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Running head: INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION i

THE IMPACT OF SUBSTANCE DEPENDENT FATHERS’ ABSENCE ON THE

INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF ADDICTION AMONG ADOLESCENTS

Jen Dieck

A Capstone Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Master of Science Degree in

Counselor Education at

Winona State University

Fall 2013

INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION ii

Winona State University

College of Education

Counselor Education Department

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

__________________________

CAPSTONE PROJECT

___________________

The Impact of Substance Dependent Fathers’ Absence on the Intergenerational

Transmission of Addiction Among Adolescents

This is to certify that the Capstone Project of

Jen Dieck

Has been approved by the faculty advisor and the CE 695 – Capstone Project

Course Instructor in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Master of Science Degree in

Counselor Education

Capstone Project Supervisor: _ ___________________ Name

Approval Date: __December 13, 2013__________________

INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION iii

Abstract

Adolescent drug use is a fast-growing epidemic in the United States. As counselors strive to

identify the antecedents of adolescent drug use, considerable attention has been given to the

intergenerational transmission of drug use from parents to children, including the impact of

parental absence on adolescent substance use. However, the majority of research has focused on

the impact of maternal substance use and maternal absence, often ignoring the impact of paternal

substance use and paternal absence. By understanding the relationship between paternal drug

use, paternal absence and adolescent drug use, counselors can engage in prevention and

treatment efforts that better serve both populations. Counselors can assist substance-dependent

fathers develop insight into the impact of their substance use on their children, educate

substance-dependent fathers on how to be more effective in their parental role, help adolescents

develop insight into how their substance use may have been influenced by their fathers’ use and

absence, educate adolescents on ways in which they can cope in adaptive ways, and work toward

preventing at-risk adolescents from initiating drug use.

INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION iv

Contents

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….1

Review of Literature ………………………………………………………………………..……2

Importance of Fathers …………………………………………………………………….3

Theories of Intergenerational Transmission of Addiction ………………………..………4

Parenting Style and Parenting Absence …………………………………………………..5

Impact on Female Children ……………………………………………………………….7

Longitudinal Effects of Parental Substance Use and Absence …………………………...9

Adolescent Coping ………………………………………………………………………10

Implications for Practice ………………………………………………………………...11

Conclusion ……………..………………………………...……………………………………..17

References …………………………………………………………………………………..…..19

INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 1

Introduction

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (2013), drug use among adolescents is

a significant concern. In a 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, it was found that

82.3% of youth aged 12 or older used alcohol in their lifetime, 61.9 % used cigarettes, 42.8%

used marijuana, 14.6% used hallucinogens, 14.5% used cocaine, and 4.7% used

methamphetamine. Given the alarming prevalence of adolescent drug use, increasing attention

has been given to identifying the antecedents of adolescent drug use so as to develop appropriate

prevention programs for at-risk adolescents as well as appropriate treatment programs for

substance-using adolescents.

While a variety of theories exist that attempt to explain the initiation of drug use by

adolescents, one area that has received little attention is the impact of substance-dependent

absent fathers on their adolescents’ substance use. Substance-dependent fathers typically

experience difficulty balancing their drug addiction and fulfilling their role as a father, and as a

result, are absent from their children’s lives. As adolescents struggle to cope with their fathers’

absence, the likelihood that they will turn to drug use themselves is significant. This paper

examines the impact of substance-dependent fathers’ absence on adolescent substance use and

offers ways in which counselors can work toward bridging the gap between substance-dependent

fathers and their adolescent children in an attempt to prevent and/or treat adolescent substance

use.


Review of Literature

Parental drug use is associated with a number of harmful effects on children.

McKeganey, Barnard and McIntosh (2002) identified a variety of ways that parental drug use

negatively influences the lives of children. Not only are drug-using parents said to be overly

authoritarian and inconsistent in caring for their children, it has also been demonstrated that

drug-using parents experience significant conflict between meeting the needs of their children

and sustaining their addiction. As a result, material deprivation and neglect are two of the most

profound ways children are impacted. Drug-using parents tend to channel the majority of their

money and household resources into sustaining their drug habits rather than into providing a

nurturing environment for their children. Parental drug use also appears to undermine the

structure of the home, insomuch as household routines, such as meal times, bed times, and

transportation to and from school, suffer as parents place more focus on sustaining their drug

use. As parents’ attention is diverted away from their children, their ability to care for them and

serve as appropriate role models is compromised. Consequently, children of drug-using parents

often grow up without proper influence and are forced to take on ‘quasi-adult responsibilities.’ In

addition to caring for themselves, some children must also provide care of their younger siblings.

In addition to the inconsistent care and lack of support from their drug-using parents,

children are also impacted simply by being exposed to their parents’ drug-using behaviors.

Children of drug-using parents often witness first hand their parents’ drug use and/or drug

dealing, not to mention the aftereffects of their drug use or withdrawal. Children of drug-using

parents are also exposed to the criminal behaviors drug-using parents may engage in to support

their drug use, including shoplifting, prostitution or burglary, which may influence their attitudes

toward criminal behavior. Due to their upbringing in a drug-using environment, children’s


attitudes toward and knowledge about drug use also appear to be much more detailed and

thorough than that of their peers. Even more troubling, however, is that children of drug-using

parents are at significant risk of initiating illegal drug use themselves (McKeganey, Barnard &

McIntosh, 2002).

Importance of Fathers

Despite the substantial amount of research describing the negative impact of parental

drug use on children, the vast majority of research has focused on the impact of maternal drug

use rather than on the impact of paternal drug use on parenting (Carlson, 2006; McKeganey,

Barnard & McIntosh, 2002; Peled, Gavriel-Fried & Katz, 2012). This disparity in research

results in a gap in knowledge regarding the way in which substance-dependent men experience

and understand their roles as fathers (Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013). In western countries,

substance-dependent fathers are stigmatized as “irresponsible, unfit, and dangerous” (Peled,

Gabriel-Fried & Katz, 2012, p. 895), not to mention “helpless with no self-control” (p. 906). As

a result, many substance-dependent fathers, perhaps more so than substance-dependent mothers,

do not take an active role in their children’s lives and are often absent from the home. However,

Brook et al. (2002a) assert that despite the drug-related troubles in their lives, substance-using

fathers “may still bring important protective qualities to their relationships with their children”

(p. 106). When a father has a strong bond with his child, the child is more likely to identify with

him and imitate his attitudes or behaviors. While this concept can be dangerous when the child

mimics the father’s drug use, Brook et al. report that “there may be a whole array of more

positive attributes of the father that the child may emulate” (p. 107).

According to Hendricks et al. (2005), society’s expectation of fathers has dramatically

changed over time. In the past, the father’s role was considered less important than that of the


mother. Now, however, fathers are considered to be as important as mothers in regards to the

development and well-being of children. Throughout the last three decades, men have

experienced a cultural shift in regards to what is expected of them as fathers, which has enhanced

and diversified their role in family life. Whereas fatherhood was primarily defined by economic

contributions in the past, fathers today are more involved in childrearing (Carlson, 2006). Peled,

Gavriel-Fried and Katz (2012) agree that the role of fathers has morphed over the years, from the

father as the moral teacher, responsible for the upbringing of his children as well as their

religious values, to the father as the breadwinner and gender role model, and finally to the father

as the nurturing, or “New Father,” a father who expresses his feelings, is sensitive to the needs of

his children, shows an interest in their lives and is active in promoting their educational,

cognitive and emotional development. As a result of these shifting expectations and perceptions

of fathers over time, today’s fathers do not have a clear definition of what it means to be a father.

Fathers are experiencing a disparity between what they learned and experienced from their own

fathers and how they are expected to behave today. This disparity, coupled with their dependence

on drugs, impedes upon fathers’ ability to develop close relationships with their children and in

turn, their children are put at greater risk of initiating substance use as a way to cope with the

absence of their substance-dependent fathers.

Theories of Intergenerational Transmission of Addiction

A variety of theories exist which attempt to explain the intergenerational transmission of

addiction from parents to children. According to the genetic model of addiction, for example,

addicts are “constitutionally predisposed to develop dependence on drugs” due to the genetics

they inherited from their parents (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2012, p. 9). Mezzich et al. (2007) claims

that children whose parents meet the criteria for a substance use disorder are at a four- to seven-


fold increased risk of developing a substance use disorder themselves, even if they are raised by

adoptive parents who do not meet the criteria for a substance use disorder. Learning models, on

the other hand, posit that individuals learn of the positively reinforcing characteristics of drug

use which often results in dependence. Drug use often decreases unpleasant psychological states

such as anxiety or stress and as a result of its positively reinforcing qualities, drug use continues

until physical dependence develops. At that time, continued use occurs in an attempt to ward off

symptoms of withdrawal (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2012). Social learning theories claim that people

initiate drug use when parents or substance-using peers model such behaviors (Walden, Iacono &

McGue, 2007), whereas family models suggest that the family plays a significant role in the

etiology of drug use, particularly in terms of parenting style. According to this model,

individuals are more likely to use drugs if they perceive their parents as neglectful (Montgomery,

Fisk & Craig, 2008).

Parenting Style and Parental Absence

Montgomery, Fisk and Craig (2008) suggest that parenting style is categorized along two

dimensions, parental warmth and parental control, which creates four styles of parenting:

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and neglectful. Perceptions of parenting style are formed

early in life, are relatively stable, and have been found to predict child well-being in terms of

social competence, academic performance, psychosocial development, problem behavior, and

substance abuse. For instance, children of parents who are perceived to exhibit low warmth and

control experience significantly increased drug and alcohol use during adolescence, compared to

children who perceive their parents to be high in warmth and high in control. Not only that, it has

been demonstrated that of all four parenting styles, individuals who perceived their parents to be

permissive or neglectful used drugs at a younger age compared to individuals who perceived


their parents to be authoritative and authoritarian. Furthermore, Mezzich et al. (2007) suggest

that ineffective discipline by parents is associated with dysregulated behavior among children as

well as early age onset of substance use disorder in children.

One aspect impacting parenting style is parental residence, whether or not the parent

resides in the home with the child, which further impacts adolescent substance use. Just as the

majority of research on the impact of parental substance use has focused on the mother’s use, the

majority of research discussing the impact of parental absence has focused on mothers’ absence

as well. However, Aquilino (2006) asserts that fathers play a significant role in child

development. Children are said to be harmed when their fathers play a lesser role and benefit

when nonresident fathers play an active role, providing their children with emotional and

material support.

Booth, Scott and King (2009) report that at some point throughout their youth,

approximately 50 percent of all children reside in a home without their biological father.

Compared to children living with both biological parents, children with nonresident fathers are at

greater risk of academic problems, delinquency, low self-esteem and substance abuse. Children

who grow up in families where both biological parents are present have fewer behavioral

problems, such as violence, depressive symptoms, substance use, and delinquency, greater self-

esteem and greater academic performance, possibly due to having close ties with their fathers.

According to Carlson (2006), although a portion of divorced or never-married, nonresident

fathers maintain close ties with their children, most nonresident fathers are not engaged with

their children and do not maintain close relationships with them once they leave the home.

Research suggests that living apart from one’s biological father is associated with adverse

outcomes for children and adolescents, regardless of race, education or mothers’ remarriage. Be


that as it may, when adolescents living in two-parent households do not have a close tie with

their fathers, adolescents do not do as well as adolescents with nonresident fathers. Booth, Scott

and King (2009) found that adolescents who have a close tie to their nonresident fathers had

higher self-esteem, less delinquency and fewer symptoms of depression compared to adolescents

who live with their fathers, yet do not have a close tie. Therefore, adolescents appear to benefit

more from a close relationship with their nonresident father than a poor relationship with a

resident father.

Although adolescents who have a close relationship with their nonresident father fare

better, adolescents who are unable to develop relationships with their nonresident father even if

they wanted to, such as adolescents whose fathers are incarcerated, face additional challenges.

According to Roettger, Swisher, Kuhl and Chavez (2010), one-eighth of adolescents in the

United States report that their biological father has spent time in jail or prison. Therefore, the

‘collateral consequences’ of paternal incarceration on children and families has received

increased attention. Roettger, Swisher, Kuhl and Chavez’s (2010) research has demonstrated that

having a father who has ever been incarcerated is often associated with increased risk for

marijuana use as well as an increased risk for other illegal drug use by both male and female

adolescents, particularly during the transition to adulthood. “In a society where drug users make

up one-fourth of incarcerated prisoners and 60% of inmates report regular drug use prior to

incarceration, the early onset and heightened risk of drug use also increases the likelihood of an

intergenerational transmission of incarceration between fathers and their children” (p. 128).

Impact on female children

Some researchers question whether father absence is more detrimental based on the

gender of the children involved. Carlson (2006) suggests that there is little difference between


adolescent boys and girls in terms of the impact of father involvement. However, East, Jackson

and O’Brien (2007) studied the experiences of nine women who experienced father absence

during their childhood and/or adolescent years and found that four themes emerged from the

women’s perspectives. In their study, participants described feelings of betrayal and being let

down by their fathers. They described feelings of abandonment, hurt, resentment, anger and

being unloved. What’s more, participants did not consider their father’s departure from the

family as an issue between their parents. Rather, they felt that their fathers left because they did

not want to be around their children or did not want to parent them any longer.

Participants also felt that growing up without their fathers affected the relationships they

had with them. As a result of their irregular contact, lack of communication and perceived

disinterest, participants viewed their fathers as strangers. In addition, participants lacked a shared

history with their fathers and reported that there were periods of time in their lives that did not

include any shared memories with their fathers. Given the lack of relationships participants had

with their fathers, they reported having difficulties creating and maintaining relationships with

men. Participants reported having distrust in men, fear of abandonment, negative feelings toward

men, and a lack of understanding in regards to relationship dynamics between men and women

(East, Jackson & O’Brien, 2007).

Even though the women in East, Jackson and O’Brien’s (2007) study each had a

significant mother/daughter bond, it was not enough to overcome the feelings associated with the

absence of their fathers. As participants described in their narratives, father absence strongly

impacted their lives so much so that “having loving, nurturing and supportive relationships with

others does not fill the void associated with the feelings of abandonment, loss, grief and

unworthiness felt by children who experience the absence of a parent” (p. 17).


Longitudinal effects of paternal substance use and absence

One may hypothesize that the relationship between fathers and children may improve if

the fathers end their substance use. However, research demonstrates that parental recovery alone

does not fully eliminate the risk of children experiencing externalizing problems and heavy

alcohol use. According to DeLucia, Belz and Chassin (2001), children of alcoholic fathers in

recovery exhibited more externalizing problems and frequent heavy drinking during adolescence

than did children of control fathers. While these authors could not provide an explanation for this

finding, they did suggest that children may be at greater risk of symptomatology if their fathers’

substance use persisted beyond a particular developmental period. For example, it has been

shown that children whose fathers’ substance use ended prior to the child turning six years of age

were comparable to children in the control group, while children whose fathers’ substance use

disorder continued beyond the child turning six years of age exhibited more emotional and

behavioral problems around ages 10-12 than did children in the control group. Nevertheless,

these findings highlight the possibility that children of recovered alcoholic fathers may be at

more risk than children of nonalcoholic fathers. Likewise, Aquilino (2006) suggests that

childhood experiences have long-term consequences for the relationship between adult children

and noncustodial fathers. When noncustodial fathers devote time and energy to their

relationships with their children during childhood and adolescence, they experienced closer

relationships with them during early adulthood. On the other hand, fathers who did not have

close relationships with their children during their childhood years did not have close

relationships with them during adulthood.


Adolescent Coping

Brook et al. (2002b) report that the complications associated with paternal drug addiction

and fathers’ time away from home expose adolescents to significant and often times prolonged

stress. They also suggest that adolescent development is influenced by the way in which

adolescents cope with the stressful events they encounter, not to mention by their emotional

reactions to such events. Coping strategies that are adaptive, those that are problem-focused,

have been related to positive outcomes among adolescents, such as a decreased risk of substance

abuse problems. On the other hand, maladaptive coping strategies may inhibit an adolescent’s

development and interfere with interpersonal functioning and academic performance. One aspect

impacting adolescents’ ability to cope is the quality of their relationship with their fathers. Low

levels of paternal commitment, support and expressiveness, combined with high levels of

conflict are associated with maladaptive coping strategies among adolescents.

In their study of adolescent children of HIV-positive and HIV-negative substance-

abusing fathers, Brook et al. (2002b) found that adolescents who had supportive fathers showed

an almost eightfold increase in adaptive coping, compared to those adolescents who did not have

a supportive father. Their findings suggest that a close relationship between a father and a child,

wherein the father is supportive and available is associated with adaptive coping in the

adolescent. Brook et al. (2002a) found that an affectionate father-child relationship was related to

a decreased likelihood of adolescent marijuana use. This finding demonstrates that a close father-

child relationship reduces the likelihood that a child will turn to drug use, even if the father is a

current illicit drug user.

In addition to the father-child relationship, another factor influencing adolescent coping is

whether or not fathers utilize effective coping strategies themselves. Adolescents whose fathers


sought support from others in dealing with his HIV status demonstrated a nearly fourfold

increase in adaptive coping ability (Brook et al., 2002b). For instance, Brook, et al. (2002a)

demonstrated that adolescents whose fathers sought support from others in dealing with his HIV

status were less likely to use marijuana. A possible explanation for this finding may be that

fathers who seek support from others model active coping strategies which in turn, convey to

their children that drug use is a maladaptive way of coping with problems.

Implications for practice

Given the likelihood that fathers who are substance dependent struggle not only with

their substance use but also with their abilities as fathers, one way to address both issues

simultaneously is to incorporate parenting education into substance abuse treatment services.

“Addressing their parenting issues whilst treating their drug addiction problems could potentially

facilitate better, more responsible, involved, and perhaps more importantly drug-free fathering”

(Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013, p. 32).

However, Lee, Bellamy and Guterman (2009) suggest that little is known about how to

engage fathers in parenting and prevention efforts due in part to a significant gap in our

understanding of the subjective barriers substance-dependent fathers face. As a result, few

parenting programs exist that are designed for fathers. Clearly, innovations within the substance

abuse treatment system are necessary so that men who are interested in becoming more effective

fathers are supported in doing so and that men who may not be interested initially can be

encouraged to consider how their substance use and absence has negatively impacted their

children. Often times, substance-dependent fathers in treatment report feelings of uncertainty

regarding their importance to their children. Some believe their children are better off without

them in their lives while others feel like a burden to their children. These beliefs may be


modified with the help of supportive staff members who focus their attention not only on men’s

substance use, but their role as a father as well (Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013).

Through their interviews with substance-dependent fathers, Peled, Gavriel-Fried and

Katz (2012) found four themes in the way substance-dependent fathers perceive their paternal

identity. In their narratives, it became evident that substance-dependent fathers went through a

process of parental identity formation that was composed of four distinct stages, including

absence, awakening, taking responsibility, and resolution to re-form oneself as a father. In the

first stage, absentee fathering, fathers described a period wherein they were “missing in action”

(p. 898). Some fathers reported they were physically and emotionally absent from the family,

whereas others reported that they were physically present, but emotionally absent. Fathers

reported that this stage was marked by feeling like a stranger, alienation, hostility, and fatigue.

Fathers attributed their absence to their substance dependence and to their own experiences with

an absent father, which they were imitating.

In the second stage, awakening, fathers reported experiencing a new understanding of

what it meant to be a father, in addition to an understanding of the negative impact being

“missing in action” had on their children. This stage also represented a turning point wherein

fathers set out to recreate their paternal identity. Fathers in this stage came to the realization that

their drug use impaired their ability to be physically and emotional present for their children and

that because of their drug use, they harmed their children. As fathers viewed their past in a new

light, they appeared better equipped to make changes in their lives and reform their identity as a

father. This awareness of their absence and failure as fathers led fathers into the final stages of

accepting responsibility and resolving to change. Some fathers reported having a desire to be

forgiven by those impacted by their absence, not to mention by society as a whole, whereas most


fathers suggested the importance of society taking responsibility for providing substance-

dependent fathers with appropriate treatment opportunities and for recognizing them not only as

addicts, but also fathers (Peled, Gavriel-Fried & Katz, 2012). Given society’s view of substance-

dependent men and their perceived inability to fulfill a father’s role, substance-dependent men

may fall victim to the self-fulfilling prophecy and become passive or absent fathers. By assisting

substance-dependent men in identifying their current position in the process of paternal identity

development proposed by Peled et al. (2012), therapists may be better able to tailor their

treatment to the needs of their clients and assist them in modifying their beliefs about their

abilities as fathers.

McKeganey, Barnard and McIntosh (2002) agree that substance abuse treatment

providers should assist substance-dependent fathers in exploring the impact of their drug use on

their children. As substance-dependent fathers gain awareness of how their drug use has

negatively influenced their children, they may be more motivated to work toward and maintain

abstinence. This may be achieved by incorporating more family-oriented programs into drug

treatment services. Actively discussing with clients the impact of their drug use on children, not

to mention conducting family therapy sessions with the children present, may help clients gain

insight into their current functioning and in turn, serve as catalysts for clients’ sobriety.

Seeing as many men have few, if any, experiences with positive fathering, it is possible

that the traditional therapeutic “talking cure,” combined with “learning by doing” in a safe

environment would facilitate men’s competency as fathers (Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013, p.

44). Even if fathers want to be more attentive, supportive and closer to their children, insight and

motivation may not be enough to change their actual parenting practices. Therefore, fathers may

benefit from treatment approaches that provide resources and education on how to be a positive


father, and are then allowed to practice their newfound skills with their children in a safe

environment under the guidance of a trained professional.

One area of focus that may be helpful in family treatment programs is family structure.

McCrady, Epstein & Sell (2003) suggest that families are governed by the law of homeostasis

and as a result, operate to maintain balance, stability and equilibrium. Thus, if a substance-

dependent family has learned to function with a substance-dependent member, homeostasis

would be threatened by introducing sobriety into the system. Therefore, therapists working with

substance-dependent fathers and their children should focus their attention on the ways that the

family’s structure and functioning has maintained homeostasis and assist the family members

identify the roles they play within the family that guide their actions. Therapists should also

assist families in identifying the explicit and implicit family rules that govern the family’s

functioning, not to mention the boundaries present between family members that define the

relationships within the family.

At the same time, Aquilino (2006) suggests that fathers may also need help in developing

a cooperative co-parenting relationship with the mother of their children. In order for nonresident

fathers to be involved in making important decisions about their children, they must be able to

work well with the children’s mother. Over time, the co-parenting relationship has a tendency to

become distant. Parents communicate less about their children, just as they cooperate less in

raising their children. By assisting fathers overcome this trend, nonresident fathers may be better

equipped to forge closer relationships with their children that will persist into adulthood.

Due to the negative impact of parental substance use on children and adolescents, some

critics believe that the only way to mediate the situation is to remove the children/adolescents

from the home. While this stance does have its merits, Soderstrom and Skarderud (2013) assert


that removing the children and adolescents from the home is the “wrong thing to do” (p. 242).

They believe that even though parental drug use may have a significant negative impact on

children and adolescents, it cannot be assumed that all drug-using parents are incapable of

parenting their children. What’s more, Soderstrom and Skarderud suggest that the institutional

settings that children may be sent to upon being removed from their home, whether on a

temporary or longer-term basis, may also be environments wherein illegal drug use is

flourishing. As a result, these authors support the Adoption and Safe Families Act, a law which

obligates drug-using parents to become drug free within 12 months of foster care arrangements

being made for their children. If drug-using parents fail to become drug-free, their child or

children may be permanently removed from the home. Unfortunately, one of the limitations

associated with a policy that attempts to keep drug-using families intact is the lack of readily

accessible family-oriented treatment services. Nevertheless, Soderstrom and Skarderud (2013)

assert that something must be done. “If we fail to meet the needs of the children of drug-using

parents, we shall have lost an opportunity to break the cycle of familial adversity that will see

many of them becoming the drug users of tomorrow” (p. 244). Counselors can work to meet the

needs of children of drug-using parents by contacting their local policymakers and advocating on

behalf of substance-dependent fathers who are stigmatized by society at large, inform them about

the need for more appropriate family treatment programs, and be the voice for children suffering

the consequences of growing up with substance-dependent, and often absent, fathers.

While it is hopeful that substance-dependent fathers can improve their relationships with

their children, Carlson (2006) warns that it cannot be assumed that adolescent behavioral

problems will decrease if uninvolved fathers become more involved with their children. It may

be possible that other key variables, such as the father’s mental health, impact family structure


and father involvement. Nevertheless, Carlson’s study “provides reason for optimism that

nonresident fathers’ maintaining a high-quality relationship with their children could potentially

attenuate some of the negative consequences of father absence” (p. 152). Brook et al. (2002a)

suggests that knowing and understanding the antecedents of adolescent drug use is useful for

identifying at-risk adolescents and for creating intervention programs that meet their needs. By

educating fellow counselors on the negative impact of paternal drug use and absence on

adolescent substance use, particularly on adolescent females, adolescents whose fathers are

incarcerated, or adolescents whose fathers are HIV-positive, just to name a few, informed

counselors can set the stage for consistent treatment services for substance-dependent fathers and

adolescents alike, thereby breaking the cycle of intergenerational transmission of addiction.


Conclusion

Adolescent substance use is a growing concern in the United States. As researchers and

clinicians set out to identify the antecedents of adolescent substance use, the focus has remained

largely on the impact of maternal substance use and maternal absence. However, a growing body

of research has demonstrated the influence of the father-child relationship and father absence on

the intergenerational transmission of addiction among adolescents. Adolescents who lack a close

relationship with their substance-dependent fathers are at increased risk of initiating substance

use themselves. As a result, it is argued that this risk is decreased if substance-dependent fathers

receive parenting education and support in addition to treatment for their substance dependence

concerns. Despite the merits of these research studies, several limitations should be considered

when evaluating their findings.

The majority of substance-dependent fathers included in research studies may actually

have been in treatment at the time of the study and therefore “might represent a limited group of

addicted men willing to give up drugs and invest in child, partner, and family life” (Soderstrom

& Skarderud, 2013, p. 47). Unfortunately, the findings derived from these substance-dependent

fathers may not generalize to all substance-dependent fathers in the general population. It is

reasonable to predict, in theory, that fathers who receive education and support may be more

equipped to fulfill their roles as fathers. However, in reality, it remains questionable just how

many substance-dependent fathers are aptly motivated to participate in treatment and family

education services. In addition, it could be argued that the link between adolescent substance use

and the father-child relationship operates in the opposite direction (Carlson, 2006). Instead of the

poor father-child relationship influencing adolescent substance use, it is possible that adolescents

with problem behaviors may “push fathers away or children with good behavior may draw


fathers in” (p. 151). Another limitation lies in generalizing these findings to adolescents in

situations wherein the father-child relationship is not possible, due to circumstances such as

abuse or domestic violence (East, Jackson & O’Brien, 2007) or even in situations wherein the

father is deceased.

Further studies are needed to expand upon existing research and examine other factors

that may influence paternal absence and adolescent substance use. It would be interesting to

study how ethnicity and culture play a role in the intergenerational transmission of addiction

among adolescents. Perhaps adolescents from one culture are more at risk of substance use

initiation due to paternal absence than adolescents from a different culture. At the same time,

future research should also study whether adolescents who are only-children are at greater risk

than adolescents who have varying numbers of siblings. Perhaps the number of siblings one has

serves as a protective factor when assessing the risk of substance use initiation in father-absent

homes. Nevertheless, it remains imperative that researchers and clinicians continue their work in

identifying at-risk adolescents and in turn, creating prevention strategies in hopes of ending the

cycle of intergenerational transmission of addiction.


References

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THE IMPACT OF PATERNAL ABSENCE ON THE … · The Impact of Substance Dependent Fathers’ Absence on the Intergenerational . ... attention is the impact of substance-dependent absent