The Historical Origins of Globalization Are the Subject of On

8/3/2019 The Historical Origins of Globalization Are the Subject of On

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The historical origins of globalization are the subject of on-going debate. Though several scholars situate the origins

of globalization in themodern era, others regard it as a phenomenon with a long history.[14]

Perhaps the most extreme proponent of adeep historicalorigin for globalization wasAndre Gunder Frank, an

economist associated withdependency theory. Frank argued that a form of globalization has been in existence since

the rise of trade links betweenSumerand theIndus Valley Civilizationin thethird millenniumB.C.[15]

Critics of this

idea contend that it rests upon an over-broad definition of globalization.

An early form of globalized economics and culture, known asarchaic globalization, existed during theHellenistic Age,

when commercialized urban centers were focused around the axis of Greek culture over a wide range that stretched

from India to Spain, with such cities asAlexandria, Athens, andAntiochat its center. Others have perceived an early

form of globalization in the trade links between theRoman Empire, theParthian Empire, and theHan Dynasty. The

increasing articulation of commercial links between these powers inspired the development of theSilk Road, which

started in western China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued onwards towards

Rome.[16]

With 300 Greek ships a year sailing between theGreco-Roman worldandIndia, the annual trade may have

reached 300,000 tons.[17]

TheIslamic Golden Agewas also an important early stage of globalization, whenJewishandMuslim

tradersandexplorersestablished a sustained economy across theOld Worldresulting in aglobalization of crops,

trade, knowledge and technology. Globally significant crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated

across theMuslim worldin this period, while the necessity of learningArabicand completing theHajjcreated a

cosmopolitan culture.[18]

PortuguesecarrackinNagasaki, 17th century JapaneseNanban art
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NativeNew Worldcropsexchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato,vanilla,rubber,cacao, tobacco

The advent of theMongol Empire, though destabilizing to the commercial centers of the Middle East and China,

greatly facilitated travel along the Silk Road. ThePax Mongolicaof the thirteenth century had several other notable

globalizing effects. It witnessed the creation of the first internationalpostal service, as well as the rapid transmission

ofepidemic diseasessuch asbubonic plagueacross the newly unified regions of Central Asia.[19]

These pre-modern

phases of global or hemispheric exchange are sometimes known asarchaic globalization. Up to the sixteenth

century, however, even the largest systems of international exchange were limited to theOld World.

The next phase, known asproto-globalization, was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the

16th and 17th centuries, first thePortugueseandSpanish Empires, and later theDutchandBritish Empires. In the

17th century, globalization became also a private business phenomenon whenchartered companieslikeBritish East

India Company(founded in 1600), often described as the firstmultinational corporation, as well as theDutch East

India Company(founded in 1602) were established.

TheAge of Discoverybrought a broad change in globalization, being the first period in which Eurasia and Africa

engaged in substantial cultural, material and biologic exchange with theNew World.[20]

It began in the late 15th

century, when the two Kingdoms of theIberian PeninsulaPortugalandCastile sent the first exploratory

voyages[21]

around theHorn of Africaand to the Americas, "discovered" in 1492 byChristopher Columbus. Global

integration continued with theEuropean colonization of the Americasinitiating theColumbian Exchange,[22]

the

enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (includingslaves),communicable

diseases, and culture between theEasternandWesternhemispheres.New cropsthat had come from the Americas

via the European seafarers in the 16th century significantly contributed to the world's population growth.[23]

Animated map showingColonial empiresevolution from 1492 to present
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19th centuryGreat Britainbecome the first global economic superpower, because of superior manufacturing technology and improved global

communications such assteamshipsand railroads.

The 19th century witnessed the advent of globalization approaching its modern form. Industrialization allowed cheap

production of household items usingeconomies of scale,[citation needed]

while rapid population growth created sustained

demand for commodities. Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-centuryimperialism. After

theFirstandSecond Opium Warsand the completion of British conquest of India, vast populations of these regions

became ready consumers of European exports. It was in this period that areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Pacific

islands were incorporated into the world system. Meanwhile, the conquest of new parts of the globe, notably sub-

Saharan Africa, by Europeans yielded valuable natural resources such as rubber,diamondsand coal and helped fuel

trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and the United States.[24]

The first phase of "modern globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the 20th century, with World War I,

but resurfaced after World War II. This resurgence was partly the result of planning by politicians to break down

borders hampering trade. Their work led to theBretton Woods conference, an agreement by the world's leading

politicians to lay down the framework for international commerce and finance, and the founding of several

international institutions intended to oversee the processes of globalization. Globalization was also driven by the

global expansion ofmultinational corporationsbased in the United States and Europe, and worldwide exchange of

new developments in science, technology and products, with most significantinventionsof this time having their

origins in the Western world according toEncyclopedia Britannica.[25]

Worldwide export ofwestern culturewent

through the new mass media: film, radio and television and recorded music. Development and growth of international

transport and telecommunication played a decisive role in modern globalization.

These institutions include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (theWorld Bank), and

theInternational Monetary Fund. Globalization has been facilitated by advances in technology which have reduced

the costs of trade, and trade negotiation rounds, originally under the auspices of theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade(GATT), which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions onfree trade. Since World War II,

barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through international agreements GATT and its

successor, theWorld Trade Organization(WTO). World exports rose from 8.5% in 1970, to 16.2% of total gross world

product in 2001.[26]

In the 1990s, the growth of low cost communication networks allowed work done using a computer to be moved to

low wage locations for many job types. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design. In

late 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into a deeprecession.[27]

Some analysts say the world is going

through a period ofdeglobalizationafter years of increasing economic integration.[28][29]

Chinahas

recently[when?]

become the world's largest exporter surpassing Germany.[30]

[edit]Measurement
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Heathrow Terminal 5 building.London Heathrow Airporthas themost international passenger trafficof any airport in the world.[31][32]

Economic globalizationcan be measured in different ways. These center around the four main economic flows that

characterize globalization:

Goodsandservices, e.g., exports plus imports as a proportion of national income or per capita of population

Labor/people, e.g., netmigrationrates; inward or outward migration flows, weighted by population

Capital, e.g., inward or outward direct investment as a proportion of national income or per head of population

Technology, e.g., international research & development flows; proportion of populations (and rates of change

thereof) using particular inventions (especially 'factor-neutral' technological advances such as the telephone,

motorcar, broadband)

As globalization is not only an economic phenomenon, a multivariate approach to measuring globalization is the

recentindexcalculated by the Swissthink tankKOF. The index measures the three main dimensions of globalization:

economic, social, and political. In addition to three indices measuring these dimensions, an overall index of

globalization and sub-indices referring to actual economic flows, economic restrictions, data on personal contact, data

on information flows, and data on cultural proximity is calculated. Data is available on a yearly basis for 122 countries,

as detailed in Dreher, Gaston and Martens (2008).[33]

According to the index, the world's most globalized country is

Belgium, followed by Austria, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The least globalized countries

according to the KOF-index areHaiti,Myanmar, theCentral African RepublicandBurundi.[34]

A.T. KearneyandForeign PolicyMagazinejointly publish anotherGlobalization Index. According to the 2006

index,Singapore, Ireland, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Canada and Denmark are the most globalized,

whileIndonesia, India andIranare the least globalized among countries listed.

[edit]Effects
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As of 20052007, thePort of Shanghaiholds the title as theWorld's busiest port.[35][36][37]

Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways

[edit]Industrial

Emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of foreign products for consumers and

companies, particularly movement of material and goods between and within national boundaries.International

tradein manufactured goods has increased more than 100 times (from $95 billion to $12 trillion) since

1955.[38]

China's trade with Africa rose sevenfold during 200007 alone.[39][40]

[edit]Financial

Emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for borrowers. By the early part of

the 21st century more than $1.5 trillion in national currencies were traded daily to support the expanded levels of

trade and investment.[41]

[edit]Economic

Realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital.[42]

Survival in the new global business market calls for improved productivity and increased competition. Due to the

market becoming worldwide, companies in various industries have to upgrade their products and use technology

skilfully in order to face increased competition.[43]

[edit]Political
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TheUnited Nations HeadquartersinNew York City.

The development of globalizationhas wide-ranging impacts on political developments, which particularly go along

with the decrease of the importance of the state. Through the creation of sub-state and supra-state institutions such

as the EU, theWTO, theG8or theInternational Criminal Court, the state loses power of policy making and thus

sovereignty.[44]

However, many see the relative decline in US power as being based in globalization, particularly due

to its high trade imbalance. The consequence of this is a global power shift towards Asian states, particularly China,

that has seen tremendous growth rates. In fact, current estimates claim that China's economy will overtake that of the

United States by 2025.[45]

[edit]Informational

Increase in information flows between geographically remote locations. Arguably this is a technological change with

the advent of fibre optic communications, satellites, and increased availability of telephone and Internet.

[edit]Language

The most spoken first language isMandarin(845 million speakers) followed by Spanish (329 million speakers) and

English (328 million speakers).[46]

However the most popular second language is undoubtedly English, the "lingua

franca" of globalization:

About 35% of the world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English.

Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs are in English.

English is the dominant language on the Internet.[47]

[edit]Ecological

The advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved with international cooperation, such asclimate

change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since

many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade may

increase pollution and impact on precious fresh water resources(Hoekstra and Chapagain 2008).[48]

On the other
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hand, economic development historically required a "dirty" industrial stage, and it is argued that developing countries

should not, via regulation, be prohibited from increasing their standard of living.

[edit]Cultural

Globalization has influenced the use of language across the world. This street inHong Kong, a former British colony, shows various signs, a

few of which incorporate both Chinese andBritish English.

Growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories ofconsciousnessand identities which embodies cultural

diffusion, the desire to increase one's standard of living and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology

and practices, and participate in a "world culture".[49]

Some bemoan the resultingconsumerismand loss of

languages. Also seeTransformation of culture. This might also affect the spreading ofmulticulturalism, and better

individual access tocultural diversity(e.g. through the export of Hollywood)[50]

. Some consider such "imported"

culture a danger, since it may supplant the local culture, causing reduction in diversity or evenassimilation. Others

consider multiculturalism to promote peace and understanding between people. A third position that gained popularity

is the notion of multiculturalism forming a new monoculture, that in which no distinctions exist and everyone shifts

between various lifestyles in terms of music, cloth and other aspects once more firmly attached to a single culture.

Thus not mere cultural assimilation as mentioned above but the obliteration of culture as we know it

today.[51][52]

Greater international travel and tourism. WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are on planes at any

one time.[citation needed][53]

In 2008, there were over 922 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 1.9% as

compared to 2007.[54]

Greater immigration,[55]

includingillegal immigration.[56]

TheIOMestimates there are more than 200 million migrants

around the world today.[57]

Newly available data show thatremittanceflows to developing countries reached

$328 billion in 2008.[58]

Spread of local consumer products (e.g., food) to other countries (often adapted to their culture).

Worldwide fads and pop culture such asPokmon,Sudoku,Numa Numa,Origami,Idol series, YouTube,Orkut,

Facebook, and Myspace; accessible only to those who have Internet or Television, leaving out a substantial portion of

the Earth's population.
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The construction of continental hotels is a major consequence of globalization process in affiliation with tourism and travel industry,Dariush

Grand Hotel,Kish, Iran

Worldwide sporting events such asFIFA World Cupand the Olympic Games. Incorporation of multinational

corporations into new media. As the sponsors of theAll-Blacksrugby team, Adidas had created a parallel website

with a downloadable interactive rugby game for its fans to play and compete.[59]

Social development of the system of non-governmental organizations as main agents of global public policy,

including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[60]

[edit]Technical

Central aspect of globalisation has been the development of aGlobal Information System, and greater transborder

data flow, using such technologies as the Internet,communication satellites,submarine fiber optic cable, andwireless

telephones, which increased the number of standards applied globally (e.g.,copyright laws, patents and world trade

agreements) but also affects Legal/Ethicalnorms such as the creation of theinternational criminal

courtandinternational justice movements, crime importation and raising awareness of global crime-fighting efforts

and cooperation, the emergence ofGlobal administrative law.

[edit]Religious

The spread and increased interrelations of various religious groups, ideas, and practices and their ideas of the

meanings and values of particular spaces.[61]

[edit]Cultural effects

JapaneseMcDonald'sfast food as evidence of corporate globalization and the integration of the same into different cultures.
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ote-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Blackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariush_Grand_Hotelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariush_Grand_Hotel


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"Culture" is defined as patterns of human activity and the symbols that give these activities significance. According to

prevailing notions, globalization has 'joined' different cultures and turned them into something different.[62]

The

dominant view stresses that globalization should bedistinguished from Americanization. This approach has been

used since the late 1980s to conceal the unidirectional, top-down character of US-led globalization as it was being

relentlessly imposed on the rest of the world. Recently, this view has been challenged by highlighting globalization's

irradiating pattern as largely derived from decisions originally taken in Washington, D.C., particularly in the economic

and cultural fields.[63]

Culinary culture has become extensively globalized. For example,Japanese noodles,Swedish meatballs,Indian

curryandFrench cheesehave become popular outside their countries of origin. Two American

companies,McDonald'sandStarbucks, are often cited as examples of globalization, with over 31,000 and 18,000

locations operating worldwide, respectively.

Another common practice brought about by globalization is the usage of Chinese charactersintattoos. These tattoos

are popular with today's youth despite the lack of social acceptance of tattoos in China.[64]

Also, there is a lack of

comprehension in the meaning ofChinese charactersthat people get,[65]

making this an example ofcultural

appropriation.

The internet breaks down cultural boundaries across the world by enabling easy, near-instantaneous communication

between people anywhere in a variety of digital forms and media. The Internet is associated with the process of

cultural globalization because it allows interaction and communication between people with very different lifestyles

and from very different cultures. Photo sharing websites allow interaction even where language would otherwise be a

barrier.

[edit]Democratizing effect of communications

Exchange of information via the internet is playing a major role in the democratization of many countries.[66]

Virtualizationof industries since the dawn ofecommercehas transferred the power to the buyer, and the same effect

has transitioned into voting system
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Documents

The Historical Origins of Globalization Are the Subject of On