Upload
luna-cohen-solal
View
24
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Luna Cohen-‐Solal BA (Hons) Music and Visual Art University of Brighton January 2013
A discussion and evaluation of the impact of Eastern Philosophy on the ideas of indeterminacy, and chance
promoted by John Cage.
“I want to be as though new-‐born, knowing nothing, absolutely nothing about Europe.” John Cage, in The Forerunners of Modern Music, quotes Paul Klee to express his idealistic wish to detach himself from Western traditions.1
Cage’s interest in Eastern philosophy had a profound influence on his work as a composer and music theorist.2 In the mid nineteen forties, he started investigating Indian and Chinese philosophies, particularly Zen Buddhism, and the elements of indeterminacy and chance consequently became prominent features of his work.3
In order to understand the evolution of Cage’s conception of composition and performance of music, it is necessary to work out how determining Eastern philosophies were to his approach to chance and indeterminacy.4
Before anything else, a clarification of the vocabulary would be beneficial. As James Pritchett explains in his book The Music of John Cage: “In Cage’s terminology, “chance” refers to the use of some sort of random procedure in the act of composition. [….] “Indeterminacy,” on the other hand, refers to the ability of a piece to be performed in substantially different ways.”5
The aim of this study is to explore the implications of John Cage’s explicit references to Eastern philosophy. In the past twenty years since his death, music scholars have shed a new light on his engagement with Indian and Chinese thought. The intention of this essay is to unpick the debate: how indebted to Eastern thinking was John Cage? What aspects of his work and ideas contradict his claims to owe them to Indian philosophy and Zen? Why did he not acknowledge the connections between his work and Western art traditions of chance and indeterminacy?
This essay will discuss the concept of non-‐intentionality in relation to cagean silence, and its role as the bedrock of John Cage’s search for indeterminacy. After analysing the phenomenological aspect of Cage’s approach to knowledge, it will investigate the origins of the composer’s engagement with chance and indeterminacy, as well as his reservations about referring to the influence of Western art on his work. Lastly it will consider examples of chance and indeterminacy in Western art history.
1 John Cage, “Forerunners of Modern Music.” Silence: Lectures and Writings. London: Marion Boyars, 1978: 65. 2 John Cage, born in Los Angeles in 1912, started studying music as a child, but it was not until he went on a trip to Europe that he starting composing, at the age of 18. He went on to study with Arnold Schoenberg, to compose music for modern dance, notably with choreographer Merce Cunningham, and became famous for his new approach to music and composition, utilizing unconventional instruments and sounds -‐including silence. 3 Buddhism is a religion and a philosophy that has its origins in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, dating back to the 5th century BC. Zen is a branch of Buddhism that arose in the 6th century in China; it emphasizes on enlightenment and the practice of meditation. Cage also looked at Taoism, a Chinese philosophy that emerged around the same time as Buddhism appeared in India. 4 Cage also used chance in his visual art and his literature, however this essay will concentrate on his work in the field of sound. 5 James Pritchett, The Music of John Cage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) 108.
At the root of the notions of chance and indeterminacy is the idea of non-‐intention, which is itself drawn from the ideal of a “disinterested” artist. What this archetype entails will be discussed later on. First and foremost, John Cage’s aim was “an appreciation of sounds for their unique sensory qualities, independent of the intention that produces and interprets them.”6
From the moment when his friend Christian Wolff gave him a copy of the I Ching, an ancient Chinese book of wisdom that operates with chance, John Cage started using it as a tool for musical composition.7 To understand the motives of Cage’s use of chance, one needs to go back to his reflection on silence. A decisive experience for John Cage was his visit to the anechoic chamber at Harvard University in 1951. It is a room as silent as technology will allow it. But once in the chamber, Cage heard sounds; he was told it was his nervous system and his blood circulation operating. He came to the conclusion that there is no such thing as silence: there are only intentional and non-‐intentional sounds. As a consequence, he started using the I Ching as a device for achieving non-‐intentional sound.
Using non-‐intention and chance, Cage wished to eschew the artist’s subjectivity. But this intent is questioned by the fact that Cage’s pieces brought the attention back to the figure of the composer because of their unconventionality. It is thus debatable whether his work contributed to put the figure of the composer aside or if on the contrary it put the artist in the spotlight. 4’33” is a good example of that duality. On the one hand, inasmuch as no musical sounds are intentionally produced during the performance, it demonstrates a detachment from the artist’s compositional identity. It is consistent with the Buddhist concept of annata or “no-‐self”, in the same way as the chance pieces composed with the I Ching are disconnected from notions of selfhood.
According to Buddhist philosophy, one should not cling to the sense of individuality on the grounds that it gives rise to unhappiness. For John Cage, it is more about approaching music in a new way, detached from feelings and tastes. This is to be carried out from the perspective of the composer as well as that of the listener. On the one hand, the use of the I Ching enabled Cage to withdraw intentionality and subjectivity from the compositional process, as he explains in the documentary I Have Nothing to Say and I Am Saying It: “I use [the I Ching] as a discipline, in order to free my work from my memory, and from my likes and dislikes.”8 Some early compositions show a wish to communicate feelings but they were failures, as Cage himself admits: “I had poured a great deal of emotion into the piece [The Perilous Night] and obviously I was not communicating this at all.”9 Discovering the philosophy of Zen gave him a new insight: “Then it became clear that the function of art is not to communicate one’s personal ideas 6 N. Katherine Hayles, “Chance Operations: Cagean Paradox and Contemporary Science.” John Cage: Composed In America. Ed. Marjorie Perloff and Charles Junkerman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. 230. 7 Constituted of sixty-‐four ideograms with accompanying text, the I Ching, or “Book of Changes”, is used to help decision-‐making or to give an insight on a particular situation or problem. The chance operation of throwing fifty yarrow stalks or tossing three coins produces one or two hexagrams. The user is then directed to an ideogram, the meaning of which can be interpreted as revealing the dynamic of the situation. The book hinges around the idea that change is inevitable and inherent to life. 8 “John Cage: I Have Nothing to Say and I Am Saying It.” American Masters. Dir. Allan Miller. UK, 17 Sept. 1990. UbuWeb. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. 9 Calvin Tomkins, The Bride and the Bachelors. New York: Penguin, 1968: 97. Qtd in Shultis, Christopher. “Silencing the Sounded Self: John Cage and the Intentionality of Nonintention.” Musical Quarterly. 79.2 (1995): 316. JSTOR. Web. 27 Jan. 2013.
or feelings but rather to imitate nature in her manner of operation.”10 At the other end of the creative process, the listener should apply the same principle. The sounds should not be interpreted as metaphors and feelings but rather heard sonically, like they are in nature. 4’33” illustrates that idea: it prepares a setting that enables the audience to listen to ambient sounds. For the duration of the performance, listeners are letting sounds be what they are and perceiving reality and life as art. As Douglas Kahn points out in Noise Water Meat, the piece achieves “shifting the production of music from the site of utterance to that of audition.”11 What endows the sounds with the attributes of art is not their origin but the decision of the listener to experience them aesthetically.
On the other hand, the apparent distancing from the composer’s identity is
contradicted by the fact that “never has a composer focused the audience on his personality as strongly as John Cage did in his 4’33”“, as art historian Horst Bredekamp puts it in his essay “John Cage and the Principle of Chance.”12 Indeed, the unconventionality of Cage’s project caused the public to turn their attention to its creator in an attempt to make sense of his creation. Bredekamp goes further by arguing that 4’33” performs a “tabula rasa” as it reinvents music as the ability to experience sound as art, and by showing that this endeavour is “deeply grounded in the tradition of the artist as second God.”6 This attitude is reminiscent of Robert Rauschenberg’s White Paintings, one of Cage’s main inspirations for his piece. (Figure 1) Both works show an absence of content that constitutes a groundbreaking affirmation of artistic identity.
Figure 1: Robert Rauschenberg. White Painting. 1951. House paint on canvas. Collection: the artist’s estate. Web. 27 Jan. 2013. http://artintelligence.net/review/?p=497
10 John Cage, “Changes.” Silence 20. 11 Douglas Kahn, Noise, Water, Meat: a History of Sound in the Arts (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999) 158. 12 Horst Bredekamp, “John Cage and the Principle of Chance.” Music and the Aesthetics of Modernity. Ed. Karol Berger and Anthony Newcomb. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Department of Music, 2005. 103.
Writing about pieces composed using chance operations, John Cage argues that they “identify the composer with no matter what eventuality”, meaning that the composer will be associated with whatever comes out of the chance process. He consents to claim responsibility, if not authorship, for the work produced.13 But no matter how indeterminate Cage’s composition process is, the pieces are precisely notated, as the score for Music of Changes shows. (Figure 2) Their performance is thus highly determinate. What John Cage writes about composer Alan Hovhaness in his article “The East in the West” could be applied to his own case. The disregard for harmony is characteristic of Eastern music but the aspect that the piece is notated and can be played more than once is Western.14 Although chance appears to be the paragon of freedom, the discipline of using chance operations is nonetheless a rule and the determinacy of the performance ties in with the Western figure of the authoritative composer. In the lecture “Indeterminacy” that he gave in Germany in 1958, Cage confirms this by drawing a parallel between his chance pieces, which are “Frankenstein monsters” because they revolve on the idea of an inhuman product -‐chance-‐ controlling a human being, and Western music pieces, which are “Dictator[s]” to their performer, as a consequence of the strictness of their notation. For that reason, if chance epitomizes freedom or subservience, liberation or constraint is yet to decide.
Figure 2: A detail of the score for Music of Changes. From Todd Tarantino’s article “John Cage: Music of Changes (1951).” Web. 27 Jan. 2013. http://toddtarantino.com/hum/cage.html
Throughout the late 1940s and 1950s, John Cage’s exploration of non-‐intention evolved from the arbitrary to chance, to indeterminacy. The Concerto for Prepared Piano and Chamber Orchestra, composed between 1950 and 1951, used arbitrary geometric moves on charts, and its last movement was Cage’s first use of the I Ching to achieve randomness.
Music of Changes is the first piece of music Cage composed making extensive use of the I Ching. Cage did not utilize the content but the structure of the Book of Changes: he built three charts (referring to sonority, duration, and dynamics) containing sixty-‐ four cells related to the sixty-‐four hexagrams of the I Ching; and he tossed coins to determine every aspect of the composition.15
13 John Cage, “Indeterminacy.” Silence 35. 14 John Cage, “The East in the West.” Asian Music. 1.1 (1968-‐9): 16. 15 Another unusual characteristic of this piece is that duration is expressed on the score in terms of space and not beats. Incidentally, this bears more resemblance to the consideration of space in Chinese calligraphy than to Western treatment of rhythm.
While on the subject of Music of Changes, another element of debate about the relationship between Western and Eastern cultures can be raised. Cathryn Wilkinson’s lecture “Reflections on John Cage’s Music of Changes” makes a point of the opposition between the importance of change in Eastern philosophy and the emphasis on stasis in Western thought.16 Indeed, change is the concept that underlies the I Ching, “The Book of Changes” after which Cage named his composition. On the other hand, Western philosophy considers concepts and objects in themselves, and not as changing entities. However, at the scale of the structure of the composition, traditional Western music foregrounds progression, whereas Eastern pieces tend to linger on an emotion, and to move freely and continuously, ignoring the notion of climax. This example shows the complexity implied by a comparative study of occidental and oriental thought and music. In spite of being the result of chance operations, Music of Changes did not achieve absolute indeterminacy: “the contents of the sound charts were entirely the product of Cage’s taste: he simply sat at the piano and invented sounds that he liked.”17 He experimented with new chance techniques and notations but, as James Pritchett points out: “It was only after 1957, perhaps inspired by the experiments of his younger colleagues [Christian Wolff among others], that Cage fully explored the possibilities of indeterminacy in his work.”18 He stopped writing scores in the strict sense of the word, and created what Pritchett calls “tools.”19 Indeterminacy, as a general concept, replaced the use of chance in composition as a way to connect with the “infinite, completely non-‐dual space of unique but interconnected sounds” that constituted Cage’s vision of sound.20 One of John Cage’s main concerns was to remove the ego from the composition process. Nevertheless, personal experience holds an important place in his conception of knowledge. In his performative lectures, Cage seeks to express his ideas in such a way that the audience experiences them. Furthermore, much of his evolution as an artist stems from his experience. His visit to the anechoic chamber, at the root of a significant development in his approach to silence, is an example. Cage thus endorses bodily experience and subjective cognition as a basis for knowledge, a position which epistemology traditionally distinguishes from objective knowledge, at work in the field of science.21 This observation balances the impression of detachment conveyed by the image of a composer showing no personal connection to his body of work.
16 Cathryn Wilkinson, “Reflections on John Cage’s Music of Changes.” Philosophical Ideas and Artistic Pursuits in the Traditions of Asia and the West: An NEH Faculty Humanities Workshop. Paper 5. [email protected]. 2008. Web. 17 Jan 2013. 17 Pritchett 190. 18 Pritchett 109. 19 Pritchett defines them as “works which do not describe events in either a determinate or an indeterminate way, but which instead present a procedure by which to create any number of such descriptions or scores.”(126) They could take the form of transparencies showing points or lines, to be layered and arranged “in any manner at all.”(137) 20 Pritchett 76. 21 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.
John Cage always publicly explained his work in terms of his engagement with Eastern philosophies. However, music theory has brought to light the importance of Western art and culture in the development of his ideas.
When studying the genesis of 4’33”, music scholar Douglas Kahn made clear that Cage’s usual account of his ideas as being entirely derived from Eastern thinking did not cover the totality of the facts. Indeed, a number of the steps leading to Cage creating 4’33” stem from his involvement in Western culture. In a conversation with Peter Gena, the composer relates that the first time he thought of doing a silent piece was when working as a recreation leader in a hospital, where he had to entertain children without disturbing the patients with any sound.22 So Cage already had the idea for a silent piece in the forties, but it was not until he encountered Robert Rauschenberg’s White Paintings, also displaying an absence of content, that he ventured to carry it out. It is thus unreasonable to disregard the context of Western art in the fifties, when minimalism and reductionism were prolific currents.23
Furthermore, a precise exploration of the work reveals that “the original genesis of Cage’s silence would be Indian and not related to East Asian, or more specifically Zen, sources as has often been noted in discussions about 4’33”.”24 A brief account of Cage’s encounter with these philosophies is necessary at this point in the discussion.
In 1946, John Cage started tutoring Gita Sarabhai, an Indian musician who came to the United States to learn about Western music. She taught him about Indian music and philosophy in return, and gave him a copy of The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, a book that “served as his introduction to Indian philosophy”, as evoked by James Pritchett.25 He also attended D.T. Suzuki’s lectures on Zen Buddhism. Pritchett presents Suzuki as “the Japanese philosopher and scholar who was instrumental in presenting Zen Buddhism to the West.”26 Edward Crooks, author of a thesis entitled “John Cage’s Entanglement with the Ideas of Coomaraswamy”, goes further and argues that Suzuki was not neutral, but rather operated a “modernization and Westernization of Zen.”27 In any case, these encounters had a major influence on Cage’s work, and pieces like Sonatas and Interludes, The Seasons, and String Quartet in Four Parts investigate ideas from Indian philosophy, such as the aesthetic of rasas or permanent emotions, which Cage studied in the writings of art historian Ananda K. Coomaraswamy.
22 “After Antiquity: John Cage in conversation with Peter Gena.” A John Cage Reader. Ed. Peter Gena and Jonathan Brent. New York: Peters, 1982: 169-‐70. Qtd in Kahn 167. 23 In Samuel Beckett’s 1952 play Waiting for Godot, nothing happens, and the characters are observed waiting for Godot much like the 4’33” unknowing audience is waiting for sound to be played. 24 Kahn 169. 25 Pritchett 36. 26 Pritchett 74. 27 Edward Crooks, John Cage's Entanglement with the Ideas of Coomaraswamy. PhD thesis. University Of York Department of Music, 2011: 30. White Rose eThesis online. Web. 25 Jan. 2013.
John Cage’s lecture “A Composer’s Confessions” provides a case study of his behaviour towards communicating his influences.28 This lecture reveals that the philosophy at the source of 4’33” would be more accurately called perennial than oriental. Yet, as he declares in a 1982 interview, Cage did not wish to publish it, even thirty-‐five years after its delivery.29 One can wonder if this is due to the composer’s wish to avoid revealing that the ideas behind 4’33” were not entirely derived from Eastern thought.
As stressed by Kahn, in “A Composer’s Confessions”(finally published in 1991), two Western texts play an important role: Carl Jung’s The Integration of the Personality (1940), and Aldous Huxley’s The Perennial Philosophy (1946). The notions addressed in these books, whether it be the Leibnizian philosophia perennis or Jung’s collective consciousness, are concerned with “cross-‐cultural perspectives.”30 They go beyond Eastern sources and promote the idea of a cultural material transcending the opposition between East and West.
Jung, in The Integration of the Personality, talks about the Taoist concept of wu-‐wei, which Cage applied when he left it to chance to decide upon the characteristics of his pieces. Wu-‐wei can be translated by the phrase “absence of deliberate action.” According to Tao philosophy, the world functions by its own inherent agency and man should not work against it but rather attempt to act in harmony with it. When embracing the outcome of chance operations, Cage shows acceptance of the natural forces of the universe, rather than a wish to “bring order out of chaos [or] to suggest improvements in creation.”31 However, this idea was not exclusively Eastern, as Carl Jung mentions: “Some Occidentals, also, have known what this not-‐doing means; for instance, Meister Eckhart, who speaks of “sich lassen”, to let oneself be.”32
Meister Eckhart is a German mystic of the Middle Ages, whose concept of unselfconsciousness and quieting of the mind as a means to attain spiritual knowledge corroborates Cage’s belief that “the purpose of music is to sober and quiet the mind, thus making it susceptible to divine influences.”33 Although Cage encountered his ideas in Coomaraswamy’s book The Transformation of Nature in Art (1934), Eckhart – and by extension Cage – belong to a European tradition of negation of the self, non-‐intentionality, and chance. Coomaraswamy also borrowed the quotation “Art is the imitation of Nature in her manner of operation”, that Cage so enthusiastically linked to Indian aesthetic theory, from the Italian theologian and philosopher St Thomas Aquinas, who was himself quoting from a philosophical tradition going back to Plato and Aristotle.
28 It was delivered at the National Inter Collegiate Arts Conference held at Vassar College on February 28, 1948. 29 Stephen Montague, “John Cage at Seventy: An Interview.” American Music. 3.2 (1985): 213. Qtd in Kahn 168. 30 The term philosophia perennis, or perennial philosophy, was used by German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-‐1716) and by English writer Aldous Huxley (1894-‐1963) to describe the idea of a universal experience and more specifically of a fundamental truth to be found at the core of all religions. 31 John Cage, “In This Day…” Silence 95. This idea is developed in many of Cage’s writings: in “Changes”, a lecture about Music of Changes, he explains that his intention is to move “away from ideas of order towards no ideas of order.” (Silence 20) 32 Carl Gustav Jung, The Integration of the Personality. Trans. Stanley M. Dell. London: Kengan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, 1940: 31-‐32. Qtd in Kahn 171. 33 John Cage, “An Autobiographical Statement.” New Albion Records. N.p. n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2013.
For Douglas Kahn, the cagean idea of letting go of the self through non-‐intentionality and indeterminacy has its roots in the notion of disinterestedness, which Cage associated with the East. In "A Composer's Confessions", he rejects self-‐expression, and affirms that music must be made, "as the Orient would say, disinterestedly."34 However, he also mentions disinterestedness about a concert by occidental composers Ives and Webern, and as Kahn indicates, “disinterestedness is also associated with Aldous Huxley's explanation of self-‐mortification and nonattachment in The Perennial Philosophy."35 It thus becomes clear that Cage’s early utterance of the notion of disinterestedness, which was later replaced by chance and indeterminacy in the enterprise of letting go of the self, is equally rooted in oriental and occidental cultures.
On the whole, the study of “A Composer’s Confessions” shows that Cage’s work was informed by a diversity of artistic and philosophical sources, both Eastern and Western; and the fact that he withheld this text from the public reveals his predilection for Eastern references and his relative denial of being indebted to the Occident.36
Not only do theorists draw attention to “the supposed transparency of Cage’s oriental thought”, but they also point out that his treatment of Eastern sources is tinged with orientalism.37 Disregarding Cage’s positive rejection of orientalism as mere “taste for the exotic”, Edward Crooks argues that “his language was tangled with the affirmative Orientalism of the Traditionalists.”38 Horst Bredekamp supports that idea, putting forward that the I Ching, or at least its German translation of 1923, on which was based the English translation Cage used, is a product of German orientalism.39
Regardless of John Cage’s discourse about Eastern philosophy, it is necessary to look at the spatiotemporal context in which he worked, as well as artistic antecedents of chance and indeterminacy.
Cage’s work lies within the framework of “progressive American music and art”, and his person is associated with other composers, sharing similar artistic values and ideals.40 As James Pritchett recalls, John Cage, Morton Feldman, David Tudor, Christian Wolff, and Earle Brown “have been sometimes referred to as The New York School, thus drawing a parallel with the similarly-‐named group of Abstract Expressionist painters active at the same time.”41 American composer Morton Feldman used graph notation as a “self-‐negating discipline” before Cage did; and the latter compared Feldman to a “heroic” figure for changing “the responsibility of the composer from making to accepting.”42
34 Cage, “A Composer’s Confessions.” N.p. Qtd by Kahn 173. 35 Kahn 173. 36 This statement can be qualified by the fact that, in “Lecture on Something”, Cage hints at a fusion of Eastern and Western thinking: “Actually there is no longer a question of Orient and Occident. All of that is rapidly disappearing.” He holds up as an example the writings of Meister Eckhart, Alan Watts, Reginald Horace Blyth and Joseph Campbell. (Silence 143) 37 Kahn 169. 38 Cage, “The East in the West” 15; Crooks 121. 39 Bredekamp 102. 40 Crooks 31. 41 Pritchett 105. 42 Pritchett 67.
Had he wished to, Cage could have rooted his ideas in the numerous uses of chance in Western art. Many artists have used chance, randomness and indeterminacy as a process and as a theme; I will only cite a few. Dadaists used chance in an attempt to break free from conscious control and question artistic virtuosity. The work of French artist Marcel Duchamp, particularly his readymades, challenges artistic identities and questions notions of self-‐expression and taste. Duchamp used chance operations to complete pieces such as 3 Standard Stoppages (1913-‐1914) and Musical Erratum (1913), a piece of music the notes of which were drawn from a hat. A slight difference in perspective can be noted: whereas Duchamp’s work seemed to result from philosophical doubt and to focus on the notion of “possible”, John Cage’s ideas on non-‐intentionality derived from his wish to let nature speak for itself through his work. Nevertheless, Duchamp can be considered a “mentor” for Cage, as Kyle Gann articulates it in No Such Thing As Silence.43 Automatism, which can be considered a variant of chance, was the linchpin of Surrealism and aimed at releasing the creative potential of the unconsciousness. A similar approach is involved in the work of Jackson Pollock, whose dripping techniques raise accidents to the level of creative principles.
There is no shortage of examples of occidental artists whose work embraces chance and indeterminacy. Even so, John Cage’s prevailing attitude did not foreground the relation of his work to occidental art and culture, but rather magnified the contribution of Eastern philosophies to his thinking and practice.
In the Foreword to Silence, John Cage makes clear that his work cannot be explained only in terms of his engagement with Zen, but that it would not be the same without it. As James Pritchett puts it: “The relationship of Cage’s composition to his study of Zen Buddhism was not one in which Zen “influenced” him to act and think in certain ways: Cage’s understanding of Zen was shaped as much by his compositional concerns as his composition was shaped by his interest in Zen.”44
Cage’s relationship to oriental thought is complex; it is more an appropriation than a simple application. His thinking sometimes shows internal contradiction, and his public claims concerning his Eastern inspirations run counter to the reality of his ties to the art and philosophy of the Occident. However, what can be retained from this study is the image of a multifaceted and prolific artist, whose main characteristic was “his need to embrace new ideas and new techniques.”45
An explanation of Cage’s act of turning to another civilization to find backing for his ideas of indeterminacy might be found in the ability of the Eastern culture to embrace chance as an essential part of life. In the occidental world on the contrary, it tends to be considered as an interesting exception to the rules established by the rational mind, and finding meaning in randomness is belittled as superstition.
43 Kyle Gann, No Such Thing As Silence: John Cage's 4’33”. (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2010) 85. 44 Pritchett 74. 45 Pritchett 173.
Bibliography
“After Antiquity: John Cage in Conversation with Peter Gena.” A John Cage Reader. Ed. Peter Gena and Jonathan Brent. New York: Peters, 1982. 167-‐183. Print.
Boulez, Pierre. Stocktakings: From an Apprenticeship. Ed. Paule Thévenin, trans. Stephen Walsh. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. Print. Bredekamp, Horst. “John Cage and the Principle of Chance.” Music and the Aesthetics of Modernity. Ed. Karol Berger and Anthony Newcomb. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Department of Music, 2005. 99-‐107. Print.
Cage, John. “The East in the West.” Asian Music. 1.1 (1968-‐9): 15-‐18. JSTOR. Web. 27 Jan. 2013.
—. Silence: Lectures and Writings. London: Marion Boyars, 1978. Print.
—. “A Composer’s Confessions.” John Cage, writer-‐ Previously uncollected pieces. Ed. Richard Kostelanetz. New York: Limelight Editions, 1993. 27-‐44. Print.
—, “An Autobiographical Statement.” New Albion Records. N.p. n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2013. <http://www.newalbion.com/artists/cagej/autobiog.html> Crooks, Edward. John Cage's Entanglement with the Ideas of Coomaraswamy. PhD thesis. University Of York Department of Music, 2011. White Rose eThesis online. Web. 25 Jan. 2013.
Gann, Kyle. No Such Thing As Silence: John Cage's 4’33”. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2010. Print.
Hayles, N. Katherine. “Chance Operations: Cagean Paradox and Contemporary Science.” John Cage: Composed In America. Ed. Marjorie Perloff and Charles Junkerman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. 226-‐241. Print.
“John Cage: I Have Nothing to Say and I Am Saying It.” American Masters. Dir. Allan Miller. UK, 17 Sept. 1990. UbuWeb. Web. 20 Dec. 2012.
Jung, Carl Gustav. The Integration of the Personality. Trans. Stanley M. Dell. London: Kengan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, 1940. Print.
Kahn, Douglas. Noise, Water, Meat: a History of Sound in the Arts. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999. Print.
Montague, Stephen. “John Cage at Seventy: An Interview.” American Music. 3.2 (1985): 205-‐216. JSTOR. Web. 27 Jan. 2013.
Patterson, David Wayne. “The Picture That Is Not in the Colors: Cage, Coomaraswamy, and the Impact of India.” John Cage: Music, Philosophy, and Intention, 1933-‐1950. Ed. David W. Patterson. New York: Routledge, 2002. 177-‐215. Print.
Pritchett, James. The Music of John Cage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Print.
Shultis, Christopher. “Silencing the Sounded Self: John Cage and the Intentionality of Nonintention.” Musical Quarterly. 79.2 (1995): 312-‐350. JSTOR. Web. 27 Jan. 2013. Solomon, Larry J. John Cage and 4’33”. “Solomon’s Music” N.p. 1998, rev 2002. Web. 27 Jan. 2013. <http://solomonsmusic.net/4min33se.htm>
Tomkins, Calvin. The Bride and the Bachelors. New York: Penguin, 1968. Print. Wilkinson, Cathryn. “Reflections on John Cage’s Music of Changes.” Philosophical Ideas and Artistic Pursuits in the Traditions of Asia and the West: An NEH Faculty Humanities Workshop. Paper 5. [email protected]. 2008. Web. 17 Jan 2013. <http://dc.cod.edu/nehscholarship/5>