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1
The History of Computing:The Early Days
Avi YadgarGala Yadgar
2
Outline
Memoryaids
Mechanical calculators
Electro-magnetic
General purpose
Analytical Engine 1834
Relay1835
Harvard Mark I1944
Abacus1300
Sector1598
Napier’s Bones1617
Slide Rule1622
Pascaline1642
Stepped Drum1694
Arithmometer1820
Comptometer1892
Millionaire1899
Difference Engine 1
1821 Difference Engine 21849
Curta1947
Turing Machine1936
Z31941
Differential Analyzer
1921
Harvard Mark II
1949
3
Abacus
• First record: 14th Century, China• “The first computer”• Still used in Asian countries • Uses: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Fractions and square roots• 1946 Contest:
– Japanese abacus vs. electric calculator
1300
1445The printing press Invented
4
Chinese Abacus
9
51+1+1+1
9+7
510+1
1300
http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/java/AbacusApp.html
(10-3)
9+7=16
51+1+1+1
(-3)
5
Sector
• Thomas Hood, London 1598(Galileo, Padua 1592)
• Problems of the time:– Cannon elevation– Amount of gun powder – Drawing, architecture, surveying
• Proportions
1598
6
Sector
• Principle:
• Problem:
• Solution:
?3
100=
α
X
100
9
27A B
O
A’ B’
O’
α
3100
3'' =⇒= X
ABBA
''''
BAAO
ABOA
=
1598
927100 X
=
2
7
Sector
• The lines:– Arithmetic– Geometric– Stereometric– Polygraphic– Tetragonic– Metallic
1598
8
Napier’s Bones/Rods
• John Napier, Scotland 1617
• Multiplication table disassembled
1617
9
Napier’s Bones/Rods
• Uses:– Multiplication– Division– Square roots
1617
46,785,399 x 7 =
10
Logarithms• John Napier, Scotland 1614
(Jobst Burgi, Switzerland) • Principle:
• Logarithmic tables
)log()log(
)log()log(
1010
ba
ba
ba
ba−
+
=
=×⇒
1614
)log()log()log(
)log()log()log(
baba
baba
−=
+=×
11
Slide Rule
• Replaces logarithmic tables• Gunter's Line of Numbers
– Edmund Gunter, England • Slide rule
– William Oughtred, England, 1622• Precision depends on length
1622
12
Slide Rule - Operations
• Unary functions:– Reciprocals – Square/Square Root – Cube/Cube Root – Common Logarithms – Sines and Cosines – Tangents and Cotangents
• Binary operations:– Multiplication– Division
1622
3
13
Pascaline
• Blaise Pascal France, 1642
• Wheels turned Manually
• Numbers entered in sequence
• Cumulative sum
1642
htm.pascaline/textes/truc_mat/pages/eveilleau.therese/fr.orange.perso://http 14
• Too complex – Only Pascal could repair
• Expensive– Cost more than replaced people
• Technophobia– Mathematicians feared for jobs
• Decimal– French currency system was not
Pascaline - disadvantages1642
15
Stepped Drum
• Design: Gottfried Leibniz, Germany 1694• Produced: Phillip Hann, Germany 1774• Commercial: Charles Xavier Thomas, Philippines 1820
1694
16
Arithmometer1820
1829First mainline locomotive
17
Arithmometer
• Add by one turn of the handle • Multiply by multiple turns of the handle • Subtract and divide by reversing a switch• Disadvantage: “dialing in the digits”
1820
18
Stepped Drum - Curta
• Developed: Curt Herzstark, Buchenwald, 1940’s• Produced: Liechtenstein, 1947• Sold at ~ $120 until 1973
1947
4
19
Stepped Drum - Curta1947
20
Stepped Drum - Curta
• Simulator: http://www.vcalc.net/curta_simulator_en.htm
1947
21
Felt & Tarrant Comptometer
• Dorr E. Felt, 1887• Produced: 1892-1930• Key driven• Fully automatic carries
1887
1876: First long distancephone call
1879: First cash register
1888: Production of automobiles
22
Comptometer1887
23
Comptometer
• Improved user interface– Fail-safe keys
• Locked the machine if the operator failed to press them completely
– Allow multiple keys to be pressed at once• One per column• Faster adding• Multiplication of some numbers
1887
24
Comptometer• “Software”: instructions for figuring
– multiplication– subtractions– division– square root– cube root– interest– exchange– discount* English currency
1887
5
25
Millionaire Calculator• Invented: Otto Steiger, 1892• Manufactured: Hans W. Egli, Switzerland 1899• Direct multiplication• Also slower
– Addition– Subtraction– Division
1899
1897First radio station
26
Millionaire Multiplication Table1899
27
Inside The Millionaire1899
28
Back to Tables
• Sources of error: – Calculation– Transcription – Typesetting and printing
• Dionysius Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopaedia– 40 volumes in 1834, grew up to 134– 3,700 acknowledged errata – How many unacknowledged?
1834
29
Difference engine
• Charles Babbage (1791 –1871) – English mathematician, philosopher, mechanical engineer and
(proto-) computer scientist• Calculating polynomials with “repeated differences”
– “Complete complex computation”• Conceived in 1821 • Difference Engine No.2 1847-1849
– Simpler mechanical design
1 20 1 2 1...n n n
n na X a X a X a X a− −−+ + + + +
1821
30
Difference Engine
• Calculating polynomials with “repeated differences”
• nth degree polynomials– Starting with the nth difference– Require n registers
• No multiplication• Example:
– Require 2 differences
2( ) 4f x x= +
1849
1878First phonograph
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
2nd diff1st diffF(x)x
5
13
8
20
29
40
3
5
2
2
2
11
9
7
2
2
253
13
6
31
Building the engine
• Never built by Babbage– Lack of funding– Insufficient manufacturing technology
Casting: cheap but inaccurate
1849
32
Building the engine
• 1853 - First full-scale difference engine• Scheutz (Sweden)• “Tabulating Machine”
– 15-digit numbers– 4th-order differences– Printed output
1853
33
Building the engine
• 1985 – 1991: Difference Engine No. 2• The Science Museum in London
– ~4,000 moving parts – 2.6 tons– Built to original designs – Original materials– Accurate repeat parts – 31 figures (103 bits)– 7 differences
1991
343m x 0.7m x 2.5m
1991
35
1995
36
Analytical Engine
• First General Purpose Machine (1834)– A ‘store’ for holding intermediate results– A ‘mill’ for arithmetic computations– Loops – Conditional branching– Programmable using punched cards
• Borrowed from weaving looms
• Would have required a steam engine – But never been built
1834
7
37
1834
Analytical Engine
Controllerµ
CPU
Punched Tape
Store
Memory I/O Device
I/O Device
I/O Device
I/O DeviceMill
Program Memory
Data Memory
ALU
38
Analytical Engine • Ada Lovelace created
programs for the Analytical Engine– Bernoulli numbers
The mill - 1871
1
!2 1n z n
n z dzBi eπ +=
−∫
1834
39
Analog Computers
• Physical representation of data– Voltages – Currents– Speed of shafts
1876
40
Differential Analyzer
• The differential analyzer – Invented: 1876, James Thomson– Constructed: 1927, MIT– Solves differential equations by integration– Wheel-and-disc mechanisms perform the integration
1876
1903Wright brother’s first flight
41
Differential Analyzer1927
1906Electric washing machine
42
Differential Analyzer1927
1929First residential elevator
8
43
Analog Computers - Moniac1949
• London, 1949• Water represent money• Tanks represent means of
spending money• Flow represents flow…
– Modeled after financial models
• Surprisingly accurate…
44
The Enigma1920
• 1920 to the end of WWII• Electromechanical ciphering machine• Applies polyalphabetic encryption
– State dependant encoding• Mechanical and electrical state
45
The Enigma1920
1920’sHousehold refrigerators
46
Punched cards
• Used in the textile industry • First adaptation by Babbage
– input and data storage• A competition was held for the US 1890 census
– 1880 US census had taken 7 years to complete• Winner: Herman Hollerith
– Later founded the Tabulating Machine Company– Became IBM
• Used mechanical relays to increment mechanical counters.
• The 1890 census was completed in 6 weeks
1890
47
Punched cards
• Specifically-designed layouts • “General purpose“ at 1928• Each IBM-style card had 80
characters– Followed by early terminals– Last two digits for a year
• 30% of the profit of IBM in 1931• Use in machines:
– Sorter– Duplicating Punch– Collator
1928
48
Punched Tape
• Based on punched cards– Paper or polyester– Still being sold (1.5m/KB)
9
49
Relays
• Joseph Henry 1835• Electronically controlled electrical switch
– Controlled by an electromagnet – Controls a set of contacts
1835
• With no current the armature and contacts are released• The coil requires low power• The contacts can switch high powers
50
Electromagnetic Relay
• A latching relay – Two relaxed states
(bistable)– a.k.a 'keep' relays
1835
51
1848 Logical Gates by Relays
c
b b or c
+V
+Vb c OUT0 0 0 0 1 11 0 11 1 1
bc b or c
0 01
0
1
1848: Boolean algebra
52
1941Konrad Zuse's Z3
• 1941 - First programmable fully automatic machine• 2500 relays• Program on punched tape• 5 Hz• 64 22bits words• Floating point• Based on the mechanical Z1
1935First regular TV broadcast
1936: Turingmachine
53
Konrad Zuse's Z31941
Z1 – 30,000 moving parts54
Harvard Mark I and Mark II1944
• Built for Harvard by IBM• Mark I - 1944
– Fully automatic – Electromagnetic control– Mechanical counters– 765K components– Hundreds KM of wires– 12m x 2.5m x 0.7m– 4,500kg– Mechanical clock – 72 words– 23 decimal digits words
10
55
Harvard Mark I1835
56
Harvard Mark I - Front-end1835
57
Harvard Mark II1947
• Mark II - 1947– Electromagnetic components– Binary representation– Floating point– Operation specific hardware sµ
sµ
– Complicated programming • 8 instructions
– 125,000 addition– 750,000 multiplication
58
Harvard Mark II1947
Harvard Mark II storage
59
Bugs
• September 1947 – A moth trapped in a relay
of Mark II
????
• What is the origin of the term “bug”?
• “Bugs” came before computers and computer software– Thomas Edison,1878
“First actual case of bug being found”
“… and it is then that “bugs” – as such little faults and difficulties are called – show themselves…”
60
References• Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.wikipedia.org/• S.O.S. MATHematics
http://www.sosmath.com/• Online lecture by Michelle Hoyle
http://lecture.eingang.org/index.html
• Online Museum Exhibits:– The ENIAC Museum online
http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~museum/index.html– Computer History Museum, Mountain View, CA
http://www.computerhistory.org/– The Science Museum, London
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp– The Computer Museum, System Source
http://www.syssrc.com/html/museum/– The Museum of HP Calculators
http://www.hpmuseum.org/– John Wolff's Web Museum
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~wolff/calculators/– Stephen Johnston’s web pages
http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/staff/saj/arithmometer/