The Hero's Journey as a Developmental Metaphor in Counseling

The Hero’s Journey as a Developmental Metaphor in Counseling

GERARD LAWSON

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It has been argued that the goal of counseling is development. Through the use of 1. CampbellS (1949) treatment of the hero’s Iourney as a conceptual metaphor, this article describes development as a ~oi i rney and illustrates how the counselor’s understanding of the journey can assist the client‘s development.

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There is a common thread that runs through myth and legend, across cultures, and presents itself in stories told throughout the world. Campbell (1949) described this thread as the theme of the hero’s journey in his work The Hero With a Thousand Faces. The themes described in Campbell’s work have per- meated American culture, appearing on stage, in movies, and in stories that have become part of everyday life. As such, these themes serve as a powerful metaphor for the human experience and can be easily adapted to the counseling process. Conceptual metaphors are tools that can be used to make abstract concepts more concrete by relating them to better known concepts. This process changes the focus of counseling, making the concepts less threaten- ing, more personally meaningful, and by extension more accessible (Barker, 1996; Lyddon, Clay, & Sparks, 2001; Sharp, Smith, & Cole, 2002; Wickman, Daniels, White, & Fesmire, 1999). In this article, the hero’s journey is described as a dynamic process that can serve as a conceptual metaphor for understanding and accessing individual development. This examination begins with an overview of the use of conceptual metaphors in counseling, followed by a description of the hero’s journey and a discussion of how the concepts of the hero’s journey have previously been applied in clinical work. Finally, I introduce a perspective on how the hero’s journey metaphor can be applied within the developmental counseling and therapy (DCT; Ivey, 1991) approach and ultimately used to motivate clients and reframe the challenges they face.

Gerard Lawson, Counselor Education Program, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Unizler- srty. The author expresses his appreciation to Tom DeMaio for introducing him to hero’s lourney as more than a sto y many years ago Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Gerard Lawson, Counselor Education Program, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uni- versity, 310 East Eggleston Hall (0302), Blacksburg, VA 24061 (e-mail. glawsonQvt edu)

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Conceptual metaphors are powerful tools with a great deal of potential for counseling applications (Barker, 1996; Lyddon et al., 2001; Sharp et al., 2002). Wickman et al. (1999) made the case that metaphors are not simply linguistic tools but rather important representations of how a person thinks and makes sense of the world. From this perspective, the use of metaphors can help the counselor connect to the client’s world. When counselors are in tune with the metaphors that clients frequently use, their language may be more congru- ent with that of clients. Wickman et al. outlined three stages for the analysis of client metaphors, including mnemonic analysis, cross-domain mapping, and everyday language. The mnemonic analysis is essentially naming the themes, which are reflected in the client’s metaphorical language. Cross-domain mapping helps the counselor connect the client’s metaphor with the actual experience the client is describing as well as the key concepts that are reflected in the metaphor. Finally, being aware of how the client uses components of the metaphor in everyday conversational language can facilitate counselor insight into the client’s experiences. The authors remind us that “much of clients’ self understanding is the product of the search for appropriate personal metaphors that give meaning to their lives” (Wickman et al., 1999, p. 393). Although it is usually most advantageous to work with the metaphors that the client presents, there are opportunities for the counselor to present metaphors, which can be particularly useful to the client.

One especially helpful metaphor in counseling is that of the hero’s journey. Campbell (1949) offered the concept of the hero’s journey as a template for understanding the similarities in stories told around the world. Stories that are similar across cultures are, according to Campbell, expressions of the conscious and unconscious struggles of man, which explains, at least in part, why these stories seem to resonate universally. Campbell suggested that the ”monomyth” describes the stages of the heroic journey as natural, even universal, expressions of the personality archetypes described by Jung. Since that time, the hero’s journey and the hero’s cycle have moved beyond the realm of entertainment and have made their way into the therapy room.

THE HERO CYCLE

The components of the hero’s journey appear in stories throughout history, and Campbell (1949) delineated the basic themes of the journey. To help ex- plain the components of the journey, the characters and plot events of The Wonderful Wizard of02 (Baum, 1963; LeRoy & Fleming, 1939), one of the most familiar and best known stories in American culture, are presented here in parallel with the themes as an illustrative mechanism. The hero cycle most often begins with an innocent or unassuming character of simple means (Dorothy Gale), not one who might appear destined for heroism. The hero’s journey is set in motion by means of a supernatural event (tornado) that casts the innocent into a strange and unfamiliar arena (Munchkin land). At this point the individual is presented with a choice, and this serves as the call to

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adventure (Dorothy must journey to Oz to find her way home). Campbell indicated that one may choose to either accept or refuse the call to adventure, and the choice profoundly affects the character. Those who refuse the call continue to live their lives cast in the role of the victim. In myth and legends, they may be victims of the whims of gods or fortune, but they no longer have ultimate control over the events of their own life. Those who choose to accept the call to adventure begin the journey with the crossing of the threshold from the known into the unknown, which is often fraught with danger (follow the yellow brick road). At some point in the journey, the heroes are aware of the strange and uncharted land in which they find themselves. They recognize that they cannot return to the world they knew, but they do not yet know what lies ahead. This realization is known as the belly of the whale, and in The Wonderful Wizard ofOz, Dorothy expresses this realization as “Toto, I’ve a feeling we‘re not in Kansas anymore.” The belly of the whale symbol- izes the point at which the hero cannot merely return or retreat but must gather the fortitude to begin the actual journey.

Once the journey is underway, the hero faces many tests standing between him or her and the ultimate goal. Typically, the hero is offered supernatural aid, from a benevolent god or force, which appears in times of greatest need (Glinda the Good Witch causing snow to fall in the Field of Poppies). Often the hero must rely on the assistance of others encountered on the journey in order to overcome the challenges (Scarecrow, Tin Man, or Cowardly Lion). These fellow travelers are on a parallel journey of their own. How the traveler is able to manage these tests, and whether assistance is accepted or rejected, shapes the outcome of the journey itself. Heroes who reject the assistance of the other travelers or the friendly interventions of the gods often will not find their way. Campbell (1949) pointed out that the tests are not always physical but may also be mental, emotional, or spiritual and often combine to challenge the hero. Those who are able to rely on the help of others along the journey will often find creative and enlightening solutions to the journey’s challenges.

Those who are able to pass the tests of the journey itself are rewarded with what Campbell (1949) called the “ultimate boon.” In the Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow, the Cowardly Lion, and the Tin Man were each given a represen- tation of what they thought they had been lacking-something to make them complete. But in each case they had demonstrated, through the journey itself, that they already possessed brains, courage, and heart, but they had to experience the journey in order to believe in themselves. For Dorothy, the ultimate boon was the assurance that ”you have always had the power” to achieve the goal (returning home). However, without taking the journey, she never would have known her own power and could not have used it. More important than achieving the ultimate boon is the ability to return to the community from which the journey began and communicate what has been learned. The hero who achieves the goal of the journey but is unwilling or unable to return and share what has been gained is unable to enjoy the fruits of his or her efforts. But if the hero crosses the threshold returning home,

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and if he or she is able to understand the meaning of the experience and communicate the benefits of the journey to the community, then the hero’s journey is complete. Campbell noted that as a result of the experiences on the journey, the hero becomes master ofboth worlds or one who is able to see the world from multiple perspectives and is able to live more successfully in the world. Examples of the hero’s journey are common in American culture, in stories such as Star Wars, loe Versus the Volcano, Boyz ‘N the Hood, The Natural, Finding Forester, The Matrix, Good Will Hunting, The Lion King, Field of Dreams, and M i Familia.

T H E HERO’S J O U R N E Y IN T H E C O U N S E L I N G FIELD

Because Campbell’s (1949) work was strongly influenced by psychoanalytic theorists, the fact that the hero’s journey has been applied to the therapy process is not at all surprising, but the evolution of the hero’s journey in clinical work has been slow. Because the psychodynamic model was the prevailing model for understanding human behavior at the time, Campbell’s view of the hero’s journey as a reflection of human behavior was filtered through that lens. Much of the work previously done in applying Campbell’s work to the counseling process framed the journey in terms of archetypes and static personality structures. The hero’s journey has been explored in self-help literature, including Pearson’s (1986) interesting and insightful work detailing the archetypes of the hero’s journey and how they play a role in understanding our own journeys and ourselves. Although Pearson’s work offers some insight into how individuals can view their own life situations in terms of heroic roles and archetypes, the thrust of the book emphasizes how that understanding can help within a given role. Pearson’s approach offers a perspective that individuals can call on the strengths of these internal archetypes when faced with challenges in life. By activating an archetype, individuals can more easily understand and overcome challenges. Pearson’s work also draws on a Jungian approach and proposes that external challenges are overcome by activating internal resources only. What these approaches do not reflect are the advances in understanding human behavior, individual development, and personality development in terms of the interaction between the individual and his or her environment.

Halstead (2000) proposed that the therapist becomes a companion on the client’s heroic journey, particularly when the client experiences a loss. This perspective comes closer to understanding the journey as a developmental process. Halstead suggested that when individuals experience a loss, that loss serves as the supernatural intervention initiating the journey. Some choose to face the challenges of life after the loss, whereas others refuse the challenge, and they begin to perceive their role in life as that of a victim. Halstead posited that if the counselor can understand this process and accompany these individuals in the journey of dealing with the loss, the counselor is then able to point out pitfalls along the way and help clarify the goals. If

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individuals are able to face the challenges, they can emerge from the journey with an improved understanding, not only of their lives but also of how the loss has provided them with that opportunity for growth. Halstead’s perspective moves the understanding of the hero’s journey forward as it begins to concep- tualize the environment and experiences of life not simply as challenges to be overcome but as an integral part in the process of stimulating growth. This is the beginning of understanding the journey as a true developmental process.

DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS

An alternative point of view for applying the hero’s journey in counseling is from a developmental perspective. The parallels between the developmental process and the hero’s journey can be understood by examining the basic concepts of cognitive developmental theory and the process for stimulating development. The process of cogni tive development tracks an individual’s movement along a continuum from very concrete ways of understanding experiences, relationships, and the world to more abstract and contextual ways of seeing the world. Piaget (1983) described the process of meaning making and cognitive development as one of assimilation and accommodation. When a new experience fits nicely into an individual’s current system of meaning making, the individual assimilates the information and, in essence, bolsters his or her current view of the world. However, when a novel experience does not conform to an individual’s current system of meaning making, something has to change. Either the individual dismisses the new experience, or the system of meaning making must evolve to accommodate the new information. Growth through the stages of development takes place as qualitative change; that is, growth and development does not simply mean that people become more of something but that how they make meaning of the world is qualitatively different.

Perhaps the most important aspect of the cognitive developmental process is the idea that development is not automatic. Development requires both an interaction between the person and the environment and the stimu- lation of significant events that serve to move the individual toward the next stage. Furthermore, the development from one stage to the next involves a surrendering of the old way of meaning making and the development of a new scheme for seeing the world. This is, in essence, the death of the old and the birth of a new manner of seeing the world. When an individual’s way of seeing the world is challenged by stressors or a life event, it presents an opportunity for growth through supportive, developmentally focused counseling. Counselors assist clients in the process of growth either by support- ing clients as they try to resolve the discrepancies within the current worldview or by assisting them in accommodating the lessons from the challenges into a new, more complex way of seeing the world. Either route is sufficient to help clients resolve their immediate issues, but the latter approach equips clients to deal with similar struggles in the future.

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Developmental approaches to counseling use the knowledge of cognitive development to better understand the struggles clients are facing and to help them resolve those struggles through a process of growth. One very clearly articulated developmental counseling approach is DCT, which describes development as the goal of counseling (Ivey, 1991; hey, Ivey, Myers, &Sweeney, 2005). The DCT approach posits that higher levels of development are not necessary to live a fulfilling life, and as such, DCT targets either horizontal or vertical development. Horizontal development involves the counselor using knowledge of a client's meaning-making system to help the client interpret presenting problems in a manner that is consistent with the client's level of development. The client is better able to understand the interpretations and interventions when they are presented in a manner in keeping with the client's current way of understanding the world. This improved understanding helps facilitate a quicker resolution of the client's problems. Alternatively, the DCT approach also contemplates vertical development, noting that at higher levels of development clients are better equipped to identify and address their problems, not only in the situation that brings them to counseling but also with future issues. As such, the goal of this approach is to help clients with the process of accommodation by presenting alternative perspectives on the presenting issues, which can be generalized as well. The differences in these approaches can be described in terms of the goal with the clients, either adjustment or adaptation (D'Andrea, 1988). Adjustment is, in essence, assisting clients to resolve their current problems and to live more successfully within their current environment. This is an example of horizontal development, or helping clients use all of the resources available within their current meaning-making system. Alternatively, adaptation is the goal when the counselor seeks to stimulate development in the client, helping the client find new perspectives on his or her current problems through a more advanced understanding of the issues. This vertical development brings with it greater accuracy in interpreting issues and greater problem-solving abilities.

The DCT approach uses structured questions to determine a client's pre- ferred mode of meaning making. The DCT approach describes the developmental spectrum from sensorimotor/elemental, to concrete/situational, to formal/reflective, to dialectic/systemic (Ivey, 1991; Ivey et al., 2005). Clients at more modest levels of development describe the events of their lives in terms of the senses (what is seen, heard, touched, tasted, etc.) and are very much in the here and now. As clients develop, they are able to describe their experiences in increasingly more abstract terms and with greater proficiency in their ability to reflect on the meaning of their experiences. The DCT approach also provides guidance on how best to intervene with clients depending on their meaning-making styles. According to the authors, specific therapeutic interventions are better suited to clients at specific developmental levels. For instance, clients functioning in the sensorimotor level of development would do well with interventions such as guided imagery, meditation, re- laxation training, Gestalt "here-and-now" activities, and bodywork. Alter-

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natively, individuals functioning within the formal level may benefit from dream analysis, person-centered therapy, rational emotive behavior thera- pies, and narrative therapy.

Metaphors are especially useful within the DCT approach because they can be adapted to any level of development or style of relating. Individuals at the sensorimotor/elemental stage may relate in terms of metaphors hav- ing to do with the senses (what they see, feel, hear, taste, and smell), whereas individuals at the dialectic/systemic level may prefer metaphors that reflect relationships and processes. The DCT approach also acknowledges the usefulness of narrative therapy. Narrative therapy has to do with the stories that people use to describe and make sense of the experiences in their own lives. Counselors can assist clients in ”reauthoring” their lives to recast the stories in a way that is more useful to the clients.

C O U N S E L I N G AS A H E R O I C JOURNEY

DCT is particularly well suited to the use of the hero’s journey as a tool in the counseling process. From a developmental perspective, counseling can be seen as a process that mirrors the hero’s journey. Life events serve as the supernatural events, and the choice to address the concerns rather than to deny them is the call to adventure. Those who refuse the call lose the percep- tion that they can effect change in their own lives. Campbell (1949) described the result of refusing the call, noting that the journeyer will lose his or her “power of significant affirmative action and become a victim to be saved” (p. 59). He continued with language that is remarkably developmental, stat- ing that “the future is regarded not in terms of an unremitting series of deaths and births, but as though one’s present system of ideals, virtues, goals, and advantages were to be fixed and made secure” (p. 60).

If the call to adventure is answered, clients, with the assistance of the counselor, learn new ways of seeing the world and work toward a new way of living in the world. In many ways, the belly of the whale is the clients’ insight into the current struggles when they can no longer retreat, but they don’t yet have the skills to change the way they live. When they are able to make those changes as well, they have achieved the ultimate boon and become master of both worlds. Because this process so closely mirrors the hero’s cycle, using the hero metaphor can serve the client well.

Although many interventions use stories with which clients identify, two approaches in particular seem well suited for the developmental perspective they offer. The first is the concept of counselor as “pacer,” and the second is a modification of the bibliotherapy and narrative approaches. D’Andrea (1988) described the counselor’s role as “enhancing other persons’ competencies to facilitate greater satisfaction and success in their adaptation to a complex, rapidly changing technological society” (p. 22). This definition speaks to a core difference in approaches to counseling, specifically whether the goal should be the client’s adjustment to manage the problems he or she is facing or the

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client’s adaptation through development. D’Andrea argued for the latter, noting that with adaptation comes more accurate perspectives on life experiences and greater abilities for “cognitive competence and behavioral flexibility” (p. 26). The concept of the counselor as pacer is rooted in the theory that to develop beyond the current way of seeing the world, individuals must be challenged by stimuli that are just above the individuals‘ current level of development. These stimuli are known as “pacers” and are described as “any person / experience / event / situa tion that is simultaneously novel, s timulat- ing, provocative and psychologically challenging” (DAndrea, 1988, p. 31). Clearly the counselor can function as pacer by engaging clients and provid- ing support with the struggles they are facing while simultaneously challenging them to take new perspectives on their struggles. One of the particularly ap- pealing aspects of the pacer approach is that it seems to cast the counselor’s role as fellow journeyer through the process of change.

One of the necessary components for intervening as a pacer is to help clients understand their current situation in a manner that resonates with them at their current level of development and then ultimately to challenge them to see different perspectives on their situations. Metaphors are used in counseling in several ways, but typically their use is designed to help clients make meaning of their situation from a new perspective. One such approach uses conceptual metaphors as described above. When clients can understand an abstract concept (e.g., family dynamics, substance abuse, significant loss) in terms of a familiar concept, they can begin to find solutions. Counselors can make use of conceptual metaphors through any of the coconstructive approaches. Metaphors are the underpinning of the bibliotherapy approach, which uses a familiar story to elicit parallels to a client’s struggles and to reframe those struggles as strengths. Metaphors can also be useful in narrative thera- pies in which clients reauthor the stones of their life to recast the problems as external and manageable. In essence, metaphors work on two levels: first, by making a concept more accessible within the client’s frame of reference and, second, by creating some distance between the client and the “problem” by introducing the parallel story. This approach bypasses the client’s defense systems so that the client can begin to contemplate solutions to his or her own problems within the safe context of the metaphor. If the counselor is familiar with the basic structure of the hero’s journey, the number of stories, which can serve as the basis for the metaphor, is tremendous. Because the hero’s journey is so common in stories in American culture, the counselor can easily learn what stories are most meaningful in the client’s life.

Myers’s (1998) presentation of bibliotherapy can be used to help elicit the client’s level of development and then how best to meet the client’s needs in counseling through the stories shared in counseling. The approach advanced by Myers is grounded in the DCT model described above in which the counselor can support the client’s horizontal or vertical development. The approach presented here envisions pacing the client while drawing parallels between the client’s own story and a heroic journey. Once the client identi-

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fies a story (movie, book, play, etc.) that is particularly meaningful to him or her, the counselor follows steps similar to those offered by Myers to help the client reframe, reauthor, or reexperience his or her own struggles through a new perspective.

The counselor begins by eliciting as much information about the story as possible, listening especially for parallels to the main structures of the hero cycle (e.g., call to adventure, ultimate boon, master of both worlds). Equally as important as the story itself is understanding with which character the client most identifies. Whether that character is the hero, a fellow journeyer, or the antagonist in the story provides some insight into how much power the client perceives in his or her environment. From there, probing questions about why the character continued on the journey in the face of the obstacles begin the process of establishing the metaphor for the client’s own struggles (What happened to the hero in the story? Who was there to help? Why did he or she choose to continue? What would have happened if he or she chose a different path?). Once the story has been explored in depth, the counselor can use the story’s template to educate the client about the components of a hero’s journey. By eliciting parallels between the client’s journey and the hero’s journey from the story, the counselor can begin to reframe life challenges as heroic tests; choices as continuing the journey or retreating; supports (including the counselor) as fellow travelers and/or supernatural aids; and progress in counseling, the lesson‘s life teaches, or personal growth as the ultimate boon. The hero’s story provides a more objective perspective and safer distance for conceptualizing potentially anxiety-provoking alternative choices and courses of action. Perhaps the most important message of the hero’s journey is that people have always had the power within them, but to understand the lessons that life offers, people must undergo the journey.

CASE EXAMPLE

A family with which I worked was struggling with issues relating to the father’s (Dan’s) emotional commitment to the family. In his family of origin, Dan had experienced rejection by his father and reported wondering if it was just a matter of time until his family rejected and abandoned him. As a defense against this, he would periodically leave, often under the pretense of a business trip, without giving the family any indication of whether or when he would return. At one point after such a departure, his wife indicated that until he could fully commit to the family, they would need to sepa- rate. As the therapeutic work continued, Dan described many struggles with committing to the family, primarily based on his fear that once he committed he was vulnerable to being rejected and hurt by them.

In one appointment the family described watching the Wizard ofOz over a holiday weekend. Dan described in detail how as a child he watched this movie with his family each year and that it was something of a family tradition. During the evening’s meeting we discussed the Wizard ofOz along

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the lines described above, and the father indicated that he most related to the Wizard. As noted above, the client’s choice of character can be, in and of itself, very informative. As we explored what it was about the Wizard‘s character that Dan related to, he indicated that it was in large part how the Wizard was seen as powerful but was essentially a fraud. He indicated that all of the Wizard’s interactions with the other characters were based on the Wizard being able to provide something for them, and when he wasn’t able to, the characters turned on him. Dan did not recognize that the Wiz- ard had a parallel journey of redemption, nor did he seem to recognize the wisdom the Wizard possessed.

Through the interview process, it seemed that Dan was functioning primarily in the formal style, in that he was able to see the relationship between past experiences and current behavior and reflect on the impact of his actions on his family. It was clear from our discussions that Dan was a very intelligent, high-functioning individual, and still the hero’s journey metaphor served as a useful tool. Following the DCT approach, I assumed a very supportive, person-centered approach with Dan but was vigilant for opportunities to challenge his current way of viewing the world. There were two themes that seemed to resonate with Dan; the first was the issue of refusing the call. When discussing the hero’s cycle template, he was struck by the idea that if the “hero” refuses the call to adventure, he or she is destined to live life as a victim, unable to take action to advance his or her own cause. The second theme had to do with one of the Wizard’s quotes, “I’m a very good man-I’m just a very bad Wizard,” which seemed to illustrate Dan’s struggle with his role as a husband and a parent. He described his belief that his role was to provide for the family and to be the one who had all the right answers. When he was unsuccessful in giving these things to the family, he felt as if he failed in his role. As we began to reframe some of the Wizard’s actions, Dan was able to describe on his own that the Wizard’s actual strength was not in what he gave to Dorothy and her fellow travelers but rather that he helped them see strengths they could not see in themselves. Over a few ses- sions, in which the hero themes were frequently used, Dan came back to the idea of the refusal of the call. He was able to identify how his failure to en- gage fully with the family had left him (and them) feeling as if those relationships were out of his control. For Dan, the call to adventure was the choice to be a full and active member of the family with all the risks and rewards that came with it. His commitment to become a full participant in the family and his decision to redefine his role were based on his new understanding of complex dynamics, and this was, for Dan, the ultimate boon. The old narrative of ”a good man but a bad wizard” gave way, and Dan’s life story recast his own role as one of a genuine but fallible husband and father who would always strive to do the best he could. The challenge that continued for him was follow-through, which was reframed for him as becoming master of both worlds-able to recognize the lessons of history and apply them to the challenges of his current relationships.

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SUMMARY

When an individual comes to counseling, it is often due in part to the failure of his or her coping skills in the face of some stressor. The process of dealing with life's challenges in itself can be stressful and anxiety provoking. Rather than helping clients cope better with their problems, developmental approaches to counseling are designed to change how clients see the problems and their own role in discovering solutions. Using the structure of the hero's journey as a conceptual metaphor for the process of development can make these struggles seem more manageable for clients and can help the counselor lead them through a journey of personal growth.

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Halstead, R. W. (2000). From tragedy to triumph: Counselor as companion on the hero's journey. Counseling and Values, 44, 100-106.

hey, A., Ivey, M., Myers, J., & Sweeney, T. (2005). Developmental counseling and therapy: Promoting wellness over the lifespan. Boston: Lahaska Press.

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LeRoy, M. (Producer), & Fleming, V. (Director). (1939). The Wizard of OZ [Motion pic- ture]. United States: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

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Pearson, C. (1986). The hero within-% archetypes we live by. San Francisco: HarperCollins. Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4th

Sharp, C., Smith, J., & Cole, A. (2002). Cinematherapy: Metaphorically promoting thera-

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The Hero's Journey as a Developmental Metaphor in Counseling