Suggests persons Who are Attached to Some Particular leading gold

short, did Officials, soldiers and enforcers. This connotation goes back to the

role of Particular Sebbe Deeniyanke in the diet in the 17th and 18th centuries

and to the role of the famous Sebbe Pillagers At The Wolof short of the 19th

century. By Their great consommation of alcohol, They fused the Second and

Third meanings of the term.

The Fulani of Futa come from a pastoral tradition. Beginning Perhaps 1000

years ago in the Days of Takruur, sacrifice part of Them Became attracted to

the potential of Futa agricole, Settled on the land, and the Religious Faith

ADOPTED Which Has Been Traditionally Identified with sedentary life in the

middle valley. Other nomadic Fulani Remained and continued to move in

regular patterns transhumance, Either in the steppe north of the river and

close to the Sahara, or in the Ferlo Steppe Called Between Futa and The

Gambia. Theys depended upon the Citizens of the sedentary middle valley for

food and water at the end of the dry season, goal THEY Sometimes

Expressed That dependence by raiding "as well as by submission. Theys

Formed the main source of new settlers and New Recruits Into the ruling

classes of the middle valley. The Other Two classes of society are the

Fuutankobhe jaawambe (sg. jaawando), a small group Who Became politique

counselors as well as "farmers", and the tooro66e (sg. tooroodo), Who

163 | P a g e

emerged in the late 18th century and constituted the principal Actors in this anthology.

The Emergence of the Islamic State

Most of the ruling classes of Futa Have Been sedentarized the descendants of

the pastoral Fubhe. Some classes of contention Cam Under external

domination by the Wolof of Jolof the Mandinka of Mali gold of the Soninke

Jaara, while others Were Autonomous. In the early 16th century was the

Fulbe lineage Called Deeniyanke, "under the leadership of Koli Tepelea and

with the support of a Variety of Sebbe From Within and Without the middle

valley, Became dominant. For over a Hundred years the Deeniyai) ke

managed to control not only the valley Highly segmented object has large

portion of Senegambia as well. In the 17th century THEY lost the larger

domain, while in the 18th They Were weakened by Moroccan and Mauritanian

Growing pressure from the north, one the one hand, and Growing Has Their exacting DEMANDS Resentment from the local people, we comme au.

The local Resentment crystallized in Small Communities bound together by

allegiance to Islamic Piety and Learning. By the 1760s thesis groups, in the

face of the atrocities of the Deeniyanke and the raids from the north,

Organized Themselves Into a resistance movement. Under the leadership of

Sileymaani Baal, They Launched the Islamic revolution Which in turn Gave

birth to the regime Almamaagal Called the Golden Almamate (from the

Arabic al-Imaam, the one Who leads in prayer). In the process Themselves

THEY have constituted a new class, the tooro66e, and added to the social

class That pantheon of Futa. While the term toorobbe IS Often associated

with the province of Toro by giving further living Outside of Futa, It Is

Derived from the verb tooraade, to beg for alms, with reference to the

Koranic School Pupils Who Supported Themselves I'm his way. The original

label of begging Was Probably by the Applied Deeniyanke short, Who made

fun of the earnest Muslims. The pejorative connotation the toorob6e

Transformed Into A Proud new identity-through the revolution of the 1770s

Successful and 1780. Theys Became the new ruling class and Grew Rapidly in

numbers as pastoral and sedentary Fulbe, and others hastened to Sebbe avail Themselves of the new identity and New Opportunity to rule.

The new regime, Under ITS Almaami gold imaam, endured for over a

Hundred years, aim to control the ITS UK & middle valley Was Spent by the

early 1800s. Until That Time Kaada Almaami Abdul, the first and MOST

effective ruler of the new government, victorious in battle Was. He Was Able

to distributive lands, assign local Imaam to-many villages, and extend

influence Futanke Into the regions of western and southeastern Senegal. The

defeat of forces in Kajoor Loved in 1797 Marked The Beginning Of The

decline of the regime, and His Enemies by assassination in 1807 Marked the

failure of the vision of the toorobhe.

"During the 19th century in the Almamate Survived ITS basic institutions, it

never intended the strength and zeal Recovered Of The Earlier période. It

Was Officially Governed by the Almaami, phrasal from a group of eligible

lineages Who Possessed the Necessary credentials of learning, goal effective

control lay with the regional chiefs of the central provinces Who Possessed of

considerable land, constituents and Slavic. Most chiefs of contention Served

164 | P a g e

in the capacity of electors (jaggorde, sg. Jaggorgal) of the Almaami; Their

electoral council has fixed Contained Fluctuating core and Periphery of

members. Two Who Were families eligible for the post of Almaami, Lih of the

Jaab in Hebbiyaabe province of Wan and the Mbummba in Laaw Province,

ALSO SUCCEEDED in Maintaining considerable power "during the 19th

century. The Wan In Particular Used Their Growing Wealth in land and slaves

to Establish a power base in Laaw, compete for the Almaami-ship, and at

times turn to THREATEN the National Post Into Their Own fiefdom. The

struggle of various coalitions of electors Eligible for power and constituted the Third Part of the anthology.

In the middle of the 19th century Futa Was Threatened by Two Much More

gravement external forces. The French Began to transform the relations of

Interdependence Which THEY HAD Maintained with the middle valley Into

relations of domination, particularly "under the leadership of Governor Louis

Faidherbe (1854-61, 1863-5). The second intrusion cam from a native's,

Umar Taal. Umar cam from Toro Province, whos Grievances Against the

dominance of the central region Expressed ET DURING Loved Entire career.

He left home early in the century, made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and

Returned with considerable prestige and ambition FOLLOWING. In the 1850s

a holy war ET Launched Against the predominantly non-Muslim Mandinka and

Bambara to the east. Loved to Achieve goals ET or recruited very heavily in

Senegambia, Especially in His Native Land. The recruitment process, in Which

Umar Evoked The Founders of the Islamic regime, ITS Reached climax in a

massive drive in 1858-9. It Had Undermining the effect of the charter and

position of Almaami Even More. The French and the quatrieme Umarian

intrusions constituted part of the anthology.

The authority "of the regional chiefs, and particularly of the electors That,

Was Compromised Much less Than That Of The Almaami. One thesis of

leaders, Abdul Bookar Kan, emerged as the dominant force in the middle

valley Between 1860 and 1890. He Was Able to split off the challenges of

Islamic reformers, Who Evoked now the example of Umar Taal "as well as

Abdul Kaada. He Effectively Challenged the authority "of the Klan who in turn

lineage cam increasingly to Rely upon French support. The period "of Hegemony Loved constituted the fifth part of the book.

By the late 1880s It Was Obvious That the French would conquer all of Futa

have parts of their subordination of Senegal and conquest of the Western and

Central Sudan. The middle and upper valley Became essential staging areas

for the expansion Into the regions today Known as Mali, Upper Volta and

Niger. Abdul Bookar resisted the conquest, as long as possible and

Effectively, goal succumbed in 1891, the Year Which Marks the End of the

independence of Futa. His defeat and the French takeover constituted the

last part of the anthology.

TechNet Virtual Ref: http://africandl.org/futa_background.php

165 | P a g e

The Fulvia Gorgaave

Gorgaave (read as Gorgaabe) are Mostly Concentrated in Western Niger. They

Live has few "hours from Niamey, The capital of country of Niger.The Niger,

Standing at the crossroads the Sahara And The Sahel, Is a crucible of very

different people WHERE Origins Have Lived Together for Thousands of years.

Purpose of thesis EACH although people Maintains ITS Own individuality,

particularly Noticeable In Their Life-styles, Their physical feature, Their

customs, dress, and language. Two distinctions are howeve Remarkable: the

Settled populations and the Nomads.

The Settled populations are Divided Into Several groups: in the west the

Songhai and Zarma, Haus in the center and Kanuri in the east.

The Nomad Mainly people live in the northern part of the country and included:

-The Tuareg (8%), found to Be Within A long strip of land running from the

Mali frontier in the West to Goure in the East.

-The Fulani (8.5%), Who, together with Their herds, are Concentrated in the

Agadez, Dosso, Maine-Soroa triangle. Some Have Also Settled in the West,

around Tera, Say and Niamey. Theys predominate in certain shares of Maradi,

Tessaoua, Mirriah and Magaria Districts. The group include the Bororo Fulani-

Wozaave, They Live and The Gorgaave.Sometimes Tuareg and Tubu alongside.

The Gorgaave comme au and Fulani groups:

Theys form the second group in nomadic Largest Niger. Like the Tuaregs, They

Also Have a long-standing custom and tradition Which THEY keep very much

alive. Purpose In Spite of Their great. Their concern to hairpins Specifying

social structure, They Often Have come Under The Influence of Neighboring

populations So Much That the Fulani in one area May Differ from Those of

Another Slightly, DEPENDING ON WHERE and with Whom They Live. Ethnic

unity, howeve, Is Never Destroyed.

Within this major category, There Are The Bororodjis, more Usually Referred to

as Bororo Fulani living in Dakoro Tanout-region, are all nomadic herders Who

Spending THE ENTIRE year seeking "good grazing. Theys practice the cult of

beauty and pay great attention to bodily care, expending considerable effort

has one Enhancing the Attractiveness of Their faces, Adding sparkle to eyes

and teeth.

Theys serie amazing taste for decoration, Though It Is Mainly the Men Who

Spend Most Of Their Time in SUCH pursuits. Clothing, On The Contrary, IS

Relatively Scanty, Though here again the taste for decoration IS apparent in

the Amount of jewelry worn earrings, intricate hairstyle Interwoven with coins,

bead necklaces and multicolored charms.

166 | P a g e

The Fulani Gurma

Gurma Fulani are giving further Fulani living in the Gourma region of

southeastern Burkina Faso. Ltr Fulani-Ladder (semi-nomadic herdsmen),

mixing agriculture with herding. They Speak Gourmantche Fulfulde, a language

from the West-Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family.

Traditions

The Livelihood of the Fulani Gurma IS dependent on the seasons. The wet

season Is a time of cultivation and harvesting, with the herds and the family

living together in a permanent settlement. "During the dry season, the herds

are Taken to marshland or flood water for more pity and Better grazing land.

The Wuro (village) Is The Center Of Gurma Fulani society. Here, the women do

MOST of Their Work. Their hand Task Is The preparation of the evening meal,

a millet porridge, Which can take five hours or oven to make. Theys Also

gather twigs and grass for the construction of Their Homes. Milking the cattle

and butter are Preparing Other important chores. As They work, the women

tended to Their Children, With Their babies Often Carried on Their backs.

Making clothes Is a Way to Express Himself and man can show Loved

individuality and personality. Also, A Man Has Loved year obligation to dress

family. Malthus, Loved a Man Will Make Own and buy cloth and clothes

Handkerchiefs for Loved wives. Children do not wear clothes Many Until They

Are Able to sew for Themselves.

Men Who Have That sounds are at least Fifteen years old must pass it to 'em

Their Work hairpins to a separation of the generations. The fathers act as

supervisors to Their sounds, digging wells in directing em gold watering the

herds. Also handle "any disputes Theys That May ARISE. Young boys Spend

Much of Their Time playing in the bush, chasing birds from the fields, or

keeping "the herds from getting in the fields. Young girls help Their Mothers

with Their chores.

Way of Life

The Fulani Gurma Believe That It Is a sign of Weakness To Be controlled by

fear; Therefor, They Seldom show fear in public. THEY IS Believe That Mental

Illness Caused by Being so terrified That You lose control of yourself. THEY

think of the village as a place of rules and obligations? A place for Socially

acceptable behavior. The bush, On The Other Hand, Is a place of freedom,

Where They can act to LUKAS Their Own Needs.

The Fulani Gurma hate to feel alone. Theys Overcome the feeling of loneliness

by talking with others. Howeve, this company IS Need for Concealed in public,

have tended to hide the Fulani Their feelings. They Are Their only free to

express love for others-through songs.

The Halpulaar-in

Introduction

(See also Futa-Toro)

Although They Are Widely Dispersed Also found THROUGHOUT West-Africa,

tHalpulaar ET, A sub-group of the Fulani people, live in the Mostly Senegal

River Valley in Northern Senegal and Southern Mauritania.

167 | P a g e

The origins of the Halpulaar (sometimes Called Tukolor) are hard to determine,

But That They Are descendants of the Ancient Rulers of the Tekruur Empire are

quite certain.

Although information about There Is Insufficient Their origins, it Seems Likely

That the nomadic, cattle-raising Fulani emigrated from Ethiopia, Or area

adjacent to it annually, and in Their search for pastures and water for Their

animals, Eventually Arrived On The northern borders of Senegal in the 10th

century. It Is now well reconnu That the Fulani Spread From There to different

shares of West-Africa.

Early History Indicates That the Halpulaar Settled in the Senegal River valley in

the 9th century, and "during the period" from the 10th to 14th century, Their

strong state of Tekrur Dominated the valley. The Halpulaar Were Converted to

Islam and in the mid-11th century and Participated in Establishing the

Almoravid state, centered in Morocco. In the 14th cent. the Mali Westward

empire expanded from the upper region of the Niger River Tekrur and

Conquered.

Was accepted Islam as early as 850 AD in the Kingdom of Tekruur, Is situated

"Both banks of the Senegal, By the Dia Ogo dynasty. This dynasty Was the

first West African people Who accepted Islam. It Was That Reason for this Arab

Muslim Historians Bilâd Referred to as al-Tekruur The land of the Black

Muslims. Warjabî ibn Rebates, Was the first ruler of Tekruur, In whose reign

Islam Was firmly Established And The Islamic shariah ic system bewitched.

This Gave a uniform law to the Muslim People of the region. By the time the Al-

gold MurabiÏûn Almoravids Began Their attack is Tekruur CA in 1042, Islam

has made deep impact HAD is the People Of That area. Al-Idrissi CA in 1511

described "the country have Tekruur secure, peaceful and quiet. The capital

town of Tekruur Which Was Also Called Tekruur HAD Become an important

center of commerce Between North Africa and West Africa.

The Society

Traditionally sedentary farmers "in a close-knit society, thesis Speakers of

Pula, Gold Haalpular'en Halpulaar like to have the call Themselves, Were

Possibly the first West Africans to convert to Islam in the 11th Century. It Is-

through and Halpulaar Warriors holy men That comme au Major Population

Groups in Senegal and Elsewhere in West Africa Were Converted to the Islamic

faith.

The Halpulaar Inhabit the FOLLOWING areas: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali,

Gambia and Some in Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Burkina Faso and Other West

African Countries "as well as numbers of expatriates in Europe, The Middle-

East and America.

The Futa Toro, the Largest area of settlement for the modern day celebrities

Halpulaar Is in the northern St. Louis province of Senegal, In the major geo-

political region have reconnu Officially the Futa Toro, encompassing a wide

area of northern Senegal and southern Mauritania.

This is the birth place of Generally Agreed Fulani people who in the 11th

Century AD, started "Migrating east in search of Better pastures. Theys

migrated as far east as Sudan and Eritrea. In the process, THEY Launched

Jihad in Many Parts of West Africa Including Sokoto in present day Nigeria. The

Fulani-Tooroove of Nigeria Have retain the original sacrifice part of names and

traditions of Their forbearers Futa Toro.

The Futa Toro IS Divided Into two areas ", the one in the west Called Toro in

168 | P a g e

the east and one Called the Futa. Staying in contention Halpulaar Two areas

"are respectively Called Tooroodo (singular) / Tooroove (plural) in the Western

region, and Fuutanke (singular) / Fuutankoobe (plural) in the Eastern region of

the Futa Toro. The majorité Halpulaar of the people in the Senegal River

Valley. Theys occupy a 350km long narrow Belt of country (approx. 20km

wide) in the Futa region, BETWEEN Fanaye, On The East of Dagana Senegal

River, And North West of Debankani Bakel. This belt of land right onto

Stretches of the Border Mali and Senegal in the East.

Since They Are Minorities in the Countries THEY lies in the tendency to speak

other languages.

Second / trade languages:

In Mauritania: French, Wolof gold Hassaniaya.

In Senegal: Wolof, and gold Glossary.

In Mali: Bambara and French.

In Nigeria: Hausa, and Francais.

In Gambia: Français, Wolof and French.

The Halpulaar Have Developed strong alphabetization programs in Their Own

Language. There are various current literacy programs Among the

Pulaarophone Including; ARED (Associates in Research and Development Inc.,)

and GIPLIN (Group for the Promotion of Books in National Languages).

Traditional living:

Food: The favorite dish fish and rice IS, Called OMAFRA e Lizzie. This Is Often

Served with Some pieces of vegetable. The staple in the Futa Used To Be a

millet couscous meal based dish. The dish That Is To Be regarded the

traditional dish of the Halpulaar, IS Couscous Served with a souse made from

the green leaves of the peanut plant or the sweet-potato plant. This Is Called

Lacciri e haako. (See Cooking)

Shelter: Traditionally the Halpulaar Lived in thatched mud Dwellings, Grouped

together in villages Governed by year Arzo. The villages are very neat and tidy

Usually. In Larger towns thatched roofs are Replaced by tin / sink roofs.

Generally buildings are of mud bricks are plastered over with That mud or

cement. Has the advantage Cement That It Does not Have to Be redone Every

year like the mud Plastering. More and more people are building with cement

bricks adopter INSTEAD of the traditional mud bricks.

Clothing: The style of dress has been "largely Influenced by Arabic / Muslim

tradition, drank some practicality Also Reflect Regarding the climate. During,

special occasions people dress up in brightly colored clothes with richly

embroidered in gold thread. Women and men alike Their Best Will Also wear

jewelry, gold chains Mostly, rings, earrings and bangles, we SUCH

opportunities. Generally men wear long flowing wide mantels Known As 3 piece

or 2 piece Bubus, With Islamic-style turbans or Fez skullcaps. Generally women

wear long flowing dresses large, Also Called Bubus, with wrap-around skirts

Beneath, and scarves as head-dress (worn in turban style.) Another form of

dress Both worn by men and women Is a basic drop-over long poncho style

outfit made from one drop of material falls to the knee That or the ankles.

169 | P a g e

Society and Culture:

The main forms of occupation are: Herders, Farmers, Tradesmen, Fisherman,

Entertainer and Craftsmen. Authority and Power Is in the hands of the elders

and the men in general. Transitory and Spiritual power and authority "are in

the hands of the upper cast, the Tooroove. High status IS Attached to

membership in a noble lineage or a prosperous family. The organization of the

society revolve around Halpulaar Two hand forces, the clan, and the caste

system. Of argument, the Largest form of association and relationship Is The

clan subdivided Into lineage groups - has lots of extended family. Always

Halpulaar Themselves Around a group leader or chief (of a suburb, town,

region, etc..)

The Halpulaar hairpins and follow a patriarchal social structure. Community Life

Is Highly Stratified Into a hierarchy of 12 casts, Grouped Into Social classes

torroove, rimva, subálveas, sevve, jawave, and nyenyve.. The first class

included the Highest and Chiefs and Religious leaders. Most are members

Halpulaar cette Tooroove class.

The value of An IS Determined by individual "and not casting Loved Loved by

the rich, fame or Any Other position in life. Relationships are of primary

importance for social purposes is the connections are horizontal Formed Within

a social class and weddings by example, are never contracted Traditionally

across class lines.In the caste system, the castes are Characterized by

Hereditary, endogamy and / or Professional Specialization. Theys constituted

groups and closed hairpins Relationships with One Another was hierarchical

Basis. Social relations, issues of domination and Especially subordination are

defined \ Essentially by the caste people to Which Belong.

The social structure IS Highly Stratified am and is Primarily based on male

lineage groups, Which are Usually Scattered Among Several villages. Each clan

embraces All That Their descent to trace a common ancestry. Within the clan

members owe One Another Social Obligations and Responsibilities. Members of

a clan group Usually occupy the Saami area and defends Traditionally Their

Against Other clans area. Over the centuries the clans Acquired a measure of

autonomy ", Which Was particularly Pronounced" during the time of the

empire, and the Futa Toro Became a loose federation of groups SUCH.

Under the influence of Islam gradually changed from the Halpulaar matrilineal

to Paternally structured society. An example of this Is That the wife would

come to live at the Village of Her father-in-law. The drawings can be

downloaded ménage Included father, historical sounds and grandchildren,

Their Wives, children and more remote kin Sometimes.

Greetings

Greeting Is One Of The MOST important social conventions. Greetings are

coming across appropriée When local people, Especially in the bush, and the

visitor should "make the effort to learn thesis sentences. Handshaking is

meeting, Regardless Of over how many times a day one meets the person, IS

normal. When visiting a village It Is polite to call upon the village headman to

explain gold Schoolteacher That You Want to Spend the Night There gold visit

the area.

Weddings: The Halpulaar Strictly observe the Islamic categories of persons in

170 | P a g e

marriage and prohibée marriage equality règlements. Saddle price, Including

the Obligatory gifts of animals, gold nafore, Goes to the couple to GUARANTEE

the Stability of the union. Part of the nafore IS Turned over to the flange as a

dowry, if she intended Seeks Divorce, the nafore IS restored to the husband.

Halpulaar do not look the levirate as Obligatory. Customarily, Halpulaar prefer

to marry in Shawwal, the month the Prophet Muhammad That married Aisha.

Fridays are reserved for virgins, while Mondays are for divorcees and widows.

The general term for marriage IS dewgl ('ve mbazii dewgal). The verb form to

get married IS ResD, Drank the process of getting married IS Divided Into

Several steps. The initial step Called the IS xamol, From the verb xamde

Meaning to ask for a woman's hand in marriage. At this stage the man's family

Approaches the family of the woman to have the Chat Desired marriage. The

golden couple Involved Apr May Have not made the choice, the choice gold

inseparable UK Themselves. In Either case, the families must "give consents

Because Their wedding arrangements are Carried Out Between families, and

are regarded family affairs. The Next Step Involves the older male members of

Both families Who Will Go To The Mosque to tie the marriages. This step IS

Called the Kumal, From the verb humde meaning "to tie". The symbol of this

Step Is The sharing of kola nut (peccugol goro) WHICH IS Provided by the

man's family. Once this step has been "Taken regarded the couple IS married,

drank It Still May Be Several months, or long-lived event, Before the woman

moves Actually Into Her Husband compound. This last step Known as the

kuurtagol, The moving of the wife to The Husband Compound ya une

expensive step, "celebrated with jubilation and Protracted festivities. While the

preparations for this final step are Being Made, the wife continues to live May

At Her parent's compound, with gold Elsewhere Other family members.

Art forms: Poetry Is very important am and is Incorporated in the traditional

language use Among the older generation. Dance Also Has a prominent place

in social interaction Halpulaar. Traditional dance varies from region to region,

But Is Generally Accompanied by traditional drumming. Most celebrations for

Incorporate Some of dancing. The younger generation in the true age

FOLLOWING cette regularly arrange evenings of dance, WHERE the music style

is Dominated by American, Caribbean,, Jazz and modern African-style music.

Storytelling is very important est aussi art and communication form.

Storytellers are Paid for Their Services and Performance SUCH diverse as the

recounting stories of history and folklore, to the praise-singing Gold dignitaries

of events. Storytellers are a must at a wedding feast, and the status

DEPENDING ON Of A Might Be Hired Many family for the occasion. (Also See

Videos)

The hand forms of recreation by visiting Consist of socializing and chatting

around the traditional tea, dancing and storytelling. In recent times it Has

Become popular to arrange social evenings of Debate over tea, "as well as

socio-cultural traditions and folklore evenings WHERE IS recounted and

discussed.

The Most Important Sport in the region are the West African Football and

wrestling. This form of hand-to-hand combat differs from Greco-Roman

wrestling, kicking and punching me manager IS Allowed. The Loser Is The first

one to hit the ground or Have Both feet of the ground. There Are Other

traditional sports as well.

171 | P a g e

Religion

Mauritania apart, Gambia, Mali and Senegal, Secular states are with freedom

of religion. Islam Has grown over the past 50 years and Islam Has INcreased

to 95. Moslems in Senegal are adherents to Sunni Islam, goal over 85% of

Muslims are Muslim members of Sufi brotherhoods The Three - the Mouride,

Tidjane, and Qadiri - who are in very Influential Political and Economic Life in

Senegal.

The Halpulaar are very Proud of Their Islamic heritage - of Being the first West

African group to embrace Islam. Generally Theys Belong to the strict Tijaniya

School.

Traditional Beliefs in the Nature of Man and His destiny after death play

significantly role in the Halpulaar outlook on life. The impersonal life force,

fittaandu, Is upon death Absorbed Into deity, while the Shadow Soul, mbeelu,

Is The personal spirit, subject to reward in heaven or punishment in hell. Two

spirits thesis, howeve, Is Not as Clear Might have expected ", and They Are

Often confused.

Sernaave (sing. Čierno) Are the spiritual authority "Marabouts centers. Ltr the

Religious leaders and teachers. It Is Through These Men That Satan controls

the lives of the people. From the cradle to the grave, a person lives "under the

shadow of the Marabout. Whether for giving a name at birth, for education, for

celebrating a wedding, for burial, for healing or cursing, the Marabout IS ever-

present.

Halpulaar Differentiate Among Their LUKAS clergyman to whether THEY lead

prayer, teach, specialize in the study and interpretation of the canon law, a

golden head Mosk. The common word for a cleric IS midibbo, The Teacher Is

The Čierno, While the jurist and the High Priest Is The Fojo. The head Mosk,

Often Also The chief administrative officer in a Village, IS Called Almami.

The Brotherhoods: In the past the Halpulaar Have Been associated with

various Sufi tariqas (Brotherhoods). Early in the 19th century the Shadhiliya

Among Them Was Introduced by a Fulani cleric, Ali As-Sufi, the purpose THEY

ADOPTED ultimately Tijaniya upon the Rise of Al-Hajj Umar.

Adapted from:

1) www.wagetaway.org

2) "Intrduction to Pulaar" by Sonja F. Diallo

172 | P a g e

The Hausa-Fulani of Nigeria

This section addresses Mainly the Fulani of Nigeria. Nigeria is Africa's Most

Which Populous Country, IS Composed of more Than 300 ethnic groups,

Divided Into Many subgroup of considerable social importance and politique.

Most important ethnolinguistic categories: Hausa and Fulani in north,

Yoruba in southwest, and Igbo in Southeast, all Internally subdivided. Next

major groups: Kanuri, Ibibio, Tiv, Ijaw and.

Languages in Nigeria are Estimated at more Than 350 with Many dialects. The

Most importantare: Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo and. Français Is The Official Language

Used in government, large-scale business, mass media, and education Beyond

primary school. Several other languages Also reconnu for Primary Education.

The FOLLOWING are the MOST Populous and politically Influential:

Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%,

Ijaw 10%, Kanuri 4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%.

The religions in Nigeria are as Follows:

Muslim 50%, Christian 40%, Indigenous Beliefs 10%.

The Hausa-Fulani are a great model of An ethnic group merger, as They Are

Actually Made up of Two groups, not Called Surprisingly the Hauser and the

Fulani.

The Hausa are Themselves a merger, a collection of West-African Peoples That

Were assimilated, long ago, Into the population inhabiting What is now

regarded Hausaland. Once THEY THEY Arrived in Hausaland Became Known for

setting up seven small states centered around Birni, Or walled cities. In the

Hausa states thesis Developed Techniques of efficient government, has very

carefully Organized Including Tax System and Judiciary A highly Learned,

Which Gave Them a reputation of Integrity and Administering a flexible loan in

Islamic law.

The Fulani are Muslims Also, and, like the Hausa.

Fulvia pastoralists, in Known Nigeria have Fulani, Hausa Began to enter the

country in the thirteenth century, and by the Fifteenth Century They Were

Tending cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani from the cam

Senegal River valley, Their Ancestors WHERE HAD Developed a method of

livestock management based on transhumance and Specialization. The

movement of cattle Along north / south corridors in pursuit of grazing and

water Climatic Followed the pattern of the rainy and dry seasons. Gradually,

the pastoralists Moved Eastward, Into the first centers of the Mali and Songhai

Eventually empires and Into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulvia Converted to

Islam in the Senegal region as early as the Eleventh century, and one group of

Muslim Fulani Settled in the Cities and mingled with the Freely Hausa, from

Whom Became THEY Racially indistinguishable.

A turning point in Nigerian history in 1804 When a cam Fulani preacher,

Othman dan Fodio Began a holy war in the result fromthis That subjugation of

the old Hausa city states of northern Nigeria. Having Conquered the Hausa,

Fulani, the language and Their ADOPTED merged with Their ruling classes to

create Hauser-Fulani ethnic group "under the rule of What Was the Sokoto

Caliphate now.

Theys Have intermarried with the Hausa, and Have Mostly ADOPTED "latter's

customs and language, although Some Fulani Decided to stay clean Retaining

by a nomadic life.

The Hausa-Fulani ruling coalition IS Still dominant in northern Nigeria. This

173 | P a g e

coalition HAD ITS beginnings Much Earlier, Because The Fulani Governed by

Simply The Highest Hereditary Assuming positions in the well-organized

system Hausa politique. Many of the Fulani ruling Culturally and linguistically

Have Become Hausa.

At the top of the hierarchy politique Organized Into the Fulani are states, or

emirates, Ruled by the emir. Emirs are selected from the ruling lineages by a

council of cleric (Mallam). After British intervention, the selection of year emir

Had To Be Approved by the British government. Emirs Have the ultimate power

in administrative and judicial functions of the state, and delegate sponsored

funds to carry out thesis Officials functions. Emirs HAD Somewhat more power

in the Past Than They Do today.

The Purely Fulani-speaking groups are made up of the Muslim population of

Northern Nigeria and the adjacent areas "of Niger, Which Have Been

Traditionally Organized Into wide Centralized states. Fulani of Nigeria speak a

number of dialects, They Can Be Grouped Into oven basic language groups:

Adamawa (On the east of Nigeria, Extending Into Cameroon )

Sokoto (Most of Whom speak Hausa, in the northern part of Nigeria,

Extending Into Niger), Sokoto (was ounce Staff geo-political state Fulvia, a

famous center for Pullo (singular for Fulvia) Usman dan Fodio ) Now the

Fulvia of the Sokoto area Mostly speak Hausa

Borgu: We Nageria western border, spilling over from Benin and Togo.

Central North Nigerian Fulani, With population figures estimate of 12-15

million, Have Many names and variations in speech, goal Basically the Kano-

Katsina Mbororo Western Fulani, Bauchi Fulani Toroove, etc.. Closely related

dialects speak to Each Other, readily Understood By Other Fulani People of the

region.

The modern Fulani of Nigeria are Concentrated Mainly in the provinces

of Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, and Zaria.

The Fulani Jelgoove

The Jelgoove Fulani Goldfulva Jelgoove of Northern Burkina Faso are one

expression of the Rich Variety in livelihoods Among the Fulani. In the late

Seventeenth and early Eighteenth Centuries THEY migrated from the Boni

region in Mali What is now northern Into Burkina Faso with "substantial herds

form Belonging to Their Masters, the Jalluve. Theys Quickly made alliances

with local chiefs in order to Protect Themselves and Their herds from Jalluve

retribution.

In just the Separate Two Generations of chiefdoms Djibo and Baraboulle Were

Established and-through a series of isolated Campaigns and battles, the

Jelgoove Established Themselves as masters of the region. Later on, A Third

chiefdom Was Established at Tongomayel. A King Ruled Kaaananke gold EACH

chiefdom gold region. At a village level, accession to the position of Jooro

Determined by IS genealogical Seniority. In simple terms, the jooro power

order is in. Does not Have Power. Drake gold adviser arbitre year with no real

coercive power EXCEPT Perhaps Loved-through charisma.

Most Jelgoove thesis days are agro-pastoralists. Seasonal decision-making

balanced Must Be Between millet cropping year transhumance herding. Some

Jelgoove Still are nomadic in the sense That THEY Rely Entirely on Their

174 | P a g e

Livelihood security for animals and manage giving further using various

patterns of mobility. These are Jelgove Mainly large herd owners Who Have

migrated to the wetter rangelands in the south-west and south east of Burkina

Faso Some gold in the north-east of Burkina Faso Who Into travel Mali and /

Gold Niger. In The Most Fulbhe Soum province of Burkina Faso Either are

sedentary or nomadic pastoralists one Who Their herds move over short

distances in a north-south pattern. Theys move north at the beginning of the

rains, as soon as surface water Allows to take advantage of shepherds bush

pastures Towards the Malian border, And Also escape with farmers "Conflicts

over crop damage. Theys move back south in the dry season to Their village

and / or permanent water points.

At first observation, Fulvia Jelgoove Seems very Secular Society. Surrounding

SUCH unlikable tribes have the Mossi Kurumba and Dogon THEY Have No

Systematic cosmology nor Do They Have "any plastic or graphic arts, except

the geometric patterns are Being leather work and utensils ménage (Riesman

1977:39). Similarly, It Is hard to find "any traditional rituals Fulvia Regarding

curing sickness, warding off death, Increasing fertility, and one (Riesman

1975:40). The Jelgove prononcer to Rely on Neighboring tribes (particularly

the Mossi and Kurumba), Itinerant Fulbhe Wodaave and Hausa merchants from

Niger for safaara gold Medicine and occult rituals. Feign ignorance Islamic

Fulbhe Generally matters in contention. Some Islamic clergyman regarded less

erudite howeve do dabble in folk medicine and sell charms as a supplementary

source of income options. The Fulbhe Jelgoove state quite categorically That

Their religion (Kulol Allah, Literally, fear of Allah) IS Islam, yet MOST hairpins

A Rather casual adherence to STI tenets, Except For That Is The Islamic

clergyman caste or guild, the Moodibaave. The Jelgoove Attached to Their are

very Pulaaku Which Is The Basis of Their extreme pride gold dimmaanku /

dimmaaku (see Pulaaka ).

Overview of Burkina Faso

Most of the People of Burkina Faso Belong to one of Two Hand cultural groups,

the Voltaic and the Mande. The Voltaic group includes the Mossi, the Bobo, the

Gurunsi, and the Lobi peoples. The Mossi make up about half of the country's

population. For over 800 years, They Have Had a kingdom with a central

government headed by the Moro Naba (Mossi chief). A Moro Naba Still Holds

short in Ouagadougou, the main city Mossi. Most of the Mossi are farmers

"Who live in the central and eastern share of Burkina Faso. The family lives in

Typical Mossi has Yiri, a group of mud-brick houses Surrounding a small short.

The families keep sheep and goats in the short.

The Bobo, the Gurunsi, and the Lobi EACH make up less Than 10 Percent of

the population. The Bobo live in the southwest around Bobo Dioulasso. THEY

live in large villages Where They build houses with clay castlelike brick walls

and straw roofs. The Gurunsi, Who live around Koudougou, HAVE ADOPTED

modern exchange more readily Than the Mossi have. The Lobi live in the

Gaoua region. THEY Have Long Been good hunters and farmers ", work as intended now THEY Migrant Laborers in and around the cities.

The Mande group includes the Boussance, Marka, Samo, and Senufo peoples.

These are branches of the Mande peoples groups living in Neighboring Mali,

175 | P a g e

Guinea, and northern Cote d'Ivoire. Burkina Faso Also Has Several Hundred

Thousand Fulani and Tuareg nomads. These people travel grazing Between

Areas in the northern part of Burkina Faso with Their goats, sheep, and Other

livestock.

Kano-Katsina

KANO

The Hausa state of Kano Was Founded in the 10th century. It Was Conquered

by the Fulani in 1807, Becoming a dependency of Sokoto.

Was Imposed British rule in 1903.

Emirs

House of Ibrahim Dabo

Ruled Since 1819

1855 - 1883 Ibrahim Abdullahi dan Dabo "Abdu Sarkin Yanka" 1 ... - 1883

1883 - 1893 Muhamman Bello Ibrahim dan Dabo, brother ... 1 - 1893

1893 - 1895 Muhamman Bello Tukur dan Muhamman, its 1 ... - 1895

1895 - 1903 Aliyu "Abu" dan Abdullahi, Emir of the

Dan Abdullahi Ibrahim (s.a.), part of Ruled Since the country in 1894, Expelled by the British 18 .. - 1926

1903 - 1919 Muhammadu Abbas dan Abdullahi, brother 18 .. - 1919

1919 - 1926 Uthman dan Abdullahi, brother 18 .. - 1926

1926 - 1953 Bayaro Abdullahi dan Muhammadu Abbas, of the Emir Muhammadu Abbas (as) 1883-1953

Katsina

The state of Katsina Hausa Was Founded in the 11th century and Was Conquered by the Fulani in 1806, Becoming a dependency of Sokoto.

Was Imposed British rule in 1903.

Emirs

House of Umaru Dallaji

176 | P a g e

1870 - 1882 Ibrahim dan Bello Muhamman 1 ... - 1882

1882 - 1887 Umaru Musa dan, of the Emir Umaru Dallaji

(1 ... - 1835 r. 1806-1835) 1 ... - 1887

1887 - 1905 Ibrahim dan Abubakar, Emir of Ibrahim's (sa), deposed

1905 - 1906 Yero dan Musa, the Emir of Musa (as), deposed

House of Gidado

1906 - 1944 Muhammad dan Dikko Gidado 1865 - 1944

1944 - 1981 Muhammad Usman dan Nagogo Dikko its 1905 - 1981

The Hausa-Fulani Dominion

It thrived Bornu's west the spectacular Hausa cultures, Which by the 7th

century AD Were Already smelting iron ore. Cette politique militaire power and

Motions What is this in Nigeria's northwestern and north central area. The

Origin of Crop Remains a Mystery thesis to Western Historian. Purpose Local

lore Hold That Bayajida has traveler from the Middle East, married the queen

of Daura and HAD seven sounds. Each IS his Believed To Have Founded one of

the seven Hausa kingdoms: Kano, Rano, Katsina, Zazzau (Zaria), Gobir, Kebbi,

and Auyo.

The seven walled city-states have strong economies Developed Supported by

intensive farming, cattle rearing, music, Soldier and craftsmanship. For Each of

the seven states, annually élu monarch Ruled over a network of feudal lords by the 14th century Who Converted to Islam HAD.

A Greater Perhaps, if more Subtle, Threat to the Hausa kingdoms Was The

Fulani pastoralists. Their Migration Into the Hausa-dominated savanna over

Many Centuries Presented a purpose Subtle Significant Threat to the Hausa

states. In 1804 Fulani scholar, Usman dan Fodio, Has Declared jihad (holy

war) Against the Hausa states, whos Rulers ET upbraided for Allowing Islamic

practices to deteriorate. Armed Fulani warriors are evangelists and horseback,

with the blessing of Usman dan Fodio and, fired by Religious and Political

fervor, overthrew the Hauser and Conquered areas "Beyond Hausaland,

Including Adamawa to the east and Nupe and Ilorin to the south.

After the war, a loose federation of 30 emirates emerged, recognizing the

supremacy EACH of the Sultan of Sokoto, Located in What is now the state of

Sokoto on Nigeria's northwestern flanks. The Sultan of Sokoto Was first Usman

dan Fodio. After Usman Died in 1817, Loved her, Muhammad Bello, Took

Loved up. With STI militarily and Economic Might and savvy, the Sokoto Caliphate Dominated the region THROUGHOUT the 19th century

The Hausa Consist of the Hausa-speaking, Muslim population of Northern

Nigeria and adjacent areas "of the Niger, Which Have Been Traditionally

177 | P a g e

Organized Into wide Centralized states. Originally, the name Hausa Referred

to only the language of the people of this area Habe, Who Were Organized Into

Closely related goal seven independent states Called Biram, Daura, Kano,

Katsina, Gobir Rano and gold Zazzau Zaria. Early in the Nineteenth Century,

the states Habe Were Conquered by the Fulbe (Fulani, Peul), Waging a Jihad

Muslim gold holy war "under the leadership of Uthman dan Fodio. The Sokoto

Caliphate Peul Established the Golden Empire, Which ultimately Incorporated

Some 15 states Called emirates, EACH headed by a ruling dynasty of Fulani origin. The deposed Habe

Dynasties of Zaria and Katsina states set up new at Abuja and Maradi and A

Third Habe Was Established state has Argunga. In thesis states, Habe customs largely Unchanged Survived by Fulani influence.

The Fulani rulers of the Hausa states progressively ADOPTED the sedentary

life, language, customs and Other of the subject population Habe, ou partly-

through intermarriage. They Are Called the Golden Town Settled Fulani to

Distinguish Them From The Bush nomadic Fulani gold. Malthus the Hausa term

Normally Is Now Used to Refer to Both the original and the Settled Population

Habe, acculturated Fulani ruling aristocracy. Also it extends to people of

different ethnic origins, have SUCH Tuareg gold Kanuri Where They Have the Hausa language ADOPTED and culture.

Most Hausa are Muslim farmers "part-time and part-time occupational

specialists, while the pagan Hausa are for the full-time MOST share subsistence

agriculturalists. Agriculture IS Scheduled Around The May-October rainy

season. Grain crops of millet, maize, Guinea corn, and rice supply the bulk of

the diet. A wide range of additional crops, SUCH as peanuts, cowpeas, sweet

potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, bamboo, tobacco, cassava, root crops and Other

Both are grown for Household Consumption and as cash crops. Uncultivated

plants are sources of fuel have Exploited, thatch, food, and fiber. Livestock Raising Is Another

important feature of economic activities, and the Hausa inventory of domestic animals includes horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, and poultry.

A few "cattle are Raised, aim for the MOST part the Hausa cattle and cattle

products get-through trade with the pastoral Fulbe. Except at the elite Gold

Levels Where There is Sufficient market demand, occupational specialties are Pursued were part-time Basis in Conjunction with subsistence agriculture.

Exchange of Goods and Services Takes place Within a cash economy. A system

of markets and traders are links together the units of state and the state to

Outside groups. Small rural villages Have periodic markets, while larger

settlements Have daily markets. At the top of the hierarchy Is a central

market, Located in the administrative center of the state. A series of market

Officials Oversee the activities and Settlements Within The marketplace

disputes.

At the top of the hierarchy politique Organized Into the Hausa are states, or

emirates, Ruled by the emir. Emirs are selected from the ruling lineages by a

council of cleric (Mallam). After British intervention, the selection of year emir

178 | P a g e

Had To Be Approved by the British government. Emirs Have the ultimate power

in administrative and judicial functions of the state, and delegate sponsored

funds to carry out thesis Officials functions. Emirs HAD Somewhat more power

in the Past Than They Do today, howeve, When THEY Appointed stronghold heads and more officials.

The British, by a series of Department Interposing to handle state affairs,

spread out sacrifice part of the Powers That HAD Been formerly reserved to the

emir. At present, Many of the important decisions are made by the emir in

Conjunction with senior department heads Chooses Whom ET. The emir, the

top state bureaucrats, The Two Priests state, and the central market are all

Located in a capital city.

The Islamic religion Was Introduced Among the Hausa as early as the 1500s,

goal ITS predominance Was Not Fully Established Until the Fulani-led jihad

(holy war) of the Early Nineteenth Century. Pilgrimages, daily prayer, mosque

attendance at ceremonies, adherence to Islamic law, and the stress they are

learning Quaranic Major elements of the Islamic faith. Mallam (men of learning Quaranic) teach the faith and Have Relatively high status in Haus Society.

The Mallam are Ranked by degree of learning and status, with giving further at

the top of the hierarchy serving in state-level offices That Religious and Secular

combines Both Powers. Individual participation in Islam IS variable, the degree

of adherence to Islamic practices Greater Among Those Being of Wealth and

Power Among the Poorer Than groups.

179 | P a g e

History of Kanem-Borno

The Kanem Empire Originated in the ninth century AD to the Northeast of Lake

Chad. It Was Formed from a confederation of nomadic peoples Who spoke

languages of the Teda-Daza (Tubu) group. One theory, based on early Arabic

sources, Suggests That the dominance of the Zaghawa people bound the

confederation together. Local oral traditions omit Aim the Zaghawa and has

progressively closed INSTEAD to legendary Arab, Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan - Some

Believed to Have Been by a Yemeni - who Assumed leadership of the clan and

Magoumi Sayfawa Began the dynastic lineage. Historians Agree That the

leaders of the new state of the Ancestors Were Kanembu people. The leaders

ADOPTED the title in May, gold king, and Their subjects Them Regarded as divine.

One Factor That Influenced the formation of states in Chad Was The

penetration of Islam "during the Tenth Century. Migrating from the Arabs north

and east Brought the new religion. Toward the end of the Eleventh century, the

king Sayfawa, May breathed in Converted to Islam. (Some Historians Believe

That It Was Rather Than Sayf ibn Humai Dhi Yazan Sayfawa Who Established

the lineage as the ruling dynasty of Kanem.) Offered Islamic rulers Sayfawa

the advantages of the new ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean world, as

well as "Literacy in administration . Purpose Many people resisted the new

religion in Favor of Traditional Beliefs and practices. Converted Humai When,

for example, It Is Believed That the Zaghawa broke from the empire and

Moved east. This pattern of conflict and compromise with Islam underinsured motorist Repeatedly in Chadian history.

Prior to the twelfth century, the nomadic confederation expanded Sayfawa

Southward Into Kanem (the word for "south" in the Teda language). By the

thirteenth century, Kanem's rule expanded. At the time Sami, the people

Kanembu Became Established more sedentary and has a capital Njima,

Northeast of Lake Chad. Even Though the Kanembu Were Becoming more

sedentary, Kanem's rulers continued to travel frequently to remind

THROUGHOUT the kingdom herders and farmers "the de fait's Power and to allow 'em to Demonstrate Their allegiance by Paying Tribute.

Kanem's expansion Peaked and energetic "during the long reign of May

Dabbalemi dunams (ca. 1221-1259). Initiated Dabbalemi diplomacy exchange

with sultans in North Africa and arranged for the establishment Apparently of a

special hostel in Cairo to Facilitate Pilgrimage to Mecca. During, Dabbalemi's

reign, the Fezzan region (in present-day Libya) Fell Under Kanem's authority

"and the empire's influence extended Westward to Kano to Wadai Eastward,

Southward and to the Adamawa grasslands (in present-day Cameroon).

Portraying thesis boundaries maps we can Be Misleading, howeve, Because The

degree of control extended in ever-weakening gradations from the core of the

empire around Njima to remote peripheries, from Which allegiance and tribute

Were Usually only symbolic. Moreover, cartographic lines are static and

misrepresent the mobility inherent in Nomadism and migration, Which Were

common. The loyalty of peoples and Their Leaders in Governance Was more

important Than the physical control of territory.

Dabbalemi devised a system to reward militaire commanders with authority

180 | P a g e

"over the people THEY Conquered. This system, howeve, Tempted militaire

officers to pass Their Positions to Their sound, transforming the office from

Malthus based on one Achievement and loyalty to the one based on May Into

Hereditary Nobility. Dabbalemi Was Able to suppress this Tendency, goal after

death Loved, Loved sound disagreement Among the weakened Sayfawa

Dynasty. Dynastic feuds degenerated Into civil war, and Kanem's outlying peoples soon ceased Paying tribute.

By the end of the Fourteenth Century, internal and external attacks Struggles

HAD torn Kanem apart. Between 1376 and 1400, but six Reigned, goal Bulala

invaders (from the area around Lake Fitri to the east) Five of Them Killed. This

proliferation of but in result fromthis Claimants to the throne Numerous and

led to a series of internecine wars. Finally, around 1396 the Bulala Forced to

abandon May Umar Idrismi Njima Kanembu and move the people to Borno on

the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Borno peoples created a new people and language, the Kanuri.

Purpose Even In Borno, the Dynasty's troubles Sayfawa PERSISTED. "During

the first three-quarters of the Fifteenth Century, for example, fifteen Occupied

but the throne. Then, around May 1472 Ali Dunamami Loved Defeated rivals

and Began the consolidation of Borno. He built a fortified capital at

Ngazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-day Niger), the first

permanent home was in May Sayfawa HAD Enjoyed in a Century. So

Successful That Was The Sayfawa rejuvenation by the Early Sixteenth Century

and the Bulala Were Defeated Njima retaken. The empire's leaders, howeve,

Has Remained Ngazargamu Because ITS agriculturally productive lands Were more and Better suited to the raising of cattle.

Kanem-Borno Peaked "during the Reign of the Outstanding statesman May

Idris Aluma (ca. 1571-1603). Aluma (also spelled Alooma) IS Remembered for

Loved militaires skills, Administrative Reforms, and Islamic Piety. His

opponents hand Were the Hausa to the west, the Tuareg and Tubu to the

north, and the Bulala to the east. One epic poem extol Loved victories in 330

wars and more Than 1.000 battles. His innovations included the emploi of fixed

militaire camps (with walls); permanent seats and "scorched earth" tactics,

WHERE Solidere 'everything burned in Their path; armored horses and riders,

and the Use of Berber camelry, Kotoko Boatmen, and iron-Helmeted Trained

by Turkish Musketeers militaire advisers. His active diplomacy featured

relations with Tripoli, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire, Which feels a 200-

member ambassadorial party across the desert to Aluma's court at

Ngazargamu. Aluma Also signé What Was Probably the first Plantagenet treaty

or cease-fire in Chadian history-. (Like Many cease-fires-Negotiated in the 1970s and 1980s, It Was promptly broken.)

Aluma Introduced a number of legal and administrative Reforms Based on

Religious Beliefs and Loved Islamic law (Sharia). He sponsored the

construction of mosques and Numerous made a pilgrimage to Mecca, Where He

arranged for the establishment of a hostel to Be Used by pilgrims from Loved

empire. As With Other Dynamic Politicians, Aluma's reformist goals led Him to

seek competent and honest advisers and allies, and frequently relied on slaves

ET Who HAD Been Educated in noble homes. Aluma regularly Sought advice

from a council Composed of heads of the MOST important clans. He required

181 | P a g e

major politique figures to live at the short, and ET-through alliances reinforced

politique appropriée marriages (Aluma Himself Was the son of a Kanuri father and a mother Bulala).

Kanem-Borno Under Aluma Was Wealthy and strong. Government cam back

from tribute (or booty, if the recalcitrant people Had To Be Conquered) of dirty

Slav, duties and participation in one trans-Saharan trade. Unlikable West

Africa, the Chadian region Did Not Have gold. Still, it was central to one of the

MOST convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake Chad and Fezzan lay a

sequence of well-spaced wells and oases, and from Fezzan There Were easy

connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many products Were

feels north, Including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola nuts, ivory,

ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides, the MOST important goal of all Slavic Were. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, musket, and copper.

Aluma Took A Keen Interest in Trade and Other Matters économique. Drake

credited with HAVING the roads cleared, Designing Better boats for Lake Chad,

Introducing standard units of measure for grain, and moving farmers "Into new

lands. In addition, ET Improved security and the ease of transit-through the

empire with the goal of making it so safe That "lone woman clad in gold Might

walk with none to fear God intended."

The Administrative Reforms and brilliance of Aluma militaire Sustained the

Empire Until the mid-1600s, When Its Power Began to fade. By the late 1700s,

Borno rule extended only Westward Into the land of the Hausa. That Time

Around, Fulani people, Invading from the west, Were Able to make major

InRoads Into Borno. By the early Nineteenth century, Kanem-Borno Was

"clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors Conquered

Ngazargamu. Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani thrust and Proclaimed a jihad

(holy war) is the Irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign Eventually

Engagements Kanem-Borno and has Inspired Trend Toward Islamic orthodoxy.

Muhammad al-Kanem Purpose Contested the Fulani advance. Kanem Was a

Muslim scholar and non-HAD Sayfawa Who put together warlord alliance of

Shuwa Arabs year, Kanembu, seminomadic and Other Peoples. Eventually He

built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). Sayfawa but Remained

titular monarchs Until 1846. I'm his year, the last May, in league with Wadai

tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It Was not That Has That Kanem's son,

Umar, Became king, ending one of the Malthus longest dynastic reigns in regional history.

Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Borno survived. Purpose

Umar Who eschewed the title in May for the simple designation Shehu (from

the Arabic "shaykh"), "could not match Loved father's vitality and gradually the

kingdom Allowed To Be Ruled by advisers (wazir). Borno Began to decline, as a

result of administrative disorganization, regional Particularism, and attacks by

the militant Wadai Empire to the east. The decline continued Under Umar's

sounds, and in 1893 Rabih Fadlallah, leading by year Invading army from eastern Sudan, Borno Conquered.

Ref: U.S. Library of Congress

182 | P a g e

The Krio Fula of Sierra Leone

The Fulani (or Fula) people in the Settled Futa Jalon region of Sierra Leone

Nearly Three Hundred years ago, and mixed with the People of the area. As the

term Krio Fula Indicates That They Are of mixed ancestry.The Krio Descended

from African slaves Freed Who Settled On The Coast Of Sierra Leone "during

the first half of the Nineteenth Century. These Freed slaves intermarried with

Many groups in the area Already Sucha have the Kru, the Mende, the Vai, the

Mandinka, the Kissi, and the Europeans. The Resulting mixture of cultures and

languages Produced Eventually the Creole race, Called Krio.The Krio Fula

Inhabit the western peninsula of Sierra Leone near Freetown, The country's

capital. The area in Which They Live consists "of very heavily Wooded

mountains rising from coastal swamps. Annual rains can Reach 200 inches,

and the IS Humidity Usually very high.

Their language, Also Called Krio Fula Belongs To The Niger-Congo language

family. The Krio Fula are skilled cattle farmers "Primarily, with Their Lives

DEPENDING upon and revolving around the cattle herds. The status of a family

can Be Determined by the size and health of Its cattle. The more a man knows

about cattle herding, The Greater compliance HE IS a sealed envelope the

community.

Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, howeve, the women milk and take

care of the cattle. Theys Also tends to the livestock and poultry small, cultivate

gardens, and carry containers of milk and cheese to the local markets for sell

gold trade. Most Krio Fula Also urges In Some type of farming. Rice is

cultivated in the swamps on the peninsular coast, while millet, peanuts,

vegetables are grown and Other Farther inland.

Krio Fula villages are Scattered, EACH Has A central goal short and a mosque.

Together, a community composed thesis. Each community Has A village

headman Who handles affairs and chief Who has answers to. The homes of the

Krio Fula are Settled round with mud walls and thatched roofs That projects

over encircling porches. Howeve, nomadic Krio Fula live in simple structures,

Since They Are so Often moving with the herds. These houses Have Neither

walls nor verandahs, and are encircled by cattle corrals.With Their Mothers

Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as puberty has his

Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a nearby

compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Will Be the Home Of

The Loved and his future wife.

The Krio Fula are 90% Muslim, Many Still Follow Their goal Traditional Beliefs.

In Their ancient religion, the nomadic herdsmen prononcer to find relevance

for the experiences and dangers of Their lifestyle. Some men practice herbal

healings, divination and magic. Fertility IS prayed for have important year

moyen de Ensuring the future supply of herdsmen and Milkmaid. Meat from the

cattle Is Not Eaten by the Krio Fula, EXCEPT for ceremonial purposes. The herd

owner's feast Is One SUCH ceremony. During, this feast, a bull That Has

Served Ten Season is Presented, Killed, and Eaten.

The Fula Liptako

183 | P a g e

(See also Jelgoove)

The Fulani people are named Generally LUKAS to Their locations, occupations,

and dialects. The Fula Liptako Inhabit the Liptako Gourma region. Liptako-

Gourma Region IS site location is the Border Area Between Burkina Faso,

Mali and Niger. It Is made up of part of the territories of Burkina Faso (57%)

of Mali (21%) and Niger (10%) WHERE Some 14 million live Gutman.The Fula

Liptako are a branch of the Fulani living in the Masina District of Central Mali

and northern Burkina Faso. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Fulvia Have Many

migrated eastwards to Oudalan Liptako, and Into Yagha Niger. Ltr part of the

Jelgoove Fulani sub-group.

The Jelgoobe Descended From Two chiefdoms That Hair migrated from region

of Mali by 1750. According To Their oral traditions, They Arrived from Masina in

Mali, Driving the cattle of the Jallube in the 17th century, Because Of Famine

And The Struggles Of That politique region. Purpose THEY DID not escape

Entirely thesis, for THEY Became in 1824 the eastern edge of the Islamic

Dwina kingdom of Ahmadu Cheiku, Based in the Masina HAD Their goal

rebelled and leaders killed. Theys appealed to the king of the Mossi Yatenga

Who Attempted to rule imposes Mossi. The Jelgoobe Both Threw off Until the

French Arrived in 1864.

These and Other Fulvi of different origins and dates of arrival are Varied Called

Fulvia Jelgooji, like the Fulvia Kelli. Purpose sacrifice part of the Riimaybe ex-

captive Who Possibly Gaining Their Freedom in the conflict with the Mossi

around 1834, live in the town of Djibo and speak the language of the Mossi.

The Town Is About 25% Mossi, A Further 18% are Riimaybe Also speaking

Fulfulde.

In this region 72% of the population of IS Fulfulde language and culture, goal

only 44% are Fulvia, the rest Riimaybe Being, Who Now Have independent

farming in Yukon. The Fulvia living in hamlets The surroundings speak Fulfulde

and INSIST on keeping "status as a new serie cattle cattle owners in the Fulvia

tradition. Many migrated south "during the Droughts of the 1980s. Goal Since

Then Have Remained That giving further prospered Better Than the farming

population. This has been "Helped by new water holes and a cattle market in

Djibo.

The herds are a very important asset to the Liptako. Milk from the cattle and

goats Provides the hand portion of Their diet. Butter IS Made And Also sold at

the markets. Meat is only at major film festivals Eaten ceremonies. The Liptako

Both raise long-horned and short-horned cattle. Two types of sheep are bred

Also: one with one with hair and wool. The wool sheep are important for trade,

and indicate where and the Economic Status of Their owners. Values have

SUCH valor, bravery, and strength are important to the Fulani. This is shown in

one interesting custom Liptako Known As Sharo

Masina

Introduction

184 | P a g e

The Fulani Mostly live in the West-African Sahel. Their migration With Their

herds in the north IS limited by the Sahara Desert, And in the south by the

tsetse flies infested areas. Howeve, At The Edge Of The Sahara Desert, There

are rich and fertile lands. There, the Niger River Delta extends Almost 200

kilometers in Mali, Leaving 50 to 75 miles of fertile land for agriculture and for

cattle. That? S where is Located Masina e mango malaango (Masina the great

and blessed). The Fulani population groups are named to LUKAS Their

locations, occupations, and dialects. The Masinaare Also Called fulva Masina

gold Masinankove are a branch of the Fulani living in the Masina district of

central Mali and northern Burkina Faso.

Society

The culture and lifestyle of Masina are Virtually identiques to giving further

Fulani of Other Peoples in West Africa. The hot, tropical climate of the Masina

district Provides wet and dry seasons, and seasons dictate the thesis lifestyle

of the Fulani. Ltr a semi-nomadic people, mixing farming with shepherding.

"During the dry season, Which Lasts about kiln months, the young men move

Usually the herds of cattle, sheep or goats to the flood complain in search of

grazing land Better. The life of young Fulani men herding the cattle in search of

pasture "during the transhumance Was Brilliantly portrayed in a documentary

entitled Love in the Sahel.

Herders Camp in mobile shelters made of poles or branches Covered with

straw, leaves, or mats. While the young men are Migrating with the herds,

Their Wives, and the younger children stay at the homestead with the family

elders, Tending to the gardens. Theys raise a Variety of vegetables, staple

crops are intended Their rice and millet. SUCH A few "animals as horses,

donkeys, chickens, and dogs live on the farms Also.

In the wet season, the herds and the intransitive families in the villages.

The herds are a very important asset to the Fulani. Milk from the cattle and

goats Provides the hand portion of Their diet. Butter IS Made And Also sold at

the markets. Meat is only at major film festivals Eaten ceremonies. Cattle are

the type of livestock Kept hand, sheep and goats are intended Aussi raised.

Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, although the milk and help women

take care of the cattle. Also the women tended to the livestock and poultry

small, cultivate gardens, and carry containers of milk and cheese to the local

markets for sale or trade. The Fulani Both raise the long-horned, humpless

cattle and the short-horned, humped cattle. Two types of sheep are bred Also:

one with one with hair and wool. The wool sheep are important for trade, and

indicate where and the Economic Status of Their owners.

Villages are made up of extended families form a Compound That. Their homes

are made of flexible poles and a center post has thatched roof Supporting.

Around Every compound Is a thorn fence. Each of the Fulani clans, whether

nomadic or Settled, is Governed by Elder year. The elder village chief answers

to a Who Lives In The Generally center plaza of the village.

Although Masina Fulani villages are Scattered, EACH Has A Village and a short

central mosque. Houses Belonging to the Settled Fulani Masina are round with

mud walls Typically and thatched roofs. Each year hut Has encircling veranda.

The Macina Fulani nomadic live in open, beehive-shaped huts with no walls or

verandas. Each hut IS Surrounded by a cattle corral.

With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as

185 | P a g e

puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a

nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Will Become

the home of the wife's and His Future.

The first marriage of a Man Is Usually arranged by the man's father. A bride-

service of Helping the girl's father with livestock IS Loved Performed by The

Man, Who Usually HE IS marries while in His early twenties.

Children Belong To age-groups (shovel) Until THEY sorry. Year Age-group

(Fedde) At Three gold oven underinsured motorist year intervals, With Every

child born in years giving further Belonging to That sets. The children in year

age-set go to school together and work and play together Often. When the

time arrived for marriage, They May Events help One Another With The bride-

service. Within EACH age-set are a leader, a deputy, and a judge.

Like Other Rural Areas in Mali, The Masina district IS Divided Into castes.

The Masinankove are Muslims. Children Are Taught in Islamic religious schools.

Howeve, They Are Also Taught Pulaaku, the importance of being has Fulani by

the elders, Who Thrive on Spreading Fulani traditional stories and culture to

the next generation. To the Fulani children are the future. They Do not believe

in afterlife year, so children are the only means clustering by Which THEY can

live on from generation to generation. Theys Believe That Their sound-through,

Their names and features Will remain.

Over the years sacrifice part of Them Have Moved from Being Exclusively

shepherds, to Being scholarly, Influential Leaders in Their Communities.

Special Places:

DJENNE: Surrounded by floodplain, And Sometimes it an island, Some Say

This Is The MOST beautiful town in the Sahel. Founded in around 800 AD by

the Bozo people, Djenne Became a way station for gold, ivory, lead, wool, and

kola nuts.

Mopti: Mopti, has-been a hub of trans-Saharan trade Since ancient times.

The city annually Became important site in the 19th century When Fulani

scholar Ahmadou Cheikou Lobbo Made it the year of Masina Empire outpost,

Which Was it centered Djenne and the Fulani pastureland around it.

Timbuktu: In the 11th century, the Tuareg set up a permanent camp here on

the north bank of the Niger and left the settlement in the care of An old woman

named Timbuktu. The town Became year major commercial center. It Also

Became year major center for Islamic Studies

How to get to Masina

AIR Mali? S national airline Air IS Mali (L9). Airlines Operating Between Mali

and Europe include Aeroflot and Air France.

Approximate flight times: From Bamako to London Is 11 hours (Including

stopover in Brussels gold Paris).

International airports: Bamako (BKO) IS 15km (9 miles) from the city (travel

time? 20 minutes). A bus service est disponible Into the city.

Departure tax: CFAfr10, 000; CFAfr8000 for destinations in Africa. Children

186 | P a g e

under 2 years are free.

RAIL: There Is a twice-weekly service from Bamako to Dakar (Senegal) Which

Has air conditioning, sleeper cars and restaurant facilities (travel time? 35

hours). It Will Also Carry cars. There are plans to extend rail Also Into links

Guinea.

ROAD: The best connections are from road Cote d? Ivoire and Burkina Faso.

There Are Also road links with Senegal, Guinea, Niger and Mauritania. The all-

weather road Follow the Niger you as far as Niamey (Niger). Travel through the

Algerian border IS Currently regarded dangerous and not recommended. Bus:

Services operate-from Kankan (Guinea) To Bamako, "As well as from Bobo

Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) To Segou and Mopti, and Niamey (Niger) To Gao.

From Cote d? Ivoire, There Are Three nozzles per week (travel time? At least

36 hours). From Niger, The national bus line SNTN Operates Three weekly

nozzles to Mali.

See Also: Hamdallaye Cheikou Ahmadou Lobbo, and Amadou Ba

Hampathé

Masina Travel Links

Hamdallaye

Hamdallaye Now Is a shadow of What It Must Have Been a century ago. Prior

to the arrival of the French Segou When Was Powerful and Practicing

traditional religion, This Was the center of the Masina Fulani's Emerging Islamic

Empire and a center of Islamic education at the time. Currently It Is Not Even

Labeled maps are MOST.

A brief description of the Founding of the ITS organization and Hamdallaye

Provided below are.

The site selected for foundation of Hamdallaye Was Located in edge of the area

of flood, the river of Remotely reasonable, the way of great penetration and

Exchange of West Africa Timbuctu Connecting to Jenne, and with the foot of

the rock escarpment of Kunar, Which constituted excellent natural Barriers.

Amadou Cheikou Submitted the project to the great council ADOPTED Which it.

The notable ones Were feels to examine the ground and to make plans for the

buildings. Two Thousand Concessions Were Granted to heads of family in the

Wishing to Settle new city, Whos Been HAD center reserved for the mosque

and the concession of Cheikou Ahmadou Himself.

The distribution of the seats on Monday Took Grounds, Which like counts dates

from the foundation of city. The construction of the Sami mosq Began the day.

Took every body part is the construction. When the construction of the mosq

Was finished, the marabout (Religious Leaders) is There to "give thanks to

God.

The construction of Hamdallaye Lasted Three Years. When It Was sufficiently

advanced, the council feels great circular letters, "under the signature of

Cheikou Amadou Asking all the boat owners in near by cities of weighting,

Diennéri, Mourari, etc., to send Their boats for the transfer of the Gutman of

the village of Noukouma and Their marchandises. One sample of thesis and

letters Arrived in Tékétya Was read at mosq.

The mosque of Hamdallaye HAD Been Built "under the direction of masons

187 | P a g e

come from Jenne. It Did not understood minaret, nor "any kind of

architectural ornament. The walls, made Were Believed unmolded bricks. Wood

Pillars Supported roofs, and in place Were Such A Way to not have the sight

obstruction. There Were Twelve lines of about Pillars, directed North-South and

thirteen Limiting transverse spans. The mihrab Was At The Bottom Of The

building, in the east,, and the one side elevated pulpit year. Moreover There

Were longitudinal rows: two in north and two in the south. The first pair of

rows reserved Were To The readers of the Koran and the scribes Who

Reproduced rare works, the second pair of rows Were reserved for the tailors

Who made the shrouds. The Covered Was Preceded unit, one the western side,

by a courtyard of about the Sami dimensions. Water filled vases of pottery

Were Placed at the corners for ritual ablutions.

Ahmadou Cheikou? S residence Was Divided Into rectangular and Many Parts:

Cheikou? S personal residence, a library, a burial ground sounds wherehis

Were Buried, and the Seven-door meeting room. It Was Called Because The

seven-door meeting room facings north HAD Three Doors, Three Doors facings

south west and one door facings.

Lastly, all the western part of the residence Was reserved for travelers from

abroad, orphans, old persons. Without Resource Persons Were Also Housed

and nourished with the dépenses of the community.

The city Itself, Divided Into eighteen districts Was Surrounded By An Enclosing

wall oven with doors called:

Damal Sebera In The West

Damal Fakala in the south

Damal Ba 'Ben in the east

Damal Kunar in north.

The supply of the city Was Ensured by a central market and eighteen

secondary markets, one by district. A supervisor Was in charge of Each

District and controller of measurements. The Salesmen Grouped LUKAS To The

Nature of Their marchandises. Was Most Significant salt, Then Came the Gold

Which one Preserved in pipes of gold feather Thatches of millet has cut the

length of a finger. No food was cooked to the Proposed purchasers ", EXCEPT

the morning of the Yoni and sinassar. Almost all the concessions Were

Equipped with a well. Those of Bourema Khalilou and Guro Malado Were

regarded to "give the best water. "During the rainy season, the Gutman could

"go to draw water at the edge of the flooded plain. Counted in One Hamdallaye

more Than 600 Koranic schools, "under the top management of Alfa Nouhoun

Tayrou. All Were The Has the burden of the community and the teachers Were

Paid by public funds. No one "could not open a school to Be Without reconnu

suited to teaching and Without the authorization "of Receiving Alfa Nouhoun

Tayrou. The hand Taught subjects included:

The Koran

Tafseer of the Qur'an commentaries gold

Hadith, the traditions gold Relating to the actions of the Prophet

Tawhid gold KM of God and His attributes

Oussoul golden principles of the canon law

Philosophical Tassawouf gold mystic

The secondary subjects Were Taught only in one small number of schools.

They were:

Nâhou gold grammar

Sarf gold syntax

Mani gold rethoric

188 | P a g e

Baydn golden eloquence

Hard gold Mantik

Allay Takandé Was Recognized As the Koran MOST eminent scholar. The

Teaching of the girls Was Ensured by women. Cheikou Ahmadou Taught

Himself is the Koran and the Life of morning Mohammed the afternoon.

The police force of the city Was Ensured by seven marabouts Directly reporting

of the general council:

Hambarké Samatata

Alfa Guidado

Send Hamma Oumarou

Alhaji Seydou

Bela Modi

Bela Goure Dyadyé

Allay Takandé

The offenses; Were Reported to one of the seven member of the general

council. There Were civic rules and codes of conduct the Gutman Which Were

to Abide by.

Hygiene and cleanliness Were Also Covered by a precise adjustment. Each

head of family Was responsible for the clearness of the Neighborhood and

Loved concession. Hamdallaye Was Said To Be clean inside out. On the

market, the saleswomen Were To Have Covered the milk and closed to new

serie em a container full of water in order to wash the cup Used to Measure the

milk. Was it forbidden to sell the meat of a sick animal.

The security of Hamdallaye Was Ensured by Alfa Futa Samba, with a troop of

horses 10.000 strong. A portion of the troop Was Permanently stationed inside

the city, comme au serving Was stationed with the surroundings. Armed

guards patrol Performed routine GUARANTEE Every Day to the safety of the

country.

Ahmadou Cheikou Lobbo

Cheikou Amadou Tall and handsome Was a Fulani man with a copper colored

skin and a straight nose. He Carried year Unshaven hair in the Manner of the

prophet Mohammed. His Eyes Were sharp, piercing with a glance. He Walked

With A long bamboo cane. He liked to rock Sometimes Loved flesh. His

modest clothes Were, and Were Made of cotton seven bands. He Loved head

wrapped in a long turban, and shoes with leather straps Carried.

He Said ITS prayer with prayer beads and Spent Most Of Loved nights in

reading and meditation.

a chain of grains made of tanned 22. It PASSED MOST of the night in

speeches and meditations.

His words Were Measured, precise and Always Supported by quotations from

the Koran or Hadith. He Always Knew how to put Loved interlocutor in

confidence and at ease. His inspiration Was Much Higher Than What of

Acquired ET-through study. Naturally calms, Ahmadou Cheikou discussed and

Did Not Without passion engages in a Debate UNLESS He Was sure to be right

and What Was Able to PROVE Loved point. He HAD seven qualities Which Made

Him the Loved WISEST of time:

He Did Not get Carried Away When people DID Unpleasant Things To Him

He Did Not engages in Against opponents dispute Loved

189 | P a g e

He never envy others? Belonging

He never got rid of the beggars

He never lied "any one occasion

He Did Not Do Anything to embarrass Loved slanderers

He Loved word never failed.

Amadou Ba Hampathé

This work has RECALLS single experiment in the history of Islam and Perhaps,

of Africa the eighteenth century int. Cheikou Ahmadu, a simple Fulani

shepherd, Undertaker, it was the faith of prophecy dream, to gather and of the

Highly nomadic Fulani Settle. Malthus ET Founded the Fulani Empire of Masina,

basing ITS organization and structure are the rules Which are the Governed

the Life of the first Moslem community, the time of Prophet Muhammad of the,

in Medina. He Succeeds in Bringing peace and Maintaining it while Regulating

the Movements and The Period Of The seasonal migration of the herds year

thanks to open dialogue with the People Concerned. This work IS Entirely

Drawn from the oral tradition. During, 15 years of research, Ahmadou Ba

Hampaté Heard at least 1000 advisors. After a meticulous selection of work,

hey Retained the 80 worthiest testimonies. This account Is The result of this

work.

Amadou Ba Hampate & Jacques Daget

The Fulani empire of Macina (1818-1853)

Paris. News Editions Africaines.

Editions de l'Ecole de Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales. 1975. 306 p

The Sokoto Fulani

Overview

The Fulani live in northern Nigeria alongside the Hausa people. The Sokoto

region, Which lies in the far northern part of the country, houses the sacrifice

part of ruling class of the Fulani, Known as the Toroobe. The exercise Toroobe

autorité politique and power over the Hausa.

Many of the Sokoto Fulani Also Have Spread Into SOUTHERN Niger. While

sacrifice part of the Fulani living in this area are Educated aristocrats, others

are Bororo, or semi-nomadic herdsmen (by shepherds and farmers "part).

The Sokoto Fulani either ', are Composed of the ruling class (Toroobe) and the

semi-nomadic shepherds (Bororo). The area THEY occupy open grassland with

ya une narrow forested areas. Camels, hyenas, lions, giraffes and Inhabit this

region. Though the temperatures are Extremely hot "during the day, They Are

Much cooler at night.

Traditions of the Sokoto Fulani

The semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani engages In Some supplementary farming,

animal breeding Along with. Millet and Other grain crops Are Their hand. Milk

drunk and have fresh buttermilk, IS Their staple food, and only Meat Is

Consumed DURING ceremonial occasions. The cattle are herded by the men,

although the women help with milking the cows. Also the women make butter

190 | P a g e

and cheese and do the trading at the markets. Among the Fulani, Wealth IS

Measured by the size of a family's herds.

The semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani Live in temporary settlements. "During the

harvest, the families live together in small huts That make up village

compounds. Each compound IS Surrounded by the family's garden. "During

the dry season, the men leave Their wives, children, the sick, and the elderly

at home while THEY take to Better Their herds grazing grounds. Each village

chief or headman Has a handle to village affairs.

Like the Toroobe (ruling class), the semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani are Divided

Into age groups of Three or Four Years intervals. The contention in youth age

groups work together and help Each Other DURING Their early years. A man

selects a flange Usually from Loved age group.

The Settled Fulani Sokoto (the Toroobe, or ruling class) are year Influential

people Who live in towns and cities. They Are Usually government workers, tax

collectors, and municipal rulers. These Sokoto Fulani are Educated and

Dominate the leadership of Islam in the area. Although THEY May Own Some

cattle, Their real interests "binding in administration, law, religion, and

education. Their children are Encouraged to go to school and do well.

Because the Fulani Were a moral, pious Group Who Had an "interest in

learning, the droits of the Muslim Mosk PASSED Were to 'em, making' em

Eventually the leaders of the Muslim faith. Mallam (men of learning) are

revered and Treated with Respect In Their Culture.

Sokoto History

The Sultanate of Sokoto Was Founded in 1804 When the Fulani nomads,

headed by

Usman dan Fodio (1754 - 1817), a Religious Leader, revolted Against Their

shrugged and Overlords Took Powe. Their movement in the extended territoire

Of What Was To Become Northern and Northern nigeria cameroon.

HEADS OF STATE

Sultans - Emirs al-Mu'minin - Sarkin Musulmi (1)

(1) Also Sometimes styled khalifs gold Shehu's INSTEAD of Sultans

House of Muhammadu Fodio

1867 - 1873 Usman dan Ahmadu Rufai 1814 - 1873

1873 - 1877 Atiku Abubakar dan na Rabah BelloIts of

Sultan Muhammadu Bello (1781 - 1837; st

1817 - 1837) 1812 - 1877

1877 - 1881 Dan Ahmadu Mu'azu Bello, Brother 1816 - 1881

1881 - 1891 Umaru Aliyu Baba dan, Son Of Sultan Aliyu

Baba (1808 - 1859; st 1842 - 1859) 1824 - 1891

1891 - 1902 Abdurrahman "Danyen Kasko" dan Abubakar

Son Of Sultan Abubakar Atiku (1782 - 1842;

st 1837 - 1842) 1829 - 1902

1902 - 1903 Muhammadu dan Ahmadu Attahiru, the Sultan of

Ahmadu Atiku (1807 - 1866; st 1859 -

1866), driven out by the British 18 .. - 1903

1903 - 1915 Attahiru dan Muhammadu Baba Aliyu, brother of

191 | P a g e

Sultan Umaru (s.a.) 18 .. - 1915

1915 - 1924 Muhammadu "May Turar" dan Ahmadu, brother of

Sultan Muhammadu dan Ahmadu Attahiru (s.a.) 1 ... - 1924

1924 - 1931 Muhammadu "Tambari" dan Muhammadu, sound,

abdicated 1 ... - 1935

1931 - 1938 Hasan dan Ahmadu Mu'azu, the Sultan of Mu'azu

Ahmadu (s.a.) 1 ... - 1938

1938 - 1988 Abubakar Shehu dan, nephew 1903 - 1988

MINISTRY (Vizier, Waziri)

1859 - 1874 Ibrahim dan Abdulkadiri

1874 - 1886 Abdullahi dan Gidado

1886 - 1910 Muhammadu dan Amadu 18 .. - 1910

DIVISIONS OF THE SULTANATE SOKOTO

As The territoire Became Of The Sultanate extended to, It Was Divided in 1817

Between the new Emirate of Gwanduand the Sultanate of Sokoto, EACH Being

overlord to a number of tributary Emirates, the Sultan of Sokoto Also

= remaining overlord of the Whole Empire. Despite this the Sultanate Rapidly

Became No More Than a loose federation of the Emirates, sacrifice part of 'em,

like AdamawaIndependently acting totally in fact.

DEPENDENT OF EMIRATES Gwandu

Agai

Bida

Ilorin

Kontagora

Lafiagi

Lapai

Pategi

Emirates DEPEND OF SOKOTO

Adamawa

Bauchi

Daura

Gombe

Hadejia

Jama'are

Jema'a

Kano

Katagum

Katsina

Kazaura

Keff

Lafia

MISAU

Muri

Nasarawa

Zaria

192 | P a g e

Sokoto Link

http://www.pulaaku.net/leydhe/sokoto/index.html

The Tekruri of Eritrea

Overview

(See also Fellata)

It is believed that Fulani and other West-African on their way to or back from

prigrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, have settled in many parts of eastern

Sudan and in western Eritrea.

In Sudan they are known as Takrir (sing. Takruri). They are also known as

Fellata a term given to them by Kanuri people. They number close to 2 millions

in Sudan, while in Eritrea that number is significantly less. However, the

Tekruris have been part of the Eritrean society for hundreds of years(1).

Living mostly in western Eritrea, they had their own quarters in the towns,

called Hillet Tekhwarir. They speak Tikarna Arabic , their dialect separated

them from other population groups. They were seen as reserved group who

elected their own chief. They have a reputation to be hard working and clean

and honest people. Crime was uncommon, but they did not educate their

children who started working at early age. They married amongst themselves.

Because of their superior learning, the Tekruris are regarded as well educated,

cunning and wizards not only by the people of Sudan and Eritrea , but also by

the people of by the people of Egypt and Saudi Arabia. In fact, it has been

reported that country-people are eager to possess amulets of their writing,

which are supposed to possess greater virtue than those of any other class of

pilgrims (2).

They can be classified into 3 groups

(1) Pilgrims passing through the Sudan, including the many colonies on

the pilgrim routes through Darfur to El-Obeyd.

(2) Large permanent colonies, especially in Kessela and Sennar districts. There

is also a large colony near Sinnar under Mai Wurno, son of the ex-sultan of

Sokoto, and another under Mai Ahmed, ex-Emir of Misau.

(3) Two nomadic cattle-owning clans ('Ikka and 'Ibba) with a Dar of their

own in southern Darfur, who have been there at least two hundred years and

now speak Arabic. Some Tekruris originally from Darfur, have now, however,

settled in the

neighborhood of Gallabat, on the Abyssinian frontier; and the Egyptian govt

has given them some land on a number of years' lease, where they cultivate

Dhurra (3).

References:

1) Regarding the Tekruri of Eritrea.

Contributed by Aida Kidane, 10 Oct 2003

2) The Sources of the Nile; by Beke, Charles T, 1860

3) The Wild Tribes of the Sudan by F.L. James 1884

193 | P a g e

The Wasulu people

The Wasulu People are ethnic Fulani living in an areas of West African that

constitutes parts of Côte d�Ivoire, Guinea, and Mali.

They live in a region that expands from the southwest corner of Mali, to the

northwest corner of Côte d�Ivoire, and the northeast part of Guinea.

The Wasulu settled among the Maninka (in the north eastern corner of Guinea

and the southwestern corner of Mali). It is believed that they setted in Yanfolila

and surrounding areas between the 11th and 14th centuries AD. They

eventually adopted the language and culture of the surrounding Maninka and

Bambara. The Wasulu now speak the Bambara language with a mixture of

Malinké which is called Wasalunkan.

Many of the Wasulu are farmers, with cotton being their main crop. Islam was

introduced among the Wasulu in the late 1800s. Like their Fulani brethren,

The Wasulu are almost 100% Muslim.

Wasulu villages are often remote and some are inaccessible by car at the peak

of the rainy season. Like many West Africans, they live a simple lifestyle

depending on locally grown crops to feed themselves. Many people in the

communities are farmers, with main crops being rice, peanuts, and corn, a

staple in the Wasalun diet. Cotton is also grown, primarily for export.

The Wasulu culture has a long and rich history of which music plays a key role.

The Wasulu music has become known internationally as �Wass� and is

enjoyed by people of all ages. The super star, internationally known singer

Oumou Sangare is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali. Oumou Sangaré

is the leading female star of the Wasulu sound, which is based on an ancient

tradition of hunting rituals mixed with songs about devotion, praise, and

harvest played with pentatonic (five-note) melodies. In addition to the flute

and violin her sound is accompanied by the sound of the scraping kèrègnè,

women play the flé, a calabash strung with cowrie shells, which they spin and

throw into the air in time to the music. Sangaré most often sings about love

and the importance of freedom of choice in marriage.

194 | P a g e

Country Locations

The Principal Traditional Fulanis regions are: Adamawa, Kanem-Bornou,

Masina, Futa-Jallon, Futa-Toro and many other regions in West Africa. Fulanis

are found in significant numbers include the following republics: Burkina Faso,

Cameroon, The Gambia, Guinea Republic, Guinea Bissau, Chad, Mali,

Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra-Leone, Sudan (See Table: Fulanis Country Statistics)

Countries with a large number of Fulanis

Ethnic Groups and religions

Nigeria

Nigeria, which is Africa's most populous country,

is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups;

the following are the most populous and

politically influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%,

Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri

4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%Muslim 50%,

Christian 40%, indigenous beliefs 10%

Population: 130 million

Fulani: 9%

Growth rate: 2,54%

Ethiopia

Oromo 40%, Amhara and Tigre 32%, Sidamo

9%, Shankella 6%, Somali 6%, Afar 4%, Gurage

2%, other 1% Muslim 45%-50%, Ethiopian

Orthodox 35%-40%, animist 12%, other 3%-

8%

Population: 54 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 2,64%

Cameroon

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Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu

19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern

Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African

13%, non-African less than 1%indigenous beliefs

40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%

Population: 16,2 million

Fulani: 10%

Growth rate: 2,34%

Niger

Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fulani 9%, Tuareg

8%, Beri Beri (Kanouri) 4.3%, Arab, Toubou,

and Gourmantche 1.2%, about 1,200 French

expatriatesThe Fulani who, together with their

herds, are concentrated in the Dosso-Agadez-

Maine-Soroa triangle. Some have also settled in

the West, around Tera, Say and Niamey. They

predominate in certain parts of Maradi,

Tessaoua, Mirriah and Magaria Districts.

Sometimes they live alongside Tuaregs and

Toubous. (ref : Upenn)Muslim 80%, remainder

indigenous beliefs and Christian

Population: 10,6 million

Fulani: 9%

Growth rate: 2,7%

Guinea

Fulani 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%,

smaller ethnic groups 10%Muslim 85%,

Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs 7%

Population: 7,8 million

Fulani: 40%

Growth rate: 2,3%

Chad

200 distinct groups; in the north and center:

Arabs, Gorane (Toubou, Daza, Kreda), Zaghawa,

Kanembou, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, Hadjerai, Fulani,

Kotoko, Hausa, Boulala, and Maba, most of

whom are Muslim; in the south: Sara

(Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye), Moundang,

Moussei, Massa, most of whom are Christian or

animist; about 1,000 French citizens live in

ChadMuslim 51%, Christian 35%, animist 7%,

other 7%

Population: 9 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 3,27%

Benin

196 | P a g e

African 99% (42 Ethnic groups, most important

being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans

5,500Indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 30%,

Muslim 20%

Population: 6,8 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 2,91%

Togo

African (37 Ethnic Groups; largest and most

important are Ewe, Mina, and Kabre) 99%,

European and Syrian-Lebanese less than 1%-

Indigenous beliefs 51%, Christian 29%, Muslim

20%

Population: 5,2 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 2,48%

Central Afric Republic

Baya 33%, Banda 27%, Mandjia 13%, Sara

10%, Mboum 7%, M'Baka 4%, Yakoma 4%,

other 2%- Indigenous beliefs 35%, Protestant

25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%

Population: 3,6 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 1,8%

Burkina Faso

Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo,

Mande, Fulani.- Burkina Faso also has several

hundred thousand Fulani nomads in the northern

part with their goats, sheep, and other

livestock.- Indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%,

Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10%

Population: 12,6 million

Fulani: 8%

Growth rate: 2,64%

Cote D'ivoire

Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern

Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes

10%, other 2.8% (includes 130,000 Lebanese

and 20,000 French) (1998)- Christian 20-30%,

Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40% (2001)

note: the majority of foreigners (migratory

workers) are Muslim (70%) and Christian (20%)

Population: 16,8 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 2,45%

197 | P a g e

Gambia

African 99% (Mandinka 42%, Fulani 18%, Wolof

16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), non-

African 1%- Muslim 90%, Christian 9%,

indigenous beliefs 1%

Population: 1,4 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 3,09%

Ghana

Black African 98.5% (major tribes - Akan 44%,

Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%, Gurma

3%, Yoruba 1%), European and other 1.5%

(1998)- indigenous beliefs 21%, Muslim 16%,

Christian 63%

Population: 20,2 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 1,7%

Guinea Bissau

African 99% (Balanta 30%, Fulani 20%, Manjaca

14%, Mandinga 13%, Papel 7%), European and

mulatto less than 1%- indigenous beliefs 50%,

Muslim 45%, Christian 5%

Population: 1,3 million

Fulani: 20%

Growth rate: 2,23%

Mali

Mande 50% (Bambara, Malinke, Soninke), Fulani

17%, Voltaic 12%, Songhai 6%, Tuareg and

Moor 10%, other 5%- Muslim 90%, indigenous

beliefs 9%, Christian 1%

Population: 11,3 million

Fulani: 17%

Growth rate: 2,97%

Mauritania

198 | P a g e

Maur 30%, Fulani, Soninke, Wolof, Haratin -

Muslim 100%

Population: 2,8 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 2,92%

Senegal

Wolof 43.3%, Fulani 23.8%, Serer 14.7%, Jola

3.7%, Mandinka 3%, Soninke 1.1%, European

and Lebanese 1%, other 9.4%- Muslim 94%,

indigenous beliefs 1%, Christian 5% (mostly

Roman Catholic)

Population: 10,6million

Fulani: 23,8%

Growth rate: 2,91%

Sierra Leone

20 native African tribes 90% (Temne 30%,

Mende 30%, other 30%), Creole (Krio) 10%

(descendants of freed Jamaican slaves who were

settled in the Freetown area in the late-18th

century), refugees from Liberia's recent civil

war, small numbers of Europeans, Lebanese,

Pakistanis, and Indians- Muslim 60%, indigenous

beliefs 30%, Christian 10%

Population: 5,6 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 3,31%

Sudan

Black 52%, Arab 39%, Beja 6%, foreigners 2%,

other 1%.The Fulani nomads are found in many

parts of central Sudan from Darfur to the Blue

Nile. In the Eastern Sudan there are large

colonies of Fallata the name by which the Fulani

are called. They are also called Teckruri and

believed to number between 1 and 2 millions.In

Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various

ways to the presence of the Baqqara People.

Sunni Muslim 70% (in north), indigenous beliefs

25%, Christian 5% (mostly in south and

Khartoum)

Population: 37 million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 2,73%

Somalia

199 | P a g e

Somali 85%, Bantu and other non-Somali 15%

(including Arabs 30,000)-Sunni Muslim

Population: 7,7million

Fulani: small

Growth rate: 3,46%

Eritrea

Ethnic Tigrinya 50%, Tigre and Kunama 40%,

Afar 4%, Saho (Red Sea coast dwellers) 3%,

other 3%.

The Tekruris have been part of the Eritrean

society.

The common story of their origin is that they

were

in pilgrimage to Mecca and stayed in Eritrea

and Sudan.

Population: 4,362,254

Fulani:1-2 million

Growth rate:1.28%

200 | P a g e

Fulani Dictionaries

Seydou, C. 1998: Dictionnaire pluridialectal des racines verbales du peul: peul

- francais - anglais

/ A Dictionary of Verb Roots in Fulfulde Dialects: Fulfulde - French � English

Awde N. 1997 Treasury of African Love: Poems and Proverbs

Nyiang M. 1997 Pulaar-English / English-Pulaar Standard Dictionary

Taylor F. 1995 Hippocrene Practical Dictionary: Fulani-English

De Wolfe P. 1995 English-Fula Dictionary (Fulfulde, Pulaar, Fulani): A

Multidialectal Approach

Bautista A. 1991 Dictionnaire de Fulfulde / Fulfulde Dictionary

Mukoshi I.1991 A Fulfulde English Dictionary

Daudu G 1989 Papers on Fulfulde Language, Literature, and Culture

Egushi I 1986 An English-Fulfulde Dictionary

McIntosh M 1984 Fulfulde Syntax and Verbal Morphology

Gamble D. 1981 Gambian Fula - English Dictionary (Firdu Dialect)

Sonja F. Diallo, 1982-3 Introduction to Pulaar and Advanced Pulaar

Sow A. 1971 Dictionnaire Elementaire Fulfulde - Francais - English Elementary

Dictionary

Pelletier C.1970 Adamawa Fulfulde: An Introductory Course

Stennes L 1967 A Reference Grammar of Adamawa Fulani

Swift L 1965 Fula: Basic Course

AJP, 1960 Introduction to Pulaar (Senegal, Association des Jeunes Pulaar)

Taylor F. 1953 A Grammar of the Adamawa dialect of the Fulani Language

(Fulfulde)

201 | P a g e

Words of Griots

We are vessels of speech, we are the

repositories which harbor secrets many

centuries old & without us the names of

kings would vanish from oblivion, we are

the memory of mankind; by the spoken

word we bring to life the deeds and exploits of kings for younger generations.

History holds no mystery for us; we teach

to the vulgar just as much as we want to

teach them,for it is we who keep the keys

to the twelve doors of Mali

I teach the kings of their ancestors so that the lives of ancients might serve

them as an example, for the world is old but the future springs from the past.

-The words of the Mali griot Mamadou Kouyate,

Quoted in D. T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali A.D. 1217-1237

Aspects of knowledge

Interview with Amadou Hampathe Ba about Knowledge

From a selection from Aspects of African Civilization by Amadou Hampathe

Ba

Question: Your name is forever connected to a sentence which the

intellectuals are in the habit of quoting in the course of their

conversations: In Africa, when an old person dies, it is a library that

burns. Would you develop this image for our readers?

Answer: When I was appointed to the executive council of UNESCO, I

was given the mission of speaking to Europeans about African tradition

as culture. This was difficult because the Western tradition had

established once and for all that where there is no writing, there is no

culture. The result was that when I proposed for the first time to take

202 | P a g e

oral traditions into account as historical sources and sources of culture,

I didn't provoke anything but smiles. Some people even asked

sardonically what African traditions could possibly have to offer Europe!

To one interlocutor who asked me one day, what indeed can we obtain

from Africa? I remember answering: Laughter, which you have lost.

Perhaps today one could add as well: a certain human dimension, which

modern technological civilization is in the process of erasing.

The fact of not having a literature does not prevent Africa from having a

past and knowledge. As my teacher Tierno Bokar says: Writing is one

thing and knowledge is another thing. Writing is a photograph of

knowledge, but it is not knowledge itself. Knowledge is a light which is

in man. It is the heritage that consists of everything the ancestors have

been able to know. This they transmit to us in seminal form, just as the

potential for a baobab tree is contained in its seed.

Of course, this knowledge inherited and transmitted by word of mouth can

either develop or wither away. It develops wherever there exist centers

of initiation and young people to receive that formation. It is lost

wherever initiation disappears.

African knowledge is immense, varied, and covers all aspects of life. The

knower is never a specialist. He is a generalist. For example, the same

old man knows as much about pharmacopoeia, earth sciences (the

agricultural or medicinal properties of different kinds of soil), and the

science of water as he does about astronomy, cosmogony, psychology,

etc. It is therefore possible to speak of a single science of life conceived

as a whole, in which everything is related, interdependent and

interactive.

In Africa, everything is History [Histoire]. The great History of life is made

up of sections which are, for example, the history of soils and waters

(geography), the history of plants (botany and pharmacopoeia), the

history of the threads in the bowels of the earth (mineralogy), the

history of the stars (astronomy, astrology), the history of waters, etc.

These knowledges are always concrete and tend toward practical uses.

Knowledges have an order. One begins at the bottom, that is to say, with

beings and things that are less developed or less animated when

compared to man, and ascends upwards toward man. The earth,

considered as navel of the world, is the principal habitat of three sorts

of beings, or three modes or manifestations of life:

At the bottom of the ladder, one finds inanimate beings, called mutes,

whose language is thought to be hidden, being incomprehensible or

inaudible to ordinary mortals. This is the world of all that lies on the

surface of the earth (sand, water, etc.) or in its interior (minerals,

metals, etc.).

Next come animate immobile beings. These are living things that do not

move about from place to place. They are plants that are able to extend

and spread out their branches in space, but whose stem or trunk cannot

203 | P a g e

move.

Finally, mobile animate beings, from the most minuscule of animals to

man, including all classes of animals.

Each of these categories is subdivided into three groups:

Among mute inanimate beings, one finds solid, liquid and gaseous

(literally: smoking) inanimate.

Among immobile animate objects, one finds creeping plants, climbing

plants, and plants that stand vertically, the latter constituting the

highest class.

Mobile animate beings include land animals (among them animals without

bones, those that shed their skin, etc., and animals with bones), aquatic

animals and flying animals.

These nine classes of beings correspond to specific moments in the

educational process, but these modules are not necessarily successive

or progressive. Education is connected to life and dispensed according

to the circumstances that present themselves. If, for example, a

serpent suddenly leaps out of the bush, this will provide an opportunity

for the old master to give a lesson about the serpent. His discourse will

vary depending on whether his listeners are children or adults. He could

speak about the legends of the serpent, or remedies which can cure its

bite. If he is surrounded by children, he will very gladly elaborate on the

harm a serpent can do so they will learn to be careful.

The study of the earth, the waters, the atmosphere, and all that they

contain insofar as they are manifestations of life constitutes the

ensemble of human knowledge bequeathed by tradition. But the

greatest of all these histories, the most developed, the most significant,

is the history of man himself, who is at the summit of mobile animate

beings.

It is the knowledge of man and the application of this knowledge in

practical life that makes man a superior being on the ladder of living

things. But one can only say this about man if he is in the state of

neddaaku (Fulani/Peul) or of maayaa (Bambara), that is to say, in a

fully human state.

The history of man includes, on the one hand, the great myths of the

creation of man and of his appearance on earth, including the

significance of the place which he occupies in the fabric of the universe,

the role which he ought to play (essentially the role of axis of

equilibrium), and his relation to the forces of life which surround him

and live in him. It includes, on the other hand, the history of the great

ancestors, innumerable educational and initiation stories and symbolic

tales, and finally, history pure and simple, including the great royal

traditions, the historical chronicles, the epics, etc.

204 | P a g e

Tradition transmitted orally is so precise and so rigorous that one can, with

various kinds of cross checking, reconstruct the great events of

centuries past in the minutest detail, especially the lives of the great

empires or the great men who distinguish history. It is noteworthy that,

based on diverse oral traditions, I was able to reconstruct The History of

the Fulani Empire of Massina of the 18th Century. In a similar way,

comparing oral traditions allowed my friend Boubou Hama of Niger to

produce his voluminous works on the history and traditional knowledge

of African people.

In oral civilization, speech engages man; speech IS man. Whence the

profound respect for traditional stories bequeathed by the past. One is

permitted to embellish their form or poetic phrasing, but their

framework remains unchanged over the centuries, serving as a vehicle

for the prodigious memory which is very characteristic of peoples in oral

traditions. In a modern civilization, paper substitutes for speech. It is

paper that engages man. But can one say with absolute certainty that

the written source is more worthy of confidence than the oral source,

continuously monitored by the traditional milieu?

At this point, it is useful to explain that in Africa, the side of things that is

visible and apparent always corresponds to an invisible and hidden

aspect which is like its source or principle. Just as the day emerges

from the night, all things consist of a diurnal and a nocturnal aspect, a

visible side and a hidden side. Indeed, each visible science always

corresponds to a much deeper science, theoretical and, one could say,

esoteric, based on the fundamental conception of the unity of life and of

the interrelation, within the fabric of this unity, of all the different levels

of existence. Here there is a domain which, just because it is less

immediately exploitable, does not mean that it is any less worthy of

being closely examined and explored before the last depositories of this

science disappear.

As we have seen, African knowledge is a global knowledge, a living

knowledge, and it is because the old people are themselves the last

depositories of this knowledge that they can be compared to vast

libraries whose multiple shelves are connected by invisible links which

constitute precisely this science of the invisible, authenticated by the

chains of transmission through initiation.

In the past, this knowledge was transmitted regularly from generation to

generation by rites of initiation and various forms of traditional

education. This regular transmission was interrupted because of an

external, extra-African action: the impact of colonization. The colonial

powers arrived with their technological superiority, their own methods

and their own ideal of life, and did everything in their power to

substitute their own way of life for that of the Africans. Just as one

never seeds fallow ground, the colonial powers were obliged to clear the

African tradition to be able to plant their own tradition.

Thus from the outset the Western school began to do battle with the

traditional African school and to hunt down the keepers of traditional

knowledge. This was the époque when all healers were thrown in prison

205 | P a g e

as charlatans or for practicing medicine without a license. It was also

the era when children were prevented from speaking their mother

tongue in order to shield them from traditional influences, to such an

extent that at school, a child who was caught speaking his mother

tongue had to wear a board called a symbol on which was drawn the

head of a donkey, and he was not allowed to eat lunch.

The seeds of this new tradition, once sown, have grown and borne fruit. It

is for this reason why African youth, born of the Western school, have a

pronounced tendency to live and to think "à l'européenne", for which

they cannot be reproached because they don't know any other way. The

student always lives according to the rules of his or her school.

During the colonial period, transmission by initiation, which used to take

place on a great holiday and at regular intervals, sought asylum by

going underground. Little by little, the removal of children from their

families had the result that old people no longer found around them

young people who were able to receive their teachings. Little by little,

initiation left the cities and took refuge in the bush. But the final blow

was delivered by the advent of an independence based exclusively on

European ideas and ideologies. Whereas colonialism actually created

skepticism and penetrated little into the countryside, the same

European ideas, conveyed by modern political parties, mobilized the

masses in even the farthest corners of the bush, so much so that the

handing down of tradition almost couldn't find any place to be practiced

any more.

At a time when diverse countries of the world, through the intermediation

of UNESCO, devote money and effort to saving the great Nubian

monuments threatened by the rising waters behind the Aswân High

Dam, is it not more urgent still to save the extraordinary human culture

and stock of knowledge accumulated over the course of millennia in

these fragile monuments which are men, when the last depositories of

this knowledge are in the process of disappearing?

By Ahmadou Hampathe Ba

Oral Knowledge

At rare, auspicious, and unexpected moments, people share their fascinating

life experiences: a grandmother reminiscing about her childhood in a village in

the Kano region; a grandfather recalling life as a Shepard in Masina; an old

man telling under the palabre tree the absorbing story of his battle against a

wild animal; such people have something important to share. But, all too often,

experiences shared by voice die with the teller because they are not written

down or recorded.

Oral history is history in the first person; the way parents and grandparents

lived it and remembered it.Not many family records survive. Most people have

few if any items that once belonged to a grandparent or great-grandparent.

Rarely is a descendant lucky enough to have inherited a Koran or older

206 | P a g e

documents, let alone any old letters, diaries, or photographs.

However, in many African cultures, oral arts are professionalized: the most

accomplished oral historians, storytellers and praise singers are elders and

spoken word specialists (griots ). The griots in particular have mastered many

complex verbal, musical, and memory skills after years of specialized training. This training often includes a strong spiritual and ethical dimension.

A Different Way of Knowing

Human culture comprises all that is learned, and language is a primary means

for learning and transmitting one�s culture. Furthermore, linguistic theorists

like Walter Ong maintain that a culture�s dominant means of communication

shape its people�s consciousness and ways of knowing the world. Ong

ascribes fundamental differences among cultures, and the arts and

technologies they create and value, to whether those cultures are oral or literate (writing-based).

Consider the following characteristics generalized for traditional oral cultures:

Knowledge is sacred, magical power, immanent in the spoken word.

Time is cyclical, non-linear: you live in the always of inseparably

intertwined past, present, and future (the community = all past, present, and to-be-born members).

Knowledge must be re-called, re-created, re-interpreted constantly, or

you lose it; orature lives only insofar as it is repeated, performed by the

community.

Oral narratives (stories, proverbs, etc.) are practical, flexible, and spiritual; these living texts have no single definitive version.

They vary, adapt, and change with performer, audience, time, place,

situation, and need; and if they lose their relevance and power, their

memory is discarded. Oral cultures produce powerful and beautiful

verbal performances

of high artistic and human worth which are impossible

once writing has taken possession of the psyche. (Walter Ong)

Reference

The information contained on this page comes from a variety of sources, but

relies heavily on The Everything Family Tree Book by William G. Hartley

(Adams Media, 1998) and Ancestors: A Beginner's Guide to Family History &

Genealogy by Jim & Terry Willard with Jane Wilson (Houghton Mifflin Company,

1997).

207 | P a g e

Fulani languages

English: Fulani

French: Peul

Ethnologue Classification: Linguistic Lineage

Niger-Congo,

Atlantic-Congo,

Atlantic,

Northern,

Senegambian,

Fula-Wolof,

Fulani

Main

Language

Group

Alternate Names

Speaking

Population

(Millions)

Countries

FULFULDE,

ADAMAWA

ADAMAWA FULANI, PEUL, PEULH,

FUL, FULA, FULBE, BOULBE,

EASTERN FULANI, FULFULDE,

FOULFOULDE, PULLO, GAPELTA,

PELTA HAY, DOMONA, PLADINA,

PALATA, PALDIDA, PALDENA,

DZEMAY, ZEMAY, ZAAKOSA, PULE,

TAAREYO, SANYO, BIIRA,

Filatanci. Dialects: MAROUA,

GAROUA, NGAONDÉRÉ,

KAMBARIIRE, NOMADIC FULFULDE,

BILKIRE FULANI (BILKIRI) FELLATA

GOMBE

13 Chad Nigeria

Sudan

FULFULDE,

BAGIRMI

BAGHIRMI PEUL, BAGIRMI FULA. 0.180 Central

African

Republic

FULFULDE,

BENIN-TOGO

PEULH, PEUL, Dialects: FULBE-

BORGU

0.328 Nigeria Togo

FULFULDE,

CENTRAL-

EASTERN

NIGER

PEUL, PEULH, FULANI, FULA, FULBE.

Dialects: WODAABE

0.450 Niger

FULFULDE,

MAASINA

PEUL, MACINA. Dialects: WESTERN

MACINA , EASTERN MACINA .

0.919 Ghana

FULFULDE,

NIGERIAN

KANO-KATSINA-BORORRO

FULFULDE. Dialects: KANO-KATSINA,

7.6 Cameroon

Chad

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BORORRO (BORORO, MBORORO,

AKO, NOMADIC FULFULDE),

SOKOTO.

FULFULDE,

WESTERN

NIGER

PEUL, PEULH, FULANI, FULA, FULBE.

Dialects: DALLOL, BITINKOORE

1.1 Burkina Faso

FUUTA JALON FUTA JALLON, FOUTA DYALON,

FULBE, FULLO FUUTA, FUTA FULA,

FOULA FOUTA, FULFULDE JALON,

JALON, PULAR, PULAAR. Dialects:

KEBU FULA, FULA PETA.

2.9 Mali Senegal

Sierra Leone

PULAAR PULAAR FULFULDE, PEUL, PEULH.

Dialects: TOUCOULEUR (TUKOLOR,

TUKULOR, TOKILOR, PULAAR,

HAALPULAAR, FULBE JEERI),

FULACUNDA (FULAKUNDA,

FULKUNDA).

2.9 Senegal

Gambia

Guinea

Guinea-

Bissau

Mauritania

Mali

Ethnoveterinary medicine practices

In Cameroon as well as in most developing countries (especially in Africa),

disease remains one of the principal causes of poor livestock performance,

leading to an ever- increasing gap between the supply of, and the demand for,

livestock products. The ever-declining provision of animal health services has

resulted in the resurgence of a number of epizootic diseases, undermining the

economic efficiency of livestock production in Africa. After elaborating on the

nature of orthodox veterinary medicine and ethnoveterinary medicine, the authors propose a complementary approach.

Livestock production in the Northwest Province of Cameroon

Livestock production in the Northwest Province (NWP) of Cameroon is carried

out mainly by Fulani herders. With its 410,000 head of cattle, the NWP ranks

third in cattle production in Cameroon. In the last three decades Fulani herders

have evolved from nomadic to semi-nomadic or transhuman livestock owners.

This evolution has given most of them an opportunity to become

agropastoralists. Although transhumance is in general preferable to total

nomadism (Williamson and Payne, 1978:730; Niamir, 1990; Brown, 1993),

this pattern of life is quite problematic for livestock owners, whose grazing land

is often lost as a result of human population pressures. In addition, the yearly

burning of native range destroys the less fire-resistant pasture species,

eliminates habitat and pollutes the environment. As a result, livestock become

malnourished and emaciated because they do not get enough to eat or the

feed is of low quality. Under these conditions, they are predisposed to disease

and cannot trek the long distances required to find feed.

About six decades into colonization in the 1940's, orthodox veterinary medicine

was introduced in the NWP. Many orthodox veterinarians did not promote

indigenous practices, because they did not appreciate the role which they

played. In some places, it was even illegal to treat animals using local herbs

without the permission of a vet. As a result, many livestock owners ceased to

use local practices, while those who continued to rely on them did so in secret.

209 | P a g e

This meant that the knowledge and use of ethnoveterinary medicine declined.

Before the introduction of orthodox veterinary medicine in Cameroon,

pastoralists depended solely on indigenous health practices. Nomadic livestock

owners treated animal health problems using various biologicals from plants

and animals, while carefully avoiding disease-infested areas and regions

dominated by toxic plants. Their knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine encompassed surgery, pharmacology and toxicology (Ndi, 1990:4).

Ethnoveterinary practices, especially for ruminants such as cattle and other

large animals, were introduced into Cameroon at the end of the last century by

migrating and nomadic Fulani pastoralists from neighbouring Nigeria and Chad,

who were searching for new pasture (Ndi, 1990:1). Thus livestock owners have

used traditional animal health practices for a long time and are convinced of

their efficacy. In a recent study conducted by Nuwanyakpa and associates

(1995a:16-17), farmers claimed that 33 out of 55 cattle diseases and ailments

(60%) prevalent in the NWP of Cameroon are treatable or preventable solely

by traditional medicine. Some 9% of these diseases (anthrax, blackquarter,

bovine tuberculosis, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and rinderpest) can

only be treated using orthodox methods, while the remaining 31% are dealt

with by the complementary use of ethnoveterinary and orthodox veterinary

medicines. In the latter case, the livestock owners stressed that orthodox

practices should be used only after the traditional ones have failed; they claim

that about 91% of their animal health problems can be solved by means of

traditional medicines. In some cases, they prefer to use traditional medicines

even where orthodox drugs are available (Marcus, 1992:2). The advantages

which they ascribe to local medicines include availability, lower cost, efficacy,

one treatment for various ailments, and the fact that they rely on local

knowledge and manpower, and are based on materials and equipment which are locally available.

Collaborative work between HPI**1 and orthodox veterinary institutions

(including the Ministry for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, MINEPIA

and the Institute for Animal Research, IRZV) in Cameroon and elsewhere in

Africa has revealed that when it comes to the diagnosis of livestock diseases

(e.g. clinical symptoms and post mortem signs), the knowledge of

ethnoveterinarians closely parallels orthodox veterinary patterns. For example,

the ailment known as Labba in Fulfulde has been identified as blackquarter

disease in cattle. Pettu (which means 'falling down in great number') as an

epidemic has been identified as rinderpest in cattle (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995b).

Advent of orthodox veterinary medicine and associated drawbacks

The enforcement of orthodox veterinary practices--especially following the

independence of Cameroon--was the result of a number of livestock epidemics

(including rinderpest), the belief that orthodox medicine is superior to

indigenous practices, and growing human population pressures, all of which

have been detrimental to the application of traditional animal health care

practices in Cameroon (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995a). Livestock owners were

forced to stop using ethnoveterinary medicine, as it was thought that orthodox

medicines were capable of solving all the health problems encountered in

cattle. The government also failed to promote the complementary application

210 | P a g e

of orthodox and ethnoveterinary medicine.

Orthodox animal health care in Cameroon, as well as in most African countries, is plagued by many problems. These include:

inadequate manpower and logistical inputs;

scarce and erratic supply of veterinary drugs and supplies;

high cost of veterinary drugs and supplies;

poor communication facilities and other modern amenities;

counter-productive government policies, which do not promote the

complementary utilization of orthodox and indigenous knowledge systems;

inadequate attention to the development of ethnoveterinary medicine and

other indigenous knowledge systems (Nuwanyakpa and Toyang, 1994).

The relation between these problems and the current dependence on orthodox

veterinary medicine has resulted in a failure to solve the majority of animal

health problems. This has been accompanied by an ever- declining provision of

animal health services, together with a resurgence of various epizootic

diseases which are presently undermining the economic efficiency of livestock production in Africa (PARC, 1991:2).

Sustainable interventions to enhance livestock production

In 1989 Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, in cooperation with Heifer Project International

(HPI), initiated an Ethnoveterinary Medicine/Fulani Livestock Development

Project to seek sustainable alternatives for animal health problems. This

initiative was triggered by, among other things, the high level of frustration felt

by HPI when faced with the expensive and erratic supply of veterinary drugs

and supplies. One of the objectives of the project was to promote the

complementary utilization of indigenous and orthodox veterinary medicines in sustainable livestock production. (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1990)

The parallel use of the two knowledge systems was regarded as important for

several reasons, i.e., to bring about a reduction in the dependency on

expensive imported veterinary drugs and supplies and the resulting savings in

foreign valuta; the possibility of discovering new drugs; the increase in

manpower at a lower cost; the improvement in communications and contacts

between livestock owners and veterinarians; the use of more natural drugs,

which do not have the toxic effects on animals which are sometimes

experienced with synthetic drugs.

The HPI/Cameroon Ethnovet Project has adopted multi-facetted approaches in

promoting the use of indigenous animal health care practices. For example, it

has organized Cameroon's first association of traditional veterinarians and

promoted active networking among indigenous practitioners and orthodox

animal health care specialists. Indigenous knowledge provided by livestock

owners has been documented for most aspects of livestock production, and to

some extent in crop production and food processing (crops and dairy

products).

The information already documented covers the indigenous treatment of 55

cattle, 17 horse, 12 sheep/goat and 21 rabbit diseases and ailments

(Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995a:16-18). Using the knowledge of livestock owners

211 | P a g e

as a foundation, the project has trained and equipped livestock producers as

the primary deliverers of animal health care. Orthodox veterinarians provide

support, as well as certain critical services, such as vaccines and treatment for

the 9% of diseases which stock owners cannot treat themselves, and also

study the efficacy of indigenous treatments. The testing of ethnoveterinary

treatments for their efficacy has been initiated not only on-farms but also on-

stations. For example, Nuwanyakpa et al. (1990:59) and Marcus (1992:9)

have undertaken several studies on the anthelminthic efficacies of some medicinal plants.

Livestock owners have an amazingly good knowledge of ethnobotany, due to

the fact that most of the materia medica used in ethnoveterinary medicine are

from plants (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989:13-14). Thus the

ethnobotanical knowledge of local people has formed the foundation for the

worldwide screening of plant material as potential sources of medical drugs

(Spore, 1992:5). In this way, a significant number of ethnopharmaceuticals

have been shown to be biochemically active. This explains why about 25% of

all medicines are of direct plant origin, while the remaining 75% are from

animal, plant and synthetic products (Spore, 1994:3).

Livestock owners also have a good understanding of the plant parts and

quantities needed, and the methods used in harvesting, processing, storing,

preserving and utilizing medicinal plants to ensure good drug efficacy and to

enhance the survival of plant germplasm. If the above procedures are poorly

executed, plant resources may be over-exploited, which can lead to the

extinction of certain species. This means that the best results from medicinal

plant preparations can only be obtained when the users are able to judiciously

harvest, process, store, preserve and utilize the preparations (Levy, 1988:6-

16; Lötschert and Beese, 1983:12) and establish botanic gardens of endangered medicinal plants (Gbile, 1991:10; Spore, 1992:5)

Botanical and backyard gardens of medicinal plants have been established by

the project in order to conserve medicinal plants and save them from

extinction, and to enhance the availability of medicinal plants. The medicinal

plant establishments consist of both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies.

Such conservation efforts contribute to biodiversity preservation and

significantly increase the accessibility to, and the utilization of,

ethnobotanicals. Some 190 of the nearly 400 medicinal plants that have been

identified through the Ethnovet Project have now been scientifically and

ethnotaxonomically classified. A number of these are listed in the table below,

with some of their uses.

Table 1. A few of the medical plants so far identified and some of their major

uses.

Family Botanic name Fulfude name Some uses

Annonaceae Annona

senegalensis

Dukuhi Diarrhoea and antiseptic

(wounds)

Asteraceae Vernonia Suwaka Worms, diarrhoea and

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amygdalina purgative

Bignoniaceae Kigelia africana Jillahi Brucellosis, retained

placenta and mastitis

Caesalpinaceae Cassia

occidentalis

Tapasa Worms, blackquarter,

anaplasmosis and

babesiosis

Crassulaceae Kalanchoe

crenata

Noppi bali Worms, blackquarter,

anaplasmosis and

babesiosis

Euphorhiaceae Ricinus

Communis

Kolakolahi Bloat Purge, oil used in drug

preservation and

administration, antidote to

poisoning in animals and

humans

Bridelia

ferrugiana

Bududi Snake bite, brucellosis,

bloody diarrhoea, fertility

enhancement

Croton

macrostachyus

Ngalawahi Purgative

Meliaceae Khaya

anthotheca

Kahi Blackquarter, bloat,

brucellosis, ciarrhoea,

worms and babesiosis

Mimosaceae Entada

abyssinica

Peluwahi Ephemeral fever, FMD

(foot and mouth disease),

babesiosis and worms

Dichrostachys

cinera

Burli Brucellosis and bloody

diarrhoea

Moraceae Ficus elastica Biskehi Fertility enhancements

(hormone)

Papilionaceae Tephrosia nana Yomji (wild) Mange and ticks

Tephrosia

vogelii

Yomji Mange, ticks and

balckquarter

Erythrian

senegalensis

Bobillohi Ringworm, mange and

brucellosis

Rubiaceae Gardenia

ternifolia

Dii-ngali Aphrodasiac and growth-

enhancer

Solanaceae Solanum

aculeastrum

Gitte-nai Streptotricosis and worms

Seruliaceae Cola acuminata Gorohi Babesiosis

Verbenaceae Vitex doniana Bummehi Brucellosis, FMD, shipping

fever and

anaplamosis/babesiosis

The ethnotaxonomy has been carried out in 10 major Cameroonian languages.

The plants classified so far are from 90 families; 20 of the 190 plants classified

are also used in human medicine, 11 in milk preservation and processing, 5 as

213 | P a g e

insecticidal and raticidal plants, and 20 in soil fertility improvement (Toyang

and Wirmum, 1994:4). This means that most of the plants have multipurpose

uses. An herbarium for the preservation of mounted specimens of medicinal

plants is also being set up to enhance education and research on ethnoveterinary medicine.

Conclusion

Now that a good number of the plants used in indigenous remedies to treat or

prevent livestock diseases have been classified both scientifically and

ethnotaxonomically, it is time to publish this information. This is expected to

make a substantial contribution to the field of ethnoveterinary research and to

development in Cameroon and elsewhere. Formal research in ethnoveterinary

medicine will no doubt help to confirm the claims made by ethnoveterinarians

with respect to the efficacy of ethnoveterinary treatments by ethnoveterinarians.

The project has already started field testing of the storage and efficacy of some

of the many ethnoveterinary treatments that have been documented. For

example, since 1989, HPI/Cameroon has used mainly two medicinal plants

(Terminalia schimperiana and Vernonia amygdalina) as the sole or principal

drugs against gastrointestinal tract helminths in cattle. This has resulted in a

huge drop in the project funds spent annually on orthodox dewormers. Many

poultry diseases and most health problems in rabbits are now also being

treated or controlled mainly through ethnoveterinary practices.

The recognition and support that the Cameroon Council of Experts on

Ethnoveterinary Medicine now receives from the government of Cameroon,

traditional authorities and development organizations will make possible the realization of the HPI Ethnovet Project.

Ngeh J. Toyang

HPI/ANE

P.O. Box 808

Little Rock

Arkansas 72203

USA

Tel: +1-501-376 6836.

Fax: +1-501-376 8906.

Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa

HPI

P.O. Box 467

Bamenda

Cameroon Tel/fax: +237-363822/363284.

Dr Christopher Ndi

Sali Django

IRZV

Bambui

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P.O. Box 51

Bamenda Cameroon

Dr Wirmum Clare Kinyuy

Medicinal Foods and Plants (MEFOPLA) Referral Research Center

P.O. Box 5164

Nkwen

Bamenda

Cameroon Tel: +237-363135

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to all the members of the HPI Council of Experts on

Indigenous Knowledge, who have allowed their hitherto secret information to

be recorded for purposes of this project. All HPI staff are also to be

commended for their support for, and participation in, many activities leading

to the development of this unique project in Africa. Our thanks go also to

PVO/NGO/NRMS, GdEF/NGO/SGP Projects and HPI Headquarters, who provided

funds for the implementation of this project. The management of the

Cameroon Institute for Animal and Veterinary Research (IRZV) is also

acknowledged for providing some of its facilities and personnel for the realization of certain laboratory and field aspects of this project.

References

Brown, M. (1993) Non governmental organizations and natural resources

management in Africa: Pastoral sector, where to go from here? A synthesis document. Washington: PVO- NGO/NMRS Project.

Gbile, O.Z. (1991) Identification and pharmaceutical importance of medicinal plants. Ibadan: Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria. Unpublished paper.

Levy, B.J. (1988) The complete handbook for farm and stable. St Ives Place:

Clays Ltd..

Lötschert, W. and G. Beese. (1983) Collins guide to tropical plants. London: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd..

Marcus, S. (1992) A preliminary study on the Anthelminthic properties of

Terminalia glaucescens in cattle in the Northwest Province of Cameroon: An

ethnoveterinarian approach. DVM Theses. Utrecht: University of Utrecht,

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine.

Mathias-Mundy, E. and C.M. McCorkle (1989) Ethnoveterinary medicine: An

annotated bibliography. Bibliography in Technology and Social Change No. 6. Ames: Iowa State University, Technology and Social Change Program.

Ndi, C. (1990) Preliminary observations on ethnoveterinary therapy among

215 | P a g e

Fulani pastoralists in the Northwest Province of Cameroon. Bambui: Institute of

Animal and Veterinary Research (IRZV). Unpublished paper.

Niamir, M. (1990) Herders' decision making in natural resource management in

arid and semi-arid Africa. Community Forestry Note 4. Rome: FAO.

Nuwanyakpa, M., J. DeVries, C. Ndi and S. Django (1990) Traditional

veterinary medicine in Cameroon: A renaissance in an ancient indigenous technology. Bamenda: HPI.

Nuwanyakpa, M. and Toyang, J. (1994) Paraveterinary medicine and animal

disease surveillance in the Northwest Province of Cameroon. Unpublished

paper.

Nuwanyakpa, M., J. Toyang, H. Njakoi, and S. Django, S. (1995a

Plants

Medicinal Plants*

1.Barkasone.

2. Barkeji.

3. Bawaami

4. Bryophyllum pinnatum.

5. Catharanthus roseus.

6. Centella asiatica.

7.Chenopodium ambrosioïdes.

8.Dage.

9. Darkase.

10. Jaave.

11.Zoki.

12.Enenguel

13. Folere.

14. Gawdi,gawari.

15. Geloki.

16. Gialgooti.

17. Guguma.

18. Guyab

19. Indama.

20. Jaabe.

21. Kaaki.

22. Kekamedi.

23. Lantana camara.

24. Liige.

25. Nyebeday.

26. Samtarle.

27.Talli. (kinkeliba)

28. Tasbati.

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*Reference: ENDA-Environment and Development Action in the Third

World (ENDA-TM) is an international non-profit organisation based in Dakar,

Senegal.

Oumou Sangare

The Wasulu people are ethnic Fulani who have

adopted a Manding language close to Bambara,

Bamanankan. Wasulu is a dialect of

Bamanankan in Mali, but also spoken in Guinea

and Cote d'Ivoire near their borders with Mali.

Oumou Sangare, the Internationally know singer

is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali.

Oumou Sangaré is the leading female star of the

Wasulu sound, which is based on an ancient

tradition of hunting rituals mixed with songs

about devotion, praise, and harvest played with

pentatonic (five-note) melodies. In addition to

the flute and violin her sound is accompanied by

the sound of the scraping kèrègnè, women play

the

flé, a calabash strung with cowrie shells, which they spin and throw into the air

in time to the music. Sangaré most often sings about love and the importance

of freedom of choice in marriage.

At the age of 21 Oumou recorded her first album, Moussoulou (Women),

released in 1990. It caused a great stir because of the subjects in the lyrics

which were not usually publicly expressed, most notably her big hit 'Diaraby

Nene (The Shivers of Passion)', and also her chosen rhythm. Oumou's songs

use the resonating jittery sound of the kamalengoni - the youth version of the

hunter's harp. The radical mission of her songs is to highlight the issues that women in Mali face, especially polygamy.

Further albums in the 1990s were Ko Sira and Worotan. You don't have to look

very far to find one of Oumou's songs on African music compilations Empresses

of Africa and Africanesque are just a couple. Several of Oumou's songs feature

on the soundtrack of the powerful movie Beloved (1998).

Since the CD Worotan 5 years ago, Oumou has concentrated on producing

music for the Malian market and a few other projects, including the building of

a hotel in Bamako called Hotel Wasulu and touring countries in Africa.

In January 2003 Oumou participated in Festival in the Desert in the northern

part of Mali, her presence was notable because of the recent civil war in the

North. Her song Wayena is on the festival CD. Later the same year Oumou was

at international summer festivals including WOMAD festival in Reading UK. She

was in London for the Jazz Festival in November as part of a major international tour.

Oumou Sangare was a featured artist at the 2003 Smithsonian Institute

217 | P a g e

Folklife Festival in Washington, DC USA. She has a new internationally released

double CD as well in 2003, simply entitled Oumou; it includes notes on the

songs provided by Oumou herself. The CD is a 20-track compilation of 12

songs from her existing CDs plus 8 tracks not previously on CD. DJs are

already promoting 'Yala' as one of the best dance tracks on the album. A few

of the songs give advice to young people, such as Djorolen and NGuatu.

Oumou's performances on stage are truly spectacular as she and her dancers

spin calabashes in the air

Baaba Maal

performer, in West African culture, tradition dictates that the ancient griot

caste must produce the singers and storytellers, and Maal was born in the city

of Podor in 1953 into the fisherman's caste. Despite his parents' insistence that

he become a lawyer, he grew up surrounded by music, absorbing both the

traditional sounds of the region as well as American R&B and soul, later

discovering jazz and blues. As a teen Maal moved to Dakar, joining the 70-

piece orchestra Lasly Fouta and teaming with his guitarist friend Mansour Seck

to form the group Lasli Fouta; during the early 1980s, the duo also spent

several years in Paris, where they recorded the 1984 album Djam Leelii. Upon

returning to Senegal, Maal formed the group Daande Lenol -- literally, The

Voice of the people, and began honing a highly distinctive sound fusing

traditional African music with elements of pop and reggae; in 1988 he issued

the LP Wango, the first in a series of highly successful albums which also

included 1991's Baayo, 1992's Lam Toro and 1994's Firin' in Fouta. In 1998,

Maal released Nomad Soul; the first recording on Chris Blackwell's new Palm

Pictures label, it featured cameos by Brian Eno, Howie B. and others. A

succession of records followed on Palm during the subsequent three years.

Baaba Maal's music is filled with the mysteries of ancient Africa. Like the griots

he admires, Maal sings of history and heroes, bringing the lessons of the past

into our lives today, as heard on the "Black Hawk Down" soundtrack. Maal

brings his acoustic group, focusing on the folkloric and intimate music of Africa.

Delicate in appearance, Baaba Maal sings with hurricane force. His music

embraces the gentle filigree of West African folk, and the toughness of urban music. Adapted from Jason Ankeny, All Music Guide.

Fore More on Baaba Maal see the websites listed below.

http://www.newworldbuzz.com/maalreview.html

http://www.baabamaal.tv/

http://africanmusic.org/home.html

Words of griots

Griots are called many things including, African wandering poet and musician,

guardian of oral tradition, a village entertainer, praise singer, and oral

218 | P a g e

historian. The cast of griot is found in almost all the West-African cultures.

Griots are born in the cast ofas Griots, they're not chosen nor have they

evolved their entertainment or singing talents to become griots..

Traditionally, there are two types of griots: those who are musicians and those

who speak. In the Fulani society, those whose exclusively play the hodu

(ngoni) musical instruments are called wambave (sing. bambazo). Generally,

a griot's role in society included everything to do with communications: oral

history, genealogies and social rankings, messages of social or diplomatic

significance, talking drum, war drums, royal and dancing drums, music,

storytelling, and buffoonery. Griot families were attached to particular noble

families or a community, receiving protection and often generous remuneration

in exchange for their services. One of their most important function is to keep

the genealogy of families and communities. The transmit their knowledge of

the genealogy and historical feats from generation to generation, is primarily

attributed to the dominant oral culture.

They often sing songs that praise an individual and tell their history or songs

that are of historical or entertainment nature. They specialize in many types of

instruments such as the the molo, hodu, nyanyoru, Kora, balaphone which is

passed on from generation to generation from father to son. The women griot

sing, dance and also play the calabass and gourd.

Music

The most popular instruments are introduced here.

The balaphone resembles the western xylophone and varie in design from

place to place. For example the senegambian balaphone is made up of 20

rectangular wooden slats. Two rows of calabashes below the slats serve as

natural amplifiers. We play it with two mallets, wooden sticks with the tops

covered with cloth. The music is a mix of percussion and melody.

A kora sounds like a harp-lute. The body is made from a calabash, that has

been cut in half. Thereupon we place cowskin. A traditional kora has 21

strings, made of fishingline. The strings are plucked by the thumb and

forefinger of each hand. The other fingers hold the two vertical hand posts. We

tune the kora by moving the leather rings on the hardwood neck.

Although the (flute) and nyanyoru (violin), the drums are present every where

is the Fulani music and dance.Drums called buuba or mbaggu. Over time,

Fulani have evolved many music genre such as: sorawo, leele, wango, and

pecan.

Through songs the communities store their history, teach adolescents the

secrets of adulthood, and praise important figures. Religious chanting

frequently goes on all night, and is specially heard during religious holidays

blasting from loud speakers on public transport. Modern popular singers such

as Baaba Maal have mixed the traditional Fulani music and rhythmic base with

various modern modes of music to produce sounds which are well appreciated

throughout the world.

Dance

A traditional drumming and dancing program consists of several parts. When

the three drummers begin the buuba, the women of the village form a big

circle. The women will sing and if the music is good, they will dance. The

neighbours or age groups organise parties for a variety of purposes: weddings,

219 | P a g e

naming ceremonies, harvest, wrestling matches, group fishing, which are all

accompanied with dancing and drumming.

Words of griots

We are vessels of speech, we are the repositories

which harbor secrets many centuries old & without

us the names of kings would vanish from oblivion,

we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word

we bring to life the deeds and exploits of kings

for younger generations. History holds no mystery for us;

we teach to the vulgar just as much as we want to teach them,

for it is we who keep the keys to the twelve doors of Mali &...

I teach the kings of their ancestors so that the lives

of ancients might serve them as an example, for the world is old

but the future springs from the past. The words of the Mali griot Mamadou Kouyate,

Quoted in D. T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old MaliA.D. 1217-1237

Links:

Fula Flute

African music and history

Contemporary Music of Africa

Djimo Kouyate

Books (About griots)

Amkoullel, l'enfant peul by Amadou Hampaté Ba

Amadou describes his youth (1900-1920) in colonised West-Africa.

...his work is of enormous historical and ethnological importance... (Le

Monde).

Performing Africa by Paulla A. Ebron.

A detailed ethnographic study of the role griots have in Gambian

society. A bit too scholarly at times for the average reader but the way

she writes about her personal experiences in The Gambia, the

interview encounters and her travels is thouroughly enjoyable.

In griot timeby Banning Eyre.

Banning spent 7 months with Djelimady Tounkara, the guitarist of the

Rail Band in Bamako, Mali. In his book he tells about music, musicians,

griots and every day life in this Westafrican country. A great book for

musiclovers and people interested in West Africa.

Griots and griottes by Thomas A. Hale.

Tom Hale is a professor of African, French and Comparative Literature

at The Pennsylvania State University. So if you want well documented

and unbiased information read this book.

Our grandmothers drumsby Mark Hudson.

220 | P a g e

Mark spent 14 months in The Gambia, working with and doing

research among the women of Dulaba. He is also the author of The

music in my head.

The griot's craft by Jan Jansen

Jan conducted his research about the skills of griots as mediators

among the griots of Kela (Mali).

The two hearts of Kwasi Boachi by Arthur Japin.

A beautiful novel about two young Westafrican princes who left their

home country in 1837 to study in The Netherlands.

The African Child by Camara Laye

An account of the author's experiences during his boyhood in Guinea.

A beautiful book, first published in 1954 but still available in the

bookshops around the Serrekunda mosque.

Under the baobab tree by Rosemary Long.

In 1989 journalist Rosemary from Scotland came to live with Ray from

The Gambia. The columns that she wrote for the Glasgow Herald about

her new life are now published as a book. A nice read for newcomers

to The Gambia.

Pastoralism and Water in Africa Moving Toward CSD-

Pastoralism: A Livelihood in itself

In comparison with settled societies, nomadic pastoralism represent

�marginal� phenomenon, which is not known by the vast majority of global

development actors and academic authorities of the developed countries. This

is mainly due to the specific nature, and characteristics associated with

nomadic lifestyle and pastoral livelihoods. As a result, nomadic lifestyle and

even pastoral decision making process is often described as pure madness.

For over a period of centuries, African societies have been governing

themselves and managing their resources in a sustainable manner. The

traditional decision-making of pastoral and agro-pastoral societies are deep

rooted in social, cultural, economic, environmental and practical knowledge

which has been adopted based on harsh arid and semi-arid conditions they live

in. The nomadic lifestyle is, or for pastoralists, the best and only way of

surviving in the hostile living condition they happen to live in.

This nomadic lifestyle is based on complex calculation, which takes into

consideration external and internal factors that affect various aspects of their

lives, and integrate past experiences with tie present and future needs.

Pastoral mobility is not purely base on locating and going after water and

green pasture for themselves and their livestock wealth, but reflect appropriate

coping mechanism against the ethnic hostilities and natural calamities.

Pastoral social set-up and traditional governance system reflect best means

and ways of dealing with the antagonistic circumstances they live in and covers

inter and within ethnic conflict and disputes, traditional resource management

practices (including water), defense and security of specific ethnic groups,

early warning system and disaster management, social safety net and

traditional

charity system, protection of culture and social values, religious teaching and

practical learning system, communication and exchange of information and

221 | P a g e

ideas, sustainable management and optimum utilization of natural resources,

and protection of natural environment.

In absence of outside intervention and imposition of alien practices, the

traditional nomadic societies tend to live in harmony with the natural

environment. Lessons learnt from past experience however suggest that both

governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGO�s) operating in

Africa failed to understand this reality. As a result, their intervention in the

past decades impoverished pastoral societies through systemic disintegration

of each and every element of local capacity.

Pastoralist have been excluded from global development arena

Current technical water approaches have been employed on the premise that

pastoralists, who are also among the poorest in Africa, have little to contribute

to the on-going global debate on water. The consequence of this is outright

exclusion and eventual marginalization of pastoralists from taking a central role

in water related issues affecting their own lives.

Moving Forward

The followings represent some of the priority issues which need to be

addressed :

Pastoralists need to contribute to their own water resources

management based on their specific needs.

Water strategies often need to be specified and not generalized.

Community based pastoral water user associations that are responsible

for developing, operating and maintaining their water sources need to

be promoted.

Pastoralists water supply need to be improved in order to increase

availability and minimize water-induced conflict,

Rehabilitation of devastated natural environment need to be

emphasized,

Pastoralists knowledge, practices, techniques and experiences need to

be recognized with a view to reaching a consensus between pastoralism

an other development sectors .

Pastoralists-based knowledge need to be integrated in defining and

setting up policies, priorities, vision and approaches on water development with pastoral communities.

Tradional and modern communications

In traditional Africa, the individual does not and cannot exist alone except

communally. He owes existence to other people, including those of past

generations and his contemporaries. Whatever happens to the individual is

believed to happen to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole

group happens to the individual.

Traditional Africans also preserve and express the ideal of harmonious

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community-living through their dominant ritual symbols. In an effort to ensure

that this and other important value relating to their survival, is well preserved

and successfully transmitted to successive generations, in the absence of

developed literary culture, traditional Africans avail of different kinds of oral

means and media to encode and communicate their important cultural values

over and over again. Repetition is, no doubt, a typical feature of oral cultures

around the world. Traditional Africans rely on speech-forms such as myths,

proverbs, wise sayings and songs, as well as art-forms like sculpture, dance,

ritual objects, etc to preserve and impress their key beliefs, ideas and values in

the minds of successive generations of society.

One of the most important tools for community existence and growth is

communication.

A good communication system allows people to have control of their own life

stories and begin to improve the circumstances they happen to be in.

Traditional forms of communication include story telling, palabre under a

tree, drums, dance music and dialogue circles.

Oral communication such story telling and the use of dream to communicate

information is still widely used in rural areas. However, the full successes and

the potential of the oral tradition in Africa is still well known.

The new form of communication such as news papers,

magazines, telephones, cellulars, radios and television

are gaining wide acceptance among the urban and rural

people of West Africa. The internet is still in its infancy.

Culture identity must be central to the communication

experience. The community should have assimilated

any new tools of information technology without

jeopardizing local values or languages. These

communication experience also could contribute

immensely to networking and knowledge sharing.

Radio by nature gives people the ability to hear, content, context and even the

feelings of passion and pain. On the other hand video gives the ability to see

and hear voices therefore allowing a more profound emotional linkage with

pictures. Yet video remain expensive and the video equipment is subject to

frequent breakdown which makes it unreachable for most rural villages.

Both education and communication have been neglected for too long. Cultural

barriers misperceptions, as well as beliefs that one form of knowledge is

superior to another. And the disdain of indigenous knowledge all have

contributed to this neglect.

The communication growth and development situation is still embryonic.

However, countries have opened radios an television stations all over Africa.

Mostly in language foreign to the African culture. The links to some radio and

television stations are provided below.

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http://www.comfm.com/live/radio/?k=1

http://www.radio-locator.com/cgi-bin/nation

http://www.radio-locator.com/cgi-bin/nation

http://members.aol.com/dpaterson/radio.htm

http://www.tvradioworld.com/region3/

http://www.afropulse.com/music/radio/internet.html

Overview

The Education Section of the Jamtan Website is

devoted to the introduction of the Fulfulde

language. While the Fulfulde is not an official

language in all countries with a strong Fulani

presence, it plays an important role in the identity

of the Fulani people. The cultural relevance of the

Fulani language and the tremendous interest

about it have been brilliantly expressed in the

articles of Cheikh Ahmidou Kane and Sonja Diallo

provided below.

In the article Languages of Colonization and

African Cultural Identity,

Cheikh Hamidou Kane examines the impact of the

historic clash of culture between the European

and the African and African people's motivation in

learning French.

French is a language of use, practical, utilitarian, functional tool giving access

to the modern world, whereas Pulaar (Fulfulde) is a language of life, a

reflection of the Fulani peoples' human condition of today and yesterday, the

most irreducible means of expressing one's cultural identity. To speak French is on the order of doing and to speak Pulaar, the order of being.

In her article Defining education within a grassroots literacy movement

By Dr. Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo addresses the questions of the why and the how

to develop so-called literacy programs in traditional languages. Sonja Diallo

describes the experience of the promotion of National Language in Senegal.

S Diallo demonstrates the importance of a cultural dimension in which

becoming literate becomes a media both for knowing better one's own culture, as well as for supporting that culture in a time of rapid social change.

Foreign alphabet, have been used to write Fulani Languages, Arabic in the

past, and Latin more recently. However the UNESCO at various conferences in

1966, 1971, and 1989, helped introduce a new writing system. In this website

that writing is retained and slightly modified to adapt to the web programming.

It is important to note that the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal

is developing a Fulfulde Keyboard under the direction of Dr Fary S. Ka.

The Jamtan team envisioned both relevant and useful themes about which a

series of words and their sounds will be performed. This was divided into 5

sub-groups: Numbers, Vocabulary, Grammar, and Glossary. Several topics

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were chosen including: Numbers, Mathematical Operations , the Computer and

the Internet

Body, Cooking Domestic Animal, Farming, Fishing and the Environment,

Greetings, and Time. Voices were added to most of the terms.

African Cultural Identity

Languages of Colonization and African Cultural Identity

It was in Matam, in the region of Fouta Toro, an evening of my childhood a

long time ago. Resting on a straw mat spread out on the courtyard floor, one

of my aunts, my father's oldest sister, kept an audience of teenage listeners

captivated as if attached by invisible strings. Each day at dusk, dropping all

other activities, her grandchildren would come to drink from the inexhaustible well of stories, legends, proverbs, riddles, and word plays.

A couple of feet from this enchanted circle, two men, the storyteller's sons,

would be seated on straight-backed chairs conversing in French. One was a

doctor, the other, a teacher. Interrupting herself suddenly, undoubtedly in

the middle of the adventures of Samba Geladiégi, the narrator, who didn't

understand French would ask her sons, aren't you tired of that? Rest a little.

Get down off your chairs and come speak to us in the language of our fathers!

I have always had a vivid memory of that scene. Now allow me to evoke another one that goes back to the same time.

We were in a neighborhood alleyway, not far from where my father lived. I

was with my usual playmate, a boy about my same age. It was in Pulaar, our

native language, that we spoke to each other, not yet knowing how to speak

French�the study of which wouldn't start until a year later. We had already

gone through two or three of the games from our daily repertoire when my

friend suggested another, "Pretend like you speak French." We immediately

started the preparations. Pulling up the wide hem of our traditional robes, we

would tighten them around our chests to make a sort of jacket or shirt. Then,

rolling the ample pleats of our pants around our legs, we made knickers and

European trousers. Next, we got a hold of some ash that we used to endow each other with a white face.

Having successfully accomplished the masquerade, we would try imitating

the gestures of the whites when they talked to each other: hands in the

pockets, fists on the hips, or arms folded; standing straight or doing a little

pirouette around the other. It was only after these preliminary exercises that

we felt ready to speak French, or in other words to emit the strange, foreign

sounds which, need it be said, had absolutely no significance whatsoever.

Regarding these sounds, I should clarify that my friend and I would force

each other to articulate them correctly, to produce them with other parts of

our mouth, palate, and throat, than those that we used to pronounce the phonemes of our native Pulaar.

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The significance of my aunt's fiery quip and of our childhood games is

obvious. To pretend to speak French indicated that the execution of such an

activity was a desired aptitude and brought along with it a coveted status.

This powerful motivation was to become a passport during our entire life as

students. Later on, it was to be transformed into the prideful desire to

acquire the same degree in French as the whites, because we had the latent

conviction that only such a degree would allow us to claim the same

qualifications as the whites in careers of medicine, engineering, etc. Our

game was also a way of taking note of the differences between French and Pulaar.

Our contrived airs and graces also clearly expressed that for us, the

importance of a language's form can't be reduced to a mere linguistic

medium but extends to imitation, to style, and to an aesthetic. We were very

aware that French is not Pulaar, nor the other way around, and that one

shouldn't mix�I was going to say genres.

As for my aunt, it went even further than that. It established profound

differences. According to her, to speak French is to adopt a life of

appropriateness. Therefore, one speaks French, just like one works, in the

modern sector, and one speaks Pulaar�just like the farmer, leathersmith, or

craftsman�in the traditional way. To speak French one must be standing up,

going somewhere, or seated on chairs with the back straight and vertical; if

one wishes to take a rest or take part in the joys of family life, it can only be

done speaking Pulaar, cross-legged, sitting up or sprawled out on a straw

mat on the ground. French is a language of use, practical, utilitarian,

functional tool giving access to the modern world, whereas Pulaar is a

language of life, a reflection of the Halpulaar peoples' human condition of

today and yesterday, the most irreducible means of expressing one's cultural

identity. To speak French is on the order of doing and to speak Pulaar, the

order of being.

As a group, the Senegalese people of today are not far from sharing these

views, if one is to believe Pierre Dumont, formerly the director of the Center

for Applied Linguistics of Dakaar (CLAD). Socio-linguistic studies, he has

written, have proven that the Senegalese peoples' motivation in learning

French has been for a number of reasons: social, professional, economic, and

technical, but never linguistic. The use of French is reserved for easily indexed situations, outside of African society.

What has been suggested concerning the respective vocations of Pulaar and

of French could also be said with as much truth of other Senegalese people

(and Africans in general) and their perception of the relationship that exists

between their dialect and that of the Europeans. In its depth, post-colonial

Africa considers that it has, on the one hand, languages of identity and

culture and, on the other, languages of usefulness and function. The one

being original and oral, the other, foreign and written. The African people

see, between their dialects and those of Europeans, the same opposition, the

same division, but also the same complementary character, as Léopold Senghor puts it, as those that my aunt saw between Pulaar and French.

We will put under scrutiny this latent intuition in the African people in order

to evoke its truth because, as is often the case, intuition and its prophetic

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nature is more accurate when it springs forth from the people. This serene,

realistic vision of the neo-African cultural landscape, the consequence of its

history, contains in itself, imprinted like a watermark, the important lines

that sketch the future that the governing elite will have to strive to faithfully

build. The socio-cultural terrain with which we are concerned here is vital,

fundamental; and the time to accomplish the necessary work in this area is

limited. It is, therefore, advisable that the political and intellectual leaders

avoid all of the errors of excess or default, the reckless improvisations or the

fearful abstentions. To achieve such a reality, they have no better teacher and guide than the people.

Therefore, I will explain what I understand, and what I mean, by this

unexpressed discourse of the Senegalese people concerning the crucial

question of languages.

Before the white men landed on the country's shores, penetrated the interior

lands, and imposed their laws and languages, the Senegalese people were

neither nonexistent nor mute. They lived off their own substance, and their

languages�the exact reflection of their way of life�expressed it more adequately and more perfectly than any other language.

Then the white men came from across the sea. The historic clash of these

two worlds was devastating and left behind no aspect of the former way of

life. The cold witness of history, devoid of both love and hate, attests to the

defeat and submission of the Senegalese. It isn't that they didn't resist

valiantly on all the confrontational fronts. The fact is that, just or unjust, they

were defeated. There are better things to do, thought the people, than shed

tears and brood over one's bitterness.

It is necessary to take a clear look at the weapons that assured the European

victory. In the area of linguistics, what greater efficiency and importance

than to substitute French in the place of Senegalese languages to declare the

law, to express knowledge, and to facilitate exchange? Instead of protesting

French and claiming to eradicate it�as an irrational person would be tempted

to do�the Senegalese chose to send their students to school in search of this

language. The choice was so frank and so overwhelming that schools proved

to be weak and insufficient, managing to neither accommodate the large

number of applicants, nor to give them intellectual and spiritual food in the

spirit of an undertaking of mutual civilization.

The Senegalese people, solidly entrenched in their original languages, which

had been for a long time their only means of communication, undertook, by

their own volition, to learn, master, and use the French language. This

movement in the present time is a deliberate act of will whose motive is

perfectly clear. It has to do with acquiring a useful tool that makes the

upheavals caused by the shock of both the future and the past indispensable.

Senghor explains to us that we are present for an encounter of giving and

receiving, to give and to receive, in an exchange that would cease to be

unequal, and which, for the benefit of all, would draw from the best

characteristics of all sides. If the dialogue of the Senegalese people is, from a

linguistic perspective, the one we have just suggested, let us pause to more

profoundly consider it; we can then glean the teachings required in order to define the best course of action.

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The most visible and spectacular element in this panorama is the great,

viable presence of national, traditional languages in their survival, despite a

long and unfair confrontation with a powerful language endowed with the weapon of writing.

The blacks of Africa are not the only non-European people to have been

openly beaten with the whip of a calamity-ridden history. The miracle is that

they did not disappear, as others have done, and that not only have they

survived, but that they still live, grow, and prosper. I see the secret of this

vitality of men and their cultures in one specific quality unique to their

civilization. This secret, their fountain of youth, is that there is a unique and privileged tie that exists between oral tradition and African life.

The oral culture of the black world is certainly vulnerable. By failing to posses

the impregnable barricade of writing, it is open to all winds, to all lack of

progress. However, even if it bends, oral tradition does not falter. The oral

tradition is linked to life, to perpetual and spontaneous renewal, whereas

writing is linked to severity, rigidity, and apathy. Maurice Calvet, who was

then the director of CLAD, made a striking comment in a conference held in

1968. "The primary function of the speech organs," he said, "is tied to animal

survival. To speak, we use the organs designed for breathing: the lungs; to

prevent flooding the voice box; the jaws and teeth for catching food; and for

kneading and moving food, the tongue." There is no more convincing proof

between speech and life. We eat like we speak; we speak like we breathe.

We speak like we relax, as my aunt used to say. One cannot say that we

write like we eat, or like we breathe, or like we relax: speech is, more than

writing, linked to life. Better than does writing, speech assures survival not

conservation of that with which we entrust it. More than writing, speech is a

living archive.

The Senegalese languages have survived because, better than written

languages, they conserve life. This virtue alone suffices to recommend them

to the filial faithfulness of modern linguistic elite as they work towards

edification and rebirth. It is another virtue of our oral traditions that refers

them to the attention of those called to fortify the revival. It has been said

that one of the principle characteristics of oral society is the close association

that exists between language and social practice. Again, Maurice Calvet

sheds light on this comment by saying, the structural ethnologs have shown,

he reminds us, the strange yet fascinating similarity that exists between

human structures and institutions (kinship, rituals, hierarchies, etc.) and the

very structures of language. Profoundly rooted in society, The oral tradition

explains the world, the history, the rituals, the surrounding nature, and the

relationships with neighboring ethnicities. Oral tradition ensures and protects

the multiple functions of memorization, of values, of ethics, and of aesthetic

expression. The oral tradition, being the support and medium of a living

society, better assures social reproduction than does writing. In the face of

brutal attacks of all kinds against African societies, oral tradition has afforded

opposition to an elastic and inconstant reaction, thus ensuring the survival of these societies.

Furthermore, oral tradition dictates an aesthetic expression richer than

writing. Speech is not tied to the only organs that ensure animal survival. In

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speech, the whole body participates in the transmission of the message,

unlike writing, which is paralyzed. If so desired, the speaker can easily

increase the power of his or her expression by incorporating facial

expressions, hands, and even the whole body. One can make speech

rhythmical like a drum; it can be made to sing and dance. It is true that one

can do the same with writing both with prose and especially with poetry but

in a less immediate fashion. Let us refer one last time to Calvet. He says,

Language is in its most pure form spoken language, the act of speaking. All

other forms of language: body language, drummed-out language, whistled

language, and written language are subsidiary forms of oral language,

achieved by transfer.

Languages of life, languages of survival, life-preserving languages of our

societies, irreplaceable in their ability to express the Senagelese people's

sensibility, culture, and civilization can you just throw these vital cultural

forms away in history's wastebasket, all in the name of progress? There is

not a soul in Senegal, a land of reason and imagination, situated on the

forefront of cultural attachment, who would make such an irrational choice.

There is not a country in Africa more capable than Senegal at sensing the

need to define political causes called for by historical necessity. That is why

the problem today is not that of choice, for the choice has already been made

in an unequivocal and unanimous manner by political and intellectual élites.

The task that these élites are challenged with is the transition from intention

to action, from theory to practice.

For the moment, let's come back to the linguistic and cultural panorama of

contemporary Senegal. This land is not inhabited by only native languages. A

foreign language, French, has also conquered, besieged, and still continues

to occupy the territory. Having come from somewhere else, known only by a

minority, mastered by a still smaller minority, French is, however, the

language that proclaims the law, communicates modern knowledge, and

facilitates the most important business transactions. It is true that this

foreign language was introduced in the country at the threat of bayonets. But

if it has remained for so long in a privileged position, it is because of the

choice made by the Senegalese people. Two signs are a testament to this

choice: first, the movement toward French schools, a movement whose size

has surpassed both the schools' ability to accommodate and adapt to all the

students' needs; and, secondly, the upholding of French as the official language�even as the country has acquired international sovereignty.

What assets, what attractions have ensured the victory of French and its

continued eminence? It is an important thing to know. One does not in the

slightest diminish the merits of this language in saying that French owes its

strength first and foremost, from a linguistic point of view, to the fact that it

is a language with a written form. The tool of writing, with all its virtues and

spells, couldn't help but have an effect of fascination on the Senegalese

people, a people of oral tradition. Political power, urban development,

historical records, the codification of laws, the formulation and preservation

of beliefs there isn't one of these elements that doesn't take on a whole

different aim when supported by the use of writing.

We have just said how, throughout a history full of trials and mortal dangers,

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oral tradition has permitted the expression and preservation of these

elements of civilization. But the times have changed. In a world where, from

now on, neither time nor distance will be an obstacle to communication, an

oral culture becomes fragile and endangered. The broadcasting reach of an

oral culture is limited, as well as its power of competition and, consequently,

it falls in a position of inferiority. The strength of internal sentiment that

people of an oral tradition feel towards their cultures no longer suffice to

preserve their cultures, especially since these people are entering a phase of technical progress in a united world.

The Senegalese peoples' intuitive perception of the mortal fragility of a

country deprived of the tool of writing provides one of the explanations for

why French has had such an alluring effect on them. However, French was

not the only written language present in Senegal. Arabic had been introduced

a long time before. So why is it that French prevailed? Certainly because it

was imposed by weapons. But we also believe that it is because the study of

French called for the use of the child's intelligence and reasoning whereas the

study of Arabic, a language of worship, required in the first place the faith of

the believer as well as his memory. The acquisition of French was more

thorough and its use, more universal. This direct and immediate relationship

between the French language and intelligence, reason and intellectual aptitude of its Senegalese speaker was one of the major attractions.

From what I've just said, does it mean that French is unable to express the

sensibility and heartfelt musings of a Senegalese individual, unable to extract

from him and expose to the light of day his most profound identity? Read

Chants d'Ombre and the Stories of Amadou Coumba; read Maimouna and Les

bouts de bois de Dieu and tell me if Léopold Senghor and Birago Diop.

Abdaoulaye Sadji and Ousmane Sembene aren't Senegalese. Senghor is the

proof that it is absolutely possible, by the use of French, to reach the most

intimate reaches of the heart and soul. Nevertheless, it still takes a talented poet to do this.

In truth, the French language has entered into the heritage of Senegal,

joining native languages like Wolof, Pulaar, Sereer, Joola, Malinké, and

Sarakolé. These are the seven living languages of Senegal today�every one

as essential as the other. Taken all together, or considering each one

separately with French, they express completely and adequately the

Senegalese language at the end of this millennium. Individually, they cannot make this claim.

It follows that the choice either was clear, or rather that Senegal didn't have

the choice. That is why, as Senghor (then president of the Republic of

Senegal) wrote, We have decided to choose French as the official language of

employment and of international communication, whereas our six principal

languages . . . will be promoted to the level of �national languages,' because of the expression of our African values.

The Senegalese legislator ratified what had already been inscribed in the

reality of our culture. The second paragraph of our constitution proclaimed

French as the official language. A decree of 21 May 1971 established as law

and regulated the transcription of the six national languages. From that time

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on, the legislative and regulatory arsenal establishing the chosen linguistic

policy was in place. It was then just a question of going from the formal

agreement on the principal to its elaboration and application.

So it had been decided that French would be the official language. Next came

the classic debate between the old school and the modern school. For, as the radical nationalists would say, in French, by the way,

"French is a foreign language and, what's more, the language of the former

colonizers. The majority of the Senegalese people don't speak it. It is clear

that French is not as appropriate as our other native languages in expressing

the profound cultural identity of the Senegalese people. Nevertheless, the

Senegalese language that we aspire to build must be compatible with modern

progress. In fact, it is on this level of progress that one finds the cultural

genius of our people. Consequently, as the nationalists would say, the choice

of French is a bad one, from a political, technical, and operative point of

view. It would have been better to immediately choose one of our national

languages, logically, the one representing the largest minority of our people

and make it our national language, by force if necessary."

You can't do that, the modernists retort. It's true that French is a foreign

language, but it has been a part of Senegal for three and a half centuries.

Sure, it is the language of the former colonizers, but colonization is dead,

and if French is our official language, it is because of an independent,

deliberate choice on our part. That choice made in that way at that moment

in time, changed the political significance of the French language in Senegal.

Along this political frontier, this choice wards off any of the dangers of

internal divisions caused by the other solution. In view of its long presence in

our country, in view of the fact that it was imposed upon us as our official

language and that of our government, our instruction at all levels has been

only in French, common sense, reason, and the imperatives of action require

it to remain as such. If we are serious in our desires and if we consider that

modernization is our primary objective, then we must not hesitate between

French, a written language, one of the great languages of the world, and

some other Senegalese language not yet transcribed or modernized.

Considering our desire for progress and the fast-paced race of time, French

is, at this moment, the best tool. By it our technicians can read, speak, and

write the language of modernism, and access a universal heritage. By its use,

we can come to know the cultures of the peoples of the earth, which none of our national languages would permit in the foreseeable future.

The debate could continue on indefinitely, elaborating on one or many of the

pertinent arguments, but there are certainly better things to be done. Let us

for the moment focus on what can be done concerning the French language;

we will then turn our attention toward the urgent tasks that must be undertaken for the national languages.

It is obvious that the most rigid nationalists did not seriously want to

abandon the French language. Similarly, the most sentimental modernists

were forced to admit that on one hand, French, though it may be an official

language, is not a maternal language of the Senegalese people, and, on the

other hand, that for cultural and psycho-linguistic reasons, a maternal

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language is a medium providing an indispensable education. If, by the nature

of things, and because of a lack of available solutions, French is an official

language, it must be studied in the best circumstances of quality and

effectiveness. As Senghor said, "If one must choose an instrument, it would

be absurd to not want the best possible one." I also remember that that was

the feeling that enlivened my playmate and me when, in the alleyway of our

village, we would play the game of speaking French correctly. The necessity

of French is a consequence that flows from the utilitarian function of French,

which is not only admitted by all the élites, but strongly desired by the population.

Although the necessity of studying French is obvious, the necessity for

French to be the only teaching vehicle is less certain. I will not go so far as to

say that French should not serve as the sole tool of instruction in certain

disciplines for a period of time . Even the most advanced nations, with more

modern languages than Senegal at their disposal, show no reluctancy in such

a step. What should come to an end is the monopolistic position that French

has enjoyed when it is treated as the maternal language of the Senegalese

people. Dumont observed, The introduction of the national languages in the

official curriculum will modify the numbers attached to the problem of

teaching French in Senegal. French will rediscover its rightful place in the

Senegalese educational system: that of a foreign language benefitting from

the hours, curriculum, but also perspectives usually reserved for traditional

foreign languages.

The second stage of the Senegalese linguistic plan involves the politics of

national language promotion. The decree of 13 July 1972 concerning

elementary school teaching in Senegal, clearly laid down these principles, All

language transporting a given civilization, we believe that as long as we, the

Senegalese people, continue to teach our children a foreign language,

whatever it may be, without first teaching them their native language, our

people will remain alienated. There is an urgent necessity for the Senegalese

people to begin to teach their national languages. An initiation to the French

language, which is considered a workplace language, should be given in a

parallel manner to the introduction of the teaching of national languages. . . .

In Senegal, French will remain a foreign and secondary language whose

teaching should begin with clear connections tying it to the national languages.

The promotion of national languages to the ranks of taught languages is a

complex and considerable undertaking, but it is both necessary and possible

to bring about much good, given a reasonable amount of time. Our history has known slower progress than this.

Along with the politics involved with a Senegalese educational movement

towards a new call to progressively promote the teaching of national

languages, another task presents itself: that of literacy among adults in these

languages. Even if the educational and intellectual elite come to terms with

the monster that they have created for themselves, the desired objective of

rebirth and modernization of the national languages will only be achieved

with the participation of the people. Only the dynamism and creative genius

of the people will allow them to undertake the obstacles and to make a new

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and fertile culture prosperous instead of the adverse, antagonistic theories brandished by some scholars.

I have not lost sight of the possible permutations of the question that we are

asked, Is the French language appropriate for the expression of Senegalese

cultural identity? I think that I have answered this question, but to be clear, I

will repeat this answer in conclusion. Drawing from my own experience with

the French language and my knowledge of a few Senegalese languages,

judging with my mind and with my heart, having the ambition and the

intention of being profoundly entrenched in my black, African tradition, and

to be at the same time a militant committed to the birth of a new world,

materially self-mastered and spiritually reconciled, my answer to the

question is yes. Yes, in the language of humanism there is no aspect of the

human condition that the French language would not be capable of

describing; the language of a great and old nation, in times past, French was

chosen by diplomats and cultivated men of many nations and it remains today one of the principle languages of the modern world.

To Prospero, who asked a question similar to that which we are asked today,

Caliban answered, You taught me your language. The advantage I have on it

is I know how to curse. Considering the manner in which he was treated,

having been demoted to servitude, denying his culture, and even his human

condition, it is understandable that Caliban was more inclined towards

cursing and insult than towards forgiveness. But there are no more lost

islands, unknown lands, unrecognized lands. The time of the finished world

has started and with it the dawn of the birth of the Civilization of the

Universal. The Africans and the French can and want to be present at this meeting, together, in freedom and in brotherhood.

by Cheikh Hamidou Kane, author, former diplomat and minister in the

government of Senegal transcript from his presentation at BYU, 2 November

2000, translated by Natalie and Zachary Gubler

Perspectives on Literacy

Defining education within a grassroots literacy movement

The questions of why and how to develop so-called literacy programs, which

usually focus on adults and are often in a language without a long written

tradition, is part of an on-going international debate. This article gives a

voice to a group of new literates in a Senegalese language, Pulaar, who are

sandwiched between the national debate over continuing to use an

international language in the local school system, and the public policy

debate over allocating funds for non-formal education.The official language of

Senegal, both in the administration and in education, is French. There are

twenty-two national languages, six of which have been officially recognized

but which are not used in the educational system. Approximately 58% of

school age children enter the public French-language school system; but of

these, roughly 80% fail to finish primary school. The pyramid of Senegal's

educational system looks like a sharp needle standing up-right on a flat

233 | P a g e

surface, and getting ever narrower as the educational years go by. As a

result, Senegal's official illiteracy rate is 67% by the latest World Bank

statistics.

In the face of such dismal statistics, individuals motivated to learn are

turning, as adults, to a non-formal, community-based form of education in

Senegalese languages.

The most dramatic and dynamic of these grassroots movements is

unquestionably that of the Pulaar language. Pulaar is a language used by

roughly one third of Senegal's 9,000,000 citizens, but it is spoken by some

25,000,000 people speaking mutually intelligible dialects across the Sahel to the borders of eastern Sudan.

Educators and policy makers can learn some important lessons from this

language community. This article highlights the salient points of this

grassroots movement, from exploring the motivations of individual learners

to reviewing the socio-historical events which have contributed to converting

a literacy program into a cause. Few elements of this literacy movement are

more important than the link which has been established between cultural

identity and literacy. In an interview with a group of voluntary literacy

teachers living on the outskirts of the Senegalese capital, the person

conducting the interview was told, ..we must try to revitalize our culture, and

literacy in the Pulaar language is one instrument for reaching that goal. (Madden, 1990, p. 18)

The personal impact: Studying Pulaar woke me up

It is difficult to present a neat definition of the cognitive skills which people

feel

they gain by becoming literate. They speak more in terms of generally being

more aware. When new literates write, very few of them talk about their

efforts in terms of literacy or illiteracy (known as humambinnaagal in Pulaar).

To describe their

experience with learning to read and write, almost all consistantly use the

term

jande (whose meaning is much closer to studies). As one woman said,

Studying made me literate, not Because I'm literate I can now start to study.

This phrase captures the sense of participating in a learning process which is

perceived as a wake up call.

All new literates claim that becoming literate brought them pinal, from the

verbal root fin- meaning to wake up. The noun pinal is used in to mean

culture, values,

awareness - that is, being awake. Kuenzi reports this same metaphor in her evaluation report:

Many respondents expressed the idea that literacy training had allowed them

to explore and get to know themselves. They also spoke of being generally

more aware and conscious than they had been previous to their literacy

training. Interestingly, the metaphor of sleeping was frequently used by

many when asked about the impact of literacy. In describing the effects of

literacy on villagers, one respondent commented, They are now more awake.

They are able to document things, they are aware of everything that is

234 | P a g e

happening in the world. The others are sleeping. (Kuenzi, 1996, p.14)

Amongst the things which people say about the personal aspects, both

cognitive and empowering, of becoming literate and studying are:

Studying opened up my intelligence.

Now I can take notes of all my thoughts.

I can now listen to things and make a choice.

It is only through studying that a person can change.

At first, I didn't even know how to write my name. Now I know what I

should do with my life.

I now know my own mind, and refuse to be tricked.

From now on, everything that I do, I will stop first to think about it, to

get information about whether it is a good or bad action.

Studying woke me up, gave me knowledge, and improved my

behavior and patience.

What has changed in my life is that now I have become a more

humble and forgiving person.

Oxenham presents these same thoughts in a more elegant form:

....the technology of literacy has served not simply the intended practical

purposes of storing and communicating information. Vastly more important,

it seems to have enabled the growth and development of the human reason

and its power to combine different sources of information to produce even

more understanding and inspiration. It has been potent, too, in the growth of self-consciousness and self-understanding. (Oxenham, 1980, p. 43)

One particularily articulate respondant with only one year of Pulaar literacy

training and no formal schooling in French shared the following reflection in

the Kuenzi evaluation:

The fact that I have pursued literacy has helped me in my work. It has given

me

courage to go all the way with things, to be more rigorous and curious. I

used to

do things by routine. Before, I couldn't give the dates of your visit. I didn't

have memory, precision or observation. Writing has been the most important thing because I can fix firmly on something. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 15)

Kuenzi views the often repeated theme of writing letters and keeping secrets

not

as a trivial use of literacy, but as a sign of the increased empowerment of

those who are able to do so:

Overall, the respondents seemed to feel empowered by their experience with

literacy.... Many of the respondent's replies pertained to issues of personal

efficacy and independence. Numerous respondents note that, after literacy

training, they were able to read and write their own letters. Many

235 | P a g e

respondents stressed that being able to do so allowed them to keep their

secrets. While some might dismiss these often heard remarks as trivial in

light of the magnitude of the problems facing villagers and their

communities, one would be in error to do so. The sheer frequency with which

respondents recounted this new found ability indicates that it represents

something important to people. Indeed, being able to read and write one's

own letters appears to be associated with the ideas of being able to protect

one's interests, keep one's personal business to oneself and thereby maintain

control over self. Throughout all of the topics discussed with respondents

who participated in a literacy program, the theme of no longer needing an

intermediary was emphasized. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 13)

In other words, individuals are fully aware of the numerous ways in which

literacy has affected them. This is largely expressed in terms of personal capacities to think and plan.

The social impact: I now dare work in a group

Because of the issue of empowerment, it is difficult to separate most

comments by those which show either a personal or a social impact. The

juncture between the two is perhaps best expressed by the use of the verb to

dare, which appears in the vast majority of letters. Daring starts from a

sense of personal empowerment, but implies a social action as well. Ong

captures the dialectic between the heightened sense of self generated by

participation in a literacy program, and the heightened sense of sociability,

when he writes, Writing ... intensified the sense of self and fosters more

conscious interaction between persons. (Ong, 1991, p. 179) Canieso-Doronila

points out that the participation in literacy classes increases an awareness of

how to act in a group through learning the communication skills of

discussion, facilitation, synthesizing, public speaking, bargaining, negotiation. (Canieso-Doronila, 1996, p. 125)

As Kuenzi reports:

At the same time that the idea of getting to know oneself was stressed,

respondents also strongly emphasized that they had become more social as

a result of the training. Many of the same themes regarding changes

in demeanor and an openness to the outside emerged in these interviews. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 14)

The issue of change in public behavior is well expressed in the following

excerpts from letters:

Studying gave me the courage to stand in the middle of people and

speak the truth.

Now when I enter a group, first I listen to what the others have to

say, I try to understand, and then I respectfully add whatever I can,

based on the technique of good listening.

What has changed in my life is that now I dare sit with the elders,

something which I couldn't do before.

Whether the person be old or young, a man or a woman, I now know

236 | P a g e

how we can be together as equals.

Studying taught me a lot about people.

Studying improved my social relationships.

What we've seen in studying is that men and women are equal in work.

Clearly, personal empowerment and new skills have led these participants

into the social arena, where they can act as both leaders and resource

persons to the larger community to which they are attached.

Conclusion: What can we learn from the Pulaar experience?

A good deal has been written about the relative merits of the autonomous

and ideological models for supporting literacy. The Pulaar model

demonstrates an integration of the two. New literates can very clearly

identify both the cognitive and the social gains they have made through

becoming literate. Furthermore, these gains are realized both on a personal

level, and on the level of the entire community. But the Pulaar model also

emphasizes the importance of a cultural dimension in which becoming literate

becomes a media both for knowing better one's own culture, as well as for

supporting that culture in a time of rapid social change. While some of the

gains of literacy are seen as having access to what is new and from the

outside, somehow new literates have also transformed literacy in Pulaar into

a tool to discover and transmit the soul or core of their own culture.

---------------

Excerpts from:

Constructive Interdependence:

The Response of a Senegalese Community to the Question of

Why Become Literate

By Dr. Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo

Associates in Research & Education for Development (ARED)

Centre Ahmadou Malick Gaye (Bopp)

Dakar, Sénégal

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Food & Drinks

At this writing, Western Fast food is not yet popular in West-Africa. For the

most part, people eat at home (or at a friend's).When families cook, they don't

cook for just themselves, they also cook for anyone who may stop by. In

villages as well in the towns, people who, hold on to the traditional Fulani

ways, group organize themselves into tumbudu or eating group, eating

together where every one brings a dish, as in a pot-luck, or take turn in

preparing the meal for the group. For meats, there is just about every thing

except maybe pork: beef, lamb, goat, cow, chicken, turkey, geese, guinea

fowls, pigeon, fish, other seafood...

Grains include: millet, sorghum, maize, rice and wheat. For fruits, vegetables,

and legumes there are oranges, bananas, pineapples, tangerines, carrots,

watermelons, guava, melons, limes, grape fruits, mangos, peppers, tomatoes,

onions, peas, sweet potatoes and many other things. A popular oil used for

cooking is called palm oil, which is a reddish colored oil made from ground

palm kernels.

A classic complete meal will include: Appetizers, Main Dishes, Fish or meat,

Dessert, a Three-round service of tea and a sharing a Kola nut. The table

below shows some of the meals and how they are prepared, and some of the ways that they are eaten.

Below are lists of the foods that include traditional and imported and new

cuisine.These show how wise food choices and preparation methods of

traditional cultures combined with exotic foods and cuisine, promote vigorous

good health, longevity and freedom from dental problems and mental

disorders.

Food

FOOD Names Description

Appetizers Akara Beans are skinned, ground, and

fried into round balls. They are

eaten with a spicy tomato sauce

and onions.

Pastels Fried batter of wheat flower

stuffed with fish or beef eaten

with a spicy sauce.

Beignets Beignets (where French influence

exists),

Buuzi Millet patties similar to pancakes

Traditional

Dishes

CousCous Steamed millet flower, maize

flower or semolina

Lacciri e Haako Couscous and leaves with fish or

meat

Nyiiri Boiled coarse ground millet or

maize with seasonings

Nyiiri e Buna Boiled coarse ground millet or

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maize with dried fish and ghee

Caakri Dessert (see below)

Rice Dishes white: rice cooked or

steamed in water, then

usually covered with

sauce.

Eaten with Fish, Mafe, Sup

Kandie, Cassava leaves.

jollof rice: rice cooked (or

baked) with ground

tomatoes, peppers,

sometimes meat and

vegetables, other spices,

and comes out reddish in

color.

Eaten with Fish , Meat, Maro e

Lizzi,

fried rice: rice cooked in

oils, vegetables, meats,

and spices.

Eaten beans, plantains, meat, ...

Black eyed

peas

Generally boiled.

Sometimes cooked in

combination with maize, or

rice, with or without

sauce.

Eaten with Couscous millet, rice

Sweet

Potatoes,

yams

boiled plain: White or

yellow yams are peeled,

sliced up, usually into

pieces about 3

centimeters, and boiled in

water with salt

vegetable oil, palm oil, eggs,

beans and soup

fried: White or yellow

yams are cut up into long

thin squares and fried in

vegetable oil or palm oil.

usually by itself or as a side in a

meal

Water yams are cut up

and fried in vegetable oil

or palm oil.

usually by itself or as a side in a

meal

Plantains Boiled

baked whole in the oven rice, beans, eggs, by itself...

maize (yellow

corn)

boiled: the corn is still on

the cob, and boiled in

water and salt

roasted: the corn is still on

the cob, and it is roasted

in the oven, or on a grill

until it is brown

Main Dishes

Maro e Lizzi Fish and jollof rice also called

Thieboudiene (See Recipe below)

afe Recipe Peanut butter stew over white

rice (See Recipe below)

Chiken Yassa Recipe Lemon Chicken (See Recipe

below)

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Sup Kanje Recipe Okra sauce (See Recipe below)

Laciri Basi Salte Stewed meat and vegetables

over Couscous (See Recipe

below)

Laciri e Tew Stewed meat and black eyed

peas over Couscous (See Recipe

below)

Maffi Haako Sweet potato leaves (See Recipe

below)

Couscous Haako (See Recipe below)

groundnuts Used as in Peanut butter

sauce, Mafe

Eaten with boiled white rice

shelled peanuts (as called

in America anyway)

raw, or boiled in salt water, or

roasted (eaten after the shells

are removed of course)

Dessert Caakri dessert Eaten specially during holidays

and ceremonies.

Drinks

Drinks Description

water

Tuffam drink made a mixture of sour milk and water may or may

not be sweetened.

minerals (soft

drinks)

also known elsewhere as 'pop', or 'soda'.

fruit drinks pineapple juices, orange juices, etc.

Follere, Bissap

Juice

A hibiscus type flower with water and pineapple

sweetened with vanilla.

Javve,

Tamarindo Juice

Sweetened tamarind pods drink

Jingeer, Ginger

Drink

Crushed ginger with pineapple juice, sweetened

Attaya, Tea Tea ceremony: Drinking Tea is an important social

function. A great deal of ceremony surrounds the making

and serving of tea. See Making tea (Below)

The Kola Nut (Goro)

The Kola Nut (Goro)

After a copious meal, especially during holidays and ceremonies, a Kola nut is

used to complete the meal. The Kola nut is broken into small pieces and

shared between family and friends. Some Kolanuts have two carpsels, some

three, some four some five, and some six which is the highest number of

carpsels they can have.

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The Kola nut has a very special meaning in West African Cultures. It is used

to seal agreements and contracts. For example it is widely distributed at

weddings, naming ceremonies, and conflict mediation. The Kola nut

symbolizes understanding, friendship and unity. Kola is used to symbolizes

long life in a marriage. It is wishing the couple a long life together. It is

broken and passed around to all the well-wishers present for the ceremony.

Everyone takes a small bite.

Full Recipes:

FLacciri e Haako: Couscous and leaves with fish or meat.

*For six people

Ingredients (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1steak of fish of 1kg, 2 pieces of dried fish, 1kg of leaves (leaves of black eyed

peas or spinach, or collar greens) , 50g of onion, 1 cloves of garlic, 2 fresh hot

peppers, 1 strap of green onion, salt, 500g of ground peanut, 1 cup of black

eyed peas, 1 cup of dried ground melon or pumpkin seed (jaga), and 2 kg couscous and 1-2 table spoons of laalo.

Preparation

Put 2 liters of water in a large pot; add fish, dried fish, onion, garlic,

spices and salt. Let cook the whole for a half hour. Withdraw fish from

the pot and remove bones. Then in the pot add the ground peanut, the

dried ground melon seeds and the black eyed peas.

Leave the whole pot to simmer for half an hour.

In another pot steam the couscous with 2 Qt of water and 1or 2

Tablespoon of laalo. Serve the Haako sauce over couscous.

Extra

After the meal, as a dessert people usually mix the couscous with fresh

milk and drink it.

The fish could be replaced by meat.

FMaro e Lizzi (Thieboudiene)

*For six people

Condiments (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

2 pieces of fish preferably, grouper, Half a pound (250 G) of concentrated

tomato, 1 big fresh tomato cut out of pieces, Onion 50g, 1/2 liter of groundnut

oil, 4 large carrots, 4 big eggplants., 100g Cabbage, 2 slides of maniocs ,

bunch of parsley, 25g of dried hot pepper., 2 fresh hot peppers.,

1 piece of dried mollusk (yet), 1 tea spoon of pepper., 1 bay leaf., 1 clove of

241 | P a g e

garlic, 1 bunch of sour-sour or bissap leaves, 1 piece of dried fish, 1 m of wire

of kitchen, 1 whole cauliflower, 6 fresh okra, ½ lb of tamarind, and 2 pounds (1kg) of long grain rice.

Preparation

Cut out onions and a fresh hot pepper .

Dilute concentrated tomato in an average bowl, with a half glass of

water.

Crush in a mortar or mixer the dried pepper and the pepper. Add the

parsley thin slice and the clove of garlic, until obtaining the stuffing.

Add salt.

Make small hollows by places in fish and to put the stuffing at it.

Peel vegetables and to soak them in a bowl filled with water.

Preheat oil in an enough broad pot to contain the condiments, and to

put salt. To make cook fish stuffed as a preliminary during a few

minutes .To withdraw It oil and to put it side.

Make return in hot oil the dried mollusk (Yët), onions cut out, and the

hot pepper. To let cook during 5 minutes. Not to let onions brown too

much.

Add then concentrated tomato and some fresh tomato cubes.

Let cook the whole during 10 minutes. Put per moments a small

quantity of water, in order to avoid the formation of juices.

Put fish now, to let it cook on the two sides during 15 minutes.

Put all vegetables in cooking, before adding a liter and half of water. Let

cook until boiling.

Wrap the dried fish in the bissap leaves and put them in.

Rinse rice and cook it with the vapor of cooking. Then withdraw it.

Withdraw fish and vegetables of cooking, as well as a ladle of the

bubble.

Rectify the seasoning with salt and make cook the rice until it is

perfectly cooked.

Serve in a dish and to decorate with vegetables and fish on your own way.

Extra

Make return from pink shrimps and sweet pepper in cooking at the beginnig for decorer your dish

Mafe

*For 8 people

Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

2 kg of meat , 500 G of groundnut paste, 250 G concentrated tomato , ¼ of litter of oil

1 piece of dried mollusk , 1 piece of dried fish � 2 big fresh carrots, 2 pieces of

cabbage, tubers of manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes, 2 fresh peppers , 5

242 | P a g e

grammes of dry pepper, 2 teaspoons of pepper, a leave of bay-tree, salt,

vinegar , 250 grammes of onion, 1 handful of netetou (West-African grain), 2 kg of rice .

Preparation

Heat the oil in a pot rather big

Make the meat cook for a few minute

Add some salt, some onion cut out, some fresh pepper, some dried

mollusk, some concentrated tomato until it get brown.

Add water, the groundnut, all the vegetable (except the sweet potatoes

and the potatoes) the dried fish and let cook for a few minute. Crush

the nenetou, the pepper, the hot pepper, the garlic, and then put in the

pot put the potatoes, the sweet potatoes and the fresh pepper. Let it

cook until boiling. Cook the rice in salted water. Serve the Mafe sauce over white rice and enjoy.

-FChiken Yassa Recipe

*For six people

Ingredients. (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

2 Chicken of 1.500g each , 3 kilos of onions , 6 cloves of garlic , · 1 hot pepper

, · 1 teaspoon of pepper , 20 cl of vinegar , 1 coffee spoon of red pepper , 3

soup spoon of mustard , 1/2 liter of oil , 2 kilos of long grain rice , 10 lemons at least.

Preparation

Crush the hot pepper, pepper, garlic, salt and put it side.

Cut out onions in juliennes and marinate with the vinegar, salt,

mustard, and oil, add 2 soupspoons of mustard. Let macerate for half

an hour.

Cut out chicken in pieces, prick them with the stuffing prepared as a

preliminary and let it macerate for one hour at least in preceding

marinade.

Make roast the pieces of chicken in entirety during necessary time

(without letting them burn because it will deteriorate the taste of

chicken) and put it side.

Preheat the pot and pour in it the remaining oil. Make onions return in

oil for 10 minutes. Then remove it.

Put in the hot oil the remaining of the stuffing, mixed with onions cut

out of dice. Let it return for a few minutes.

Add glass of water and let it cook a few minutes, before putting chicken

in it. Add water and let it cook for half an hour.

Prick chicken with a fork to ensure of the cooking.

Put the cut out onions as Julienne and let the whole cook for a few

minutes. Not to let onions empty themselves of their water, because

they are likely to lose their savor.

Add some vinegar drops and put the sheet of bay-tree as some lemon

243 | P a g e

juice drops to make it a little acidulous.

Cook the rice in salted water and a soupspoon of oil. Enjoy chicken Yasa over white rice.

Extra: May want to add olives and vegetables on the side.

FSup Kanje Recipe

*For six people

Ingredients (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1Qt of palm oil, 1steak of fish of 1kg, 500g of smoked fish, 2 pieces of dried fish, 1kg of gumbo,

2 pieces of dried mollusk, 175g of shrimp, 50g of onion, 1 cloves of garlic, 2 fresh hot peppers, 1 strap of green onion, salt, 2 kg (of long grain rice).

Preparation

Put 3 liters of water in a large pot; add fish, dried fish, the yêt and salt.

Let cook the whole for a half hour. Withdraw fish from the pot and take

the bones out. Then in the pot add the smoked fish, shrimps, toufa and

fresh pepper.

Crush the Netetou, hot pepper, garlic, onion. Add them in the cooking,

before adding the fish. Crush the gumbo, put it in the pot and let it

cook. Rectify the seasoning with salt.

Put the palm oil in the pot and leave the whole simmer for half an hour.

In another pot steam the rice with 2 Qt of water and 1 Tablespoon of

salt serve with brown or white rice. Serve Sup Kanje over white rice and

enjoy.

Extra

Add one spoon of powder shrimp and gumbo. The taste of your sauce will be better.

FLaciri Basi Salte

*For six people

Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1.5 kg of lamb, 250g of onions, 5 cloves of garlic, 2 green onion straps, 3 fresh

leek straps, 300 grammes of tomato purée, 2 fresh tomatoes, 1 pinch of

pepper, 1 fresh hot pepper, 100 g of sweet potatoes, 2 cabbages, 3 big

carrots, 100 g of manioc, 2 Turnips, 25 g of dried pepper, ½ liter of oil, Salt, 3

cucumbers

244 | P a g e

For the couscous: 1 kg of couscous (whole millet), Raisins, white beans

Preparation:

Prepare a mix with dried hot pepper, pepper, salt, and garlic.

Prick the meat and chicken by places with a little mix, then keep the

remainder.

Preheat the oil in a pot and make gild carrots, turnips, sweet potatoes

and. Put aside then.

Make return and gild the peaces of meat in the oil and put the whole

aside.

Take again the mix and add onions cut out of dice and green onions.

Salt a little, then put the whole in the hot oil and let gild.

During this time, cut out tomatoes in dice and dilute tomato purée in a

¼ of a glass water.

Add to the cooking the tomato puree and let cook. Put the fresh tomato

in 10 minutes after. Do not forget to put per moments small quantities

of water in order to avoid the formation of juices in the bottom of the

pot.

Add the meat in the pot. Check using a fork the level of cooking of the

meat. Rectify the seasoning if necessary. Add the remainder of

vegetables and the mix in the pot.

You can now withdraw vegetables and put them on side, before they

soften in the cooking.

You can now steam the couscous, and then add cooked beans and

raisins.

You can serve in a large dish Basi Salte sauce over the couscous with

beans and raisins.

FLaciri e Tew/ Lizzi

Fish or Lamb Stuffed

with Couscous, Almonds & Herbs (Serves 4)

Ingredients:

(May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)\4 tablespoons olive oil,1 small

onion, finely chopped, 2 garlic cloves, crushed, 2/3 cup couscous, 1-1/4 cups

fish or vegetable stock,1 tablespoon chopped parsley, 1 tablespoon chopped

mint. 4 pieces of Lamb or 4 whole fish, each weighing about, 12 ounces, cleaned, heads removed and boned, Salt and pepper, 1/2 cup sliced almonds

To garnish: Lemon wedges and Mint sprigs.

1. Heat 2 tablespoons of the oil in a frying pan, add the onion and fry until

softened, adding the garlic toward the end. Stir in the couscous, fish or

vegetable stock, parsley and mint. Bring to a boil, then remove the pan from

the heat and leave for 10-15 minutes, or until the liquid has been absorbed.

2. Season the trout with salt and pepper and fill the cavity of each one with

one-fourth of the couscous mixture. Lay the lamb or fish in a greased shallow

245 | P a g e

baking dish. Mix the remaining oil with the almonds and spoon over the fish.

Bake in a preheated 400° F. oven for 15-20 minutes, or until the fish flakes

when tested with a fork. 3. Garnish with lemon wedges and mint sprigs

FMaffi Hakko (sweet potato leaves)

Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1/2 cup palm oil or plain vegetable oil , bunches sweet potato leaves, cut finely

, 1 med onion, chopped salt, to taste ,pimento, to taste , 2 1/2 heaping spoonfuls of dried, pounded, or cooked fish or beef .

Preparation

Cut up the leaves, or buy them already cut. Heat the palm oil in a pot until just

before it starts to smoke. Sauté the onion until translucent. Start adding

handfuls of leaves into the pot, stirring and letting each handful cook down a

minute or two. Pour in enough water to cover the leaves by two inches. Add

pimento and bring the sauce to a rolling boil. Add fish or beef, and stir in. boil

until no water is left on the surface, just a layer of oil. There will be lots of little

bubbles, but not the large bubbles as with water as in a rolling boil. Stir often at the end. Serve over rice.

FCaakri dessert

2-3 cups wet millet flower, processed into small balls (yerwaade) and steamed

1 32oz. of sour milk or container of vanilla yogurt ,1 small (6oz.) can of

condensed milk (un sweetened) 1 tsp. vanilla extract ,1/2 cup sugar .

This is a wonderful after dinner treat or specialty eaten during Ramadan, the

Muslim holy month. Prepare Caakri to directions. Caakri should be light, not

sticky with clumps. Set aside. Mix sour milk or yogurt, condensed milk, sugar

and vanilla extract. This should form a very thick milk. Chill milk and caakri. Pour milk into small cups. Add caakri to cups and mix well. Eat with spoon.--

FFollere, Bissap Juice

3 cups of dried hibiscus flowers 1/2 tsp. strawberry or pineapple extract (opt.) 1 cup of sugar , 1/2 tsp. of vanilla extract

Wash hibiscus flowers in lukewarm water. Boil flowers in 2 quarts of water. Do

not boil for more than 1 minute or juice will become bitter. Remove flowers

and carefully pour juice into container. Be sure to avoid pouring any sediment

from the bottom of pot into container. Let sit until cool. Mix in sugar (add more than 1 cup if needed) and extracts. Refrigerate.

FJavve, Tamarindo Juice

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1 cup tamarind pods, 1 cup sugar, 1/2 tsp. vanilla extract

As with jus de bissap, boil 2 quarts of water. Rinse tamarind and remove pods

if

possible. It is not necessary to remove the seeds. Add to boiling water. Boil for

1-2 minutes. Let stand until cool. Use strainer to remove larger sediment and

seeds. Keep in mind that this juice is thick and that you should not remove the

pulp. Remove smaller sediment while pouring into container. Add sugar and vanilla to taste. Refrigerate.

FJingeer, Ginger Drink

This tastes just like the stuff you get in little bags - it's delicious. It's kind of a lot of work but it's very good and refreshing.

6 c -Boiling water ;1 c Ginger root: fresh, peeled & -grated ,1 c Sugar, 2

teaspoons Cloves, whole, Cinnamon sticks, 1/2 c Lime juice, fresh or lemon

juice, 1 c orange, 8 c -Cool water

Pour the boiling water over the grated ginger root, sugar, cloves and cinnamon

in a large nonreactive pot or bowl (enamel, glass or stainless steel). Cover and

set aside in a warm place, in the sun if possible, for at least an hour. Strain the

liquid through a fine sieve or cloth. Add the juices and water. Set aside in a

warm place for another hour or so. Gently strain the liquid again, taking care

not to disturb the sediment at the bottom. Store in the refrigerator in a large

nonreactive container. A glass gallon jar or jug works well. Serve warm, chilled

or on ice, either as is or diluted with water or sparkling water. A squeeze of

fresh lime juice in each glass of ginger drink is nice.

FMaking tea

Empty a bag of tea leaves into the teapot, and add appropriate amount of

water. Bring it to boil in a special tea pot. Then put fresh mint and sugar

directly in the tea pot or into a second teapot for a better mix. To serve, hold

the pot high and pour it into a series of small glasses. Holding the pot high

creates foam and also cools the tea so that it can be quickly drinkable. People

take time over the tea, chatting around the teapot on the stove. Both young

and old enjoy drinking tea.

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Proverbs-Pulareeje

In serious talk or in ordinary conversation, Africans liked to start with a

proverb that speaks about the topic of the moment. The use of proverbs in

Africa is a very powerful communication form. It allows people to understand

the meaning quickly and also to remember what was said long after the

conversation or the meeting is over. Indeed in the African context, a proverb is worth a thousand words!

Although they may be based on given cultures and traditions, proverbs are

usually essentially expressions of universal truths. In their application proverbs

are not necessarily tied down to the community that first produced them. A

Fulani can easily adopt a proverb from another ethnic group and make it

appropriately fit his/her circumstance. Proverbs are usually short and highly

condensed sayings, which are generally anonymous in their authorship and

authoritative in its application. Brevity is, therefore, one characteristic of a

proverb, and this brevity helps to make proverbs memorable, that is, easy to

learn and retain in memory. Some proverbs are musical, and rhythmic as is

shown by the following Fulani proverb, Feere fendi fettande kono virazam

haazaani (The need to create made sour milk, but fresh milk is not bitter).

The use of proverbs as a source of moral authority is facilitated by their nature.

In their brevity, musicality, and depth of meaning, proverbs are not only easily

memorable, they are also easy to apply at appropriate occasions. It is their

nature, incidentally, that makes it possible for them to be easily used in

everyday speech. They help enrich and add color to everyday speech, as they help a speaker make a point briefly, sometimes with devastating effect.

As distilled accumulation of time-tested experiences, and ancestral wisdom,

proverbs are also useful in the transmission of what are perceived as adequate

and desirable moral standards and healthy social interaction. Proverbs initiate

youth into adulthood, especially in societies where they are the preserve of

elders. And as the youth are initiated into adulthood, they absorb the codes of

human behavior as they prepare for future roles as guardians of ancestral

wisdom and culture.

The following are proverbs from all over Africa. They are grouped into

categories, but with many overlapping.

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Proverbs

Common sense

A hunter who has only one arrow does not shoot with careless aim.

When a palm-branch reaches its height, it gives way for a fresh one to

grow.

One cannot go back to the farmer from whom one borrowed seed-

yams to plant to say that the beetles have eaten up the seed-yams.

If one were to remove every smoking wood from a fire and condemn

it as bad, one would be killing the fire itself.

It is the brutally outspoken man that earns enmity.

The elephant and the tiger do not go hunting on the same pasture.

A farmer does not boast that he has had a good harvest until his stock

of yams lasts till the following harvest season.

He who pursues an innocent chicken always stumbles.

The fish that can see that its water is getting shallower cannot be

stranded.

Without knowing a way thoroughly at day time, never attempt to pass

it at night.

It is not enough to run, one must arrive and know when one has

arrived.

It is a lazy man who says "it is only because I have no time that my

farm is overgrown with weeds".

Every river knows where its water would not be soaked up into the earth, and that is where it flows past.

Hard work

A farmer does not conclude by the mere look of it that a corn is

unripe; he tears it open for examination.

It is little by little that a bird builds its nest.

To do one's duty is to eat the prized fruit of honor.

A farmer, who would not work inside the rain and would not work

under the sun, would have nothing to harvest at the end of the

farming year.

An ant-hill that is destined to become a giant ant-hill will definitely

become one, no matter how many times it is destroyed by elephants.

He who is afraid of doing too much always does too little.

Sleep and indolence are not cousins of a good harvest. Success is 10% ability, and 90% sweat.

Not giving up

One must row in whichever boat one finds one's self.

When a person regrets endlessly, he gets to pay more for what he

regrets.

It is little by little that a bird builds its nest.

It is not only the fox, even the snail arrives at its destination.

However long the moon disappears, someday it must shine again.

It is the same moon that wanes today that will be the full moon

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tomorrow.

It is only the toad that gets up from its knees and falls back again on

its knees.

The spider that knows what it will gain sits waiting patiently in its

web. The praying mantis is never tired waiting all day.

One does not become a master diviner in a day. A forest is not made

in a season. The swoop of an eagle has seen many seasons and

floods...

Who says the oasis in the desert is happy because of its hidden spring

of water?

The cricket is never blinded by the sand of its burrowing.

An oil lamp feels proud to give light even though it wears itself away. A bird does not change its feathers because the weather is bad.

Cooperation

Common proverbs of cooperation are:

A herbalist that refuses to ask laymen what leaves he looks for in the

bush, must have difficulties getting what he wants.

It is a pot of water that is already half full that the world would like to

help in filling to the brim.

A man can not sit down alone to plan for prosperity.

A man who lives alone is either always overworked, or always

overfed.

A single tree can not make a forest.

A single man can not build a house.

If a child shoots and arrow that reaches the top of a tall palm tree,

then it must be that an elderly person carved the arrow for him.

When the right hand washes the left hand and the left hand washes

the right hand, both hands become clean.

It is by the strength of their number that the ants in the field are able

to carry their prey to the nest.

Two footsteps do not make a path.

Two raindrops do not make a pool.

Patience

The calf shouldn�t be in a hurry to grow horns; he�ll have them until

he dies.

A speedy wrestling and a bad fall go hand in hand.

Patient people are patient to gain longevity.

However long the moon disappears, someday it must shine again.

It is little by little that a bird builds its nest.

The thirsty fig sits waiting patiently, waiting for the arrival of the

rains.

One does not become a master diviner in a day. A forest is not made

in a season. The swoop of an eagle has seen many seasons and

floods...

It is not only the hare, the tortoise arrives also at the destination.

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Kindness

What good people witness should not become bad.

Without knowing a person we must not hate him.

He who digs a pit for others must invariably fall into it.

By being grateful, a man makes himself deserving of yet another

kindness.

When the laborer is praised, his cutlass begins to cut more keenly.

If the owner of a calabash calls it a worthless calabash, others will join

him to use it to pack rubbish.

Criticism is easy but it does not create.

If one imitates the upright, one becomes upright; if one imitates the

crooked, one becomes crooked.

When a sickle is drawn, it in turn draws the tree to which it is hooked.

If a person who curses another is not better than the person he

curses, a request is never made of him to rescind the curse.

Honesty

Money does not announce how it is earned but whereas properly

earned money appreciates, improperly earned money depreciates.

The bottom of wealth is sometimes a dirty thing to behold.

Rather than tell a lie to help a friend, it is better to assist him in

paying the fine for his offense.

Thoughtfulness

A fowl does not forget where it lays it eggs.

The habit of thinking is the habit of gaining strength.

It is one word of advice that one needs to give to a wise man, and

that word keeps multiplying in his mind.

Does a man not know when he has pepper in his eyes? If we forget

yesterday, how shall we remember tomorrow.

Thoughts and dreams are the foundation of our being.

We are what our thinking makes us.

Sharing/Generosity

Every little tree gives its little bit of shade.

It is an unthinking man who achieves prosperity, and then finds with

time, that his body can no longer pass through the door.

When an only kolanut is presented with love, it carries with it more

value than might otherwise be associated with a whole pod of several

kolanuts.

The man who remembers others, remembers also his creator.

The bird that remembers its flockmates, never missed the way.

When a dying man cries, it is not because of where he is going which

he knows nothing about, but because of what he wishes he would

have done in the world he is leaving behind.

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The head could not have got to where it is now if it did not give.

Humility

A performing masquerade who tries too hard to outclass his

colleagues may expose his anus.

It is from a small seed that the giant Iroko tree has its beginning.

A family name is not cooked and eaten, one's life is the thing.

A good name is better than gold.

He who is courteous is not a fool.

The fowl perspires, but the feathers do not allow us to see the perspiration.

Greed

A bag that says it will not take more, and a traditional doctor who says he would not leave anything behind are both sure to suffer.

Good Behavior

A man who is advised and he takes it, is still a man who acts from his

own free will.

When a ripe fruit sees an honest man, it drops.

When a fowl gets to a new town, it stands on one leg until it knows

that

it is a town where people stand on their two legs.

A man who has one finger pointing at another has three pointing

towards himself.

The man who is honored, has first honored himself.

Greatness and beauty do not belong to the gods alone.

Antagonism is not good for fowls, and it is not good for goats; worse

still, it is not good for human beings.

Our examples are like seeds on a windy day, they spread far and

wide.

A clay pot of water is never hot-tempered.

A person who picks something and decides to make it his own, ought

to think how he would feel if he was the person who lost the property

he picked.

He who is called a man must behave like a man.

One must have to wait till the evening of one's life time to know what gratitude to pay to one's guardian spirit.

Consequences

A man who is advised and he takes it, is still a man who acts from his

own free will.

If hunger forces a farmer in a particular year to eat both his yam

tubers and the seed-yams, the succeeding years would still be worse

because hewould have no yams to eat and none to plant.

Sometimes the rain might force a man more than once to seek shelter

under the same tree.

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When the roots of a tree begin to decay, it spreads death to the

branches.

It is the fear of what tomorrow may bring that makes the tortoise to

carry his house along with him wherever he goes. He who digs a pit for others must invariably fall into it.

Peace

Let's fight, let's fight, no one knows whom fighting would favor.

Two men quarreling do not share the same seat on a canoe.

To have no enemies is equivalent to wealth.

If the owner of two adjacent farms cannot be friends, then they must

wait till their next reincarnation to be able to make friends.

Whoever says "let's fight" does not know who will be victorious.

When a man finds that he was wrong to have refused to eat, he

should leave his anger and play a harp to call for harmony.

Without retaliation evils would one day become extinct from the

world.

A spacious ground is the right place to demonstrate one's skill in wrestling.

Wisdom and age

If you come to the village of the blind, close an eye until you leave.

An old banana leaf was once young and green. Old age does not come in just one day.

Courage

The sun will not dry what it is not shown

He who does not look ahead always remains behind.

Courage is the father of success.

Charms do not perform miracles on the shelf; they perform for those who are brave.

Family

Being a younger brother/sister can be worse than loosing a eye.

A person who has children does not die.

We can not choose who our relatives should be, even though we may

come to like some better than others.

When a man loses his prestige, he does not regain it by going to

where he is not known.

A good name is better than gold.

A piece of iron can only become what the blacksmith says it should

become.

It is the habit that a child forms at home, that follows them to their

marriage.

It is an irresponsible adult that creates enmity because of a

disagreement that arises between two children.

A child is what you put into him.

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Talks that are considered to be important must be made to drag on

for so long as to make even the deaf begin to hear it.

Criticism is easy but it does not create.

Love is better than a whip.

A child who has no mother will not have scars to show on his back.

Even as the archer loves the arrow that flies, so too he loves the bow

that remains constant in his hands.

Friendship

The eyes can see what they don�t like to see, but legs will go only to

place they like to go.

If a person returns to where he/she went yesterday, he/she liked

where he/she went yesterday.

To eat from the same pot with another man, is to take an oath of

perpetual friendship with him.

If one imitates the upright, one becomes upright; if one imitates the

crooked, one becomes crooked.

Rather than tell a lie to help a friend, it is better to assist him in paying the fine for his offense.

Survival

It is the toothless animal that arrives first at the base of the fruit tree,

to eat his fill before others arrive.

If the load is too heavy for someone to carry, one would be better off

to give the load to the ground to carry.

The tree that cannot shed its old leaves in the dry season, cannot

survive the period of drought.

Leadership

When one is taking a chicken from its roost, the hen is bound to

attack with at least its claws.

A pad that breaks a pot of water does not remain on the head.

A bush fowls' playground is never appreciably spacious.

If the owner of a calabash calls it a worthless calabash, others will join

him to use it to pack rubbish.

What affects the nose must also affect the eyes that must weep for it.

If a greedy eater is near a patient, such a patient can never survive.

There is no elephant that complains about the weight of its trunk. No

elephant is burdened by the weight of its tusks.

When the elderly ones in a house travel, the younger ones quickly

grow in experience.

If a soup is sweet, it is money that cooks it.

A glorious past is the work of a glorious man.

The responsibility of power is like holding an egg. Grasp it too tightly

and it will drip through your fingers; hold it too loosely and it will drop

and break.

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Misceallaneous

The need to create made sour milk, but fresh milk is not bitter

The goat that cries the loudest is not the one that will eat the most.

It is the self-love of the king parrot that made him become a

talkative.

The owl is the wisest of all birds because the more it sees, the less it

talks.

If gold rusts, what will iron do?

A masquerade does not perform to an outside audience until he

performs well at the home base.

Our elders quote the cock as saying that "it would not be good if one

becomes the only person in the world, and that is why they crow

every morning to show their number".

Beauty is not sold and eaten.

A masquerade is not a spirit only because of its mask.

When a woman prepares a dish which others find unpalatable, she

says that she prepared it to suit her own taste.

At a time a cockerel matures, it begins to crow to tell the world the

time of day.

A diviner cannot accurately divine his own future.

Once a cock begins to crow, it never again becomes dumb.

It is he who has no place to call at that moves fast through life.

No frog is tied by a rope to a pond.

Money has the capability of making people laugh; but when they

laugh, the foolish ones sometimes forget to close their mouths.

No one feels the pains that arise from unintended injury.