THE HISTORY OF THE GREAT IRISH FAMINE by Rev. John O'Rourke

8/2/2019 THE HISTORY OF THE GREAT IRISH FAMINE by Rev. John O'Rourke

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THEHISTORYOFTHEGREATIRISHFAMINE

OF

1847,

WITHNOTICESOFEARLIERIRISHFAMINES.

BYTHE

REV.JOHNO'ROURKE,P.P.,M.R.I.A.

THIRDEDITION.

Dublin:

JAMESDUFFYANDCO.,LTD.,

15WELLINGTONQUAY.

1902.

[Therightoftranslationandreproductionisreserved.]

TO

MYFELLOWCOUNTRYMEN

THISNARRATIVE

OFONEOFTHEMOSTTERRIBLEEPISODES

INTHECHEQUEREDHISTORY

OF

OURNATIVELAND,

IS

RESPECTFULLYANDAFFECTIONATELY

DEDICATED.

PREFACE.

TheAuthorofthisvolumehas,foraconsiderabletime,beenofopinion,thattheleadingfactsoftheGreatIrishFamineof1847oughttobeputtogetherwithoutunnecessarydelay.Severalreasonsoccurredtohimwhysuchaworkshouldbedone:themagnitudeoftheFamineitself;the


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peculiarityofitsimmediatecause;itsinfluenceonthedestinyoftheIrishRace.Thatthereshouldbenounnecessarydelayinperformingthetaskwassufficientlyproved,hethought,bythefact,thattestimonyofthemostvaluablekind,namely,contemporarytestimony,wassilentlybutrapidlypassingawaywiththegenerationthathadwitnessedtheScourge.

Havingmadeuphismindtoundertakesuchawork,theAuthor'sfirstpreparationforitwas,tosendquerysheetstosuchpersonsasweresupposedtobeinpossessionofinformationonthesubject.Andhehasheretoexpresshisgratitudeandthankstohisnumerouscorrespondents,forthekindnessandpromptnesswithwhichhisquerieswereanswered.Hecannotrecallevenonecaseinwhichthiswasnotdone.Butthereisadarksidetothepicturetoo.Inlookingoverthequerysheetsnow,itissadtofindhowmanyofthosewhosesignaturestheybearhavealreadypassedfromamongstus.

OthermaterialsofgreatimportancelayscatteredoverthePublicJournalsoftheperiod;wereburiedandstowedawayinParliamentaryBlueBooks,andParliamentarydebates;--weretobesoughtforinpamphlets,inperiodicals,andmoreespeciallyintheReportsofthevariousSocietiesandAssociations,whichwereappointedfordispensingthealmsgivenwithsuchfreehand,toaidinsavingthelivesofthefamishingpeople.ThoseRecordswillbefoundquotedandreferredtointhecourseofthework.

Amongstthem,itisbutjusttoacknowledge,howmuchtheAuthorowestotheReportoftheCensusCommissionersfor1851;tothe"Transactions"oftheSocietyofFriends;andtotheIrishCrisis,bySirCharlesE.Trevelyan,Bart.;whichoriginallyappearedasanarticleintheEdinburghReviewforJanuary,1848,butwasreprintedinasmallvolumeoftwohundredpages.AlthoughfarfromagreeingwithmanyofSirCharles'sconclusions(hewasSecretarytotheTreasuryduringtheFamine),stilltheAuthorcheerfullyacknowledges,thatthestatisticalinformationintheIrishCrisisisveryvaluabletoastudentofthehistoryoftheFamineperiod.

Itwastobeexpected,thatthealarmaboutthePotatoBlightandthe

FaminewouldbefirstraisedthroughthepublicPress.Thiswasdonebylettersfromvariouslocalities,andbySpecialReportersandCommissioners,whotravelledthroughthecountrytoexaminethestateofthepeople,aswellasthatofthepotatocrop.TherewasaCommissionerfromtheLondonTimesinIrelandatthisperiod.HisletterswrittentothatJournalwereafterwardscollected,andtheymadeanoctavovolumeofnearlyeighthundredpages.

TheEnglishpeople,andmanyinIreland,longadheredtotheopinion,thattherewasmuchexaggerationintheIrishNewspapersregardingboththeBlightandtheFamine;butsubsequentinvestigationshowed,thattherewasverylittle,ifany,exaggeration;nay,thattherealfactswereoftenunderstated.AstotheFamine,severalofthegentlemensent

bytheCharitableSocietiestomakeReports,wroteback,thattherewasnoexaggerationwhatever,and,foraverysufficientreason,namely,that,intheiropinion,itwasimpossibletoexaggeratethedreadfulconditioninwhichtheyfoundthepeople.

AnothermodeofacquiringinformationadoptedbytheAuthorwas,tovisitthosepartsofthecountryinwhichtheFaminehadragedwiththegreatestseverity.Onsuchoccasionshenotonlyhadtheadvantageofexaminingthelocalities,butofconversingwithpersonswhoseknowledgeofthatawfulCalamitymadethemvaluableandinterestingguides.


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Astotherest,itislefttothekindnessoftheReader.

ST.MARY'S,MAYNOOTH,

1stDecember,1874.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTERI.

ThePotato--ItsintroductionintoEurope--SirWalterRaleigh--ThePotatoofVirginia--TheBattata,orsweetPotato--SirJohnHawkins--SirFrancisDrake--Raleigh'snumerousexploringexpeditions--StoryofhisdistributingPotatoesontheIrishcoastonhiswayfromVirginiagroundless--SirJosephBanks--HishistoryoftheintroductionofthePotato--ThomasHeriot--HisdescriptionoftheOpanawkacorrectdescriptionofthePotato--ThatrootinEuropebeforeRaleigh'stime--Raleighan"Undertaker"--TheGrantsmadetohim--TheFamineaftertheWarwiththeDesmonds--Introductionofthe

PotatointoIreland--Didnotcomerapidlyintocultivation--Foodofthepoorest--Grazing--Graziers--DestructionofIrishManufactures--CausesoftheincreasingcultureofthePotato--ImprovementofAgriculture--RotationofCrops--PrimateBoulter'scharity--BuysCornintheSouthtosellitcheaplyintheNorth--Yearsofscarcityfrom1720to1740--TheFamineof1740-41--TheGreatFrost--NocombinedefforttomeetthisFamine--VastnumberofDeaths--TheObeliskatCastletown(Note)--PriceofWheat--BreadRiots--GangsofRobbers--"TheKellymountGang"--Severepunishment--ShootingdownFood-rioters--TheLordLieutenant'sAddresstoParliament--Bill"forthemoreeffectualsecuringthepaymentsofrentsandpreventingthefraudsoftenants"--ThisBillthebasisoflegislationontheLandQuestion

upto1870--LandthrownintoGrazing--StateoftheCatholics--RenewalofthePenalStatutes--Feverandbloodyflux--Deaths--StateofPrisoners--GalwayPhysiciansrefusetoattendPatients--TheRacesofGalwaychangedtoTuamonaccountoftheFeverinGalway--BallsandPlays!--Rt.Rev.Dr.Berkeley'saccountoftheFamine--The"GroansofIreland"--IrelandalandofFamine--DublinBay--TheCoast--TheWicklowHills--Killiney--ObeliskHill--WhattheObeliskwasbuiltfor--ThePotatomorecultivatedthaneverafter1741--Agriculturalliteratureofthetime--ApathyoftheGentrydenounced--ComparativeyieldofPotatoesahundredyearsagoandatpresent--ArthurYoungonthePotato--Greatincreaseofitscultureintwentyyears--Thediseasecalled"curl"inthePotato(Note)--FailureofthePotatoin1821--Consequent

Faminein1822--Governmentgrants--Charitablecollections--HighpriceofPotatoes--Skibbereenin1822--HalfofthesuperficiesoftheIslandvisitedbythisFamine--StrangeapathyofStatesmenandLandownerswithregardtotheever-increasingcultureofthePotato--SupposedconquestofIreland--Irelandkeptpoorlestsheshouldrebel--TheEnglishcolonyalwaysregardedastheIrishnation--Thenativesignored--Theylivedinthebogsandmountains,andcultivatedthePotato,theonlyfoodthatwouldgrowinsuchplaces--NorecordedPotatoblightbefore1729--Theprobablereason--PovertyoftheEnglishcolony--JealousyofEnglandofits


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progressandprosperity--Commercialjealousy--DestructionoftheWoollenmanufacture--Itsimmediateeffect--WilliamtheThird'sDeclaration--Absenteeism--Mr.M'Culloch'sarguments(NoteA.)--Apparentlylowrents--Notreallyso--Nocapital--Littleskill--NogoodAgriculturalImplements--Swift'sopinion--ArthurYoung'sopinion--ActsofParliament--TheCatholicspermittedtobeloyal--ActforreclaimingBogs--PensiontoApostatePriestsincreased--CatholicPetitionin1792--TheReliefActof1793--PopulationofIrelandatthistime--theForty-shillingFreeholders--Whytheywerecreated--Whytheywereabolished--thecryofover-population,1

CHAPTERII.

ThePotatoBlightof1845--ItsappearanceinEngland--InIreland--Weather--Scotland--NamesgiventotheBlight--FirstappearanceoftheBlightinIreland--Accountsofitsprogress--TheRoyalAgriculturalImprovementSocietyofIreland--Itsaction--TheDublinCorporation--O'Connell--HisplanformeetingtheCrisis--DeputationtotheLordLieutenant--Howitwasreceived--LordHeytesbury'sReply--ItdispleasestheGovernment--TheTimes'Commissioner--Hissuggestions--Mr.Gregory'sLetter--Mr.Crichton's--SirJamesMurrayontheBlight--Actionofthe

Clergy--theMansionHouseCommittee--Resolutions--AnalysisoffivehundredlettersontheBlight--PartialcessationoftheRotcausedbytheBlight--ReportofProfessorsLindleyandPlayfair--Estimatedloss--QuerySheetssentout--CorporationAddresstotheQueen--HerReply--AddressoftheLondonCorporationaskingforFreeTrade--ThePotatoBlightmadeapartyquestion--DeanHoare'sLetter--Failureofremedies,48

CHAPTERIII.

LordHeytesburyandSirRobertPeel--ThePotatoesoflastyear!--Isthereastockofthem?--SirR.PeelandFreeTrade--StrengthofhisCabinet--Mr.CobdenproposesaCommitteeofInquiry--Hisspeech--Its

effect--Committeerefused--D'Israeli'sattackonSirR.Peel(Note)--SirRobertputsforwardthePotatoBlightasthecauseforrepealingtheCornLaws--TheextentoftheFailurenotexaggerated--SirJamesGrahamandSirR.Peel--AppointmentsofDrs.LindleyandPlayfairtoinvestigatetheBlight--SirR.PeelannouncesthatheisaconverttotherepealoftheCornLaws--Stateshisviews,butdoesnotreasononthem--TheQuarterlyReview--SpecialCommissioners--Mr.Buller'sletter--SirJamesGrahamandthePremier--ProceedingbyProclamationinsteadofbyOrderinCouncil--SirJames'ssharpreply--Agitationtostopdistillation--CountyMeetingsproposedbytheLordLieutenant--CabinetCouncil--ThePremierputshisviewsbeforeitinamemorandum--TheCornLaws--SomeoftheCabinetdispleasedwithhis

views--Onthe6thNovemberhesubmitsanothermemorandumtotheCabinet--LordStanleydissentsfromthePremier'sviews--TheCabinetmeetagainnextdayandheconcludesthememorandum--Onthe29thNovemberhesendstoeachofhiscolleaguesamoredetailedexpositionofhisviews--Severalreply--Anothermem.broughtbeforethemonthe2ndDecember--TheCabinetinpermanentsession--Onthe5thofDecemberSirRobertresigns--LordJohnRussellfailstoformaGovernment--TheoldCabinetagaininpower--Mr.GladstonereplacesLordStanley,75


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CHAPTERIV.

MeetingofParliament--Queen'sSpeech--ThePremier'sspeechontheAddress--GoesintothewholequestionofFreeTrade--Theprotectionists--LordBrougham'sviews(Note)--Thetwelvenights'debateontheCornLaws--NoconnectionbetweenitandtheFamine--StaffordO'Brien'sspeech--SirJamesGraham'sreply--SmithO'Brien'sspeech--Hisimprisonment(NoteB.)--O'Connell'smotion--Hisspeech--SirRobertPeelreplies--SubstantiallyagreeswithO'Connell--BillfortheprotectionoflifeinIreland--ItsfirstreadingopposedbytheIrishmembers--O'ConnellleadstheOppositioninaspeechoftwohours--Mr.D'Israelimistakenincallingithislastspeech--Hisaccountofit--Hemisrepresentsit--TheopinionsexpressedinitwerethoseO'Connellalwaysheld.BreakupoftheToryparty--LordGeorgeBentinckbecomesleaderoftheProtectionists--TheirdifficultyinopposingtheCoercionBill--IngeniousplanofLordGeorge--StrangecombinationagainsttheGovernment--CloseofDebateonCoercionBill--Governmentdefeatedbyamajorityof73--MeasurestomeettheFamine--Delay--Accountsfromvariouspartsofthecountry--Greatdistress--"AretheLandlordsmakinganyefforts?"--Noticeforrent--Thebailiff'sreply--NumberofWorkhousesopen--Numberofpersonsinthem--SirRobertPeel'sspeechonhisresignation--Accidenttohim--Hisdeath--ThePeels--SirRobert'squalitiesandcharacter--Hismannerofdealing

withtheFamine--HisrealobjecttherepealoftheCornLaws,93

CHAPTERV.

JohnRussellPrimeMinister--HeconfersimportantofficesonsomeIrishCatholics--HisaddresstotheelectorsofLondon--Itsvagueness--AddressesofsomeoftheothernewMinisters--TheIrishdifficultygreaterthanever--YoungandOldIreland--TheTimesonO'ConnellandEnglishruleinIreland--OverturesoftheWhigGovernment--O'Connelllistenstothem--Theelevenmeasures--ViewsoftheadvancedRepealers--LordMiltown'slettertoO'Connell--DissensionsintheRepealAssociation--The"PeaceResolutions"--O'Connell'sletters--HecensurestheNation

newspaper--DebateintheRepealAssociation--ThomasFrancisMeagher's"Swordspeech"--TheYoungIrelandpartyleaveConciliationHallinabody--Descriptionofthescene(Note)--Reflections--SirRobertPeel'sspeechafterhisresignation--LordJohnRussell'sspeechatGlasgow--HisspeechontheIrishCoercionBill--HisspeechafterbecomingPrimeMinister--ThePotatoBlightreappears--AccountsfromtheProvinces--FatherMathew'sletter--ValueofthePotatoCropof1846--Variousremedies,theories,andspeculations--Stateoftheweather--Mr.Cooper'sobservationsatMarkreeCastle--LordMonteagle'smotionintheHouseofLordsforemployingthepeople--Profitableemploymenttherightthing--TheMarquisofLansdownereplies--ItishardtorelieveapoorcountrylikeIreland--LordDevon'sopinion--ThePremier'sstatementabout

relief--ThewonderfulcargoofIndianmeal--SirR.Peel'sfallacies--BillforBaronialSessions--CessationofGovernmentWorks--TheMallowReliefCommittee--Bedsofstone!--Highrentsonthepoor--TheSocialConditionoftheHottentotascomparedwiththatofMickSullivan--Rev.Mr.Gibson'sviews--Mr.Tuke'saccountofErris(Note)--CloseoftheSessionofParliament,131

CHAPTERVI.

TheLabour-rateActpassedwithoutopposition:entitled,AnActto


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FacilitatetheEmploymentoftheLabouringPoor--Itsprovisions--GovernmentMinuteexplainingthem--HeadsofMinute--Rateofwages--Dissatisfactionwithit--Commissary-GeneralHewetson'sletter--Exorbitantprices--OpinionexpressedonthisheadbyanAmericanCaptain--TheGovernmentwillnotorderfoodasSirR.Peeldid--Partialandunjusttaxation--OppositiontotheLabour-rateAct--Reproductiveemploymentcalledfor--LordDevon'sopinion--FormerworksnottobecompletedundertheAct--Minuteof31stofAugust--ModifiedbyMr.Labouchere'sletterof5thofSeptember--Peopletaxedwhopaidarentof4ayear--Inmanycasesahardship--BarrenworksthegreatblotoftheLabour-rateAct--ArgumentsagainsttheAct--Resourcesofthecountryshouldhavebeendeveloped--Panicamonglandowners--Rev.Mr.Moore'sletters--Levelroadsagoodthing--Foodbetter--Acryofexcessivepopulationraised--Irelandnotoverpeopled--Employthepeopleontillingthesoil--SirR.Routhtakesthesameview--ReliefCommitteeofKellsandFore--Reproductiveemployment--Plansuggested--AddresstotheLordLieutenant--Trueremedy--O'ConnellontheFamine--WritesfromDarrynaneonthesubject--MoneyinthehandsofBoardofWorks--Compulsoryreclamationofwastelands--DrainageBill--Mr.Kennedy'sopinion--Whoistoblame?--TheGovernment,thelandlords,orthepeople?--O'Connellforunitedaction--Outdoorreliefwillconfiscateproperty--ProposedCentralCommittee--SeveralCommitteesmeetinDublin--Mr.Monsell'sletter--Hisviews--Against

unproductivelabour--Moneywasted--AppealtotheGovernment--CorkdeputationtothePrimeMinister--Hisviews--Henowseesgreatdifficultiesinreclaimingwastelands--Platitudes--Changeofviews--RequisitionformeetinginDublin--Unexpectedpublicationofthe"LabouchereLetter"authorizingreproductiveworks--VerdictoftheGovernmentagainstitself,167

CHAPTERVII.

TheMeasuresofRelieffor1846-7--Difficulties--ShortcomingsoftheGovernment--Vigorousactionofothercountries--CommissaryGeneralRouth'sLetteronthestateofthedepts--RepliesfromtheTreasury--Delay--IncredulityofGovernment--EnglishPress--Attacks

bothontheLandlordsandPeopleofIreland--Notthetimeforsuchattacks--ViewoftheMorningChronicle--Talkaboutexaggeration--Lieutenant-ColonelJones--Changeshisopinion--Hisreasonfordoingso--Mr.SecretaryRedington'sideas--ExtraordinaryBaronialPresentments--PresentmentsfortheCountyMayobeyondthewholerentalofthecounty!--Thereasonwhy--UnfinishedPublicWorks--LordMonteagle--FindsfaultwiththeactionoftheGovernment,althoughasupporteroftheirs--Expensesdividedbetweenlandlordandtenant--Discontentatrateofwagesonpublicworksbeing2d.perdayundertheaveragewagesofthedistrict--Foundedonerror--Taskwork--Greatdissatisfactionatit--Combination--AttemptontheLifeofMr.W.M.Hennessy--Truewaytomanagethepeople(Note)--StoppageofWorks--Captain

Wynne--Dreadfuldestitution--Christmaseve--OppositiontoTaskworkcontinues--Causes--TreasuryMinuteonthesubject--ColonelJonesonCommittees--Insultinghisofficers--InsulttoMr.CorneliusO'Brien,M.P.--CaptainWynneatEnnistymon--ArealIrishCommittee--MajorM'Namara--HisversionoftheEnnistymonaffair(Note)--ChargesagainsttheGentryofClarebyCaptainWynne--Mr.MilletonEnnistymon--SellingTicketsforthePublicWorks--FeelingoftheOfficialsfoundedoftenonignoranceandprejudice--TheIncreaseofDepositsintheSavings'BanksaProofofIrishProsperity--HowexplainedbyMr.Twistleton,anofficial--Scarcityofsilver--The


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BankofIrelandauthorizedtoissueit--ThePublicWorksof1845-6broughttoacloseinAugust,1846--TheLabour-rateAct--DifficultyofgettinggoodOfficials--TheBaronies--Issuestothem--Loans--Grants--Total--SuddenandenormousIncreaseofLabourersontheWorksundertheLabour-rateAct--HowdistributedovertheProvinces--NumberofOfficialssuperintendingthePublicWorks--Correspondence--NumberofLettersreceivedatCentralOffice--ProgressoftheFamine--Numberemployed--Numberseekingemploymentwhocouldnotgetit--TheDeath-roll,196

CHAPTERVIII.

OperationsoftheCommissariatReliefDepartment--NottointerferewithMealmongersorCornMerchants--EffectsofthisRule--DeputationfromAchill(Note)--OrganizationoftheCommissariatReliefDepartment--ReportsonthePotatoCrop--TheBlightinClare--Commissary-GeneralHewetson'sopinion--Commissary-GeneralDobree'sReport--Depts--UniversalityoftheBlight--RuleswithregardtoFoodDepts--FaultoftheTreasury--ScarcityofFood--Deptsbesiegedforitinthemidstofharvest--DeptstobeonlyontheWestCoast--WhatwasmeantbytheWestCoast--Coroner'sInquestsatMallow--Rev.Mr.Daly--LordMountcashel--FamineDemonstrationatWestport--SessionsatKilmacthomas--RiotatDungarvan--CaptainSibthorpe'sOrder--Mr.Howley'sAdvice--Attempt

torescuePrisoners--CaptainSibthorpeasksleavetofire--RefusedbyMr.Howley--RiotActread--Leavetofiregiven--Peopleretirefromthetown--Twomenwounded--Thecarter'sreasonforfighting--LamePatPower--DeathofMichaelFleming,thecarter--Formidablebandstraversethecountry--AdviceoftheClergy--Carrigtuohill--Macroom--Killarney--Skibbereen--MarchonthattownbytheworkmenofCaheragh--Dr.Donovan'saccountofthemovement--Themilitary,seventy-fiveinnumber,postedbehindaschoolhouse--FirmnessandprudenceofMr.Galwey,J.P.--BiscuitsorderedfromtheGovernmentStore--Peacepreserved--DemonstrationatMallow--LordStuartdeDecies--DeputationfromClonakiltytotheLordLieutenant--ShipspreventedfromsailingatYoughal--SirDavidRoche--Demonstrationssimultaneous--Proclamationagainstfood

riots--Wantofmill-power--Nomill-powerinpartsoftheWestwheremostrequired--SirRandolphRouth'sopinion--OverruledbytheTreasury--Mr.Lister'sAccountofthemill-powerinpartsofConnaught--MealgroundatDeptford,Portsmouth,Plymouth,andRotherhithe;alsoinEssexandtheChannelIslands--Mill-poweratMalta--Quantityofwheatthere--Fivehundredquarterspurchased--TheFrench--TheIrishhandmill,orquern,revived--Samplesofitgot--Steel-mills--Mill-poweruselessfromfailureofwater-supply--Attempttointroducewholecornboiledasfood,221

CHAPTERIX.

TheLandlordsandtheGovernment--PublicMeetings--Reproductive

EmploymentdemandedforthePeople--The"Labouchere"Letter--Presentmentsunderit--LoansaskedtoconstructRailways--Allwhoreceivedincomesfromlandshouldbetaxed--DeputationfromtheRoyalAgriculturalSocietytotheLordLieutenant--Theyaskreproductiveemployment--LordBessboroughanswerscautiously--ThePrimeMinisterwritestotheDukeofLeinsteronthesubject--Viewsexpressed--DefenceofhisIrishFaminepolicy--SevereontheLandlords--Unsoundprincipleslaiddownbyhim--Corninthehaggards--MaryDriscoll'slittlestackofbarley--SecondDeputationfromtheRoyalAgriculturalSocietytothe


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LordLieutenant--Itsobject--Requestnotgranted--TheSocietylecturedonthedutiesofitsMembers--Realmeaningoftheanswer--ProgressoftheFamine--Deathsfromstarvation--O'Brien'sBridge--Rev.Dr.Vaughan--SlownessoftheBoardofWorks--StateofTuam--InquestonDenisM'Kennedy--TestimonyofhisWife--Afortnight'sWagesduetohim--Receivedonlyhalf-a-crowninthreeweeks--EvidenceoftheStewardoftheWorks;ofRev.Mr.Webb;ofDr.Donovan--RemarksofRev.Mr.Townsend--Verdict--TheTimesonthedutiesofLandlords--LandlordsdenouncetheGovernmentandtheBoardofWorks--Mr.FitzgeraldontheBoardandonthefarmers--MeetingatBandon--LordBernard--InquestonJeremiahHegarty--TheLandlord's"cross"onthebarley--MaryDriscoll'sevidence;herhusband's--Post-mortemexaminationbyDr.Donovan--TheParishPriestofSwinford--Evictions--TheMorningChronicleonthem--SpreadandIncreaseofFamine--Thequestionofprovidingcoffins--DeathsatSkibbereen--ExtentoftheFaminein1846--DeathsinMayo--Cases--EdwardM'Hale--Skibbereen--Thediaryofaday--Swellingoftheextremities--Burningbedsforfuel--Mr.Cummins'saccountofSkibbereen--KillarneyReliefCommittee--FatherO'Connor'sStatement--ChristmasEve!--AvisittoSkibbereentwentyyearsafterthegreatFamine,243

CHAPTERX.

TheLandlords'committee--AnewIrishparty--Circular--The"GreatMeetingofIrishPeers,MembersofParliamentandLandlords"intheRotunda--TheResolutions--SpiritofthoseResolutions--Emigration--greatanxietyforit--OpeningofParliament--Queen'sSpeech--EnglandonherTrial--DebateontheAddress--LordBroughamonIrishLandlords--LordStanleyontheFamine--SmithO'Brien'sspeech--DefendstheLandlords--Mr.Labouchere,theIrishSecretary,defendstheGovernment--TheIrishAgriculturalpopulationwerealwaysonthebrinkofstarvation,andwhentheBlightcameitwasimpossibletomeetthedisaster--TheviewsoftheMorningChronicleontheGovernmentofIreland--Mr.LaboucherequotesthePoor-lawEnquiryof1835andtheDevonCommission--ChangeoftheGovernment'sviewsonthe

Famine--Griffith'sestimateofthelossbytheBlight--ExtentofIrishPauperism--LordGeorgeBentinckpointsoutthemistakesoftheGovernment--Thepeopleshouldhavebeensuppliedwithfoodinremotedistricts--Hedidnotagreewiththepoliticaleconomyofnon-interference--Mr.D'Israeli'smanipulationofLordGeorge'sspeech--LetterofRev.Mr.TownsendofSkibbereen--Fourteenfuneralswaitingwhilstafifteenthcorpsewasbeinginterred--QuantityofcorninLondon,LiverpoolandGlasgow--LordJohnRussell'sspeech--HeregardedtheFamineasa"nationalcalamity"--AbsurdreasonfornothavingsummonedParliamentinAutumn--SirRobertPeel'sview--ThePrimeMinisteronthestateofIreland--Hisviews--Hisplans--DefendstheactionoftheGovernment--Defendsunproductivework--Reasonforissuingthe"Labouchere

Letter"--QuotesSmithO'Brienapprovingly--Mr.O'Brien'sletterstotheLandlordsofIreland(Note)--Confoundingthequestionsoftemporaryreliefandpermanentimprovement--Fallacy--Demoralizationoflabour--ThePremier's"groupofmeasures"--Soupkitchens--Taskwork--BreakdownofthePublicWorks--Foodfornothing--Modeofpaymentofloans--50,000forseed--ImpossibilityofmeetingtheFaminecompletely--ThepermanentmeasuresforIreland--DrainageAct--Reclamationofwastelands--SirRobertKane's"IndustrialResources"ofIreland--Emigrationagain--Irelandnotover-peopled--DescriptionofEnglandandScotlandinformertimesby


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LordJohnRussell--Hisfineexpositionof"theIrishquestion"--Mr.P.Scrope'sResolution--Acountout--BernalOsborne--SmithO'Brien--Thegoodabsenteelandlords--Thebadresidentlandlords--SirC.Napier'sview--Mr.Labouchere'skindwords--Confoundstwoimportantquestions--Mr.Gregory'squarter-acreclause--Metwithsomeopposition--Irishliberalsvoteforit--Theopponentsofthequarter-acreclause--LordGeorgeBentinck'sattackontheGovernment(Note),280

CHAPTERXI.

LordGeorgeBentinck'sRailwayScheme;hethoughtthefinishingoftherailwayswouldbeuseful;hewasapracticalman,andwishedtousethelabourofthepeopleonusefulandprofitablework--ThestateofEnglandin1841-2--TheremedythatrelievedEnglandoughttohavethesameeffectinIreland--Undercertainarrangements,therecouldhavebeennoIrishFamine--TonsofBluebooks--NonewActsnecessaryforRailways--1,500milesofRailwaywerepassed--Only123milesmade--LordGeorgeBentinck'sspeech--Wasteofpower--Traffic--GreatSouthernandWesternRailway--PrinciplesoftheRailwayBill--Shareholders--WhatemploymentwouldtheRailwayBillgive?--Modeofraisingthemoney--20,000,000paidtoslave-owners--WhynotdothesamethingforIreland?--ForeignSecuritiesinwhichEnglishmoneyhasbeenexpended--Assurancesof

supporttoLordGeorge--TheIrishMembersinadilemma--TheIrishPartycontinuetomeet--MeetingatthePremier'sinCheshamPlace--SmithO'BrienwaitsonLordGeorge--TheGovernmentstaketheirexistenceonpostponingthesecondreadingofLordBentinck'sBill--Why?Nogoodreason--DesertionoftheIrishMembers--SirJohnGrayonthequestion--ThePrimeMinister'sspeech--TheChancelloroftheExchequer'sspeechamockery--LoanstoIreland(falsely)assertednottohavebeenrepaid--Mr.Hudson'sspeech--TheChancellorgoingonnoauthority--Mr.Hudson'sRailwayStatistics--TheChancelloroftheExchequerhardonIrishLandlords--Hiswayofgivingrelief--SirRobertPeelontheRailwayBill--TheRailwayBilladoomedmeasure--Peel'seulogiumonindustryingeneral,andonMr.Bianconiinparticular--LordG.Bentinck's

reply--Hisargumentsskippedbyhisopponents--MoneyspentonmakingRailways--TheIrishvoteontheBill--Names,335

CHAPTERXII.

StateoftheCountryduringtheWinterof1847--StateofClare--Capt.Wynne'sLetter--Patienceofthesufferingpeople--Enniswithoutfood--TheNorth--Belfast--greatdistressinit--LettertotheNorthernWhig--Cork--rushofcountrypeopletoit--Soup--SocietyofFriends--Theslidingcoffin--Deathsinthestreets--Onehundredbodiesburiedtogether!--MorethanonedeatheveryhourintheWorkhouse--Limerick--ExperienceofaPriestofSt.John's--Dublin--Dysenterymorefatalthan

cholera--Meetings--"GeneralCentralReliefCommitteeforallIreland"--CommitteeoftheSocietyofFriends--TheBritishAssociationfortheReliefofExtremeDistressinIrelandandScotland--TheGovernment--Faminenotamoneyquestion--sotheGovernmentpretended--Activityofothercountriesinprocuringfood--AttackonDivineProvidence--Wm.Bennett'sopinion.--Moneywagesnottobehadfromfarmers--Wasitamoneyorfoodquestion?--TheNavigationlaws--Freightsdoubled--ThePrimeminister'sexposition--FreeTradeintheory--protectioninpractice--TheTreasurysaysitcannotfindmeal--PresidentPolk's


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messagetoCongress--Americaburthenedwithsurpluscorn--couldsupplytheworld--Wasitamoneyquestionorafoodquestion?--Livingonfieldroots--Churchyardsenlarged--Threecoffinsonadonkeycart--Roscommon--nocoffins--600peopleintyphusfeverinoneWorkhouse?--Heroicvirtue--TheRosary--Sligo--fortybodieswaitingforinquests!--OwenMulrooney--eatingasses'flesh--Mayo--Meetingofthecounty--Mr.Garvey'sstatement--Mr.Tuke'sexperiences--Inquestsgivenup--W.G.'slettersonMayo--EffectofFamineontherelationsoflandlordandtenant--Exterminationofthesmallertenantry--Evictions--Opinionofaneyewitness--Amothertakesleaveofherchildren--Assandhorseflesh--somethingmoredreadful!(Note)--Theweather--itseffects--CountStrezelecki--Mr.Egan'saccountofWestport--Anointingthepeopleinthestreets!--TheSocietyofFriends--Accountsgivenbytheiragents--Patienceofthepeople--Newspaperaccountsnotexaggerated--Donegal--Dunfanaghy--Glenties--Residentproprietorsgoodandcharitable--Skull--FromCapeCleartoSkull--TheCapers--GraveyardofSkull--Ballydehob--Thehingedcoffin--Faminehardenstheheart.Rev.TraillHall--CaptainCaffin'snarrative--Soup-kitchens--Officialsconcealingthestateofthepeople--Provisionforburyingthedead--Theboat'screwatafuneral--StateofDingle--FatherMathew'sevidence--Bantry--Inquests--CatherineSheehan--RichardFinn--Labours

ofthePriests--Givingadinneraway--Fearfulnumberofdeaths--Verdictof"Wilfulmurder"againstLordJohnRussell--TheWorkhouseatBantry--Estimateddeaths--Thehingedcoffin--ShaftoAdair'sideaoftheFamine,364

CHAPTERXIII.

TheIrishReliefAct,10thVic.,c.7--RapidexpansionofPublicWorks--Theyfailtosustainthepeople--ClausesofthenewReliefAct--ReliefCommittees--Theirduties--Unionrating.PrincipalclergymembersofReliefCommittees--DutiesofGovernmentInspectors--FinanceCommittees--NumbersonPublicWorksinFebruary,1847--Monthlyoutlay--Parliamentgivesauthoritytoborrow

8,000,000--ReductionOflabourersonPublicWorks--Taskworkcondemned--RulesdrawnupbynewReliefCommissioners--Rationstobeallowed--Definitionofsoup--FirstReportofCommissioners--Remonstrances--Quantityofstationeryused--Cookedfoodrecommended--MonsieurSoyercomestoIreland--HiscomingheraldedbytheLondonJournals--Hissoup--Jealousy--M.JacquetonSoyer--TheLancetonhim--ProfessorAldridge,M.D.,onSoyer'ssoup--SirHenryMarshonit--M.Soyer'smodelsoupkitchen--A"galaday"--IrelandM.Soyer's"difficulty"--Lastappearance!--Descriptionofhis"ModelSoupKitchen"(Note)--Reclamationofwastelands--Quantityreclaimable--SirRobertKane'sview--Mr.FaganonReclamation--Mr.PouletteScropeontheIrishquestion--UnreclaimedlandinMayo--TheDeanofKillala--CommissaryGeneralHewetsonon

reclamationandover-population--Oppositiontoreclamation--Noreasongivenforit--SirR.Griffithonit--Mr.Fetherstoneareclaimerofbog--ReclamationofboginEngland--SecondReportofReliefCommissioners--ReliefWorksclosedtoorapidly--Thetwentypercent.rule--Mr.Labouchere'sreplytoSmithO'Brien--LetterfromColonelJones--ThePremier'spromise--TheClaremorrisdeanery--Effectofthedismissalsinvariouspartsofthecountry--Soupkitchensattacked--ThirdReportoftheReliefCommissioners--QuestionsfromInspectors--O'Connell'slastillness--HisattempttoreachRome--Hisdeath--His


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character--RemainingReportsoftheReliefCommissioners--TheAccountant'sdepartment--Numberofrations--Moneyspent,420

CHAPTERXIV.

TheFeverAct--CentralBoardofHealth--FeverHospitals--ChangesintheAct--OutdoorAttendance--IntermentoftheDead--TheFeverin1846--CorkWorkhouse--Clonmel--Tyrone--Newry--Sligo--Leitrim--Roscommon--Galway--Feverin1847--Belfast--Death-rateintheWorkhouses--Swinford--Cork--Dropsy--Carrick-on-Shannon--Macroom--BantryAbbey--Dublin--CorkStreetHospital--ApplicationsforTemporaryHospitalaccommodation--Relapsearemarkablefeature--Numberofcasesreceived--PercentageofMortality--WeeklyCostofPatients--ImperfectReturns--Scurvy--Thecauseofit--Emigration--EarlierSchemesofEmigration--Mr.WilmotHorton--PresentStateofPeterborough(Note)--VariousParliamentaryCommitteesonEmigration--TheirViews--TheDevonCommission--ItsViewsofEmigration--AParliamentaryCommitteeopposedtoEmigration--StatisticsofEmigration--GiganticEmigrationScheme--Mr.Godley--StatementtothePremier--TheJointStockCompanyforEmigration--9,000,000required--Howtobeapplied--ItwastobeaCatholicEmigration--Mr.Godley'sScheme--NotacceptedbytheGovernment--Whosignedit--Names(Note)--Dr.Maginnonthe

EmigrationScheme--Emigrationtobelefttoitself--StatisticsofPopulation--TheCensusof1841--DeathsfromtheFamine--DeathsamongstEmigrants--DeathsamongstthosewhowenttoCanada--EmigrationtotheUnitedStates--CommissiontoprotectEmigrants--Revelations--MortalityonboardEmigrantShips--PlunderofEmigrants--CommitteeofInquiry--ItsReport--FraudsaboutPassageTickets--Evidence--Howdidanysurvive?--RemittancesfromEmigrants--Unprecedented--Aproofoftheirindustryandperseverance,474

CHAPTERXV.

TheSoup-kitchenAct--Theharvestof1847--Out-doorRelief

Act--Greatextensionofout-doorrelief--Numberrelieved--Parliamentarypapers--Perplexing--Misleading--Sumsvoted--Sumsexpended--Sumsremitted--TotalTreasuryadvancesundervariousActs--Totalremissions--SumactuallygivenasafreegifttomeettheFamine--CharitableAssociations--Sumscollectedanddisbursedbythem--TwoQueen'sLetters--Amountraisedbythem--AssistingdistressedUnions--Feedingandclothingschoolchildren--FeelingabouttheIrishFamineinAmerica--MeetingsthroughouttheUnion--Subscriptions--Money--Food--NumberofShipssenttoIrelandwithProvisions--FreightofProvisions--ShipsofWar--The"Jamestown"and"Macedonian"--VariousTheoriesabouttheBlight--TheReligiousTheory--Peculiar--Quotations--Rev.HughM'Neill--CharlesDickens--TheCatholicCantonsof

Switzerland--Belgium--France--TheRhenishProvinces--Proselytism--VariouscausesforConversionsassigned--ThelateArchbishopWhately'sOpinions--HisConvert--HerejectstheideathatConvertswerebought--StatementofthelateArchdeaconO'Sullivan--Dr.ForbesontheConversionsintheWest--Mr.M'CarthyDowning'sLetter--TheSubscriptionof1,000--BaronDowse--Conclusion505

(NOTEA.)--Absenteeism:Mr.M'Culloch'sdefenceofitexamined,522


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(NOTEB.)--SmithO'Brien'srefusaltoserveonaCommitteeoftheHouseofCommons,556

(NOTEC.)--TreasuryMinute,datedAugust31st,1846541

(NOTED.)--The"LabouchereLetter,"AuthorizingReproductiveEmployment,549

THEGREATFAMINEOF1847,

ETC.

CHAPTERI.

ThePotato--ItsintroductionintoEurope--SirWalterRaleigh--ThePotatoofVirginia--TheBattata,orsweetPotato--SirJohnHawkins--SirFrancisDrake--Raleigh'snumerousexploring

expeditions--StoryofhisdistributingPotatoesontheIrishcoastonhiswayfromVirginiagroundless--SirJosephBanks--HishistoryoftheintroductionofthePotato--ThomasHeriot--HisdescriptionoftheOpanawkacorrectdescriptionofthePotato--ThatrootinEuropebeforeRaleigh'stime--Raleighan"Undertaker"--TheGrantsmadetohim--TheFamineaftertheWarwiththeDesmonds--IntroductionofthePotatointoIreland--Didnotcomerapidlyintocultivation--Foodofthepoorest--Grazing--Graziers--DestructionofIrishManufactures--CausesoftheincreasingcultureofthePotato--ImprovementofAgriculture--RotationofCrops--PrimateBoulter'scharity--BuysCornintheSouthtosellitcheaplyintheNorth--Yearsofscarcityfrom1720to1740--TheFamineof1740-41--TheGreatFrost--Nocombinedefforttomeetthis

Famine--VastnumberofDeaths--TheObeliskatCastletown(Note)--PriceofWheat--BreadRiots--GangsofRobbers--"TheKellymountGang"--Severepunishment--ShootingdownFood-rioters--TheLordLieutenant'sAddresstoParliament--Bill"forthemoreeffectualsecuringthepaymentsofrentsandpreventingthefraudsoftenants"--ThisBillthebasisoflegislationontheLandQuestionupto1870--LandthrownintoGrazing--StateoftheCatholics--RenewalofthePenalStatutes--Feverandbloodyflux--Deaths--StateofPrisoners--GalwayPhysiciansrefusetoattendPatients--TheRacesofGalwaychangedtoTuamonaccountoftheFeverinGalway--BallsandPlays!--Rt.Rev.Dr.Berkeley'saccountoftheFamine--The"GroansofIreland"--IrelandalandofFamines--DublinBay--TheCoast--TheWicklowHills--Killiney--Obelisk

Hill--WhattheObeliskwasbuiltfor--ThePotatomorecultivatedthaneverafter1741--Agriculturalliteratureofthetime--ApathyoftheGentrydenounced--ComparativeyieldofPotatoesahundredyearsagoandatpresent--ArthurYoungonthePotato--Greatincreaseofitscultureintwentyyears--Thediseasecalled"curl"inthePotato(Note)--FailureofthePotatoin1821--ConsequentFaminein1822--Governmentgrants--Charitablecollections--HighpriceofPotatoes--Skibbereenin1822--HalfofthesuperficiesoftheIslandvisitedbythisFamine--StrangeapathyofStatesmenandLandownerswithregardtotheever-increasingcultureofthePotato--Supposed


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conquestofIreland--Irelandkeptpoorlestsheshouldrebel--TheEnglishcolonyalwaysregardedastheIrishnation--TheNativesignored--Theylivedinthebogsandmountains,andcultivatedthePotato,theonlyfoodthatwouldgrowinsuchplaces--NorecordedPotatoblightbefore1729--Theprobablereason--PovertyoftheEnglishcolony--jealousyofEnglandofitsprogressandprosperity--Commercialjealousy--DestructionoftheWoollenmanufacture--Itsimmediateeffect--"WilliamtheThird'sDeclaration--Absenteeism--Mr.M'Cullagh'sarguments--SeeNoteinAppendix--Apparentlylowrents--Notreallyso--Nocapital--Littleskill--NogoodAgriculturalImplements--Swift'sopinion--ArthurYoung'sopinion--ActsofParliament--TheCatholicspermittedtobeloyal--ActforreclaimingBogs--PensiontoApostatePriestsincreased--CatholicPetitionin1792--TheBeliefActof1793--PopulationofIrelandatthistime--TheForty-shillingFreeholders--Whytheywerecreated--Whytheywereabolished--Thecryofover-population.

ThegreatIrishFamine,whichreacheditsheightin1847,was,inmanyofitsfeatures,themoststrikingandmostdeplorableknowntohistory.Thedeathsresultingfromit,andtheemigrationwhichitcaused,weresovast,that,atonetime,itseemedasifAmericaandthegravewereabouttoabsorbthewholepopulationofthiscountrybetweenthem.The

causeofthecalamitywasalmostaswonderfulastheresult.Itarosefromthefailureofarootwhich,bydegrees,hadbecomethestaplefoodofthewholeworkingpopulation:arootwhich,onitsfirstintroduction,wasreceivedbyphilanthropistsandeconomistswithjoy,asacertainprotectionagainstthatscarcitywhichsometimesresultedfromshortharvests.Mr.Buckland,aSomersetshiregentleman,sentin1662alettertotheRoyalSociety,recommendingtheplantingofpotatoesinallpartsofthekingdom,topreventfamine,forwhichhereceivedthethanksofthatlearnedbody;andEvelyn,thewell-knownauthorof"TheSylva,"wasrequestedtomentiontheproposalattheendofthatwork.

Thepotatowasfirstbroughtintothiscountryaboutthreecenturies

ago.Traditionand,tosomeextent,historyattributesitsintroductiontoSirWalterRaleigh.Whetherthiswasactuallythecaseornot,thereseemstobenodoubtabouthishavingcultivateditonthatestateinMunsterwhichwasbestoweduponhimbyhisroyalmistress,aftertheoverthrowoftheDesmonds.[1]SomeconfusionhasarisenabouttheperiodatwhichthepotatoofVirginia,asIshallforthepresentcallthepotato,wasbroughttoourshores,fromthefactthatanotherroot,thebatatas,orsweetpotato,cameintotheseislands,andwasusedasadelicacybeforethepotatoofVirginiawasknown;andwhataddstotheconfusionis,thatthenamepotato,appliedtotheVirginianroot,isderivedfrombatatas,itnotbearinginVirginiaanynameintheleastresemblingthewordpotato.Upto1640itwascalledinEnglandthepotatoofVirginia,todistinguishitfromthesweetpotato,whichis

anotherevidencethatitderivedthenamepotatofrombatatas.[2]ThelatterrootwasextensivelycultivatedforfoodinpartsofAmerica,butitnevergotintoanythinglikegeneralcultivationhere,perhapsbecauseourclimatewastoocoldforit.Itisnowonlyfoundinourhot-houses,whereitproducestubersfromonetotwopoundsinweight.

IthasbeenassertedthatSirJohnHawkinsbroughtthepotatotoIrelandin1565,andhiskinsmanSirFrancisDraketoEnglandin1585.Althoughthisisnotimprobable,writersgenerallyassumethatitwasthesweetpotatowhichwasintroducedbythosenavigators.


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WhetherornotRaleigh'sthirdexpedition,whichsailedfromEnglandin1584,wasthefirsttobringintothesecountriesthepotatoofVirginia,therecanbenoreasonabledoubtofitshavingbeenbroughthomebythatexpedition.ThestoryofRaleighhavingstoppedonsomepartoftheIrishcoastonhiswayfromVirginia,whenhedistributedpotatoestothenatives,isquitegroundless.RaleighwasneverinVirginia;foralthoughbyhismoneyandinfluence,andperhapsyetmorebyhisuntiringenergy,heorganizednineexploringexpeditions,hedidnotsailwithanyofthemexceptthefirst,whichwascommandedbyhishalf-brother,SirHumphreyGilbert.ButthishadtoreturndisabledtoEnglandwithouttouchingland.[3]

SirJosephBanks,thewell-knownnaturalist,andPresidentoftheRoyalSocietyfrom1777tillhisdeathin1820,wasatgreatpainstocollectthehistoryoftheintroductionofthepotatointothesecountries.Hisaccountis,thatRaleigh'sexpedition,grantedtohimunderpatent"todiscoversuchremoteheathenandbarbarouslands,notyetactuallypossessedbyanyChristianprince,norinhabitedbyChristianpeople,astohimshallseemgood,"broughthomethepotatoofVirginia.ThisCharterbearsdate25thMarch,1584,andwasanewandmoreextensiveonethanthefirstgrantedtohim,whichwasinJune,1578.WiththisexpeditionsailedoneThomasHeriot,calledtheMathematician,whowasprobablysentouttoexamineandreportuponthenaturalhistoryofsuch

countriesastheymightdiscover.HewroteanaccountofVirginia,andoftheproductsofitssoil,whichisprintedinthefirstvolumeofDeBry'scollectionofVoyages.Underthearticle"Roots,"hedescribesaplantwhichhecallsOpanawk."Theseroots,"hesays,"areround,someaslargeasawalnut,othersmuchlarger;theygrowindampsoil,manyhangingtogetherasiffixedwithropes.Theyaregoodfoodeitherboiledorroasted."Thismuststrikeanyoneasaveryaccuratedescriptionofthepotato.Gerarde,inhisHerbal,publishedin1597,givesafigureofthepotatounderthenameofthepotatoofVirginia.Heassertsthathereceivedtherootsfromthatcountry,andthattheyweredenominatedNaremberga.

Raleigh'sexpedition,whichseemstohavebeenalreadyprepared,sailed

inApril,andhavingtakenpossessionofthatportionofAmericawhichwasafterwardsnamedVirginia,inhonourofQueenElizabeth,andbyherownexpressdesire,returnedtoEnglandaboutthemiddleofSeptemberofthesameyear.Although,asalreadystated,inalllikelihoodthepotatoofVirginiawasintroducedintoEnglandandIrelandbythatexpedition,SirJosephBankswasofopinionthattheroothadcometoEuropeearlier.Hisreasonsforthinkingsoare:1.Clusius,otherwiseL'Ecluse,thegreatbotanist,whenresidinginVienna,in1598,receivedthepotatofromtheGovernorofMons,inHainault,whohadobtainedittheyearbeforefromoneoftheattendantsofthePope'sLegateunderthenameofTaratoufl,[4]andlearnedfromhimthatinItaly,whereitwastheninuse,nopersonknewwhetheritcamefromSpainorAmerica.FromthiswemayconcludethattherootwasinItalybeforeitwas

broughttoEngland;forthisconversationhappenedonlythreeyearsafterthesailingoftheexpeditionof1584.ItisfurtherveryprobablethattherootfounditswayfromSpainintoItaly,asthosepartsofAmerica,wherethepotatowasindigenous,werethensubjecttoSpain.2.PeterCicca,inhisChronicleof1553,says,theinhabitantsofQuitoanditsvicinityhave,besidesmays(maize),atuberousrootwhichtheyeatandcallpapas;whichClusiuswithmuchprobabilityguessestobethesamesortofplantthathereceivedfromtheGovernorofMons.


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Thereisoneobviousdifficultyinthisreasoning:wearenotatallsurethatitwasthepotatoofVirginiathatClusiusobtainedfromtheGovernorofMons,itmayhavebeenthesweetpotato.However,theconclusionwhichSirJosephBanksdrawsfromthesedetailsis,thatpotatoeswerebroughtfromthemountainouspartsofSouthAmericaintheneighbourhoodofQuito,andthat,astheSpaniardswerethesolepossessorsofthatcountry,therecanbelittledoubtoftheirhavingbeenfirstcarriedintoSpain.Further,thatasitwouldtakeaconsiderabletimetointroducethemintoItaly,andmaketheItaliansacquaintedwiththemtotheextentofgivingthemaname,thereisgoodreasontobelieve,thattheyhadbeenseveralyearsinEuropebeforetheyhadbeensenttoClusius.

About600,000acresoflandinMunsterweredeclaredforfeitedtotheCrownonthefalloftheDesmonds.Thiswasparceledoutto"Gentlemenundertakers"oncertainconditions;onebeingthattheywerebound,withinalimitedtime,topeopletheirestateswith"Well-affectedEnglishmen."Raleighbecameanundertaker,andbyalegalinstrument,bearingtheQueen'sname,datedfromGreenwich,lastofFebruary,1586,hehadgiventohim42,000acresofthisland,andbyafurthergranttheyearafter,theMonasteryofMolanassaandthePrioryofBlackFriars,nearYoughal.[5]

FaminefollowedcloseuponthewarwiththeDesmonds."Atlength,"says

Hooker,"thecurseofGodwassogreat,andthelandsobarrenbothofmanandbeast,thatwhatsoeverdidtravelfromoneendtotheotherofallMunster,evenfromWaterfordtoSmerwick,aboutsixscoremiles,heshouldnotmeetman,woman,orchild,savingincitiesortowns,noryetseeanybeast,savefoxes,wolves,orotherraveningbeasts."[6]SuchwasMunsterwhenthegreatcolonizerplantedthepotatothere,inthehope,perhaps,ofavertingfuturefamines!

ItisgenerallyassumedbywritersonIrelandthat,soonaftertheintroductionofthepotato,itbecameageneralfavourite,andwascultivatedinmostpartsofthecountryasanimportantcrop.Thisseemstobefarfromcorrect.Supposingthepotatowhichwenowgrow,theSolanumtuberosumofbotanists,tohavecometoIrelandin1586,the

usuallyaccepteddate,itdoesnotseemtohavebeeninanythinglikegeneralfavourorcultivationonehundredandfortyyearslater,atleastinthericherandmoreimportantdistrictsofthecountry.Inapamphletprintedin1723,onehundredandthirty-sevenyearsaftertheintroductionofthepotato,speakingofthefluctuationofthemarkets,thewritersays:"Wehavealwayseitheraglutoradearth;veryoftentherearenottendaysdistancebetweentheextremityoftheoneandtheother;suchawantofpolicyisthere(inDublinespecially)onthemostimportantaffairofbread,withoutaplentyofwhichthepoormuststarve."Ifpotatoeswereatthistimelookeduponasanimportantfood-crop,theauthorwouldscarcelyomitnoticingthefact,especiallyinspeakingofthefoodofthepoor.Atpage25ofthesamepamphlet,afterexposinganddenouncingthecorruptionsofthosewhofarmed

tithes,thewriteradds:"ThereforeanActofParliamenttoascertainthetitheofhops,nowintheinfancyoftheirgreatgrowingimprovement,flax,hemp,turnip-fields,grass-seeds,anddyeingrootsorherbs,ofallmines,coals,minerals,commonstobetakenin,etc.,seemsnecessarytowardstheencouragementofthem."[7]Nomentionofthepotato.

Inthenextyear,1724,thispamphleteerwasansweredbyananonymousM.P.,whomentionspotatoestwice.Arguingagainstwhathecalls"extravagantstocks,"hesays:"Formerly(evensincePopery)itwas


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thoughtnoillpolicytobewellwiththeparson,butnowthecaseisquitealtered,forifhegiveshim[sic]theleastprovocation,I'llimmediatelystockonepartofmylandwithbullocksandtheotherwithpotatoes...sofarewelltithes."[8]Thefactofpotatoesnotbeingtitheableatthisperiodseemstohaveencouragedtheircultivation.Thenextpassagegoestoshowthattheywerebecomingthefoodofthosewhocouldaffordnobetter.Speakingofhighrents,andwhathecalls"cantingofland"bylandlords,hesays:"Again,Isawthesamefarm,attheexpirationofthelease,cantedovertheimprovingtenant'shead,andsettoanotheratarack-rent,who,thoughcomingintothefineimprovementsofhispredecessor,(andhimselfnobadimprover,)yetcanscarceaffordhisfamilybuttertotheirpotatoes,andisdailysinkingintoarrearsbesides."[9]Fromthetoneofthispassage,andfromthecontext,thewriterseemstoregardthepotatoasfoodtobeusedonlybytheverypoorest;forheadducesitsusetoshowtowhatastaterack-rentingcanbringevenanindustriousfarmer.

Theburthenofallthepamphletsofthisperioddealingwiththelandquestion,wasanattackonlandownersfortheirexcessivedesiretothrowlandintograss.Onepublishedin1727hasthispassage:"ByrunningintothefancyofgrazingafterthemanneroftheScythians,they[thelandowners]areeverydaydepopulatingthecountry."[10]Inanother,printedinthesametype,andapparentlybythesamehand,weread:"Tobestowthewholekingdomonbeefandmutton,andtherebydrive

outhalfthepeople,whoshouldeattheirshare,andforcetheresttosendsometimesasfarasgyptforbreadtoeatwithit,isamostpeculiaranddistinguishedpieceofpubliceconomyofwhichIhavenocomprehension."[11]Atthistimetherewasextremewantinthecountry,onaccount,itwasthought,ofthegreatquantityoflandwhich,withinashortperiod,hadbeenputoutoftillage;graziers(whomthewritercalls"thatabominableraceofgraziers")beingmadafterlandthenastheyarenow.Buttherewereothercauses.WilliamtheThird,atthebiddingoftheEnglishParliament,annihilatedtheflourishingwoollenmanufactureofIreland;hertradewiththeColonieswasnotonlycramped,butruined,bythenavigationlawsinforce;which,amongstotherthings,enactedthatnocolonialproducecouldcometoIrelanduntilithadatfirstenteredanEnglishport,andhadbeenlanded

there.Thus,whilstthefactthatvasttractsofthesoilhadbeenputoutofcultivationcompelledthecountrytobuyfoodabroad,theunjustandselfishdestructionofhertradeandcommercebyEnglandleftherwithoutthemoneytodoso.

Thepeoplebeinginastateofgreatdestitution,theauthorofthe"Memorial"quotedabove,said,thereshouldberaisedbytaxesonafewcommodities,suchastea,coffee,etc.,110,000.100,000tobuy100,000barrelsofwheat,and10,000premiumtothosewhowouldimportit.TothistheAuthoroftheAnswerreplies:--"Bytalkingsofamiliarlyof110,000byataxuponafewcommodities,itisplainyouareeithernaturallyoraffectedlyignorantofourpresentcondition,orelseyouwouldknowandallow,thatsuchasumisnottoberaisedherewithouta

generalexcise;since,inproportiontoourwealth,wepayalreadyintaxesmorethanEnglandeverdidintheheightofthewar.Andwhenyouhavebroughtoveryourcorn,whowhowillbethebuyers?Mostcertainly,notthepoor,whowillnotbeabletopurchasethetwentiethpartofit....Ifyouwillproposeageneralcontributioninsupportingthepooronpotatoesandbuttermilktillthenewcorncomesin,perhapsyoumaysucceedbetter,becausethethingatleastispossible."

Potatoculturewasclearlyontheincrease;thecorncrop,however,wasstilllookedtoasthefoodofthenation.Butifthegrowingof


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potatoeswasontheincrease,itseemstohavepartlyarisenfromtheverynecessityofthecase.Therewasnotlandenoughundertillagetogivefoodtothepeople,itwaslaiddownforgrazing.Mountains,poorlands,andbogswereunsuitabletograziers,noryetwouldtheyyieldwheat,nor,inmanyinstances,oats,oranywhitecropwhatever;butthepotatowasfoundtosucceedverywellinsuchplaces,andtogivealargerquantityofsustenancethansuchlandwouldotherwiseyield.Itscultivationwasthereforespreading,butspreading,itwouldseem,chieflyamongstthepoorCelticnatives,whohadtobetakethemselvestothedespisedwastesandbarrenmountains.Intherichlowlands,andthereforeamongsttheEnglishcolony(forwhomaloneallthepublicationsofthosetimeswereintended),thepotatowasstilladespisedarticleoffood.Andtothisthelatterpartoftheabove-citedpassagepoints.Theproposaltosustainthepeopleonpotatoesandbuttermilkuntilthenewcornshouldcomein,isevidentlyanironicalone,reallymeanttoconveythedegradationtowhichgrazinghadbroughtthecountry.Seventyoreightyyearslatertheironybecameasadandterriblereality.

Meantimeincreasedattentionwasgiventotheimprovementofagriculture,arising,inagreatmeasure,fromthewidespreadpanicwhichthepassionforgrazinghadcaused.Goodandpatrioticmensawbutoneresultfromit,adangerousandunwisedepopulation,andtheycalledaloudforremediesagainstsoterribleacalamity.TheAuthorofthe

"AnswertotheMemorial"quotedabove,says,withbittersarcasm:--"Youareconcernedhowstrangeandsurprisingitwouldbeinforeignpartstohearthatthepoorwerestarvinginarichcountry....Butwhyallthisconcernofthepoor?Wewantthemnotasthecountryisnowmanaged;theymayfollowthousandsoftheirleaders,andseektheirbreadabroad.Wheretheploughhasnowork,onefamilycandothebusinessoffifty,andyoumaysendawaytheotherforty-nine.Anadmirablepieceofhusbandryneverknownorpractisedbythewisestnations,whoerroneouslythoughtpeopletobetherichesofacountry."

Thisanxiousdesiretopreventthecountryfrom"runningintograzing,"calledforthmanytreatisesandpamphletsontheimprovementofagriculture.Somewritersundertooktoshowthatagriculturewasmore

profitablethangrazing;othersturnedtheirattentiontoimprovetheimplementsofhusbandry,andtolaydownbetterrulesfortherotationofcrops.Potatoesmusthavebeenprettyextensivelygrownatthistime,andyettheydonotgetaplaceinanyoftherotationsgiven.Wehavefallow,wheat,oats,rye,turnips,saintfoin,lucerne,barley,peas,beans,clover,rye-grass,andevenbuck-wheat,taresandlentilsrotatedinvariousways,butthepotatoisnevermentioned.Thegrowthofturnipsistreatedwithspecialimportance.Hops,too,receivemuchconsideration,andtheRoyalDublinSocietypublishedin1733carefulandelaborateinstructionsfortheirgrowthandmanagement.Thereasonthegrowingofpotatoesgetsnoplaceinanyoftherotationsofthisperiodseemstobe,thattheirculturewaschieflyconfinedtothepoorCelticpopulationinthemountainousandneglecteddistricts;or,asthe

authorwhosepamphlethasashortintroductionfromSwift[12]says,"tothePopishpartsofthekingdom."Thosewhowroteinfavouroftillageinsteadofgrazing,setgreatimportanceontheincreaseofpopulation,andbewailedemigrationastheeffectofbadharvestsandwantoftillage.AllsuchobservationsmadeatthisperiodmustbetakenasreferringtotheEnglishcolony,orProtestantpopulation,exclusively,fortherewasnodesiretokeeptheCatholicsfromemigrating;quitethecontrary;buttheywereutterlyignoredintheperiodicalliteratureofthetime,exceptwhensomezealotcalledforamorestrictenforcingofthelaws"topreventthegrowthofPopery."Andthisviewissupported


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bythewriterquotedabove,whosaysitwouldbeforthe"Protestantinterest"toencouragetillage.PrimateBoulter,bewailingtheemigrationwhichresultedfromthefamineof1728,"theresultofthreebadharveststogether,"adds,"theworstisthatitaffectsonlytheProtestants,andreignschieflyintheNorth."[13]He,inhistenderanxietyfortheProtestantcolony,purchasedcornintheSouthtosellitcheaplyintheNorth,whichcausedseriousfoodriotsinCork,Limerick,Waterford,Clonmel,andotherplaces.Theseriotswereofcoursequelled,andtheriotersseverelypunished.ThebroadrichacresofthelowlandswereinthehandsoftheProtestants;andthesebeingspeciallysuitedtograzingwereaccordinglythrownintograss,whilsttheCatholicCeltsplantedthepotatointhedespisedhalf-barrenwilds,andwereincreasingfarmorerapidlythanthosewhowerepossessedofthechoicestlandsofthekingdom.

ButaterriblevisitationwasatthethresholdofCeltandSaxoninIreland;theFamineof1740and'41.Therewereseveralyearsofdearth,moreorlessseverebetween1720and1740."Theyears1725,1726,1727,and1728presentedscenesofwretchednessunparalleledintheannalsofanycivilizednation,"saysawriterintheGentleman'sMagazine.[14]Apamphletpublishedin1740deplorestheemigrationwhichwasgoingforwardasthejointeffectofbadharvestsandwantoftillage:"Wehavehad,"saystheauthor,"twelvebadharvestswithslightintermission."Tofindaparallelforthedreadfulfaminewhich

commencedin1740,wemustgobacktothecloseofthewarwiththeDesmonds.[15]Previousto1740thecustomofplacingpotatoesinpitsdugintheearth,wasunknowninIreland.Whenthestemswerewithered,thefarmerputadditionalearthonthepotatoesinthebedswheretheygrew,inwhichconditiontheyremainedtilltowardsChristmas,whentheyweredugoutandstored.[16]AnintenselyseverefrostsetinaboutthemiddleofDecember,1739,whilstthepotatoeswereyetinthiscondition,orprobablybeforetheyhadgotadditionalcovering.ThereisatraditioninsomepartsoftheSouththatthisfrostpenetratednineinchesintotheearththefirstnightitmadeitsappearance.Itwasprecededbyverysevereweather."InthebeginningofNovember,1739,theweather,"saysO'Halloran,"wasverycold,thewindblowingfromthenortheast,andthiswassucceededbytheseverestfrostknowninthe

memoryofman,whichentirelydestroyedthepotatoes,thechiefsupportofthepoor."[17]Itisknowntotraditionasthe"greatfrost,"the"hardfrost,"the"blackfrost,"etc.Besidesthedestructionofthepotatocropitproducedothersurprisingeffects;allthegreatriversofthecountryweresofrozenoverthattheybecamesomanyhighwaysfortraffic;tentswereerectedupontheice,andlargeassembliescongregateduponitforvariouspurposes.Theturnipsweredestroyedinmostplaces,buttheparsnipssurvived.Thedestructionofshrubsandtreeswasimmense,thefrostmakinghavocequallyofthehardyfurzeandthelordlyoak;itkilledbirdsofalmosteverykind,itevenkilledtheshrimpsofIrishtownStrand,nearDublin,sothattherewasnosupplyofthematmarketformanyyearsfromthatfamousshrimpground.[18]Towardstheendofthefrostthewoolfelloffthesheep,andtheydied

ingreatnumbers.[19]

OnSaturday,the29thofDecember,therewasaviolentstorminDublin,whichdidmuchdamagetotheshippingintheriver;andthecruiser,"ManofWar,"whichwasattheNorthBull,beingingreatdanger,"cuthercables,andranupbetweenthewallsasfarasSirJohn'sKey,[20]where,"addsthechronicler,"shenowliesfrozenup."[21]Anothercuriousincidentisrecordedwhichprovestheintensityofthefrostatthistime:thepressgangwasverybusyontherivercatchingsailorstomanthenavyforthewarwithSpain,andundertheabovedateweare


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informedthatmorethanonehundredpressedmenwalkedonshoreontheicewithseveralofthecrews;but,itisadded,"theygavetheirhonourtheywouldreturn."[22]

Thefrostcontinuedabouteightornineweeks,duringwhichallemploymentceased;thepotatocropwasdestroyed,andthemillsbeingfrozenupnocorncouldbeground.Theeffectonthepopulationwasgeneralandimmediate.InthemiddleofJanuarythedestitutionwassogreat,thatsubscriptionstorelievethepeopleweresetonfootinDublin,Cork,Limerick,Waterford,Clonmel,Wexford,andotherplaces.Somelandlordsdistributedmoneyandfoodtotheirstarvingtenants;but,Iamsorrytohavetosay,thatthenumberofsuchcasesonrecordisverylimited.[23]Therewasnogeneralcombinedefforttomeetthecalamity,theGovernmenttakingnoactionwhatever,exceptthattheLordLieutenant(theDukeofDevonshire)gavetothestarvingcitizensofDublin150intwodonations,andforbade,byproclamation,theexportationofgrain,meal,bread,etc.,excepttoEngland,"apprehending,"sayshisExcellency,"thattheexportationofcornwillbebadforthekingdomduringthisextremeseason."LateronintheFamine,andwhenabouttwohundredthousandofthepeoplehaddiedofhungerandpestilence,therewasanotherproclamationorderingageneralfastforthesuccessofhisMajesty'sarmsagainsttheKingofSpain!Butthefastingdoesnotseemtohavehadmucheffect;AdmiralVernon,commanderofthefleetattheseatofwarintheWestIndies,

tookPortobello,buthadtogiveitupagain;heattackedCarthagenawithallhisforces,wasrepulsed,andsothewarended.

Toaddtothemiseriesofthepeopletherewasagreatdroughtallthewinterandspring.[24]ApersonwritingfromtheWestonthe15thofApril,says:"Therehasnotbeenoneday'sraininConnaughtthesetwomonths."Thepriceofprovisionscontinuedtorise.Wheat,quotedtowardstheendofJanuaryintheDublinmarketat21s.6d.thequarter,reached215s.6d.inApril,314s.inJune,and316s.6d.inAugust.AbouttheendofMaytherewasaveryformidablebreadriotinthecity.Severalhundredpersonsbandedthemselvestogether,and,proceedingtothebakers'shopsandmealstores,tookthebreadandmealintothestreets,andsoldthemtothepooratlowprices.Somegavethe

proceedstotheowners,butothersdidnot.Theywereevidentlynotthieves,andatleastaportionofthemseemtohavebeenevenrespectable,yettheywerepunishedwithmuchseverity,severalhavingbeenwhipped,andonetransportedforsevenyears.SomedaysaftertheriottheLordMayorissuedaproclamationgivingpermissionto"foreignbakersandothers"tobakebreadinDublin;healsosenttoallthechurchwardensofthecitytofurnishhimwithinformationofanypersonswhohadconcealedcornontheirpremises;hedenounced"forestallers,"whometinthesuburbsthepeoplecominginwithprovisions,inordertobuythemupbeforetheyreachedthemarket;thusinagreatmeasurejustifyingtherioterswhowerewhippedandtransported.Thebakersbegantobakehouseholdbread,whichforsometimetheyhadceasedtodo,andpricesfell.[25]

Throughoutthecountrytherewerenumerousgangsofrobbers,mostofthemundoubtedlyhavingsprungintoexistencethroughsheerstarvation;some,probablytakingadvantageoftheFamine,pursuedwithmoreprofitandboldnessacourseoflifetowhichtheyhadbeenpreviouslyaddicted.Themostnotedofthesewas"theKellymountgang."Theirhead-quartersseemtohavebeenCoolcullenWood,aboutsevenmilesfromKilkenny,buttheyextendedtheiroperationsintotheKingandQueen'sCounties,andeventoGalway.Theyweresoformidablethatastrongmilitaryforcehadtobesentagainstthem.Thisgangcommittedno


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murders,disdainedtotakeanythingbutmoney,horses,andsheep;sometimesdividedtheirplunderwiththestarvingpeople;andhadintheoutsetpledgedtheirhonournottorobanyofthegentlemenoftheCountyKilkenny.Theyweredispersed,aftergivingmuchtroubletothemilitary;manyweretakenprisoners,triedbyaSpecialCommission,andofcoursehanged;for,whiletheGovernmentdidnothingtoalleviatethehorrorsoftheFamine,itputthelawinforcewithabloodyseverity.ThenumberofpersonscondemnedtodeathattheSpringAssizesof1741wasreallyappalling.TherewasasortofsmallfoodriotatCarrick-on-Suir,whereaboatladenwithoatswasaboutsailingforWaterford,whenthestarvingpeopleassembledtopreventthefoodtheysomuchneededfrombeingtakenaway.Theirconductwasclearlyillegal,buttheywereatdeath'sdoorwithhunger,andoughttohavebeentreatedwithsomeconsiderationandpatience.Ajusticeofthepeace,witheighteenfootsoldiersandatroopofhorse,cameoutandorderedthemtodisperse;theywouldnot,oratleasttheydidnotdosowithsufficientalacrity.Oneaccount,publishedafortnightorsoaftertheoccurrence,assertswithafeebletimidityakintofalsehood,thatstoneswerethrownbythepeople.Bethatasitmay,theywerefiredupon;fivestarvingwretcheswereshotdeadonthespot,andelevenbadlywounded.Togivethefinishingtouchtothiswickedslaughter,theLordsJustices,PrimateBoulterandLordChancellorJocelyn,intheabsenceoftheLordLieutenant,cameoutwithaproclamation,offeringahandsomerewardfortheapprehensionofanyofthosewhohadescapedthe

well-directedfireofthesoldiery.

TheFaminecontinuedthroughtheyear1741andevendeepenedinseverity,provisionsstillkeepingatstarvationprices.TheDukeofDevonshiremettheParliamentonthe6thofOctober,andinthecourseofhisaddresssaid:"Thesicknesswhichhathprovedsomortalinseveralpartsofthekingdom,andisthoughttohavebeenprincipallyowingtothescarcityofwholesomefood,mustverysensiblyaffectHisMajesty,whohathamosttenderconcernforallhissubjects,andcannotbutengageyourseriousattentiontoconsiderofpropermeasurestopreventthelikecalamityforthefuture,andtothisdesirableendtheincreaseoftillage,whichwouldatthesametimeusefullyemploytheindustriouspoor,maygreatlycontribute."Inanswertothisportionof

thespeech,theypromiseto"preparesuchlawsas,byencouragingtillage,andemployingtheindustriouspoor,maybethemeansforthefuturetopreventthelikecalamity."ACommitteewasappointedtoinquireinto"thelategreatscarcity,"andsomemattersconnectedwithtillage.Theymetmanytimes;nowandthenreportedtotheHousethattheyhadmadesomeprogress,andatlasttheheadsofabillwerepresentedbyMr.LeHunte,theChairman,whichwereorderedtobesenttoEngland.Nothing,asfarasIcandiscover,resultedfromthisproceeding,unlessindeeditwasabillpassedin1743"topreventtheperniciouspracticeofburningland,"whichisprobableenough,astheheadsofthisbillwerepresentedtotheHousebythesameMr.LeHunte.DuringthetimethisCommitteewassittingandreporting,andsittingagain,Mr.Thos.Cuffe,secondedbyMr.GeorgeM'Cartney,presentedthe

headsofabill"forthemoreeffectualsecuringthepaymentofrentsandpreventingthefraudsoftenants,"whichwasreceivedandreadandcommittedbyaCommitteeofthewholeHouseonpresentation,andwashurriedthroughitsotherstages,apparentlywithoutdiscussion,butcertainlywithoutopposition;andthisinthesecondyearofaFamine,nowcombinedwithpestilence,whichslaughteredone-eighthofthewholepopulation.[26]TheActwasatemporaryone,butwasneverafterwardsallowedtodieout.Itwasrenewedinvariousreigns,andisthefoundationoftheActswhichwereinforceupto1870"forthemoreeffectualsecuringthepaymentofrents."


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Thelandhadbeenthrownintograzingtoanalarmingextentforyears,sothattheacreageforproducinggrainandothersuchfoodwasverylimited;thepeoplefellintolistlessdespairfromwhattheyhadenduredin1740,anddidnotcultivatethegroundthatwasstillleftfortillage.TheCatholicswereparalyzedandrenderedunfitforindustriouspursuits,byanactiverenewaloftheworstpenalstatutes.TheprospectofawarwithSpain,whichwasactuallydeclaredinOctober,1739,wasmadethepretextforthisnewpersecution,andalltheseveritiesrecommendedbyPrimateBoulterwereputintorigidexecution.Thesemeasuresplungedthepeopleintothedeepestdistress:horroranddespairpervadedeverymind.[27]

SuchwasthestateofIrelandin1741,whenbloodyfluxandmalignantfevercametofinishwhattheFaminehadleftundone.Thesescourges,unliketheFamine,felluponthecastleaswellasonthehovel,manypersonsinthehigherranksoflifehavingdiedofthemduringtheyear;amongstwhomwefindseveralphysicians;thesonofAldermanTew;Mr.JohnSmith,HighSheriffofWicklow;Mr.Whelan,Sub-SheriffofMeath;theRev.Mr.Heartlib,CastleChaplain;Mr.Kavanagh,ofBorrisHouse,andhisbrother;thesonoftheLordMayor-Elect;twojudges,namely,BaronWainrightandtheRightHon.JohnRogerson,ChiefJusticeoftheKing'sBench.Theprisonersdiedinthousandsinthejails,especiallypoordebtors,whohadbeenlongincarcerated.InNovember,1741,the

prisonersinCorkjailsentapetitiontoParliament,inwhichtheysay,that"abovesevenhundredpersonsdiedthereduringthelatesevereseasons,andthatthejailisnowsofullthatthereisscarceroomfortheirlyingonthefloors."ThefeverwassogeneralinLimerickthattherewashardlyonefamilyinthewholecitywhohadnotsomememberillofit.GalwaywascruellyscourgedbytheFamine,tomeetwhichlittleornothingseemstohavebeendonebythosewhoseboundendutyitwastocometothereliefoftheirstarvingbrethren.Whenfeverappearedontheterriblescene,thetownbecameonegreatlazaretto.UnderdateofJulythe8th,thefollowingintelligencecomesfromthatunhappyplace:"Thefeversoragesherethatthephysicianssayitismorelikeaplaguethanafever,andrefusetovisitpatientsforanyfeewhatever."[28]"Thegentlemenofthecounty"met,inawaypeculiar

tothemselves,thistwofoldcalamitywhichthreatenedutterannihilationtotheirhistoriccapital.Tocounteracttheinevitableresultsoffamine,theyannouncedthattheywouldgivetherewardof30forthefirst,and10foreveryotherrobberthatwouldbeprosecutedtoconviction,andthisinadditiontowhatevertheGovernmentwouldallow.Whatexcessiveliberality!Theymusthavehadplentyofmoney.Theplague,whichnophysicianwouldattend,theydealtwithbyaproclamationalso,ofwhichtheyseemedproud,fortheypublisheditrepeatedlyinthejournalsofthetime.Hereisanextract:"ThetownofGalwaybeingatthistimeverysickly,thegentlemenofthecountythinkpropertoremovetheracesthatweretoberunforatPark,nearthesaidtownofGalway,toTerloghGurranes,nearthetownofTuam,inthesaidcounty."Whathumane,proper-thinking"gentlemen"

theywere,tobesure;andsuchpreciselegalphraseology!Buttheirenticingbilloffarecontainedmorethanthe"racesthatweretoberunfor;"itannouncedballsandplayseverynightfortheentertainmentoftheladies.

Thelearnedandkind-heartedDr.Berkeley,ProtestantBishopofCloyne,underdate21stMay,1741,writestoaafriendinDublin:--"Thedistressesofthesickandpoorareendless.ThehavocofmankindinthecountiesofCork,Limerick,andsomeadjacentplaces,hathbeenincredible.Thenationprobablywillnotrecoverthislossinacentury.


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TheotherdayIheardonefromthecountyofLimericksay,thatwholevillageswereentirelydispeopled.AbouttwomonthssinceIheardSirRichardCoxsay,thatfivehundredweredeadintheparish,thoughinacountyIbelievenotverypopulous.Itweretobewishedpeopleofconditionwereattheirseatsinthecountryduringthesecalamitoustimes,whichmightprovidereliefandemploymentforthepoor.Certainlyiftheseperishtherichmustbesufferersintheend."Theauthorofaletterentitled"TheGroansofIreland,"addressedtoanIrish.MemberofParliament,thusopenshissubject:--"Ihavebeenabsentfromthiscountryforsomeyears,andonmyreturntoit,lastsummer,founditthemostmiserablesceneofuniversaldistressthatIhaveeverreadofinhistory:wantandmiseryineveryface;therichunablealmostastheywerewillingtorelievethepoor;theroadsspreadwithdeadanddyingbodies;mankindofthecolourofthedocksandnettlestheyfedon;twoorthree,sometimesmore,goingonacartothegraveforwantofbearerstocarrythem,andmanyburiedonlyinthefieldsandditcheswheretheyperished.Thisuniversalscarcitywasensuedbyfluxesandmalignantfevers,whichsweptoffmultitudesofallsorts:wholevillageswereleftwastebywant,andsickness,anddeathinvariousshapes;andscarcelyahouseinthewholeislandescapedfromtearsandmourning.Thelossmustbeupwardsof400,000,butsupposingit200,000,(itwascertainlymore)itwastoogreatforthisill-peopledcountry,andthemoregrievousastheyweremostlyofthegrown-uppartoftheworkingpeople.""Whencecanthisproceed?"heasks;andheanswers,

"Fromthewantofpropertillagelawstoguideandtoprotectthehusbandmaninthepursuitofhisbusiness."[29]

Thiswriterfurthersays,theterriblevisitationof1740and'41wasthethirdfaminewithintwentyyears;sothatinviewoftheseandotherfamines,sinceandbefore,IrelandmightbenotinaptlydescribedasthelandofFamines.AlmostthefirstobjectoneseesonsailingintoDublinBayisamonumenttoFamine.Thisbeautifulbay,asfar-famedastheBayofNaplesitself,hasoftenbeenputincomparisonwithit.MorethanoncehasitbeenmylottowitnessthetouristonboardtheHolyheadpacket,comingtoIrelandforthefirsttime,straininghiseyestowardsthecoast,whentherisingsungaveafaintblueoutlineoftheWicklowmountains,andassuredhimthathehadactuallyandreallybeforehim,

"TheHolyHillsofIreland."Nearerandnearerhecomes,andHowthatonesideandWicklowHeadattheotherdefinewhathe,notunjustly,regardsastheBay.Andsurelyonabrightclearmorning,withjustenoughofsunlight,itisasfairasceneasmortaleyecanreston.TheDublinandWicklowhills,whichatfirstseemedtorisefromtheshore,recedebydegrees,andwiththeirundulatinggracefuloutlines,becomeacharmingbackground.WicklowHeaddropsquietlyoutofthelandscape,andHowthtothenorth,andBrayHeadtothesouth,nowbecometheboldgiganticflankingtowersofwhatismorestrictlyregardedasDublinBay.Thetraveller'seyes,beamingwithenjoyment,surveythefineperpendicularrockofBrayHead,withtherailwaymarkingathinlineuponitssidenearlymidwayabovethesea,andalmostsuspendedoverit.Andthenthereisthatbeautifulcone,theSugarloafmountain;further

stillaway,theloftierDjous,overhangingadark,mistyvalley,whichmarksthespotwherethewatersofPowerscourttumbledowntherockaheightofthreehundredfeet;on,onacrosstheDublinrangetoMontpelier,thevalleyoftheLiffey,thecity--notabletothenorth-westbyitsdusky-brownatmosphere;thenthehistoricplainsofClontarf;Howthonceagain,andthepanoramaiscomplete.Buthenearstheshorerapidly,andtheharbourgrowsmoredistinct,Kingstown,risingfromitwithitsterraces,andspires,andtowers,lookingimportantandaristocratic.Therichandvariedfringeofgardens,andlawns,andvillasfromDalkeytoSeapoint,markatoncethefashionable


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watering-place;whilstDalkeyCastle,standingoverthegreatprecipitousquarryfromwhichKingstownharbourwasbuilt,andtheObeliskonKillineyHillindicatepointsfromwhichcommandingviewscanbeobtained.

Themorrow,andletussupposethetouristascendstothemassivebutfriendlygatewhichadmitstothatsameObeliskhill.Waseversuchanascentopentohimbefore?Thebroad,windingavenue,literallycarpetedwithitsfirmgreensatinsward,definedbyabeltofgracefulplantingateitherside,whilstinnooksandcozyplacesareinvitingseatsfortheweakandwearytorestawhile,andgainbreathtoenablethemtopursuetheirjourneyupwards.TheObelisk,asitiscalled,standsonthehighestpoint;theviewfromitoneverysideisunrivalledforbeauty--thesublimeithasnot--butthebeautifulisperfect.Themountains,whichyesterdaymorningatsea,gavethefirstglimmeringindicationoftheIrishcoast,assumenewshapes,andarethrownintonewcombinations.Inland,thelandscapestretchesontillittouchestheskyinalldirectionsexceptwherethemountainsintervene.Lookingnorth,overtheflatplainofClontarf,hebeholdstheloftyMournerange,relievedagainstthesky;glancingalongtheDublinmountainshehasthatwoodedandvillaedslope,farastheeyecanreach,whichformsthesouthernsuburb,arivalforwhichnocityinEuropecanboast:totheeastarethedeepclearwatersofthesea,fourhundredfeetbeneath;andhegazeswithdelightonthetranquilandgracefullycurved

strand,stretchingthreeorfourmilesontoBray,whichfringesthatcharminginletknownasKillineyBay;itswavessendingupwards,inmeasuredcadence,theirsoft,distinct,suggestivemurmurs,whilsttheyspendthemselvesontheshoreoftheevernew,everdelightful,everenchantingValeofShangannah,immortalizedbyourIrishpoet,DenisFlorenceM'Carthy.ButthisoldObeliskitself,whatisit?--Whatbroughtithere?Thetouristreads:"LastyearbeinghardwiththePOOR,thewallsabouttheseHILLS,andTHIS,etc.,erectedbyJOHNMALPAS,Esq.,June,1742."ThestoryofIrelandisbeforehim;itistoldinthelandscape,andtheinscription,itmaybeexpressedintwowords--BeautyandStarvation.

Thefamineof1741didnotdeterfarmersfromthecultureofthepotato;

onthecontrary,itincreasedrapidlyafterthatperiod,andwenowfindit,forthefirsttime,recognisedasarotationcrop.Theypreferredtoturntheirattentiontoimproveitsqualityandproductiveness,andtotakemeasuresforitsprotectionfromfrost,ratherthantoabandonitsculture.And,indeed,itwasasmuchamatterofnecessityaschoicethattheydidso.Thepotato,onagivenarea,suppliedaboutfourtimesasmuchfoodasanyothercrop;and,fromthelimitedbreadthoflandthenavailablefortillage,thepopulationwouldbeincontinualdangeroffallingshortoffood,unlessthepotatowerecultivatedtoalargeextent.Theagriculturalliteratureofthecountryfrom1741untilthearrivalofthecelebratedtraveller,ArthurYoung,inIreland,consistedchieflyoffierceattacksupongraziers--ofacontinualdemandforthebreakingupofgrasslandsintotillage--ofplansfortheestablishment

ofpublicgranariestosustainthepeopleinyearsofbadharvests,andoftheresultsofexperimentsundertakentoimprovethecultureofthepotato.Thewritersonthesesubjectsalsofrequentlydenouncedtherichforthewretchednessandmiserytowhichtheyallowedthelabouringpoortobereduced.Theauthorofapamphlet,whichwentthroughseveraleditions,thusattacksthem,intheeditionof1755:--"Thewantoftradeandindustrycausessuchinequalityinthedistributionoftheir(thepeople's)property,thatwhileafewoftherichersortcanwantonlypamperappetitesofeverykind,andindulgewiththeaffluenceofsomanymonarchs,thepoor,alas!whomakeatleastninety-nineofevery


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hundredamongthem,areunderthenecessityofgoingcladafterthefashionoftheoldIrish,whosemannersandcustomstheyretaintothisday,andoffeedingonpotatoes,themostgenerallyembracedadvantageoftheinhabitants,whichthegreatSirWalterRaleighleftbehindhim."[30]Thiswriter'sremarksapplychieflytoCork,Waterford,Kerry,andLimerick.Heproceeds:"Thefeedingofcattleonlargedairiesofseveralhundredacrestogether,maybemanagedbytheinhabitantsofoneortwocabins,whosewretchedsubsistence,forthemostpart,dependsuponanacreortwoofpotatoesandalittleskimmedmilk."[31]

ManythinkthattheyieldperacreofpotatoeshasgreatlyincreasedwithtimeinIreland.Thisopinion,althoughtrue,isnottruetotheextentgenerallysupposed;for,whenArthurYoungtravelledinthiscountry,andevenbeforeit,theyield,asfarasrecorded,seemsnearlyequaltothequantityproducedatpresent,exceptinsomepeculiarcases.Awell-knownagriculturist,JohnWynneBaker,writingin1765,says,inanotetohis"AgricultureEpitomized,"thathehadinthepastyear(1764)ofapplepotatoes(notaprolifickind)intheproportionofmorethanonehundredandninebarrelsanacre.

ArthurYoungcametoIrelandin1776,andhebringshisaccountofthecountrydownto1779.Thirty-sixyearshadelapsedsincethegreatFamine,onlyonegeneration,andhefoundthefamousrootofVirginiaagreaterfavouritethanever.FromSlane,inMeath,hewritesthat

potatoesareagreatarticleofcultureatKilcock,wherehefoundthemgrownforcattle;storebullockswerefeduponthem,andtheywereevendeemedgoodfoodforhorseswhenmixedwithbran.InSlaneitself,theoldcustom,whichwasthechiefcauseofthefamineof1740,stillprevailed;forhesays,thepeopletherewerenotdonetakinguptheirpotatoestillChristmas.Thepotatoculture,heelsewhereremarks,hasincreasedtwenty-foldwithinthelasttwentyyears,allthehogsinthecountrybeingfattenedonthem.Theywereusuallygiventothemhalf-boiled.Whereverhewenthealmostinvariablyfoundthefoodofthepeople,atleastforninemonthsoftheyear,tobepotatoesandmilk,exceptingpartsofUlster,wheretheyhadoatbread,andsometimesfleshmeat.IntheSouth,forthelabourersofSirLuciusO'Brienandtheirfamilies,consistingoftwohundredandsixty-sevensouls,thequantity

ofpotatoesplanted,asappearsfromapapergiventohim,wasforty-fiveacresandaquarter,rangingfromaquarterofanacretofouracresforeachfamily.Astoyield,thelowesthegivesisfortybarrelsperacre,Irishofcourse;andthehighestreportedtohimwasatCastleOliver,nearBruff,namely,onehundredandfiftybarrels(Bristol).[32]Theaverageproduceoftheentirecountryhegivesatthreehundredandtwenty-eightbushelsperacre--aboutsixty-sixbarrels."Yet,togainthismiserableproduce,"hesays,"mucholdhay,andnineteen-twentiethsofallthedunginthekingdomisemployed."PotatoesgrownonthecoastwerefrequentlysenttoDublinbysea;andLordTyronetoldArthurYoungatCurraghmore,thatmuchofthepotatoesgrownaboutDungarvanweresentthither,togetherwithbirch-brooms.Theboatsweresaidtobefreightedwithfruitandtimber!

Amongsttheendlessvarietiesofthepotatowhichappearedfromtimetotime,thatknownasthe"apple"wasthebestinquality,andstooditsgroundthelongest,havingbeenafavouriteforatleastseventyoreightyyears.TheproducerecordedaboveasraisedbyMr.WynneBakerwasaswehaveseenfromthisspecies,whatkindgavethestillgreateryieldatCastleOliverisnotrecorded.Thusitisperfectlyclearthatin1780,andevenbeforethattime,thestaplefoodoftheIrishnationwasonceagainthepotato.Infact,itwascultivatedtoafargreaterextentthanbefore1740,whichcausedthepopulationtoincreasewith


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wonderfulrapidity.[33]

TheprolificbutuncertainrootonwhichtheIrishpeoplebecame,yearafteryear,moredependentforexistence,onceagaindashedtheirhopesin1821,andthrewagreatpartoftheSouthandWestintoastateofdecidedfamine.Thespringofthatyearwaswetandstormy,retardingthenecessarywork,especiallytheplantingofpotatoes.Thesummerwasalsounfavourable,Maywascoldandungenial;inJunetherewasfrost,withanorthwind,andsometimesascorchingsun.Theautumn,likethespring,waswetandsevere,rainfallingtoaveryunusualextent.Theconsequentfloodsdidextensiveinjury;notmerelywerecropsofhayfloatedoffthelowlandmeadows,butinvariousplacesfieldsofpotatoeswerecompletelywashedoutofthegroundandcarriedaway.Thecropsweredeficient,especiallythepotatocrop,muchofwhichwasleftunduguntiltheensuingspring,partlyonaccountoftheinclementweather,partlybecauseitwasnotworththelabour.Thelowgroundswere,inmanyinstances,inundatedtosuchadepththateventhepotatoesinpitscouldnotbereached.AboutthemiddleofDecember"theShannonatAthlone,"saysaneye-witness,"lookedlikeaboundlessocean,"coveringforweeksthepotatofields,souringthecrop,andpreventingallaccesstothepits.Thelossofthepotatointhisyear,anditscause,arethusepitomisedinthefollowingextractfromtheReportoftheLondonTavernCommittee:--"Fromthemostauthenticcommunications,itappearedthatthebadqualityandpartialfailureof

thepotatocropoftheprecedingyear(1821)--theconsequenceoftheexcessiveandprotractedhumidityoftheseason--hadbeenaprincipalcauseofthedistress,andthatithadbeengreatlyaggravatedbytherottingofthepotatoesinthepitsinwhichtheywerestored.Thisdiscoverywasmadeatsolateaperiodthatthepeasantrywerenotabletoprovideagainsttheconsequencesofthatevil."[34]FromtheletterspublishedintheirownReport,theCommitteewouldhavebeenabundantlyjustifiedinadding,thatthedistresswasgreatlyincreasedbythealmosttotalwantofemploymentforthelabouringclasses,arisingfromthefact,thatverymanyofthelandlordsinthedistrictsthatsufferedmostwereabsentees.AwriteronthisFamine,who,ingeneral,isinclinedtobesevereinhisstricturesuponthepeople,thusopensthesubject:--"Thedistresswhichhasalmostuniversallyprevailedin

Irelandhasnotbeenoccasionedsomuchbyanexcessivepopulationasbyaculpableremissnessonthepartofpersonspossessingproperty,andneglectingtotakeadvantageofthosegreatresources,andofthoseamplemeansofprovidingforanincreasingpopulation,whichNaturehassoliberallybestowedonthiscountry."[35]

Thewinterandspringof1822continuedverywet,anditwasextremelydifficulttoperformanyagriculturalwork.Seedpotatoeswereexcessivelyscarce,andthefirstreliefthatreachedthecountrywasaprudentandtimelyone;itconsistedoffourteenhundredtonsofseedpotatoes,boughtbytheGovernmentinEnglandandScotland.Charitablepersonsathomealsogaveseedpotatoes,cutintosets,topreventtheirbeingusedforfood;yet,inmanyinstances,thosesetsweretaken

outofthegroundbythestarvingpeopleandeaten.Cork,Limerick,Kerry,Clare,Mayo,andGalwaywerethecountiesmostseverelyvisited.These,accordingtotheaccountsgiveninthepublicjournalsofthetime,wereinastateofactualfamine.Potatoeswereeightpenceastoneindistrictswheretheyusuallysoldfromonepennytotwopence.Butalthoughthepotatohadfailed,foodfromthecerealcropswasabundantandcheapenoughifthepeoplehadmoneytobuyit."Therewasnowantoffoodofanotherdescriptionforthesupportofhumanlife;onthecontrary,thecropsofgrainhadbeenfarfromdeficient,andthepricesofcornandoatmealwereverymoderate.Thecalamitiesof1822


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may,therefore,besaidtohaveproceededlessfromthewantoffooditself,thanfromthewantofadequatemeansofpurchasingit;or,inotherwords,fromthewantofprofitableemployment."[36]PoorSkibbereen,thatgotsuchamelancholynotorietyinthelaterandfarmoreterribleFamineof'47,wasreported,inMay,1822,tobeinastateofdistress"horriblebeyonddescription."Potatoeswerenotmerelydear,theywereinferior,nothavingripenedforwantofsufficientheat;and,furthermore,theysouredinthepits.Theuseofsuchunwholesomefoodsoonbroughttyphusfeveranddysenteryuponthescene,whichslaughteredtheirthousands.InpartsoftheWestthelivingwereunabletoburythedead,moreespeciallyinAchill,where,inmanycases,thefamine-strickenpeoplewerefounddeadontheroadside.ACommitteeappointedbytheHouseofCommonstoinvestigatethiscalamityreported,amongstotherthings,thattheFaminewasspreadoverdistrictsrepresentinghalfthesuperficiesofthecountry,andcontainingapopulationof2,907,000souls.

TherearenostatisticstogiveanaccurateknowledgeofthenumbersthatdiedofwantinthisFamine,andofthedysenteryandfeverwhichfollowed.IftheCensusof1821canbereliedon,whichImuchdoubt,thefamineandpestilenceofthesucceedingyeardidnotintheleastcheckthegrowthofthepopulation,asitincreasedinthetenyearsfrom1821to1831,fifteenpercent.;anincreaseabovetheaverage,evenintheabsenceofanydisturbingcause.

ThisfaminewasmetbyGovernmentgrants;bythecontributionsfromtheLondonTavernCommittee;theDublinMansionHouseCommittee,and,toalimitedextent,byprivatecharity.[37]InJune,1822,Parliamentvoted100,000"fortheemploymentofthepoorinIreland,andotherpurposesrelatingthereto,astheexigencyofaffairsmayrequire."AndinJuly,200,000,"toenableHisMajestytotakesuchmeasuresastheexigencyofaffairsmayrequire."TheLondonTavernCommittee,withtheaidofaKing'sletter,receivedsubscriptionsamountingto304,18017s.6d.,ofwhich44,1779s.wasraisedinIreland.TheDublinMansionHouseCommitteecollected30,40611s.4-1/2d.Thus,thewholesumfromcharitablecollectionswas334,5878s.10-1/2d.,ofwhich74,584,Os.4-1/2d.wasraisedinIreland.This,withthegrantof300,000from

Government,makesagrandtotalof634,5878s.10-1/2d.Thesumappearstohavebeenquitesufficient,astheLondonTavernCommitteecloseditslabourswhilstithadyetinhands60,000,whichsumwaspartlydistributedandpartlyinvestedinwaysconsideredbeneficialtothiscountry.[38]

Everytwoorthreeyearsfrom1821tothegreatblightof'45and'46,afailureofsomekind,moreorlessextensive,occurredtothepotatocrop,notmerelyinIreland,butinalmosteverycountryinwhichitwascultivatedtoanyconsiderableextent.Reviewing,then,thehistoryofthisfamousrootforoveraperiodofonehundredyears,wefind,thatalthoughitproducesfromagivenacreagemorehumanfoodthananyothercrop,itisyetamosttreacherousandperishableone;anditmay,

perhaps,surprisefuturegenerations,thatthestatesmenandlandedproprietorsofthatlengthenedperioddidnothingwhatevertoregulatethehusbandryofthecountry,insuchawayastopreventthelivesofawholepeoplefrombeingdependantonacropliabletosomanycasualties.PerhapsthesocialandpoliticalconditionofIreland,duringthesetimes,willbefoundtohavehadsomethingtodowiththisculpableapathy.

ItiscommonlyassumedthatthesubjugationofIrelandwaseffectedbyElizabeth,butthesubmissiontoEnglishrulewasonlyaforcedone;the


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spiritofthenationwasoneofdeterminedopposition,whichwasabundantlyshownatAughrimandLimerick,andonmanyaforeignfieldbesides.GreatBritainknowingthis,andbeingdeterminedtoholdthecountryatallrisks,wascontinuallyinfearthatsomewarorcomplicationwithforeignpowerswouldaffordtheIrishpeopleanopportunityofputtinganendtoEnglishruleinIreland,andofdeclaringthecountryanindependentnation.Asprogressinwealthandprosperitywouldaddtotheprobabilitiesofsuccessinsuchanevent,itwastheallbutavowed--nay,truthcompelsmetosay,thefrequentlyavowedpolicyofEnglandtokeepIrelandpoor,andthereforefeeble,thatshemightbeheldthemoresecurely.Forthatreasonshewasnottreatedasaportionofaunitedkingdom,butasanenemywhohadbecomeEngland'sslavebyconquest,whowasherrivalinmanufacturesofvariouskinds,whomightundersellherinforeignmarkets,and,infact,whomightgrowrichandpowerfulenoughtoassertherindependence.

ThedescendantsoftheNormanadventurerswhogotafootinghereinthetwelfthcentury;EnglishandScotchplanters;officialsandundertakerswho,fromtimetotime,hadbeeninducedtosettleinIrelandbygrantsoflandandsinecures,were,byalegalfiction,styledTheNation,althoughtheywerenevermorethanasmallfractionofit.Foragreatnumberofyearseverywriter,everypublicman,everyActofParliament,assumedthattheEnglishcolonyinIrelandwastheIrishnation.

DenunciationsofPapists,the"commonenemy"--grossfalsehoodsabouttheirprinciplesandacts--fearsrealorpretended,oftheirwicked,bloodthirstyplots,thicklystrewninourpathaswejourneythroughthisdismalperiodofourhistory--revealtous,asitwerebyaccident,thattherewasanotherpeopleinthisisland,besidesthosewhomthelawregardedasthenation;buttheyhadnorights,theywereoutlaws--"theIrishenemy."OnehundredandfiftyyearsagoPrimateBoulterexpressedhisbeliefthatthoseoutlawsmadefour-fifthsofthepopulation,andtheEnglishcolonyonlyone-fifth;butthecolonistsheldtherichlands;thebulkofthepeople,whoformedtherealnation,wereinthebogs,thelonelyglens,andonthesterilemountains,whereagriculturewasallbutimpossible,excepttothegreatcapitalist.Capitaltheyhadnone,andtheywereforcedtosubsist,asbesttheycould,onlittle

patchesoftillageamongtherocks,whosedebrismadethelandaroundtheminsomesortsusceptibleofcultivation.Bydegreesthoseoutlawsdiscoveredthatthepotato,comingfromthehighmoistsoilofQuito,foundinthehalf-barrenwildsofIreland,ifnotaclimate,asoilatleastcongenialtoitsnature.Itwaspalatablefood,asitbecameacclimatized;itgrewwherenootherplantfitforhumanfoodwouldgrow;itwasagreatfertilizer;itwasprolific:nowonderthepoorCeltofourbogsandmountains,intime,madethepotatomoreassociatedwiththenameofIrelandthaniteverwaswithitsnativecountry,Virginia.

Before1729wehavenorecordofthepotatohavingsufferedfromblightorfrost,oranythingelse.Butthisisnottobewonderedat;even

thoughsuchthingsoccurred,theoutlaws,whowereitschiefcultivators,excitedneitherinterestnorpityintheheartsoftherulingminority.Theywerewatchedandfeared;theywereknowntobenumerous;andmanyweretheplanssetonfoottoreducetheirnumbers,andcausethemtobecomeextinct,likethereddeeroftheirnativehills.Surely,then,apotatoblight,followedbyafamine,wouldnotberegardedasacalamity,unlessitaffectedtheEnglishcolony.TheCelticnationinIrelandcouldhavenorecordofsuchavisitation,unlessinthefugitiveballadofsomehedgeschoolmaster.[39]Anyhow,theCelt,forcedtoliveforthemostpart,inbarrenwilds,whereit


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wasallbutimpossibletoraisesufficientfood,foundthepotatohisbestfriend,andhisraceincreasedandmultiplieduponit,inspiteofthatbloodycodewhichignoredhisexistence,andwithregardtowhichLordClare,nofriendtoIreland,thusexpresseshisviewsinhisspeechontheUnion:"TheParliamentofEnglandseemtohaveconsideredthepermanentdebilityofIrelandasthebestsecurityoftheBritishcrown,andtheIrishParliamenttohaverestedthesecurityofthecolonyuponmaintainingaperpetualandimpossiblebarrieragainsttheancientinhabitantsofthecountry."[40]

AnothercausefortheincreasedcultivationofthepotatomaybefoundinthepovertyoftheEnglishcolonyitself.Whilstthepeopleofwhomthatcolonywascomposed,throughtheParliamentthatrepresentedthem,pursuedtheCatholicnativeswithunmitigatedpersecution,theywerethemselvestheobjectofjealoussurveillance,bothbytheParliamentandthecommercialclassesofEngland.LongbeforethetimesofwhichIamwriting,theEnglishalwaysshoweduneasinessattheleastappearanceofamalgamationbetweenthedescendantsoftheNormaninvadersandthenatives,althoughtheirfearsonthisheadweretoagreatextentsetatrestbythechangeofreligioninEngland,whichchangeextendedinaveryconsiderabledegreetotheEnglishcolonyinIreland.AftertheReformationtherewasnotmuchdangerofaunionbetweentheCatholicCeltandtheProtestantNorman.Stillanotherjealousyremained--acommercialjealousy.ThecolonizationofIrelandmeant,intheEnglish

mind,thecompleteextirpationofthenatives,andthepeoplingofthisislandbytheadventurersandtheirdescendants;butitisastrangefact,thatevenhadthisactuallyhappened,wecan,fromwhatweknowofthehistoryoftheperiod,assertwithtruth,thatstilltheircommercialprosperityandprogresswouldbewatched,andchecked,andlegislatedagainst,whenevertheywouldevenseemtoclash,orwhentherewasapossibilityoftheirclashing,withthecommercialsupremacyofGreatBritain.NottogointoallthecommercialrestraintsimposedonIrishmanufacturesbytheEnglishParliament,letustakewhat,perhaps,wasthemostimportantone--thatimposedonthewoollenmanufacture.ForalongperiodthisbranchofindustryhadflourishedinIreland.Wenotonlymanufacturedwhatwerequiredforourselves,butourexportsofwoollenswereveryconsiderable.Thismanufactureexisted

inEnglandalso,andtheEnglishmenengagedinitweredeterminedtohavetheforeignmarketstothemselves.Aftermanypreviousefforts,theyatlengthinducedbothHousesoftheEnglishParliamenttoaddressWilliamtheThirdonwhattheywerepleasedtoconsideragrievance--thegrievanceofhavingforeignmarketsopentoIrishwoollensequallywiththeirown.TothoseaddressestheKingrepliedthathewoulddoallinhispowerto"discourage"thewoollentradeinIreland,toencouragethelinentrade,andtopromotethetradeofEngland.[41]Accordingly,adutyequaltoaprohibitionwasimposedupontheexportationofIrishwoollens,except,indeed,toEnglandandWales,wheretheywerenotrequired--Englandatthetimemanufacturingmorewoollensthanwerenecessaryforherhomeconsumption.AboutfortythousandpeopleinIrelandwerethrownoutofbreadbythislaw,nearlyeveryoneofwhom

wereProtestants;forthattradewasalmostentirelyintheirhands,sothatneitherPalesmannorProtestantwassparedwhentheirinterestsseemedopposedtothoseofEngland.William'sdeclarationonthisoccasionaboutencouragingthelinenmanufactureinIrelandwasregardedasacompact,yetitwasviolatedatalaterperiodbytheimpositionofduties.[42]Thejealousyandunkindnessoftheprohibitorydutyontheexportofwoollensisexposedbytheableauthorofthe"GroansofIreland,"whosays:"ItiscertainthatonthecoastsofSpain,andPortugal,andtheMediterranean,inthestuffs,etc.,whichwesendthem,we,underallthedifficultiesofaclandestinetrade,undersell


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theFrencheightpercent.,anditisascertainthattheFrenchunderselltheEnglishasmuch--ithasbeensaid--elevenpercent."[43]SothatalthoughtheEnglishmanufacturerwasunabletocompetewiththeFrenchmanabroad,hisnarrowselfishnesswouldnotpermitIrelandtodoso,althoughshewasinapositiontodoitwithadvantagetoherself.

Impoverishedbysuchlegislation,theEnglishcolonyitself,Protestantandallasitwas,hadtoloweritsdietarystandardandcultivatethepotato,or,atleast,promoteitscultivationbytheuseofit.

Anotheroftheallegedcausesforthepovertyofthecountry,andtheconsequentincreaseofpotatoculture,wasabsenteeism.In1729alistofabsenteeswaspublishedbyMr.ThomasPrior,whichranthroughseveraleditions.ThelistincludestheViceroyhimself,thenanabsentee,whichhewellmightbe,atthattimeandforlongafterwards,asPrimateBoulterwastherulerofIreland.Mr.Priorsetsdowninhispamphlettheincomesoftheabsentees,andthetotalamountstotheenormousannualsumof627,769sterling,asuminexcessoftheentirerevenueofthecountry,which,thoughincreasingyearafteryear,eventwenty-nineyearsafterwardswasonly650,763.

Besidestheexhaustingdrainbyabsenteeproprietors,therewasanotherkindofabsenteeism,namely,thatofEnglishmenwho,throughCourtor

otherinfluence,obtainedplacesinIreland,butdischargedthedutiesofthem,suchastheywere,bydeputy.Mr

Documents

THE HISTORY OF THE GREAT IRISH FAMINE by Rev. John O'Rourke