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7/27/2019 The Imperial Cult the Development of Church Order 1999
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T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T A N D T H E D E V E L O P M E N T
O F C H U R C H O R D E R
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SU PPL E M E N T S T O
V I G I L I A E C H R I S T I A N A EForm erly Philosophia Patrum
T E X T S A N D S T U D I E S O F E A R L Y C H R I S T I A N L I F E
A N D L A N G U A G E
E D I T O R S
J . D E N B O E F T — R . V A N D E N B R O E K — W . L . P E T E R S E ND . T . R U N I A — J . C . M . V A N W I N D E N
VOLUME X L V
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T h i s b o o k is p r i n t e d on a c i d - f r e e p a p e r .
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
B r e n t , A l l e n .
T h e i m p e r i a l c u l t and the d e v e l o p m e n t of c h u r c h o r d e r : c o n c e p t s
a n d i m a g e s of a u t h o r i t y in p a g a n i s m and e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y b e f o r et h e Age of C y p r i a n / by A l l e n B r e n t .
p . cm. — ( S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e , I S S N
0 9 2 0 - 6 2 3 X ; v. 45)
I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s (p. ) and i n d e x e s .
I S B N 9 0 0 4 1 1 4 2 0 3
1. C h u r c h p o l i ty — H i s t o r y — E a r l y c h u r c h , ca. 3 0 - 6 0 0 . 2. E m p e r o r
w o r s h i p — R o m e . 3. C h r i s t i a n i t y and o t h e r r e l i g i o n s — R o m a n .
I . T i d e . II. S e r i e s .
B V 6 4 8 . B 7 3 19992 6 1 . 2 ' 2 0 7 '0 9 0 1 5 — d c 2 1 9 9 - 3 6 6 3 1
C I P
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
[Vigiliae Christianae / Supplements]
S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e : f o r m e r l y P h i l o s o p h i a P a t r u m ;
t e x t s and s t u d i e s of e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i f e and l a n g u a g e . - L e i d e n ;
B o s t o n ; K o l n : Bri l l .
Friiher Schriftenreihe
I S S N 0 9 2 0 - 6 2 3 X
V o l . 45. Brent , Al len: The imperial cult and thed e v e l o p m e n t of
church order . - 1999
Brent, Allen:
T h e i m p e r i a l c u l t and the d e v e l o p m e n t of c h u r c h o r d e r : c o n c e p t s and
i m a g e s of a u t h o r i t y in P a g a n i s m and E a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y b e f o r e the
A g e of C y p r i a n / by A l l e n B r e n t . - L e i d e n ; B o s t o n ; K o l n : B r i l l ,
1 9 9 9
( S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e ; V o l . 45)
I S B N 9 0 - 0 4 - 1 1 4 2 0 - 3
I S S N 0 9 2 0 - 6 2 3 X
I S B N 90 04 1 1 4 2 0 3
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P R I N T E D IN T H E N E T H E R L A N D S
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C a r o l i n e P e n r o s e B a m m e l , F . B . A .
( 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 9 5 )
I n p i a m m e m o r i a m
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C O N T E N T S
A b b r e v i a t i o n s i x
P la t e s x v
I n t r o d u c t i o n x i x
I . C h r i s t i a n a n d P a g a n C u l t u s b y t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y 1
A . C y p r i a n i c H i e r a r c h y a n d D e c i u s T r a j a n 2
B . C h r i s t i a n a n d I m p e r i a l C u l t : P a r a l l e l s B e f o r e
C y p r i a n 4
C . C h u r c h O r d e r a s Apologia: T h e R e a c t i v e T h e s i s 8
D . I m p e r i a l a n d C h r i s t i a n O r d e r : C o n t r a - C u l t u r a l
R e l a t i o n s 1 1
I I . T h e F o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t 17
A . R e p u b l i c a n A n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t 19
B . T h e I n a u g u r a t i o n a n d R e c e p t i o n o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t 5 9
I I I . I m p e r i a l I d e o l o g y a n d t h e O r i g i n s o f C h u r c h O r d e r 7 3
A . Luke-Acts: T r a d i t i o n a l E s c h a t o lo g y T r a n s f o r m e d 7 8
B . Luke-Acts i n t h e C o n t e x t o f I m p e r i a l H i s t o r y 8 2
C . L u k a n I m a g e s o f C o n t r a C u l t u r e 1 01
D . C h u r c h O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l S o c ie ty 1 30
E . I n C o n c l u s i o n : T h e o p h i l u s a n d H i s C i r c l e 1 37
I V . C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d D o m i t i a n ' s E m p i r e 1 40
A . D o m i t i a n a n d th e W r i t i n g o f C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians ... 141
B . C l e m e n t : C h u r c h O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l P e a c e 1 44
C . C l e m e n t ' s C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a C o n t r a C u l t u r e 16 1
V . T h e Apocalypse a n d D o m i t i a n ' s I c o n o g r a p h y 1 64
A . D o m i t i a n ' s C u l t a n d t h e D a t e of t h e Apocalypse 1 6 4
B . T h e D o m i t i a n i c B a c k c l o t h t o t h e Apocalypse 177
C . I n C o n c l u s i o n : Apocalypse a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t 2 0 8
V I . I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e M a r t y r ' s P r o c e s s i o n 2 1 0
A . I g n a t i a n T y p o l o g y a n d D o m i t i a n ' s I c o n o g r a p h y 2 1 1
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viii C O N T E N T S
B . T h e M a r t y r P r o c e s s io n a n d C u l t i c A m b a s s a d o r s ... . 2 2 8
C . O r d e r i n C l e m e n t , I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse 2 4 8
V I I . P a g a n a n d C h r i s t i a n M o n a r c h i a n i s m 2 5 1
A . A n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e S e v e r a n * R e f o r m a t i o n 2 5 5
B . P a g a n O n t o l o g i e s : G n o s t i c i s m a n d N e o p l a t o n i s m . ... 2 7 1
C . S o c i a l O r d e r a n d t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y 2 8 5
V I I I . T h e E m e r g e n c e o f I m p e r i a l a n d C a t h o l i c O r d e r 3 1 0
A . E l a g a b a l u s a n d U n i v e r s a l M o n o t h e i s m 3 1 1
B . C a l li st us , M o n a r c h B i s ho p s a n d M o n a r c h i a n i s m 3 1 3
C . I n C o n c l u s i o n : T h e L e g a c y f or D e c i u s a n d
C y p r i a n 3 2 8
B i b l i o g r a p h y 3 3 1
I n d i c e s 3 4 5
1. B ib l i ca l C i t a t i o n s 3 4 7
2 . A n c i e n t C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h W r i t e r s 3 5 1
3 . A n c i e n t P a g a n W r i t e r s 3 5 4
4 . I n s c r i p t i o n s a n d C o i n s 3 5 9
5 . G r e e k V o c a b u l a r y 3 6 2
P l a t e s 3 7 1
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X A B B R E V I A T I O N S
BeitrHistTh B e i t r a g e z u r h i s t o ri s c h e n T h e o l o g i e
BICS Bu l l e t i n o f t h e In s t i t u t e o f C la s s i ca l S tu d i e s
BiLit B i b e l u n d L i t u r g i e
BJb B o n n e r J a h r b u c h e r de s r h e in i sc h e n L a n d e s m u s e u m s
i n B o n n u n d d e s V e r e i n s v o n A l t e r t u m s f r e u n d e n i m
R h e i n l a n d e
BLUE B u l l e t i n d e l i t t e r a t u r e e c c l e s i a s t i q u e
BR B i b l i c a l R e s e a r c h
BRev B i b l i c a l R e v i e w
BSGT B i b li o t he c a S c r i p t o r u m G r a e c o r u m e t R o m a n o r u m
T e u b n e r i a n a
BThAM B u l l e t i n d e t h e o l o g i e a n c i e n n e e t m e d i e v a l e
Byz B y z a n t i o n : R e v u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d e s e t u d e s b y z a n -
t i n e s
ByzZ B y z a n t i n i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t
BJ^NW B e i h e f te z u r Z e i t sc h r i ft fu r d i e n e u t e s t a m e n d i c h e W i s -
s e n s c h a f t
B^HT B e i t r a g e z u r h i s t o r i s c h e n T h e o l o g i e
BCCa C i v i l t a c a t t o l i c a
ChH C h u r c h H i s t o r y
CTh C a h i e r s t h e o l o g i q u e s ( N e u c h a t e l : E d i t i o n s D e l a c h a u x
e t N i e s t l e 1 9 4 9 — )
CIG C o r p u s I n s c r ip t io n u m G r a e c a r u m
CIL C o r p u s I n s c r ip t i o n u m L a t i n a r u m
ClAnt C l a s s i c a l A n t i q u i t y
ClassRev C l a s s i c a l R e v i e w
ClassStud C l a s s ic a l S t u d i e s . D e p a r t m e n t o f C l a s si c s o f t h e U n i
v e r s i t y o f K y o t o
CIPl C l a s s i c a l P h i l o l o g y
CSCO C o r p u s S c r i p t o r u m C h r i s t i a n o r u m O r i e n t a l i u m
CSLE C o r p u s S c r i p t o r u m L a t i n o r u m E c c l e si a st ic o r u m
DAC L Dictionnaire d' Archeologie Chretienne et de Liturgie, (Ed . )
F . C a b r o l a n d H . L e c l e r c q ( P a ri s : L i b r a i r e L e t o u z e y
e t A n e 1 9 2 4 )
DAIRM M i t t e i l u n g e n d e s d e u t s c h e n a r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s ti tu t s:
r o m i s c h e A b t e i l u n g
DomSt D o m i n i c a n S t u d i e s
DR D o w n s i d e R e v i e w
EglTheo E g l i s e e t t h eo lo g ie
EpAnat E p i g r a p h i c a a n a t o l i c a
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A B B R E V I A T I O N S XI
EphL E p h e m e r i d e s l i t u r g i c a e
EPRO E t u d e s p r e l i m i n a i r e s a u x r e l i g io n s o r i e n t a l e s d a n s
l ' e m p i r e r o m a i n , M a a r t e n J . V e r m a s e r e n ( L e i d en : B rill)
EThL E p h e m e r i d e s T h e o l o g i c a e L o v a n i e n s e s
Entretiens F o n d a t i o n H a r d t P o u r P E t u d e d e T A n t i q u i t e C l a s s i q u e
( V a n d o e u v r e s - G e n e v e : O l i v ie r R e v e r d i n )
FRLANT F o r s c h u n g e n z u r R e l i g i o n u n d L i t e r a t u r d e s a l t e n
u n d n e u e n T e s t a m e n t s
F^ThTTi F r e i b u r g e r Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h i l o s o p h i c u n d T h e o l o g i e
GCS D i e g r i e c h i s c h e n c h r i s t l i c h e n S c h r if t st e l le r d e r e r s t e n
b e i d e n J a h r h u n d e r t e
GGR 3 G e s c h i c h t e d e r g r i e c h i s c h e n R e l i g i o n , i n Handbuch der
A Itertumswissenschqft
Greg G r e g o r i a n u m
GRBS G r e e k , R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e S t ud i e s
Gym G y m n a s i u m
HA H a n d b u c h d e r A l te r tu m s w i s se n s ch a f t
Herm H e r m e s
Hermath H e r m a t h e n a
Hesp H e s p e r i a
Heyjn H e y t h r o p J o u r n a l
Hochl. H o c h l a n d . Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r a l l e G e b i e t e d e s W i s s e n s
u n d d e r s c h o n e n K i i n s t e
H o r s l e y ,
New Docs G . H o r s l e y , New Docum ents Illustrating Early Christianity,
( M a c q u a r i e : A n c i e n t H i s t o ry D o c u m e n t a t i o n R e s e a r c h
C e n t r e 1 9 8 3 — )
HThR H a r v a r d T h e o l o g i c a l R e v i e w
Hypomn. H y p o m n e m a t a : U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r A n t i ke u n d z u
i h r e m N a c h l e b e n , A . D i h l e , H . E r b s e , C . H a b i c h t ,
G . P a t z ig , B . S n e l l ( E d it o rs ) , ( G o t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k
a n d R u p r e c h t 1 9 62 — )
ILCV I n s c r ip t i o n e s L a t i n a e C h r i s t i a n a e V e t e r e s , E d . E . D i e h l ,
V o l s . 1 -3
ICUR I n s c ri p ti o n e s C h r i s t i a n a e U r b i s R o m a e S e p t i m o S a e -
c u l o A n t i q u i o r e s , E d . D e R o s s i G . B . a n d S i l v a g n i A . ,
N o v a s er ie s ( R o m e 1 9 2 1 — )
IG I n s c r i p t i o n e s G r a e c a e , E d . K i r s c h n e r J . ( B e rl in : R h e i -
m a r u s 1 9 1 3 — ; D e G r u y t e r 1 9 2 4 — )
JbAC J a h r b u c h fur A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m
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xii A B B R E V I A T I O N S
JBL J o u r n a l of B i bl ic a l L i t e r a t u r e
JEgArch J o u r n a l o f E g y p t i a n A r c h e o l o g y
J EH J o u r n a l o f E c c l e s ia s t ic a l H i s t o r y
JES J o u r n a l o f E c u m e n i c a l S t u d i e s
JHS J o u r n a l o f H e l l e n i c . S t u d i e s
JLiW J a h r b u c h fiir L i t u rg i e w i s s e n s c h a f t
JRA J o u r n a l o f R o m a n A r c h e o lo g y
JRH J o u r n a l o f R e l i g i o u s H i s t o r y
JRomS J o u r n a l o f R o m a n S t ud ie s
JSNT J o u r n a l fo r t h e S t u d y o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t
JSNT.S J o u r n a l for t h e S t u d y o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t : S u p p l e
m e n t a r y S e r i e s
JThS J o u r n a l o f T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s
LeDiv L e c t i o d i v i n a
MAAR M e m o i r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y in R o m e
M D L a M a i s o n - D i e u
MEFRA M e l a n g e s d e l ' e c o l e f r a n g a i s e d e R o m e : A n t i q u i t e
MemAmAc M e m o i r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y in R o m e
M GH M o n u m e n t a G e r m a n i a e H i s t o r i c a
M SR M e l a n g e s d e s c i e n c e r e l i g i e u s e
MuTh£ M i i n c h e n e r t h e o l o g i s c h e Z e it sc h ri ft
NA N e u t e s t a m e n d i c h e A b h a n d l u n g e n
NScavAnt No t i z i e d eg l i s cav i d i an t i ch i t a , i n Atti della r. acca-
demia dei Lincei
NT N o v u m T e s t a m e n t u m
NTS N e w T e s t a m e n t S t u d ie s
OECT O x f o r d E a r l y C h r i s t i a n T e x t s , H . C h a d w i c k ( E d. ),
( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r es s)
Opera M in Sel. L . R o b e r t , O p e r a M i n o r a S e l e c ta , E p i g r a p h i e e t
A n t i q u i t e s G r e c q u e s , V o l s . 1 -7 ( A m s t e r d a m : H a k k e r t
1 9 6 9 - 1 9 9 0 )
OrChr O r i e n s C h r i s t i a n u s
OrChrA O r i e n t a l i a C h r i s t i a n a a n a l e c t a
OrSyr O r i e n t s y r i e n
OstkiSt O s t k i r c h l i c h e S t u d i e n
PL J . P . M i g n e , P a t r o l o g i a L a t i n a
Phil Ph i lo lo g u s , Z e i t s ch r i f t f i i r k l a s s i s ch es Al t e r tu m
PO P a t r o l o g i a o r i e n t a l i s
PG J . P . M i g n e , P a t r o lo g i a G r a e c a - L a t i n a
PTS P a t r is t is c h e T e x t e u n d S t u d i e n ( B e r l i n / N e w Y o r k :
D e G r u y t e r 1 9 6 4 — )
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A B B R E V I A T I O N S X l l l
PW K A . P a u l y - W i s s o w a , Real-encyclopadia der classischen Alter-
tumswissenschaft ( M e t z l e r : S t u t t g a r t 1 8 9 9 )
QLP Q u e s t i o n s l i t u r g i q u e s e t p a r o i s s i a l e s
RAC R e a l l e x i k o n fiir A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m
RAr R e v u e a r c h e o l o g i q u e
RBen R e v u e b e n e d i c t i n e
Rbib R e v u e b i b l i q u e
RDroitCan R e v u e d e d r o i t c a n o n i q u e
RH R e v u e h i s t o r i q u e
REA R e v u e d e s e t u d e s a n c i e n n e s
REG R e v u e d es e t u d e s g r e c q u e s
RevHisRel R e v u e d e l'histoire d e s r e l i g i o n s
RecSciRel R e c h e r c h e s d e s c i e n c e r e li g ie u s e
RelStudRev R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s R e v i e w
RBelgPhH R e v u e b e i g e d e p h i l o l o g i e e t d'histoire
ReoEtByz R e v u e de s e t u d e s b y z a n t i n e s
RevHE R e v u e d'histoire e c c l e s i a s t i q u e
RevHPhR R e v u e d'histoire e t d e p h i l o s o p h i c r e l i g ie u s e
ReoScPhTh R e v u e d e s s c i e n ce s p h i l o s o p h i q u e s e t t h e o l o g i q u e s
RevSR R e v u e d e s s c i e n c e s r e l i g i e u s e s
RGG R e l i g io n i n G e s c h i c h t e u n d G e g e n w a r t
RivAC R i v i s t a d i a r c h e o l o g i a c r i s t i a n a
RPARA R e n d i c o n t i d e l la p o n ti fi c i a a c c a d e m i a r o m a n a d i
a r c h e o l o g i a
RPhil R e v u e d e p h i l o l o g i e , d e l i t t e r a t u r e e t d'histoire a n c i
e n n e s
RSLR R i v i s t a d i s t o r i a e l e t t e r a t u r a r e l i g io s a
RThAM R e c h e r c h e s d e t h e o l o g i e a n c i e n n e e t m e d i e v a l e
SBAW S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r b a y r i s c h e n A k a d e m i e d e r W i s
s e n s c h a f t e n
SC S o u r c e s c h r e t i e n n e s (P a r is : L e s E d i t i o n s d u C e r f
1 9 4 4 — )
SciEspirit S c i e n c e e t e s p r i t
ScuCat L a s c u o l a c a t t o l i c a
SecCent T h e S e c o n d C e n t u r y
Set Stud i e t es t i
SGK S c h r i f te n d e r k o n i g s b e r g e r G e l e h r t e n G e s e l ls c h a ft
SHAW S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r H e i d e l b e r g e r A k a d e m i e d e r
W i s s e n s c h a f t e n
SJLA S t u d i e s i n J u d a i s m i n L a t e A n t i q u i t y , E d . J . N e u s n e r
(Leiden : Br i l l )
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XIV A B B R E V I A T I O N S
SPAW S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r p r e u s s i s c h e n A k a d e m i e d e r W i s
s e n s c h a f t e n : P h i l o s o p h i s c h - h i s t o r i s c h e K l a s s e
StAns S t u d i a a n s e l m i a n a
StEphAug. S t u d i a E p h e m e r i d i s " A u g u s t i n i a n u m " ( I n s t i t u t u m P a t r i -
s t ic u m " A u g u s t i n i a n q r n " : R o m e )
StPB S t u d i a P o s t - B i b l i c a
StTh S t u d i a T h e o l o g i c a
StudClas Stud i i clasice. Buc ures t i , Soc . de S tud i i Clas ice d in R S R
StudPatr S t u d i a P a t r i s t i c a
StuPat S t u d i a P a t a v i n a
SupplVCh S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l ia e C h r i s t i a n a e ( L e i d e n : B r il l
1 9 8 7 — )
TheolStKrit T h e o l o g i s c h e S t u d i e n u n d K r i t i k e n
Theoph T h e o p h a n i a : B e it r ag e z u r R e l i g io n s - u n d K i r c h e n -
g e s c h i c h t e d e s A l t e r t u m s
TheoRev T h e o l o g i s c h e r e v u e
ThG T h e o l o g i e u n d G l a u b e
ThQ T h e o l o g i s c h e Q u a r t a l s c h r i f t
ThR T h e o l o g i s c h e R u n d s c h a u
ThS T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s
ThZ T h e o l o g i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t
TU T e x t e u n d U n t e r s u c h u n g e n d e r a l t c h r i s t l i c h e n L i t e r a t u r
TWJVT T h e o l o g is c h e s W o r t e r b u c h z u m n e u e n T e s t a m e n t
TEA T u b i n g e r B e i t r a g e z u r A l t e r tu m s w i s s e n sc h a f t
VC V e r b u m C a r o : R e v u e t h e o lo g i q u e e t o e c u m e n i q u e
( N e u c h a t e l 1 9 4 7 )
VCh V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e
WMAKT W i ss e ns c ha f tl ic h e M o n o g r a p h i e n z u m a l te n u n d n e u e n
T e s t a m e n t
WUNT W i s se n s c h a f di c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m n e u e n T e s t a
m e n t ( M o h r : T u b i n g e n )
ZKG Z e i t s c h r i f t f i i r K i r c h e n g e s c h i c h t e
ZKTh Z e i t s c h r if t f iir k a t h o l i s c h e T h e o l o g i e
ZNW Z e i ts c h r if t fiir n e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t u n d
K u n d e d e r a l te r e n K i r c h e
ZRGG Z e i t s c h r if t fiir R e l i g i o n s - u n d G e i s t e s g e s c h i c h t e
ZThK Z e i ts c h ri f t fiir T h e o l o g i e u n d K i r c h e
ZWTh Z e i t s c h r i f t fiir w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e T h e o l o g i e
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P L A T E S *
1. Ara Pad s Au g u s t i
DAI Neg . 5 3 .3 0 7 .
Courtesy of Deutsches Archaologisches Ins t i tu t , Rom.
2. Ara Pacis :
Tel lus : celebrat ion of Pax in nature and society .
DAI Neg . 8 6 .1 4 4 8 .
Cour tesy o f Deu tsches Archao log isches Ins t i tu t , Rom.3. Ara Pacis :
Te llus an d he r child ren in a fruitful ea rth .
DAI Neg . 32 .1744 .
Co urtesy of D eutsche s Archa ologisches Ins t i tu t, R om .
4. Ara Pacis :
N y m p h (Hora) of sea-realm seated on a tam ed dra ggo n.
DAI Neg . 3 2 .1 7 4 6 .
Co urtesy of D eutsche s Archao logisches Ins t i tu t, R om .5. Ara Pacis :
Close-up o f Te l lus ' ch ild in Natu re ' s supe rabu nda nce .
DAI Neg . 8 6 .1 4 5 8 .
Co urtesy of D eutsche s Archao logisches Ins t i tu t , R om .
6. Ara Pacis:
Sacrificial Scene (Suovetaurilia)
DAI Neg . 6 6 .1 0 7 .
Courtesy of Deutsches Archaologisches Ins t i tu t , Rom.7. Altar of Lares :
Augustus as augur with lituus.
DAI Neg . 7 5 .2 9 3 .
Co urtesy of De utsches Archa ologisches Ins t i tu t , R om .
8. Altar of the Lares:
Vicomagistri at jo in t sacrifice.
DAI Neg . 6 0 .1 4 7 2 .
Courtesy of Deutsches Archaologisches Ins t i tu t , Rom.
9. Al tar of Lares :
Augustus hands s ta tuet tes to ministri of a compitum.
M u s . V atic . Arc h. Fotog. Ne g. N . A. 16 .6 .
Courtesy of Monumenti musei e gal ler ie pont i f ic ie .
10. Ministri with statuettes of Lares a n d Genius Augusti.
M u s . Vat i c . Arch . Fo to g . Neg . N . XXXV.5 .9 .
Courtesy of Monumenti musei e gal ler ie pont i f ic ie .
* T h e P l a t e s S e c t i o n c a n b e f o u n d a t t h e e n d o f t h i s b o o k .
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xvi PLATES
11. Altar dedicated to the Lares of Augustus.
Roma, Musei Capitolini, Arch. Fotog. Inv. 855/S.
12. Augustus presents statue of Minerva to magistri of woodworkers.
Roma, Musei Capitolini, Arch. Fotog. Inv. 1909/S.
13. Gemma Augustea.
Courtesy of Kunsthistorisches Muse#um, Wien Inv. IX.A.79.
14. Pompei: Priestess with stola and patera.
Naples, Mus. Naz. Inv. 6041.
15. Priest with incense box.
Lyon, Mus. Gallo-Rom. (Photo: Ch. Thioc).
16. Head of Augustus with thunderbolt and star.
BMC (Tiberius) 151.c216.20 (PI. 26.3). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
17. Livia as priestess holding patera and sceptre.
BMC (Tiberius) 151.c216.20 (PL 26.3). (Rev.)
© The British Museum
18. Head of Augustus with star.
BMC (Titus) 27l.c.219.86 (PI. 54,3). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
19. Altar to Providentia.
BMC (Titus) 27l.c.219.86 (PI. 54,3). (Rev.)© The British Museum
20 . Domitia Augusta.
BMC (Domitian) 65.c 194.56 (PI. 61,9). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
2 1 . Domitia (Pietas) with sceptre, left, extending right hand
towards her child.
BMC (Domitian) 65.c. 194.56 (PL 61,9). (Rev.)
© The British Museum22 . Domitia Augusta.
BMC (Domitian) 62 (PL 61,6). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
2 3 . Divus Caesar (Domitian's son) as baby Jupiter seated on
a globe circled by seven stars.
BMC (Domitian) 62 (PL 61,6). (Rev.)
© The British Museum
24 .Victory (Domitian) draped and holding a shield.
BMC (Domitian) 504 .C .220 .3 . (Rev.)
© The British Museum
2 5 . Aeternitas holding the sun and moon.
BMC (Domitian) 346.C.219.94 (PL 73,4)
© The British Museum
26 . Sabina Augusta
BMC (Hadrian) 1095.C.391.8 (PL 75,7). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
27 . Cybele, towered, draped and seated.
BMC (Hadrian) 1095.C.391.8 (PL 75,7). (Rev.)
© The British Museum
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PLATES XVll
28 . Faustina (I) Augusta.
BMC (Antoninus Pius) 1436.C.223.190 (PL 34,4). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
29 . Cybele towered and enthroned with two lions.BMC (Antoninus Pius) 1436.c223.190 (PL 34,4). (Rev.)
© The British Museum
30 . Faustina (II) Augusta.
BMC (Marcus Aurelius) 934 .C .225.1 (PL 73,11). (Obv.)
© The British Museum
3 1 . Cybele (Mater Magna) towered.
BMC (Marcus Aurelius) 934 .C .225.1 (PL 73,11). (Rev.)
© The British Museum
32 . Matri Deum Salutari:
Cybele towered and on a lion's back.
BMC (Commodus) 680 (PL 109,15). (Rev.)
33 . Julia (Domna) Augusta.
BMC (Septimius Severus) 77.cl98.154 B (a)
(PL 28,18) (Obv.)
© The British Museum
34 . Isis with Horus in both arms.
BMC (Septimius Severus) 77.cl98.154 B (a)
(PL 28,18) (Rev.)
© The British Museum
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I N T R O D U C T I O N
T h e r e c e i v e d o p i n i o n o n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t o f p e r h a p s a m a j o r i t y o f
R o m a n h i s t o r i a n s w a s w e l l s u m m e d u p i n t h e w o r k o f K u r t L a t t e ,
w h o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h is C u l t h a d b e e n g r e a t l y o v e r
e s t i m a t e d . E m p e r o r W o r s h i p p l a y e d a m i n o r ro l e , o n h is v i ew , a n d
w a s n o t r e al ly a r e li g io u s p h e n o m e n o n a t a ll . " D e r K a i s e r k u l t b l i e b . . .
d i e A n e r k e n n u n g d e s r o m i s c h e n W e l t r e i c h s , i n s e i n e r g e g e n w a r t i g e nF o r m , e i n e k o n v e n t i o n e l l e G e i s t e . "
1
T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s E t i e n n e
q u o t e d L a t t e a s s a y i n g , w a s " u n e i n v e n t i o n d e s p e r e s d e l ' E g l i s e . "2
C e r t a i n l y t hi s v i e w h a s a ls o p r e d o m i n a t e d i n m a n y d i sc u s s io n s o f
w h y t h e E a r l y C h u r c h su ff er ed p e r s e c u t i o n . S h e r w i n - W h i t e a g r e e d
w i t h D e S t e C r o i x i n t h i s r e s p e c t a t l e a s t , w h e n h e c l a i m e d t h a t
" e m p e r o r w o r s h i p is a f a c to r of n o i n d e p e n d e n t i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e
p e r s e c u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s . " I t w a s r e fu s a l t o w o r s h i p t h e g o d s i n g e n e r a l t h a t w a s t h e p r i m e r e a s o n f o r p e r s e c u t i o n .
3
I f L a t t e ' s v i e w w e r e
c o r r e c t , t h e s t u d y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p
m e n t o f E a r l y C h u r c h O r d e r w o u l d b e t h e s tu d y of s o c ia l r e a l it y as
t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s h a d c o n s t r u c t e d it . B u t t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c ia l
r e a l it y w o u l d h a v e b e e n d i s o w n e d b y t h e p a g a n s t h e m s e l v e s .
B u t L a t t e 's s u m m a r y d e f e n c e o f t h e e a r l y c o n s e n s u s of R o m a n
h i s t o r i a n s h a s r e c e n d y s u s t a i n e d a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e . W r i t e r ss u c h a s F e a r s , 4 F i s h w i c k , 5 a n d P r i c e 6 h a v e e m p h a s i s e d t h e i n c r e a s
i n g c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o R o m a n r e l i g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y
1 K . L a t t e, R o m i s c h e R e l i g i o n s g e s c h i c h t e , in HA 5 , 4 ( 1 9 6 7 ) a n d ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 3 2 6 .
T h e m o s t r e c e n t e x a m p l e i s f o u n d i n B . W . J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n :
R o u d e d g e 1 9 9 2 ) .2
Q u o t e d i n G . A l f b l d y , S u b j e c t a n d R u l e r , S u b j e c t s a n d M e t h o d s : a n A t t e m p ta t a C o n c l u s i o n , i n A . S m a l l (E d . ) , S u b j e c t a n d R u l e r : T h e C u l t o f t h e R u l i n g
P o w e r i n C l a s s i c a l A n t i q u i t y , i n JRA: S u p p l . S e r i e s , 1 7 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p . 2 5 4 .3 A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , T h e e a r ly p e r s e c u t i o n s a n d R o m a n L a w a g a i n , i n JThS
3 , 2 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 2 1 0 cf. G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x , W h y w e r e t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e r
s e c u t e d ? i n Past and Present, 2 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 .4 J . R . , F e a r s , T h e C u l t o f V i r t u e s a n d R o m a n I m p e r i a l I d e o l o g y , in ANRW 2 , 1 7 , 2
( 1 9 81 ) , p p . 8 2 7 - 9 4 8 . J . R . F e a rs , T h e T h e o l o g y o f V i c t o r y at R o m e , i n ANRW
2 , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ), p p . 7 3 6 - 8 2 6 .1 D . F i s h w i c k , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t in t h e L a t i n W e s t : S t u d i e s i n t h e R u l e r C u l t
o f t h e W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , 1 , 1 - 2 , 1 1 , 1 - 2 , i n EPRO 1 0 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) .b S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia M inor ( C a m b r i d g e :
U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) .
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XX I N T R O D U C T I O N
t h ro u g h i ts ab i l i t y t o sy n th e s i s e it se lf w i th t r a d i t i o n a l p a g a n cu l t s in
v a r i o u s s u b d e w a y s . I n d e e d , G e z a A l f o l d y w e l l s u m m a r i s e d t h e s i g
n i f i c a n c e o f F i s h w i c k ' s w o r k , r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e p a p e r s o f t h e A l b e r t a
S y m p o s i u m c e l e b r a t i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s s ix ty -f if th b i r t h d a y , a n d e d i t e d b yA l a s t a i r S m a l l , a s h a v i n g t h is b r o a d e r a n d s y n t h e s i s i n g s i g n if i c a n c e
a s t h e m e a n s o f c e l e b r a t i n g i m p e r i a l u n i t y i n a w a y t h a t w a s r e l i
g i o u s a n d e v e n s a c r a m e n t a l .7
I b e l i e v e , t h e re fo re , t h a t , in t h e l i g h t o f t h e r ea s ses sm en t o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t a s a re l i g i o u s p h e n o m e n o n , it is p o s s i b l e t o r e a s s e ss
a l s o its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m i n i s t e r i a l O r d e r i n t h e
E a r l y C h u r c h . M y a r g u m e n t ( C h a p t e r 2 ), i n f lu e n c e d to s o m e e x t e n t
b y t h e w o r k o f L i e b e s c h u e t z ,8
is t h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s f o u n d e d
u n d e r A u g u s t u s w a s b a s ic a ll y a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n C u l t
w h o s e e l e c t e d m a g i s t r a t e s , t h r o u g h t h e c o l le g e o f a u g u r s , h a d t h e
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s w e l l a s r e l i g i o u s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g t h e pax
deorum. T h e c h a o s o f t h e l a te R e p u b l i c , as e v i d e n c e d b y L i v y , L u c a n ,
S u e t o n i u s , a n d D i o h a d a m e t a p h y s i c a l a s w e l l a s a h u m a n l y p o l i t
i ca l b a si s. F u r t h e r m o r e t h e i r h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e p r e s e n t e d a g e n e r a l l y
r e c e i v e d o p i n i o n .
T h e R e p u b l i c a n C u l t , i n f a i l i n g t o a c h i e v e t h e pax deorum, r e p r e
s e n t e d a c u l t i c f a i l u r e t h a t w a s t h e p e r c e i v e d r e l i g i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t
o f t h e p o l i ti c a l f a il u re o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n C o n s t i t u d o n . T h u s A u g u s t u s
e x e c u t e d a r e li g io u s r e f o r m a t i o n i n w h i c h h i s I m p e r i a l C u l t c o u l d
b e u n d e r s t o o d as p r o d u c i n g a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum o f m i l l e n
n i al p r o p o r t i o n s a n d e n d u r a n c e . 9 I d o c u m e n t i n C h a p t e r 1 h o w t h is
p a g a n a n d i m p e r i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c ia l r e a l i t y w a s r e i n f o r c e d .
C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e e a r l y m a r t y r o l o g i e s e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e r e a l r e a
s o n f o r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s w a s a c u l t i c r e a s o n . C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s a super-
stitio t h r e a t e n i n g t h e pax deorum o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
I n C h a p t e r s 3 - 6 I e x a m i n e t h e w r i t i n g s o f Luke-Acts, C l e m e n t o f
R o m e , t h e Apocalypse, a n d I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . I n e a c h c a s e I a r g u e
7
A l fo ld y ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 2 5 5 - 2 5 6 .8
J . H . W . G . L i e b e s c h u e t z , Continuity and Change in Roma n Religion ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n
1 9 7 9 ) .9 I r e ly h e r e o n t h e i n s i g h t f u l g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t b y e .g . , P . Z a n k e r , The Power of
Images in the Age of Augustus, t r a n s. A . S h a p i r o ( A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n
P r e s s 1 9 9 0 ) , o r s t u d i e s o f t h e Ara Pacis s u c h a s t h a t o f R . B e r t o l o t t i d e A n g e l i s ,
M a t e r i a l e d e l l' A r a P a c i s p r e s s o il M u s e o N a z i o n a l e R o m a n o , DAIRM 9 0 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ,p p . 2 2 1 - 2 3 4 , o r E . B i a n c h i , Ara Pacis Augustae ( R o m e : F r a te ll i P a l o m b i 1 9 9 4 ) , p p .
1 3 - 1 6 .
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I N T R O D U C T I O N XXI
t h a t w e h a v e a n a s c e n t C h u r c h O r d e r , d e v e l o p i n g pari passu w i t h
th a t o f t h e Im p e r i a l Cu l t , i n w h ic h th e co n v e r t e d h e i r s o f t h e A u g u s t an
r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m a t i o n s h o w t h a t t h e i r C h r i s t i a n C u l t , w i t h i t s o f f i c e r s
a n d r i t e s , a r e a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e t r u e pax dei. I n c o n s e q u e n c e ,
C h r i s t i a n s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r e a l i t y a r e f a s h i o n e d i n i n t e r a c t i o n
w i t h t h e i r p a g a n a n d i m p e r i a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . I n C h a p t e r s 7 - 8 w e
t r a c e t h e e m e r g e n c e o f P a g a n M o n o t h e i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n M o n a r
c h i a n i s m a s t h e y e m e r g e i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a n d a r e r e fl e c te d i n
I m p e r i a l a n d C h u r c h O r d e r u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s a n d E l a g a b a l u s o n
t h e o n e h a n d , a n d C a l l i s t u s o n t h e o t h e r .
M y d i sc u s s i o n is i n f o r m e d t h r o u g h o u t b y a s o c io l o g ic a l m o d e l i n
w h i c h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o d e v e l o p i n g s oc ia l p h e n o m
e n a , t h e P a g a n a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n C u l t u s , c a n b e f ru it fu lly s t u d i e d
a n d e x p l a i n e d . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f E a r ly C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h O r d e r
is u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e ( C h a p t e r 1). A
g r o u p , d e p r i v e d o f s t a t u s a n d s ig n i f ic a n c e b y t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e , s et s
u p its o w n c o n t r a - c u l t u r e t h a t m i r r o r s a n d r e v e r s e s t h e v a l u e s o f t h e
f o r m e r , g r a n t i n g t h e s t a t u s a n d s i g n if i c a n c e t o it s m e m b e r s t h a t t h e
f o r m e r h a s d e n i e d t h e m .1 0
M y th e s i s is i n t e n d e d t o s h o w finally h o w t h e C h u r c h o f C y p r i a n
f a c e d t h e E m p i r e o f D e c i u s T r a j a n a n d V a l e r i a n a s t w o r iv a l c u l ti c
o r g a n i s a t i o n s w h i c h h a d b e h i n d b o t h o f t h e m t w o c e n t u r i e s o f i n t e r
a c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t .
I w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e financial s u p p o r t b o t h f r o m t h e B r i t i s h
A c a d e m y fo r t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f c h a p t e r s 1 -6 , a n d f ro m t h e L e v e r h u l m e
T r u s t f or c h a p t e r s 7 - 8 . T h e g e n e r o u s a s s i st a n c e o f b o t h b o d i e s h a v e
e n a b l e d m e t o c o n t i n u e m y r e s e a r c h i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n h i s to r y w i t h
t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e L i b r a r ie s o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y a n d o f R o m e .
M y m o s t g r a t ef u l t h a n k s m u s t g o t o P r o f e s s o r e M a n l i o S i m o n e t t i ,
o f L a S a p i e n z a a n d o f t h e L a t e r a n U n i v e r s i t y . A t th e B r it is h S c h o o l
i n R o m e I h a v e e n j o y e d f r ie n d s h i p a n d d i s c u ss i o n w i t h n u m e r o u s
s c h o l a r s , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r , P r o fe s s o r A n d r e w W a l l a c e -
H a d r i l l . I h a v e g r e a t l y b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e m u c h v a l u e d s u p p o r t o f
t h e A u g u s t i n i a n u m i n R o m e , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h a t o f t h e i r V i c e P r a e s e s ,
D r R o b e r t D o d a r o , a n d f r o m t h e k i n d e s s a n d h o s p i t a l i t y o f D r
G e o r g e L a w le s s a n d m a n y o t h e r s t h e r e .
1 0 S . L e v e n t m a n ( E d . ) , Counterculture and Social Transformation: Essays on Megativistic
Themes in Sociological Theory ( I ll in o i s: T h o m a s 1 9 8 2 ) .
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x x i i I N T R O D U C T I O N
I n C a m b r i d g e I m u s t m e n t i o n P r o fe s so r W i l l ia m H o r b u r y , F . B .A . ,
a n d D r J a m e s C a r l e t o n P a g e t fo r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f m y w o r k ,
a n d a l so t h e P a t r is t ic s S e m i n a r u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f D r L i o n e l
W i c k h a m . W h e t h e r in R o m e o r in C a m b r i d g e m y t h a n k s is a ls o d u e
t o D r C h r i s t o p h e r K e l l y , f o r h i s v a l u e d i n s i g h t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s .
I a ls o a c k n o w l e d g e w i t h t h a n k s p r o v i s i o n o f p h o t o g r a p h s a s w e l l
a s p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e t h e m f r o m :
(i) D e u t s c h e s A r c h a o l o g i s c h e s I n s t i t u t , R o m ( P l a te s 1 -8 ).
(ii) M u s e i V a t i c a n i ( P la t e s 9 - 1 0 ) .
(iii) M u s e i C a p i t o l i n i , R o m a (P l a t es 1 1 - 1 2 ) .
(iv) K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m , W i e n ( P la t e 1 3).
(v) M u s e o N a z i o n a l e , N a p o l i (P l a t e 14 ).
(vi) M u s e e d e l a C i v i l i s a t i o n G a l l o - R o m a i n e , L y o n ( P l a te 1 5 ).
(vii) T h e B r i t is h M u s e u m , L o n d o n ( P l a te s 1 6 - 3 4 ) .
A L L E N B R E N T
5 T H M A R C H 1 9 9 9
B R I TI S H S C H O O L A T R O M E
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C H A P T E R O N E
C H R I S T I A N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y
T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y
Contra-cultural theory and Cyprianic Order
T h e v i c t o r y o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d it s s u c c e s s i n a n n i h i l a t i n g its
p a g a n r i v a l b o th a s a p o l i t i ca l a n d in t e l l ec tu a l fo rce is t h e v i c to ry
o f a s t a t e w i th i n a s t a t e , a n imperium in imperio, w h i c h b o t h c h a l l e n g e d
t h e S t a t e itself, a n d so u g h t fin ally a n d u n su cce s s fu l ly t o r e p l ac e i t
t o ta l ly . T h e a m b i g u o u s s uc c e ss o f t h e la t e r C h u r c h i n s e e k i n g t h e
l a t t e r o b j ec t i v e n eed s i n an y case ca re fu l q u a l i f i ca t i o n . In l a t e r t im es
n e i t h e r G r e g o r y V I I n o r I n n o c e n t I I I w e r e t o s u c c e e d finally i n
e i t h e r d i s e n g a g i n g t h e C h u r c h f r o m l a y c o n t r o l , o r i n s u b j e c t i n g l a y
p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y e n t i r e l y t o e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y .
T h e e ss e nt ia l f e a tu r e s o f l a t e r C a t h o l i c C h u r c h O r d e r e m e r g e d ,
i n a c l e a r a n d u n a m b i g u o u s f o r m , i n t h e L e t t e r s of I g n a t i u s o f A n -
t i o ch , t h e s ch o la r ly co n sen su s fo r wh o se d a t e s I accep t a s t h e f i r s t
d e c a d e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .1
H e r e a s i n g l e b i s h o p , t o g e t h e r w i t h
a c i rc l e o f p r e s b y t e r s a n d a n u m b e r o f d e a c o n s , e m e r g e d a s t h e l it u r
g i c al a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m a r k o f t h e t r u e C h u r c h . T h o s e e s s e n ti a l f ea t u r e s , wi th ce r t a in m o d i f i ca t i o n s an d ad d i t i o n s t h a t d id n o t a f f ec t t h e i r
f u n d a m e n t a l f o r m , w e r e t o f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e t h e o l o g y o f C a t h o l i c
O r d e r o f I r e n a e u s , P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s , a n d finally C y p r i a n . I r e n a e u s
m i g h t a d d t h a t t h e b i s h o p i n l i t u r g i c a l a c t a n d i n g o v e r n i n g t h e c o m
m u n i t y h a s t o s h o w h i s p l a c e i n a n u n b r o k e n s u c c e s s i o n ( 8ia 8o% r|)
o f t e a c h e r s e x t e n d i n g b a c k t o t h e a p o s t l e s .2
P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s m i g h t
a d d t h a t t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f t e a c h e r s a l s o " s h a r e s i n t h e h i g h p r i e s t h o o d (|Li£TexovT£<; d p x i e p a x e i a q ) . "
3
F i n a l ly C y p r i a n w a s t o a d d a c a t h
o l ic t o a n ap o s to l i c c r i t e r io n o f v a l id i t y : o th e r b i s h o p s h a d to g iv e
1 F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h is q u e s t i o n a n d r e l e v a n t b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e A . B r e n t , T h e
R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a t iu s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e Didascalia Apostolorum, in SecCent 8 ,3
( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 .2
I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., I l l , 3 , 3 cf. E . M o l l a n d , I r e n a e u s o f L u g d u n u m a n d t h e
A p o s t o l i c T r a d i t i o n , i n JEH 1,1 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 1 2 - 2 8 ; Idem. L e d e v e l o p p e m e n t d e l 'i d eed e s u c c e s s i o n a p o s t o l i q u e , i n RevHPhR 3 4 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 1 - 2 9 .
3 P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s , El. I p r o e m . 6 cf. Ap. Trad. 3 .
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2 C H A P T E R O N E
a n a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l a c k n o w l e d g m e n t t o a g i v e n e p i s c o p a l s u c c e s s i o n .
B u t t h e n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f l i tu r g y a n d O r d e r o f a g i v e n C h r i s t i a n
c o m m u n i t y w a s t o r e m a i n e s se n ti a ll y a s I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h h a d
d e s c r i b e d i t .
C y p r i a n ' s f inal q u a l i f i c a t io n o f t h e ed i fi ce c o n s t r u c t e d b y I g n a t i u s
a n d e m b e l l i s h e d b y I r e n a e u s w a s t h a t f o r a b i s h o p t o b e v a l i d h e
m u s t n o t s i m p l y b e b o t h i n t h e p l a c e o f G o d t h e F a t h e r a n d in t h e
a p o s t o l i c s u c c es s io n b u t i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h a ll o t h e r f a t h e r - b i s h o p s .
I n o r d e r t o b e in c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h o n e h a s t o b e
i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h a b i s h o p w h o is i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h o t h e r b i s h o p s .
T h e final l i n k a s i t w e r e i n t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g b o n d s o f m u t u a l r e c o g
n i t io n a n d c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e b i s h o p s is t h e S e e o f R o m e t h a t
t h u s p r o v i d e s a f o cu s o f u n i t y . T h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t h u s b e c a m e a n
a l t e r n a t i v e imperium, p r e s i d e d o v e r b y b i s h o p s i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h e a c h
o t h e r , w h i c h n o w s t a n d s i n s t a rk c o n t r a s t to p a g a n I m p e r i a l O r d e r .
C h u r c h O r d e r is a k i n d o f r e v e r s e d m i r r o r i m a g e o f I m p e r i a l O r d e r .
P A R T A . C Y P R I A N I C H I E R A R C H Y A N D D E C I U S T R A J A N
I n C y p r i a n ' s e dif ic e w e h a v e t h e c l e a r e s t e x a m p l e o f C h u r c h O r d e r
a r r a i g n e d a g a i n s t I m p e r i a l O r d e r . B o t h t h e i n s t it u t i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r
a s Pontifex Maximus o f h i s o w n cu l t , a n d th a t o f t h e b i sh o p a s t h e
sacerdos a n d r u l e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t , h a d u n d e r g o n e , i n t h e first
t w o c e n t u r i e s , e x t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . B u t n o w t h e finally d e v e l o p e de dif ic e o f C h u r c h O r d e r w a s t o c o n f r o n t a n I m p e r i a l O r d e r t h a t h a d
it se lf u n d e r g o n e e x te n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . S i n c e C a r a c a l l a ' s c i t iz e n
sh ip l aw o f A . D . 2 1 2 , t h e Constitutio Antoniniana, t h e S e v e r a n p o l i c y
o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s i n t o a s i n gl e w h o l e h a d f o u n d i ts
t h e o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
C a r a c a l l a a p p e a r s o n c o i n s a s t h e L o r d o f t h e w o r l d a n d a s t h e
r e f l e c ti o n o f t h e d i v i n e l ig h t o f t h e s u n , p e r m e a t i n g a ll t h i n g s a n dc r e a t i n g u n i v e r sa l o r d e r . T h e e m p e r o r a n d h is c o n s o r t w e r e t o p o s
s e ss t h e r e l i g io u s fu n c t io n o f e f f ec ti n g s a c r am en ta l l y t h e u n i ty o f t h e
e m p i r e o f w h i c h t h e c i t iz e n s h i p la w w a s t h e h o p e .4
O v e r a g a i n s t a n d re f le c t in g a r e v e r s e i m a g e o f I m p e r i a l O r d e r
4
A b d e l M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b , 6 K a p a i ca X X o q K o ou o Kp d xc op , i n JEgArch 4 7 ( 1 9 6 1 ) ,
p p . 1 1 9 - 1 3 3 . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n a n d b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e A . B r e n t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d
t h e R o m a n C h u r c h in t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e s in T e n s i o n b e fo r e t h e E m e r
g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , in Suppl.VCh 3 1 ( L e i d e n : E J . B r il l 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 8 3 - 8 4 .
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C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 3
s t o o d t h e n o w d e v e l o p e d , C y p r i a n i c h i e r a r c h y . T h e b i s h o p a s h i g h
p r i e s t n o w e x p r e s s e d i n h is i n t e r c o m m u n i o n w i t h o t h e r b i s h o p s t h e
u n i t y o f t h e C h u r c h j u s t a s t h e c u l t o f D e c i u s T r a j a n , f o r m e d i n t h e
S e v e r a n i d e o lo g y o f t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n , e x p r e s s e d s a c r a m e n t a l l y
t h e u n i t y o f t h e E m p i r e . T o b e i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h C h r i s t y o u h a v e
t o b e in c o m m u n i o n w i t h a b i s h o p w h o p r e s i d e s o v e r a g e o g r a p h i
c a l t e r r i t o r y c a l l e d a d i o c e s e . I n o r d e r t o b e i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h
o t h e r C h r i s t i a n s o u t s i d e y o u r d i o c e s e , y o u r b i s h o p h a s t o b e in c o m
m u n i o n w i t h t h e i r b i s h o p a n d so o n . B u t t h e w a y i n w h i c h C y p r i a n
ex p res ses h im se l f i s s i g n i f i can t :
Thus the church o f the Lord (sic et ecclesia domini) directs its rays of
l ight spread through the whole world (luce perfusa per orbem totum radios
suos porrigit). However the l ight is one (unum tamen lumen est) which is
shed everywhere (quod ubique diffunditur), nor is the unity of its physical
form divided from it (nec unitas corporis separatur). . .
De Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate 5
C y p r i a n ' s j u s ti f ic a t i o n o f ecclesia una est is t h a t e a c h b i s h o p i n t h e
ap o s to l i c su cces s io n wi l l m u tu a l ly r eco g n i s e t h e f a i t h an d l i f e o f t h e
o t h e r . B u t b e h i n d t h e p l u r a l i t y is t h e o n e a n d in d i v i s ib l e u n i t y w h i c h
e a c h e x p r e s s e s . T h a t u n i t y is d e s c r i b e d a l m o s t in P l o t i n i a n t e r m s , a s
in Enneads V I , 9 , 9 , o f t h e a r c h e t y p a l l i g h t (unum tamen lumen est) t h a t
c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e i n d iv i si b le a n d t h e r e f o r e u l t i m a t e O n e . I t w a s " e t e r
n a l ( d{ 8i a) ". F o r P lo ti n u s th e dp%r| of al l t h in g s, " o f life (^ooffe) . . .
m in d (voB) a n d b e in g (ovxoq) . . . re m a in s a s suc h (waauxcoq u iv e i ) , no t
b e i n g d i v i d e d i n t o t h e m (ou | i e u £ p i a | j iv r | eiq a u x d ) , b u t r e m a i n i n g
w h o l e (aXk* oXr\ u i v o u a a ) . "
M o r e o v e r , t h e i m a g e r y a n d u n d e r l y i n g N e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y
o f t h e s e s e n t i m e n t s b e a r s tr i k in g r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . P a g a n t h i n k e r s a t t h i s t i m e w e r e a l s o l o o k i n g f o r
a u n i v e r s a l r e l ig i o n b a s e d u p o n t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus, t h e U n c o n -
q u e r e d S u n , o f w h i c h a ll o t h e r d e it i e s w o u l d b e b u t a s p e c t s a n dr e f l e c t i o n s . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus
w o u l d i m p l y a t h e o l o g y of i m p e r i a l u n i t y . T h a t t h e o l o g y w a s s u s
t a i n e d b y N e o - P l a t o n i s m , as r e p r e s e n t e d b y P l o t in u s . H i s a r c h e t y p a l
l i g h t g i v i n g u n i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e r e a l i t y t o l e s s e r e x i s t e n c e w i t h o u t
t h e r e b y b e i n g d i m i n i s h e d w a s s y m p t o m a t i c o f a s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f r e a l it y i n w h i c h a n i m p e r i a l a u t o c r a t a n d h is p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d
s u c c e s s o r s g a v e u n i t y t o a d i v e r s e e m p i r e a t t h e c e n t r e o f w h i c h t h e ys t o o d . T h r o u g h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w o r s h i p w a s s o u g h t o f p a s t e m p e r
o r s a s a v i si b le e x p r e s s i o n o f i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y .
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C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 7
r e c o r d e d a s h a v i n g o c c u r r e d .1 4
T h e r e v u l s i o n o f t h e m o b w a s a r e a c
t i o n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y v i e w e d a s a n exitiabilis superstitio, a s T a c i t u s (Ann.
X V , 4 4 , 4 ) w a s t o v i e w i t , a n d t h e r e f o r e t o C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a c u l t i c
p r a c t i c e .
I t is t h e r e f o r e t o b e e m p h a s i s e d t h a t o n e s t r a n d i n t h e p a r a l l e l i s m
b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d E m p i r e w a s a c u l ti c s t r a n d . I t w a s n o t s i m p l y
t h a t C h r i s t i a n s c l a i m e d a n a l l e g i a n c e to a n o t h e r b u t s p i r i tu a l k i n g
d o m , a n d t h a t t h e E m p i r e m i s c o n s t r u e d th i s a s d i sl o y a lt y . R a t h e r
t h e y a l so p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a c u l t t h a t w a s , l ik e t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n c u l t
d e s c r i b e d b y S p u r i u s P o s t u m i u s A l b i n u s , t h e c o n s u l o f 1 8 9 B . C . , v i o
l a t i n g t h e d i v i n e l a w . S u c h v i o l a t i o n s u p s e t t h e pax deorum a n d w e r e
m a r k e d b y p r o d i g i e s r e q u i r i n g a c t s o f a u g u r y i n o r d e r t o s e t r i g h t
a n a t u r a l o r d e r u p s e t b y t h e p r a c t i c e s o f a prava religio. W e sh a ll
a r g u e t h a t p a r t o f t h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n I m p e r i a l a n d C h r i s t i a n
Cu l t s was t h e i s su e o f t h e pax deorum. A u g u s t u s a s a u g u r h a d e x t r a
o r d i n a r i l y s u c c e e d e d i n s e c u r i n g t h i s r i t u a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l pax in
t h e w a k e o f t h e f a il ur e R e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t r a t e s . T h e s u p e r i o r C h r i s t i a n
pax dei w a s s e c u r e d b y C h r i s t a n d p e r p e t r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c u l t i c a c t s
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y a n d its m i n i s t e r s a c c o r d i n g t h e Luke-Acts
( C h a p t e r 3), C l e m e n t Corinthians ( C h a p t e r 4 ), a n d I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h
( C h a p t e r 6) . T h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t w a s t h u s t h e ri v a l m e a n s f or o b t a i n
i n g t h e c u l ti c o b j e c t iv e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d r e p r e s e n t e d a
d e n i a l o f t h e c l a i m s o f t h e l a t t e r t o h a v e a c h i e v e d s u c h o b j e c t i v e s
( C h a p t e r 2 ) .
C y p r i a n ' s i d e o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e t o D e c i u s ' u n i v e r s a l d e c r e e d i d n o t
c r e a t e t h e c u l ti c p a r a l l e l i s m b u t r a t h e r w a s t h e o u t c o m e o f a l o n g
l in e o f d e v e l o p m e n t . M y t h es is w ill s e e k t o e x a m i n e t h e b y C y p r i a n ' s
t i m e l o n g s t a n d i n g p a r a l l e l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e E a r l y C h u r c h a n d
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w h i c h prima facie h a d q u i t e d i f f er e n t o b j e c t i v e s ,
a n d w h i c h h i s t o r i c a l l y a p p e a r e d a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e a n d i n c o n f l i c t
w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . T h e r e a r e t w o p o s si b il it ie s r e g a r d i n g t h e f o r m t h a t
s u c h a r e l a t i o n c o u l d h a v e t a k e n , n a m e l y r e a c t i o n o r i n t e r a c t i o n . L e t
m e b e g i n b y g i v i n g m y g r o u n d s f o r r e j e c t i n g a p u r e l y r e a c t i v e t h e s i s .
1 4
L i v y 3 9 , 8 - 1 9 cf. W . C . H . F r e n d , Ma rtyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church,
( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 2 . T h e p o i n t w a s m a d e o r i g i n a ll y b y R . M .
G r a n t , P l i n y a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n s , i n HThR 4 1 (1 9 4 8 ) , p . 2 7 3 cf. S . B e n k o , P a g a n
C r i t i c i s m s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , ANRW ( 1 9 8 0 ) I I, 2 3 , 2 , p p . 1 0 6 6 - 1 0 7 2 a n d R . L . W i l k e n ,The Christians as the Rom an saw them, ( N e w H a v e n a n d L o n d o n : Y a l e U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) ,
p p . 2 5 - 3 0 .
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8 C H A P T E R O N E
I t is p o s s i b le t o p r e s e n t a n a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h
O r d e r as a r e a c t iv e a p o l o g e t i c t o e x t e r n a l m i s - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a b o u t
t h e t r u e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t. T h u s Luke-Acts, C l e m e n t ,
J u s t i n , T a t i a n , A t h e n a g o r a s , a n d T e r t u l l i a n d e f e n d e d C h r i s t i a n i t y
f r o m t h e m o r a l c h a r g e s b r o u g h t a g a i n s t it . T h e s e w r i t e r s , s o it is
a r g u e d , s o u g h t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r a l e g a l a r g u m e n t f o r
t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s a s a s o c a l l e d religio licita,
t h o u g h t h e v a l id i t y o f t h e c o n c e p t i n R o m a n L a w h a s b e e n q u e s
t i o n e d . S u r e l y , t h e r e f o r e , a n a p o l o g e t i c a i m h a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l
o p m e n t of C h u r c h O r d e r ? If t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a religio illicita is
tha t i t i s no t rue religio b u t a d e g e n e r a t e superstitio a n d , o n t h e e x a m
p l e o f t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n r i o t , a t h r e a t t o p u b l i c o r d e r , m o r a l i t y , a n d
t h e civ il p e a c e , t h e n a n y c h a r i s m a t i c a p p e a r a n c e s m u s t b e p l a y e d
d o w n o r s u p e r s e d e d b y a n o r d e r e d m i n i s t r y .
T h u s i n t h e c o m m u n i t y e x h i b i t e d b y t h e Didache t h e m i n i s t r y o f
w a n d e r i n g a p o s t l e s m u s t b e d i s c o u n t e d , a n d p r o p h e t s r e p l a c e d b y
d u l y e l e c t e d eTUGKorcoi a n d SHXKOVOI. A t C o r i n t h w h e n C l e m e n t w r i te s
i n A . D . 9 5 a n y si gn o f d i s o r d e r m u s t b e r e d u c e d , a n y o u t b r e a k o f
f r e n z ie d d i s p u t e s a b o u t O r d e r a n d s u c c e s s io n m u s t b e p u t d o w n .
C l e m e n t e x h o r t s t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y to e x h i b i t p u b l ic a l ly a n
a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f a n o r d e r e d 8 i o c 5 o x r | o f rcpeapuiepoi-
e7uoK07toi. C l e a r l y o n e o f h i s p u r p o s e s w a s t o s u g g e s t o b l i q u e l y h o w
h i s C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y m i g h t find a n a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n t h e a u t h o r
i t y s t r u c t u r e of t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . T h e p r ie s t o f D i o n y s u s h a d d o n e
a s m u c h fa r m o r e d ir e c tl y w h e n h e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e A l e x a n d r i n e
m a g i s t r a t e t h e c e r ti fi c a te s t a t i n g w h o w e r e h is i m m e d i a t e t w o p r e
d e c e s s o r s i n a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e D i o n y s i a c c u l t .1 5
W i t h i n s u c h a p e r
s p e c t iv e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n c u l t is c l e a r ly
i n t e r a c t iv e , h o w e v e r r e l u c t a n t t h e g r o u p in q u e s t i o n m a y h a v e b e e n
t o a d m i t s u c h i n f l u e n c e e x p r e s s l y . ( C h a p t e r 3 . )
T h e C h u r c h r e a c t s t o p a g a n s o c ie t y b y s i m p l y r e b u t t i n g its a c c u
s a t i o n s o f c a n n i b a l i s m , i n c e st , a n d c h a r i s m a n i a . T h a t it r e a c t s a l s o
t o t h e p a g a n c u l t u s is c o n s i d e r e d p u r e l y c o - i n c i d e n t a l , a s if t h e r e l a
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h a t c u l t u s a n d R o m a n s o c ie t y w a s p u r e l y c o n t i n -
'* E . B a m m e l , S u k z e s s i o n s p r i n z i p i m U r c h r i s t e n t u m , i n StEphAug 31 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p .
6 3 7 2 .
P A R T C . C H U R C H O R D E R A S APOLOGIA: T H E R E A C T I V E T H E S IS
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C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 9
g e n t . Y o u c o u l d b e a m o r a l c i ti z e n , a n d t h e r e f o r e a g o o d a n d l o ya l
m e m b e r of t h e s o ci et y o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e a n d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n
t h a t c u l t u s . T h e e v o l u t io n o f C h u r c h O r d e r w a s t h e r e f o r e e q u a l l y
r e a c t i v e — a n a t t e m p t t o se t a ll t h i n g s i n o r d e r so a s t o b e r e c o g
n i s e d a s o n e o f t h e r e l i g i o u s o p t i o n s i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l e m p i r e . A s
s u c h t h e C h u r c h s i m p l y w i s h e d t o l e a v e t h e p a g a n c u l t u s a l o n e w h i l s t
n o - d o u b t c o n v e r t i n g its w a y w a r d m e m b e r s t o t h e t r u e fa i th . I t c e r
t a i n l y c o u l d n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h it s o a s t o i n c o r p o r a t e a n y o f i ts c o n
c e r n s i n t o its o w n s t r u c t u r e .
T h e r e a r e a h o w e v e r n u m b e r o f p r o b l e m s w i t h s u c h a p e r s p e c
t i v e s t a t e d i n t h e s e t e r m s :
1. I t fa ils t o a c c o u n t f or t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s t a g e s i n t h e d e v e l o p
m e n t o f C h u r c h O r d e r r e fl e ct e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t a n d vice versa. T h i s w a s c l e a r ly t h e c a s e w i t h C h r i s t i a n , C y p r i a n i c
O r d e r i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h D e c i a n I m p e r i a l O r d e r , a n d it is c l ea r ly
r e l e v a n t t o a s k h o w t r u e it w a s a l s o f o r s t a g e s i n d e v e l o p m e n t b e f o r e
C y p r i a n .
2 . I t a s s u m e s t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h o s e w h o w r i t e t h e j u s t i f ic a t i o n
fo r C h u r c h O r d e r — a n d t h u s i n c o n c e p t u a l i sa t i o n a n d r e c o n c e p t u -
a l i s a t i o n a c t u a l l y s h a p e i t — a r e i n f a c t s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e s a s t h o s e o f
t h e a p o l o g i s t s w h o a r e o s t e n s i b l y c l a i m i n g l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n f r o m t h e
R o m a n s t a t e .
3 . I t u n d e r v a l u e s t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e A p o l o g i s t s t h e m s e l v e s , w h i l s t
a p p e a r i n g a s s u p p l i a n t s f o r l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a c t u a l l y a t t a c k i n t h e i r
w o r k s t h e v a l u e s o f R o m a n s o c ie t y a n d t h e p a g a n c u l t u s it se lf t h a t
u n d e r p i n s t h o s e v a l u e s . T h e a p o l o g i st s a r e n o t s i m p l y r e a c t i n g t o
R o m a n s o c i et y b u t c r it ic i si n g a n d i n d e e d u n d e r m i n i n g it , w h i l st b e i n g
p r e p a r e d t o u s e p a g a n r e l ig i o u s c o n c e p t s r a d i c a l l y r e o r i e n t a t e d f or
t h e i r o w n C h r i s t i a n e n d s .
4 . I t fa ils t o g r a s p h o w i n t e g r a l w a s t h a t e x p r e s s i o n o f R o m a n r e l i
g i o n w h i c h w a s t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o t h e R o m a n c o n c e p t i o n o f s o ci
e t y . T h e c u l t u s i ts e lf u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s a n d finally u n d e r D e c i u s
b e c a m e th e s a c r a m e n t t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t s o c ie t y , a n d w h i c h f o r g e d
s o m a n y d i s p a r a t e c u l t u r e s i n t o o n e so c ia l w h o l e . S u c h a d e v e l o p
m e n t r e f l e c te d t h e u n i t y a n d p u r p o s e first o f a S t o i c a n d t h e n l a t e r
o f a N e o - P l a t o n i c u n i v e r s e . W e s ha l l t r a c e t h e e m b r y o n i c a l l y s a c r a
m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r f r o m t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h a t c u l t w i t h A u g u s t u s , a n d
e m p h a s i s e h o w i m p o r t a n t h i s ius augurium as Pontifex Maximus w a s t o
a s o c ie t y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e w i d e s p r e a d b e l i e f t h a t its e x i s t i n g c u l t u s
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10 C H A P T E R O N E
h ad fa i l ed i n augurium a n d haruspicium t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum i n t h e
ev en ts o f th e c ivi l w a r ( C h a p te r 2 ). W e sha l l ob se rv e th e ful ly fledged
d e v e l o p m e n t of w h a t w a s i n it ia l ly e m b r y o n i c w i t h A u g u s t u s i n t o t h e
k i n d o f p a g a n m o n o t h e i s m t h a t p a r a l le l e d C h r i s t i a n M o n a r c h i a n i s m
i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( C h a p t e r 7 ), a n d w h i c h w e r e
r e fl ec te d b o t h i n I m p e r i a l a n d i n C h u r c h O r d e r u n d e r E l a g a b a l u s
a n d C a l l i s t u s ( C h a p t e r 8 ). I m p e r i a l r e l i g io u s f u n c t i o n s w e r e n o t t h e r e
f o r e s i m p l y a n a c c i d e n t a l a p p e n d a g e t h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n t
a n d l e f t u n a l t e r e d a R o m a n s o c i e t y t h a t c o u l d s i m p l y t o l e r a t e C h r i s
t i an i ty if p re se n t e d w i th a su cces sfu l apologia.
A t a l l e v e n t s , t h e c h a r g e o f superstitio r a t h e r t h a n religjto d i d n o t
s u r v iv e t h e a g e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s . T h e c h a r g e o f i n c e st a n d c a n
n i b a l i s m a n d t h r e a t s t o s o ci a l o r c o s m i c o r d e r w e r e a l m o s t u n h e a r d
i n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s o f D e c i u s T r a j a n , V a l e r i a n , a n d D i o c l e t i a n . Y e t
t h e C h u r c h w a s p e r s e c u t e d d e s p i te t w o d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t p e r h a p s
o u g h t t o h a v e le a d t o a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f c h u r c h - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s . F i r s d y ,
t h e a p o l o g i st s r e b u t t e d t h e g r o s s e r s lu r s o n t h e C h r i s t i a n n a m e , a n d ,
s e c o n d l y , t h e s u c c es s o f a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y g o v e r n e d , C h u r c h m a r g i n
a l i z e d t h e M o n t a n i s t s w h o s e c h a r i s m a t i c e x c e s s e s c o u l d h a v e o t h e r
w i s e s u g g e s t e d a B a c c h a n a l i a n t h r e a t t o p u b l i c o r d e r .
W e s h al l t h e r e f o r e a r g u e th a t t h e r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d
S ta t e were i n t e rac t i v e r a th e r t h an r eac t iv e , an d n eces sa r i l y i n v o lv ed in
t e r ac t i o n w i th t h e r e l i g io u s a n d cu l t i c f ace o f a s i n g le p o l i t i co - re l i g io u s
u n i t y . I n t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n , n e i t h e r p a r t y s i m p l y r e a c t e d t o t h e o t h e r .
E a c h t r i e d to t a k e o v e r a n d r e f a s h i o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e i r j u s t i
fica tion o f ea ch o th e r ' s so c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l ex i s t e n c e .
M y q u e s t is t h e r e f o r e f or a s o c i o l o g ic a l m o d e l in c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l
t h e o r y t h a t w i ll e n a b l e d i s c r e t e r e l a t i o n s t o b e t e a s e d o u t a n d e x a m
i n e d . T h e s t u d y o f b o t h i n s t i t u t io n s h a s b e e n b e d e v i l l e d b y t h e
a s s u m p t i o n b y h i s t o r i a n s u n t i l f a i r l y r e c e n d y , e n c o u r a g e d b y E u s e b i u s ,
t h a t t h e f o r m i n t o w h i c h b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s d e v e l o p e d finally a r o u n d
2 5 1 , u n d e r C y p r i a n o f C a r t h a g e o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d D e c i u s T r a j a n
o n t h e o t h e r , h a d b e e n w h a t t h e y w e r e f r o m t h e v e r y first. T h e r e
w a s n o d e v e l o p m e n t o f e i t h e r i n s t i tu t i o n t h e r e f o r e t o e x a m i n e , a n d
s o n o p o s si b il it y o f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o n e a n o t h e r .
B u t g i v e n t h a t b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s d e v e l o p e d t o s o m e e x t e n t pari passu
f r o m t h e a g e o f a n d T i b e r i u s o n w a r d s , l et u s e x a m i n e a s o c i o l o g i
c a l m o d e l t h a t w ill e n a b l e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h t o b e s t u d i e d
a s t h e y d e v e l o p e d a lo n g s i d e e a c h o t h e r .
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C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 11
P A R T D . I M P ER IA L A N D C H R I S T I A N O R D E R :
C O N T R A - C U L T U R A L R E L A T I O N S
D u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s C o h e n a n d h is a s s o c ia t e s o u t l i n e d a t h e o r y o f h o w ,
w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a w i d e r c u l t u r e , a s u b c u l t u r e is f o r m e d f r o m its
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e . W e s h a ll a r g u e t h a t s u c h a n i n t e r
a c t i o n is r e f l e c te d i n t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d S t a t e i n t h e
e a r ly c e n t u r i e s . W h e n th e C h u r c h b e c a m e a n imperium in imperio,
it h a d f o r m e d a c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e t h a t h a d a b s o r b e d e l e m e n t s f r o m i ts
h o s t c u l t u r e . A s u b c u l t u r e , i n t e r m s o f w h a t D u r k h e i m d e s c r i b e d a s
a p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e ty f u n c t i o n i n g o n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o r g a n i c s o l
i d a r i t y , co u ld l i v e a t p eace wi th wid e r so c i e ty . I t co u ld ex i s t , l i k e t h e
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , a s p a r t o f a m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m i n w h i c h s o c i e t y
h a n g s t o g e t h e r b y its v e r y d i v e r s i t y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e u n i t y o f t h e
w h o l e .1 6
B u t s o m e t i m e s t h e s u b - c u l t u r e b e c o m e s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e ,
a n d a t t h is p o i n t C o h e n a n d hi s a s s o c i a t e s w e r e t o g o b e y o n d
D u r k h e i m ' s o r i g i n a l s i m p l i c i t y .1 7
D e l i n q u e n c y , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s n o t s i m p l y r e g a r d e d a s t h e r e a c
t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o a w i d e r s o c i e ty t h a t r e j e c t e d t h a t i n d i v i d
u a l , d ep r iv ed h im o f r i g h t s , an d c rea t ed i n h im a f ee l i n g o f a l i en a t io n
o r anomie. R a t h e r d e l i n q u e n c y w a s a p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n i n w h i c h d e l i n
q u e n t s c r e a t e d a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n t e r m s o f w h i c h th e y c o u l d a c h i e v e
t h e s t a t u s a n d p o w e r t h a t w i d e r s o c i e t y h a d d e n i e d t h e m . T h e c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e a c c o r d i n g l y c h a n g e d t h e s c a l e o f v a l u e s o f t h e c u l t u r e w i t h
w h i c h it i n t e r a c t e d , r e f o r m u l a t i n g a n d r e c o n s t r u c t i n g its a u t h o r i t y
r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e s t a t u s a w a r d e d t o a u t h o r i t y figures.
T h u s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e w a s n o t p r o d u c e d b y a r e a c t i o n t o t h e g e n
e r a l c u l t u r e t h a t s im p l y a c c e p t e d t h e d e fi n it io n s o f t h a t c u l t u r e r e g a r d
in g its s t a tu s a n d ro l e . M o r e p os i ti v e ly t h e co n t r a -c u l tu re wa s p ro d u ce d
b y a n i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t r e d e f i n e d t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e ,
a c c e p t i n g s o m e o f t h e m a n d r e f o r m u l a t i n g o t h e r s .
T h u s , i n t h e c a s e o f t e e n a g e g a n g s , s t a t u s w a s a w a r d e d t o t h o s e
1 6
F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f D u r k h e i m i a n s o c i o l o g y a n d i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s e c u l a r
a n d r e l i g i o u s m u l t i c u l t u r a l is m , s e e A . B r e n t , C u l tu r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m ,
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e M i n i s t r y i n C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e A g e o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t o
t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o c o n t e m p o r a r y e c u m e n i s m , i n Studies in
Christian Mission 6 , (L e i d e n : E . J . B r i ll 1 9 9 2 ) , c h a p te r s 1 -2 a n d 6 .1 7
A . K . C o h e n , Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d
K e g a n P a u l 1 9 5 5 ) a n d S o c i o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h in D e l i n q u e n t S u b c u l t u r e s , i n American
Journal of Orthopsychology, 2 7 , 4 (1 9 5 7 ), p p . 7 8 1 - 7 8 8 .
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12 C H A P T E R O N E
w h o h a d " h e a r t " , w h o w o u l d ri sk t h e i r li ve s i n a c t s c o n s i d e r e d b y
w i d e r s o c i e t y a s f o o l h a r d y . T o b e c y n i c a l l y u n f a i t h fu l i n h u m a n r e l a
t i o n s h i p s e t c . r e v e r s e d a c c e p t e d n o r m s o f t h e v a l u e o f t r u s t . S u c h a
p h e n o m e n o n w a s d e s c ri b e d a s inverse polarity. C r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y d i d
n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e s o f w i d e r s o c ie t y , s i n c e t h e r e
w a s l it tl e m a t e r i a l a d v a n t a g e i n " b o r r o w i n g " c a r s f or " l a u g h s , " a n d
t h i s m a r k s t h e non-utilitarian c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e . Malice,
i n t h e c a s e o f d e l i n q u e n t s m a n i f e s t e d i n g r a t u i t o u s v i o l e n c e , w a s i n
e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t n o n - g r o u p m e m b e r s . A short run hedonism c h a r a c
t e ri s e d b e h a v i o u r in w h i c h u n p l a n n e d a n t i- s o c ia l a c ts s p o n t a n e o u s l y
t o o k p l a c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e g r o u p w a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a group
autonomy t h a t r e s i s t e d a n y c o n s t r a i n t e x c e p t t h a t w h i c h a r i s e s i n f o r
m a l l y f r o m g r o u p m e m b e r s . Y e t , i n C o h e n ' s w o r d s , " i t is n o t t h e
i n d i v i d u a l d e l i n q u e n t b u t t h e g a n g t h a t i s a u t o n o m o u s . "1 8
H a r g r e a v e s a p p l i e d t h e s a m e k i n d o f s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s t o a se c
o n d a r y s c h o o l o r g a n i s e d in t e r m s o f s t r e a m s r a t h e r t h a n se ts . H e
d e t e c t e d i n t h e fo u r s t r e a m s o f a s e c o n d a r y m o d e r n s c h o o l f o u r d i s
t i n c t s u b c u l t u r e s t h a t w e n t f r o m t h e " A " s t r e a m w h e r e g r o u p n o r m s
a n d v a l u e s w e r e t h o s e o f t h e o ff ic ia l s o c ie t y , w h e r e a s s t r e a m s " B " ,
" C " , a n d " D " s h o w e d v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e s
i n v e r t i n g t h o s e n o r m s a n d v a l u e s , a n d e x h i b i t i n g v e r s i o n s o f non-
utilitarianism, inverse polarity, malice, hedonism, a n d group autonomy. M a l i c e
is s h o w n in t h e d e e p h o s ti li ty b e t w e e n A a n d D s t r e a m b o y s , a n d
i n t h e s t e r e o t y p e s t h u s c r e a t e d . I n v e r s e p o l a r i t y is m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e
w a y i n w h i c h e s t e e m e d m e m b e r s o f a C o r D s t r e a m a r e th o s e w h o
d o n o t p e r f o r m a c a d e m i c a l l y , d o n o t u n d e r t a k e v o l u n t a r y ta s k s f or
t e a c h e r s , e t c . " M e s s i n g " is d o n e b y c u l t u r a l i s o l a te s i n t h e A s t r e a m ,
w h o s e m e m b e r s fr o w n o n i t a s p u r p o s e l e s s d e s t r u c t iv e n e s s . Y e t t h o s e
w h o d o n o t j o i n i n s u c h a c t i v it i e s i n t h e C a n d D s t r e a m s a r e t h e
c u l t u r a l i s o la t e s w h o d o n o t a d m i r e t h e a i m l e s s n e s s a n d u s e l e ss n e s s
o f s u c h b e h a v i o u r ( n o n u ti li ta r i an ) . G r o u p p u n i s h m e n t s s u c h a s d e t e n
t i o n s r e i n f o r c e g r o u p a u t o n o m y . T h e r e is a d e f e r r a l o f g r a ti f ic a t i o n
i n A s t r e a m b o y s a s o p p o s e d t o t h e h e d o n i s m o f " h a v i n g f u n " o f
s t r e a m s C a n d D .1 9
1 8
A . K . C o h e n a n d J . F . S h o r t, R e s e a r c h in D e l i n q u e n t S u b c u l t u r e s , i n Journal of
Social Issues, 1 4 , 3 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 2 0 - 3 7 , d is c u ss e d b y D . M . D o w n e s , The Delinquent
Solution, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 6 6 ), p p . 2 2 - 3 0 , 2 0 2 - 2 0 8 .1 9
D . H . H a r g r e a v e s , Social Relations in a Secondary School, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d
K e g a n P a u l 1 9 6 7 ), p p . 1 6 4 - 1 7 6 ff.
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C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 13
2 0
S . L e v e n t m a n ( E d . ) , Counterculture and Social Transformation: E ssays on Nega tivistic
Themes in Sociological Theory, ( I ll in o i s: T h o m a s 1 9 8 2 ) .2 1
E . V i c t o r W a l t e r , F r o m C o u n t e r c u l t u r e t o S u b c u l t u r e : a n E p i s o d e i n t h e H i s t o r y
o f P o v e r t y , in L e v e n t m a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 5 - 8 6 .
W h e t h e r i n C o h e n ' s t e e n a g e g a n g s , o r i n t h e C a n d D s t r e a m s
o f H a r g r e a v e s s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , it is t o b e e m p h a s i s e d , a s w e h a v e
s a id , t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a a r e n o t t o b e r e g a r d e d a s i n d i v i d u a l r e a c
t i o n s o f a l i e n a t i o n t o a w i d e r c u l t u r e t h a t p l a c e s t h e m l o w i n i t s
h i e r a r c h y a n d t h e i r p e r s o n a l v a l u e s l o w i n its o w n s c a le . R a t h e r t h e
f o r m a t i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e is a p o s i t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t c r e a t e s a
p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f s o c i al a l i e n a t i o n . A s o c i e t y w i t h i n
a s o c i e t y , f r a m i n g a l t e r n a t i v e v a l u e s , a n d a n a l t e r n a t i v e s t a t u s s y s
t e m , is c r e a t e d i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n g a i n t h e s t a t u s a n d
s i g n if i c a n c e t h a t w i d e r s o c i e t y d e n i e s h i m .
I n 1 9 8 2 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to a p p l y c o n t r a c u l t u r a l t h e o r y t o
t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e s o c io l o g ic a l s ig n i fi c an c e o f p o v e r t y a n d w e a l t h .2 0
P a r t o f t h a t a t t e m p t l e a d W a l t e r t o a t t e m p t a n a n a l y si s o f t h e m e d i e v a l
C h u r c h ' s a t t i t u d e t o p o v e r t y in t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h a t h e o r y .2 1
W e
m a y f o l l o w W a l t e r ' s s u g g e s t i v e r e m a r k s a n d u s e t h e a n a l y t i c c o n
c e p t s t h a t w e h a v e d i s t i l l e d f r o m c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l t h e o r y g e n e r a l l y t o
e x p r e s s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t s , l e a d b y C l u n y in
t h e 9 t h c e n t u r y .
T h e m e n d i c a n t D o m i n i c a n s m a d e p o v e r t y a n d d e p e n d e n c y o n
o t h e r s t h e p o s i t i v e m a r k o f s t a t u s a n d so e x h i b i t e d i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r u l e s o f life f or t h e c o m m u n i t y a s a w h o l e , a n d
t h e i r r e m o v a l f r o m e p i s c o p a l c o n t r o l w i t h d i r e c t a c c e s s t o t h e P a p a l
c o u r t , m a r k e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f g r o u p a u t o n o m y . T h e r e w a s n o i n d i
v i d u a l f r e e d o m a s s u c h , s i n c e e i t h e r t h e f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l n o r m s
o f t h e g r o u p s w o u l d p r o d u c e c o n f o r m i t y , o r i n d e e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l
c o u l d b e c h a r g e d b y e x t e r n a l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y . B u t t h e g r o u p
a s a w h o l e h a d a c h i e v e d a n i n v i o l a t e s t a tu s .
T h e F r a n c i s c a n s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y t h a t m a d e
p o v e r t y r a t h e r t h a n w e a l t h th e m a r k of s t a tu s a n d d iv i n e a p p r o v a l
a l so e n g a g e d d e v o t i o n a l l y in a k i n d o f s p i r i tu a l h e d o n i s m o f i m m e
d i a t e g r a t i f i c a t i o n . T o b e l os t i n t h e l o v e o f G o d e x h i b i t e d b y a n a t
u r a l u n i v e r s e filled w i t h b e n i g n l y h u m a n a t t r i b u t e s w a s c o n s i d e r e d
p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e life o f c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t b y r a t i o n a l a n d c a l c u l a t e d
p l a n . T h u s t h e c o n t r a c u l t u r a l v a l u e o f n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n i s m a g a i n s t t h e
u t i l i ta r i a n i s m o f w i d e r so c i e ty is s e e n i n e v i d e n c e . I n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s
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14 C H A P T E R O N E
m a r k e d b y t h e r a d i c a l o r S p ir i t u a l F r a n c i s c a n s , s u p p r e s s e d b y J o h n
X X I I i n t h e fourteenth c e n t u r y , n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n i s m is m a n i f e s t e d i n
t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f a n y p r o p e r t y is n e c e s s a r y t o s a l
v a t i o n . H e r e a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i s s e e n r e i n f o r c i n g i ts i n v e r s a l o f t h e
v a l u e s o f w i d e r s o c i e t y .
C e r t a i n l y C y p r i a n ' s C h u r c h e x e r c i s e d g r o u p a u t o n o m y i n r e j e c t
i n g t h e c o n s t r a i n t s t o w o r s h i p t h e E m p e r o r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e d i s c i p l i n e
t h a t o n e d i d n o t s a c r i f i c e i n c e n s e u n d e r s a n c t i o n o f e x c o m m u n i c a
t i o n a r o s e i n f o r m a l l y f r o m g r o u p m e m b e r s . I t w a s t h a t i n f o r m a l i t y
t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e v a r i e t y o f a p p r o a c h e s t o n o n - c o n f o r m i t y t h a t w a s
t h e c a u s e o f C y p r i a n ' s d i l e m m a . T h e libellatici c l e a r l y h a d o n e v i e w
o f r e a d m i s s i o n t o c o m m u n i o n , t h o s e w h o s o u g h t libelli pacis f r o m t h e
c o n f e s s o r s a n o t h e r , a n d t h e N o v a t i a n s y e t a t h i r d .2 2
C y p r i a n c l e a r l y
h a d t o m a k e f o r m a l c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t h a d a r i s e n i n f o r m a l l y , i n t h e
m a n n e r of c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l g r o u p s .
I n d e e d o t h e r r e g u l a r f e a t u r e s of a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e c a n b e s e e n i n
t h e m a r t y r o l o g i c a l te x t s t h e m s e l v e s , t o w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y m a d e
re fe r en c e . In v e r s e p o l a r i t y is s een in t h a t w h a t t h e h o s t cu l tu re r eg a r d s
a s e x e c u t e d c r i m i n a l s a r e d e s c r i b e d , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e S c i l l i ta n
M a r t y r s , b y t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e a s " c r o w n e d (coronati) a n d " r e i g n i n g
(regnunt)" a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e ir m a r t y r d o m .2 3
T h e d a y o f t h e i r
i g n o m i n i o u s d e a t h is , f or P e r p e t u a a n d h e r c o m p a n i o n s , th e d a y o f
t h e i r v i c t o r y (dies victoriae).2*
N o n - u t i l i t a r i a n i s m i s c l e a r l y s e e n i n t h e q u e s t i o n s o f m a g i s t r a t e s
a s t o t h e u s e o r p o i n t o f n o t s w e a r i n g o r s a c ri f ic i n g t o t h e E m p e r o r ' s
genius, a s w h e n P e r p e t u a ' s f a t h e r a p p e a l s t o h e r t o a v o i d t h e f a m
i ly 's s o c ia l d i s g r a c e , a n d t o c a r e fo r t h e n e e d s o f h e r b a b y s o n .2 5
T h e E i r e n a r c h H e r o d , a n d N i c e t e s h is f a t h er , a sk P o l y c a r p : " W h a t
h a r m i s t h e r e i n s a y i n g ' C a e s a r is L o r d , ' a n d s a cr i fi c in g , a n d t h e
r e s t o f i t, a n d s o s a v i n g y o u r s e l f ? "2 6
M a l i c e is s h o w n , i n r e f e r e n c e s
in Acta Justini 1, t o " t h e w r e t c h e d d e f e n d e r s o f i d o l a t r y a n d t h e i r
i m p i o u s d e c r e e s . " W e find a s h o r t - t e r m h e d o n i s m i n B l a n d i n a ' s affir
m a t i o n t h a t b r i n g s h e r " r e f r e s h m e n t (avah]\\fi<;) and res t (dvdrcouo iq) . "
(H.E. V , 1,19)
2 2
C y p r i a n , De Laps. 2 8 ; Ep. 3 0 , 3 ; 6 5 , 1 3 a n d 1 7 .23 Passio Scillitanorum 1 8 ,1 ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 8 6 , 1 6 ) .24 Passio S. Perpetuae 1 3 - 1 4 ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p . 1 1 6 ).2 5
I b id . 3 ,1 ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 6 2 / 6 3 , 2 - 6 4 / 6 5 ) .2 b
P i o n i u s , Passio Polycarpi, 8 , 2 ( J . B . L i g h t f o o t , T h e A p o s t o l i c F a t h e r s , L o n d o n :
M a c M i l l a n 1 8 9 1 ) .
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C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 15
T h u s w e f ind c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l f e a tu r e s i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d e s c r i p
t io n s o f t h e c l a s h b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y a s a c u l ti c c o m
m u n i t y , a n d t h e R o m a n E m p i r e s ee k in g s a c r a m e n t a l u n it y t h r o u g h
i ts o w n cu l t i c ac t o f s ac r i f i c in g in c en se t o t h e g en iu s o f C ae sa r . B u t
w h a t o f m i n i s t e r i a l , s a c e r d o t a l O r d e r its elf i n b o t h I m p e r i a l a n d
C h r i s t i a n C u l t ?
I p r o p o s e in t h e f o ll o w i n g c h a p t e r s t o n o w a p p l y c o n t r a c u l t u r a l
a n a l y si s s y s te m a t i c a l ly t o t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n
C h u r c h a n d S t a t e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t e r m s
o f t h e o ffic es o f t h o s e w h o s u p e r i n t e n d e d t h e i r t w o p a r a l l e l c u l t s .
M y th e si s w ill b e t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h O r d e r c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n w h i c h t h e v a l u e s
o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e a r e re v e r s e d , a n d m e m b e r s o f t h a t c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e a c h i e v e a s t a t u s d e n i e d t o t h e m b y w i d e r s o c i e t y . I t i s i n
r e s p o n s e t o t h e d e m a n d s o f s u c h a p r o c e s s t h a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f
t h e c h a r i s m a t i c t a k e s p l a c e , a n d a s t a b l e a n d o r g a n i s e d s o c i e t y is
c r e a t e d i n C l e m e n t Corinthians a n d t h e Didache ( C h a p t e r 4 ) . I g n a t i u s
a s t h e m a r t y r b i s h o p a n d h is p r o c e s s i o n f r o m A n t i o c h i n S y r i a t o
R o m e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s m a r k i n g t h e i n te r fa c e b e t w e e n t h e P a g a n
an d th e Ch r i s t i an Cu l t . H i s o f f i ce an d s ac r i f i ce can b e s een to b e
t h e c r e a t i o n o f a r e v e r s a l o f i m a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
( C h a p t e r 5 ) .
F e a t u r e s o f C o h e n ' s d e f i n it i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e w ill m o r e o v e r
be seen a l so in Luke-Acts, I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse. W e find a n
i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y i n t h e Apocalypse w h e r e b y m e a n s o f a r e v e r s a l o f
v a l u e s t h e a p p a r a t u s a n d l it u r g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is a p p l i e d t o
t h e h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p o f t h e t r u e G o d . T h e n t h e r e w i ll b e t h e e x a m
p l e o f I g n a t i u s t h e b i s h o p w h o b o t h l e a d s t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l ti c p r o
c e s s i o n t o R o m e a n d t h e n b e c o m e s a s a c ri fi c e o n t h e a l t a r o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t w h i c h s e e m s a l m o s t t h e r e b y a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d C h r i s
t i a n i s e d . H e r e w e s h a l l s e e a n i n v e r s i o n o f c u l t ic e l e m e n t s a n d a
b u r n i n g ( he d o n is t ic ? ) d e s i r e f or m a r t y r d o m t h e g lo r y o f w h i c h w e l l-
m e a n i n g R o m a n C h r i s t ia n s m a y t ry t o d e p r i v e h i m w h o d o n o t
g r a s p t h e fu ll si g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y v a l u e d b y t h e i r
c o n t r a - c u l t u r e (Rom. 1_
2 ) . W e s h a ll f u r t h e r m o r e a r g u e t h a t t h e s a c
e r d o t a l i m a g e r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is i n f l u e n c i n g i c o n o g r a p h y o f
e c c l e s i a l O r d e r b o t h i n I g n a t i u s a n d i n t h e Apocalypse, w i t h t h e f o r m e r
p r o d u c i n g in v e r s e p o l a r i m a g e s o f t h e l a tt e r . Luke-Acts t o o ( C h a p t e r 3)
w i ll b e s h o w n t o m i r r o r A u g u s t a n h i s t o r y , w i t h t h e pax Christi p r o
d u c e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n , a p o s t o l i c c u l t a s t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l p a r a l l e l
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16 C H A P T E R O N E
t o t h e pax deorum p r o d u c e d b y A u g u s t u s ' a u g u r a l a c t a n d w i t n e ss e d
o n his m o n u m e n t , t h e Ara Pacis ( C h a p t e r 2 ) .
B u t a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e n e e d s t h e m o d e l o f t h e w i d e r s o c i e ty w i t h
w h i c h it is i n t e r a c t i n g in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t v a l u e s n e e d t o b e
r e c o n s t r u c t e d , w h a t s y s te m o f p r i v i le g e a n d h o n o u r n e e d s t o b e
r e v e r s e d . H e r e w e s h a ll find D o m i t i a n a n d t h e f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t
o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t p r o v i d i n g t h e h i s t o r ic a l m a t r i x t h a t d e t e r m i n e s
t h e c h a r a c t e r o f w h a t d e v e l o p s i n C h u r c h O r d e r a t t hi s p a r t i c u l a r
p e r i o d . W e h a v e a r g u e d h e r e a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p fo r t h e a g e o f
C y p r i a n w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . S u c h
a p r o c e s s w e s h a l l a r g u e t o b e i n e v i d e n c e n o t o n l y i n C l e m e n t o f
R o m e , b u t in h is n e a r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i n Luke-Acts, t h e Apocalypse, a n d
th e Ig n a t i a n L e t t e r s (C h a p t e r s 3 , 5 a n d 6 ) . W e sh a l l f in ally d i s cu s s
h o w a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g y o f t h e T r i n i t y m i r r o r s t h e M o n a r c h i a n
p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s , a n d i s
r e fl ec te d i n d e v e l o p m e n t s b o t h i n I m p e r i a l a n d C h u r c h O r d e r u n d e r
E l a g a b a l u s a n d C a l l i s tu s ( C h a p t e r s 7 - 8 ) .
F r o m o u r a n a l y si s o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s p r e s u p p o s e d
b y t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , w e s h a l l d e r i v e a f r a m e w o r k f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e s u b s e q u e n t C y p r i a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h t h e i r o w n r e f l e c t i o n s o f
i m p e r i a l O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l C u l t .
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C H A P T E R T W O
T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T
The religious character of the Augustan Revolution
T h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n w a s a s m u c h r e l i g io u s a s it w a s p o l i ti c a l .
D i v i n a t i o n a n d t h e r it e s o f t h e augur w e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s w e l l a s
re l i g io u s n eces s i t i e s i n a so c i e ty i n wh ich b o th r e l i g io n an d p o l i t i c s
w e r e i n t e r t w i n e d . T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e f o r e b o t h a c o n
s t i t u t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d a r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m a t i o n . T h e c u l t c a r r i e d
a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e l e g e n d a r y k i n g s o f R o m e t h a t le ft i ts m a r k o n
t h e R e p u b l i c a n c o n s t it u t i o n . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f R e p u b l i c to P r i n -
c i p a t e r e q u i r e d t h e r e f o r e a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c u l t i n w h i c h t h e
final ex er ci se of th e ius augurium w a s i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e h e n c e f o r t h
i m p e r i a l a n d h e r e d i t a r y Pontfex Maximus. T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e c iv il
w a r s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h M a r i u s a n d S u ll a , a n d e n d i n g w i t h A c t i u m h a d
m o r e o v e r i m p r e s s e d o n R o m a n m i n d s t h e n e e d t o a c h i e v e t h r o u g h
t h e c u l t u s t h e pax deorum.
I n t h e n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s w e s h a l l e x a m i n e f i r s t a n d e a r l y s e c
o n d c e n t u r y w o r k s , n a m e l y Luke-Acts, C l e m e n t , Corinthians, t h e Apocalypse,
a n d t h e e p i s d e s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . W e s h a ll a r g u e t h a t t h e s e
w r i t e r s e x p r e s s v a r i e t ie s o f C h r i s t i a n , c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s m i r
r o r i n g t h e R o m a n E m p i r e w i t h i ts c e n t r a l c u l ti c e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t w h i c h w a s , w i t h its n e w a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Fortuna Redux,
t o m a k e w i d e r e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c l a i m s . P r e l i m i n a r y t o o u r d i s c u s s io n
i n t h e s e f u t u r e c h a p t e r s w e s h a l l e x a m i n e h e r e , i n s e c t i o n A , t h e
g r o w t h o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t f r o m its r e p u b l i c a n r o o t s
t o i ts u n i q u e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h A u g u s t u s . I n s e c t i o n B w e s ha l l e x a m
i n e t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h a t c u l t a t t h e ludi saeculares o f 1 3 B . C . , a n d
t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f its w i d e r r e c e p t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n A s i a M i n o r b u t
a l s o i n t h e L a t i n W e s t .
W i t h i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . , C i c e r o ' s De Natura
Deorum b e a r s w i tn es s t o a S to i c j u s t i f i ca t i o n fo r t h e p r ac t i c e s o f b o th
augur a n d haruspex. In ea r ly a n d m id first ce n t u r y A .D . w e sh a l l fin d,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c a s e o f L u c a n , b u t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o L iv y t o o , a
h i s t o r i o g r a p h y t h a t r e a d s t h e e v e n t o f t h e lo s t a n d r e s t o r e d o r d e r o f
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18 C H A P T E R T W O
n a t u r e a n d s o c i e t y i n t e r m s o f a S t o i c , h y l o h o l i s t i c th e o l o g y o f for-
tuna, fatum a n d taS ycx;. W e s h a l l s h o w h o w t h e A u g u s t a n c o n s t i t u
t i o n a l a n d c u l t ic d e v e l o p m e n t s r e f le c t e d s u c h S to i c a s s u m p t i o n s .
A u g u s t u s ' c o n t r o l o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , s e c u r e d t h r o u g h h i s o ffic e o f
Ponttfex Maximus, h a d a s i ts o b j e c t i v e t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h e pax deorum.
T h e e x p l a n a t i o n a n d j u s t if i c a ti o n o f s u c h a n o b j e c t i v e w a s a p h i l o
s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y i n f o r m e d b y S t o i c i s m .
W e s ha l l f ol lo w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S t o i c t h e o l o g y u n d e r p i n
n i n g A u g u s t u s ' s p e c i f i c c u l t i c c l a i m t o c o n t r o l t h e ius augurium, a l o n g
s i d e o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f t h e A u g u s t a n i d e o l o g y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e s h a l l
e x a m i n e h o w t h e c o n c e p t s o f pax, fortuna, a n d salus w e r e l i n k e d w i t h
e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a r e t u r n i n g g o l d e n a g e . T h e f u r t h e r s y n t h e s i s a l so
t o o k p l a c e w h e n t h e b i r t h o f b o t h J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d t h a t o f O c t a -
v i a n / A u g u s t u s a s h i s h e i r w a s a l s o l i n k e d w i t h fortuna redux. B o t h a s
a r e s u l t c a m e t o b e p e r s o n a l l y a n d i n d i v i d u a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n w h a t i n
t h e J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n w o u l d b e " M e s s i a n i c " t e r m s . I n m a k
i n g s u c h a c l a i m I a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
a r t h i s t o r ia n J o h n E i s n e r , w h o h a s r e c e n t ly a p p r o a c h e d t h e s t u d y o f
t h e Ara Pacis e m p h a s i s e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l o f a r t t o n a t u r a l i s m
t h a t t a k e s a c c o u n t o f t h e n a t u r e a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f v i e w i n g i n t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i m a g e s .1
I n t h e c r o s s c u r r e n t o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l c o n c e p t s in t h e e a r l y R o m a n
E m p i r e , s u c h a n a r t e f a c t n e e d s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f a
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r o b a b l e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e v i e w e r a n d a r t
o b j e c t i n w h i c h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o b j e c t is " p e r m a n e n t l y
i n c o m p l e t e a n d y e t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r i l y fu lfille d b y t h e v i e w e r ' s o w n
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s a cr if ic ia l r i t e . " A s E i s n e r c l a i m s : " v i e w e r s c r e
a t i ve ly c o n s t r u c t e d n u m e r o u s m e a n i n g s w h i c h m i g h t d e c o n s t r u c t ,
u n d e r m i n e , o r c o n fl ic t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . A J e w i s h v i e w , f or i n s t a n c e ,
o r a P y t h a g o r e a n o n e m i g h t h a v e b e e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f
1
J . E i s n e r , C u l t a n d S c u l p t u r e : S a c r if i c e in t h e A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , in JRomS
8 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 5 0 - 6 1 . S t r o n g s u p p o r t h a s b e e n g i v e n t o t h e p u r s u i t o f s u c h a n a r t -
h i st o ri c al m e t h o d o l o g y b y o n e d i s t in g u i s h e d R o m a n h i st o r ia n , A n d r e w W a l l a c e -
H a d r i l l , i n h i s r e v i e w a r t i c l e ( R o m e ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , i n JRomS 7 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p .
1 5 7 - 1 6 4 ) o f P . Z a n k e r , The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, t r a n s . A . S h a p i r o ,
( A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s 1 9 9 0 ) . A s W a l l a c e - H a d r i l l c l a i m s : ". . . it
i s n e c e s s a r y f o r a n y o n e w h o w i s h e d t o d i s c u s s A u g u s t u s t o t a k e t h e a r t - h i s t o r i c a l
m a t e r i a l s e r i o u s l y . T h i s m a k e s i t t h e m o r e l a m e n t a b l e th a t t h e st u d y o f R o m a n a r th i s to r y h a s s o t e n u o u s a h o l d i n B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s " (p . 1 6 4 ) . S e e a l s o K . G a l i n s k y ,
V e n u s , P o l y s e m y , a n d t h e A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , i n AmJArch 9 6 , 3 (1 9 9 2 ), p p . 4 5 7 - 4 7 5 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 19
a R o m a n p ri e s t. "2
W h a t I wall b e s eek in g in t h e fo l lo w in g d i s cu s
s i on is a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f s o m e i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f s u c h v a r i o u s a n d m u l t i
c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e s w i t h t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t as
e x e m p l i f i e d a ls o i n firstly P a g a n a n d t h e n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d o c u m e n t s .
Su ch in te rsec t ions wi ll b e su ff ic iendy la rg e in n u m b e r , I be l ieve , to co n
s t i tu t e a c l a i m f o r s o m e d e g r e e o f n o r m a t i v e n e s s o f t h e p i c t u r e t h a t
I w i l l d e v e l o p .
P A R T A . R E P U B L I C A N A N T E C E D E N T S O F T H E I M PE R IA L C U L T
T h e p r a c t i c e of w o r s h i p p i n g d ei fi ed e m p e r o r s , w h e t h e r a li ve o r d e a d ,
w a s n o t p a r t o f R e p u b l i c a n r e l i g i o u s o r p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e b e f o r e
Au g u s tu s . Bu t ev en in Rep u b l i can t im es t h e p r in c ip l e was ack n o wled g ed
th a t i t w a s th e resp on s ib i l i ty o f pu b l i c o ff ic ia ls to seek th e wi l l o f th e
g o d s i n d iv in a t io n . T o m a k e th is p o s s ib l e , p o l i t i ca l f igu res w er e e l ec t ed
to the off ice of pontifex, a n d t h e i r c o l l e g e w a s h e a d e d b y a Pontifex
Maximus. I t is c l e a r f ro m C ic e r o ' s t r ea t i s e t h e De Natura Deorum t h a tt a k i n g t h e auspicia w a s a p o l i t i c a l a s w e l l a s a r e li g i o u s r e q u i r e m e n t .
I n t h i s t r e a t i s e , w e h a v e a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n G a i u s V e l l e i u s a n d
Q u i n t u s L u c i u s B a l b u s , w h o r e p r e s e n t re s p e c ti v e ly t h e E p i c u r e a n s
a n d t h e S to i c s, b u t w h o a r e o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n e x c e p t f or t h e i r
n a m e s ,3
a n d G a i u s C o t t a , t h e A c a d e m i c i a n in w h o s e h o u s e t h e d i a
l o g u e is s e t ( 1 ,6 ) . C o t t a i n d e e d s h o u l d h a v e f o u n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n p a r
t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t , s in c e , a s B a l b u s is q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t , h e h a s b e e ne l e c t e d pontifex, a n d h a s a s o l e m n r e l i g i o u s d u t y t o t h e s t a t e c u l t .
T h e M i d d l e A c a d e m y c l a i m e d t h a t a t m o s t p r o b a b i l i ty , b u t n e v e r
c e r t a i n t y w a s p o s si b le a b o u t t h e p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d . I n o p p o s i t i o n
t o s u c h a v i e w , B a l b u s p r o p o s e s b y m e a n s o f S t o i c i s m t o j u st if y p h i l o
s o p h i c a l l y t h e re l i g i o u s rites a n d p r a c t i c e s i n w h i c h t h e w a v e r i n g
C o t t a h a s t o p a r t i c i p a t e , a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r h a s s o m e d o u b t s a b o u t
the i r f ina l va l id i ty .4
2
E i s n e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p . 5 2 .3
I n C i c e r o , De Orat. 3 , 7 8 V e l l e i u s i s m e n t i o n e d a s a f r i e n d o f L . L i c i n i u s C r a s s u s ,
a n d a l s o t h e t w o B a l b i .4 De Nat. Deor. 2 , 2 : " E s t e n i m e t p h i l o s o p h i e t p o n t i f i c i s e t C o t t a e d e d i s i m m o r -
t a l i b u s h a b e r e n o n e r r a n t e m e t v a g a m u t A c a d e m i c i s e d u t n o s t r i s t a b i l e m c e r t a m -
q u e s e n t e n t i a m . "
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2 0 C H A P T E R T W O
2A 1 . The political and constitutional significance of divination
A s B a l b u s is q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t , C o t t a ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d i v i n a t i o n
a n d a u g u r y w e r e n o t a m a t t e r o f p r i v a t e c o n s c i e n c e s e p a r a t e f r o m h is
c iv i c d u t y a s a m a g i s t r a t e . I n hi s s e c o n d c o n s u l a t e T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s
p r o c e e d e d w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n o f h i s s u c c e s s o r s e v e n t h o u g h t h e o r i g
i n a l r e t u r n i n g o ffic er h a d d r o p p e d d e a d . H e h a d t o a d m i t o n r e fl e ct io n
t h a t h e h a d p r o c e e d e d i r r e g u l a r l y b e c a u s e th e t e n t i n w h i c h h e h a d
c o n d u c t e d t h e a u g u r y w h i c h v a l i d a t e d h is c o u r s e of a c t i o n w a s i n
S c i p i o 's p a r k o u t s i d e t h e c it y b o u n d a r y . H e h a d a t t e n d e d a m e e t
i n g o f t h e S e n a t e f r o m t h is t e n t a n d h a d f o r g o t t e n t o t a k e t h e aus-picia o n h is r e t u r n . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , a s a r e s u l t o f a f o r m a l r e f e r e n c e
b y t h e c o ll e g e o f A u g u r s , t h e S e n a t e c a u s e d t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e
e l e c t e d c o n s u l s F i g u l u s a n d S c i p i o .5
O n e o b s e r v e s h e r e t h a t d i v i n a t i o n w a s m o r e t h a n a k i n d o f s u p e r
s t i ti o n t o b e p r a c t i c e d b e f o r e m a j o r b a t t l e s o r a k i n d o f p r a y e r f o r
s u c c e s s i n a c r it i c a l s i t u a t i o n . R a t h e r it w a s a n i n t e g r a l a s p e c t o f t h e
o r d i n a r y , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e s s . I n th i s r e s p e c t o n e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h er u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y i n r e s p e c t o f d i v i n a t i o n a t k e y m o m e n t s i n t h e p o l i
t ic a l p r o c e s s w e r e n o t fo r m a l l y u n l i k e t h e r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y i n c o n
s u l ti n g m o d e r n o p i n i o n p o ll s te r s .
A P r i m e M i n i s t e r , h a v i n g c o n s u l t e d t h e p o l l s, a n d h a v i n g f o u n d
t h a t t h e y p r e d i c t e d a n e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y , m i g h t s till l o s e . B u t h e w o u l d
s t a n d a f ar b e t t e r c h a n c e o f r e m a i n i n g l e a d e r o f h is p a r t y a n d , if
t h e p a r t y w a s a m a j o r o n e i n t h e n e w p a r l i a m e n t , L e a d e r o f t h eO p p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e h e h a d d o n e so . A P r i m e M i n i s t e r , w h o c a l le d
a G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n w i t h e v e r y c o m p u t a t i o n o f c u r r e n t o f e l e c t o r a l
o p i n i o n a g a i n s t h i m a n d l os t, w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y e x p e r i e n c e a s t o n
i s h e d d i s b e l i e f a t h is s h e e r r e c k le s s n e s s a n d l a c k o f j u d g m e n t .
B u t n e i t h e r th e f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r n o r h i s c r it ic s w o u l d n e c e s
s a ri ly u n d e r s t a n d t h e t h e o r i e s o f m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y , t h e t e c h n i q u e s
o f s a m p l i n g a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g t h e o r y o f s o c i o l o g ic a l c l a ss i fi c a ti o na n d s t ra t if i ca t ion w hi ch jus t i f i ed the use o f suc h po l l s . Di f fe ren t ex pe r t s
a r e i n d e e d a t v a r i a n c e a b o u t t h e p r e c i s e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f s u c h s e c o n d
o r d e r t h e o r i e s . B u t d e s p i t e s u c h l a c k o f c o n s e n s u s o n a n o v e r a l l t h e
o r y , a n d i n d e e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f it , t h e r e a r is e s a g e n e r a l n o r m a
t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t s u c h a d v i c e s h a l l b e t a k e n i n s u c h a f o r m .
5 Ibid. 2 , 4 , s e e a l s o C i c e r o , De Divinat., 2 , 7 4 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P ER I AL C U L T 2 1
S u c h was c l ea r ly t h e case w i th t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e co l l eg e o f
p o nt if fs a n d a u g u r s . T h e y w e r e r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g a r e g u l a t o r y r o le
u p o n t h e p o li t ic a l i n s t it u t io n s o f R o m e .6
I t w a s n o t s i m p l y a q u e s
t i o n o f t h e divinatio augurum, o f t h e i r p o w e r s o f f o r e t e l li n g t h e f u t u r e ,
b u t o f t h e disciplina, o r d i s c i p l i n e t h a t t h e y e x e r c i s e d o v e r m a g i s t r a t e s .
T h i s disciplina w a s s u p p o r t e d b y a ius augurum, a. p o l i t i c a l p r e r o g a t i v e
e x e r c i s e d b y t h e a u g u r s a s o f r i g h t . C i c e r o is t h e r e f o r e a b l e t o c o n
c lu d e o f t h i s iu s t h a t : " e v e n t h o u g h i t w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d a s
a r e s u l t o f t h e g o o d r e p u t a t i o n t h a t d i v i n a t i o n h a d (etsi divinationis
opinione principio constitutum sit), h o w e v e r a f t e r w a r d s it h a s b e e n p r e
s e r v e d a n d r e t a i n e d b y r e a s o n o f t h e p u b l i c b e n e fi t (tamen postea rei
publicae causa conservatum ac retentum)" (De Divinatione 2 ,75 . )
F u r t h e r m o r e C i c e r o w a s t o e x p r e s s t h e v i e w i n h i s d i a l o g u e De
Legibus t h r o u g h t h e c h a r a c t e r o f M a r c u s t h a t t h e ius augurium w a s o f
t h e h i g h e s t p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d l i n k e d w i t h auctoritas:
The greatest and most significant right in the state (maximum autem et
praestantissimum in re publico) is the right of augurs (ius est augurum) wh ichis linked to political authority (cum auctoritate coniunctum). . . For w ha t
right is greater (quid enim maius est) if we examine legal right (si de iure
quaerimus), than to be able to adjourn (dimittere) commit tees and coun
cils (comitiatus et concilia) based on the h ighest const i tu t ional or personal
p o w e r (a summ is imperiis et summis potestatibus), or their decisions (insti-
tuta), or to rescind them if they have al ready bee n m ad e (vel habita
rescindere).
Cice ro , De Legibus, 2,31
T h i s , as w e sha l l s ee , w as a co n s t i t u t i o n a l p o in t n o t l os t u p o n A u g u s tu s
(Res Gestae c . 7) i n a s s u m in g th e ius augurium ( 2A 4 . 1 .5 ) . H o w e v e r w e
s h o u l d b e w a r e o f t h i n k i n g t h a t it w a s m e r e l y a u s ef u l p o l i t i c a l d e v i c e
n o t t r e a t e d s e ri ou s ly b y h i m s e l f o r hi s e d u c a t e d c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . W h e n
A t t i c u s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e auspicia m i g h t h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d t o b e o f
m e r e l y p o l it i c a l u s e , M a r c u s r e p l i e s :
I think that the art of divination which the Greeks call tiavcucrj really
exists (divinationem, quam Graeci u.avxncr|v appellant, esse sentio) and par t o f
th is which concerns b irds and other s igns (et huius banc ipsam partem,
quae est in avibus ceterisque signis), is part of our discipline (quod disciplinae
nostrae). Fo r if we co nce de tha t the gods exist , an d the u niverse is ruled
6
W . W a r d e F o w l e r , The Religious Exp erience of the Rom an People from the Earliest Times
to the Age of Augustus, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 11 ) , p p . 2 7 0 - 3 1 3 ; J . H . W . G . L i e b e sc h u e tz ,Continuity and Change in Roman Religion, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 7 - 2 9 ; J . L i n d e rs k i,
T h e A u g u r a l L a w , i n ANRW ( 1 9 8 6 ) 1 1 , 1 6 , 3 , p p . 2 1 4 7 - 2 3 1 2 .
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2 2 C H A P T E R T W O
by their will , that they are mindful of the human race, and that they
have power to give indications of the future, then I do not see any
reason for denying divinat ion .
De Legibus 2,32
W e s h a l l n o w s e e , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e l a t e r r e p u b l i c , h o w s u c h a
m e t a p h y s i c a l p o s i t i o n w a s g i v e n p h i l o s o p h i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
2 A 2 . Stoic justifications for the validity of cu ltic acts
I n De Natura Deorum C i c e r o w a s t o g o o n t o r e p r e s e n t B a l b u s a s
a r g u i n g a S t o i c j u s t if i c a t io n o f w h y d i v i n a t i o n w o r k e d , a n d o f w h yi t p o s s e s s e d t h e p o l i ti c a l f u n c t i o n t h a t it d i d . T h e u n i v e r s e w a s p e r
v a d e d a n d a ll t h i n g s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a fiery b r e a t h t h a t w a s r e a
s o n (Xoyoq) a n d G o d . " T h e w o r l d f or t h a t r e a s o n w a s G o d a n d e v e r y
p o w e r o f t h e w o r l d w a s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e d i v in e n a t u r e . "7
T h e
d i v i n i t y o f t h e w o r l d m u s t b e a s s i g n e d a l s o t o t h e s t a rs t h a t e x h i b i t
a l i k e r a t i o n a l o r d e r .8
T h u s in t h e w o r d s o f C l e a n t h e s , in s u c h a
m a t e r i a l m o n i s m w i t h o u t t h e d u a l i s m o f m a t t e r a n d S p ir i t: " A l l a r eb u t p a r t o f o n e s t u p e n d o u s w h o l e , w h o s e N a t u r e b o d y is a n d G o d
t h e s o u l . "9
B e c a u s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e u l t i m a t e c o n s t i t u e n t o f m a t t e r w a s r e f i n e d
fire, b o t h s p i ri t u a l a n d r a t i o n a l , t h e r e f o r e t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e w o r l d
w a s b y p r o v id e n c e (rcpovoioc). B u t pronoia w a s n o t t o b e p e r s o n i f i e d
a s a p a r t i c u l a r d e i t y a n d t h u s r i d i c u l e d b y t h e E p i c u r e a n V e l l e i u s
a s " a n o l d h a g o f a f o r t u n e t e l l e r . "1 0
I t is r a th e r a fu n c t io n o f t h eflYeuoviKov o r r u l i n g p r i n c i p l e w h i c h a n y n o n - h o m o g e n e o u s e n t it y ,
t h a t is t o s a y a n e n t i t y m a d e o f p a r t s , m u s t p o s s e s s i n o r d e r t o b e
h e l d t o g e t h e r . I n a n i m a l s o r i n p l a n t s it is t h e s o u r c e o f m o t i o n s o f
t h e a p p e t i t e s , l o c a t e d i n t h e r o o t s , i n h u m a n b e i n g s i t is i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
7
De Nat. Deor.2 , 3 0 : " Q u o d c i r c a s a p i e n t e m e s s e m u n d u m n e c e s s e e s t , n a t u r a m q u e
e a r n q u a e r e s o m n e s c o n p l e x a t e n e a t p e r f e c t i o n e r a t io n i s e x c e l l e r e , e o q u e d e u m e s se
m u n d u m o m n e m q u e v i m m u n d i n a t u r a d i v i n a c o n t i n e ri . "8
Ibid. 2 , 3 9 : " A t q u e h a c m u n d i d i v i n i t a t e p e r s p e c t a t r i b u e n d a e s t s i d e r i b u s e a d e m
d i v i n i ta s , q u a e e x m o b i l i s s i m a p u r i s s i m a q u e a e t h e r i s p a r t e g i g n u n t u r n e q u e u l l a
p r a e t e r e a s u n t a d m i x t a n a t u r a t o t a q u e s u n t c a l i d a a t q u e p e r l u c i d a , u t e a q u o q u e
r e c t i s s i m e e t a n i m a n t i a e s s e e t s e n t i r e a t q u e i n t e l l e g e r e d i c a n t u r . "9
A . P o p e , Essay on Man, I p . 2 6 7 q u o t e d i n F . C o p l e s t o n , A H i s t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y ,
V o l . 1: G r e e c e a n d R o m e , i n Bellarmine Series I X ( L o n d o n : B u r n s O a t e s 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 3 8 8 .10 De Nat. Deor. 2 , 7 3 : " V e l u t a t e i p s o h e s t e r n o d i e d i c t u m e s t a n u m f a t i d i c a m
rcpovoiav a S t o i c i s i n d u c i , i d e s t p r o v i d e n t i a m ; q u o d e o e r r o r e d i x i s t i q u i a e x i s t u m a sa b ii s p r o v i d e n t i a m fingi q u a s i q u a n d a m d e a m s i n g u l a r e m q u a e m u n d u m o m n e m
g u b e r n e t e t r e g a t . "
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 2 3
b u t i n t h e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e i t m u s t b e r e a s o n (ratio = A,6yo<;) w h i c h
r u l e s t h e w h o l e .1 1
F r o m s u c h a p o s i t i o n it is b u t a s h o r t r e m o v e t o
a r g u e t h a t s i n c e t h e o r d e r o f n a t u r e c a n b e r e a d b y t h e d i s c e r n i n g
e y e i n t h e s t a r s , s o c a n t h e f u t u r e b e r e a d b y t h o s e w h o u n d e r s t a n d
t h a t r a t i o n a l o r d e r a n d w h o c a n t h e r e f o r e r a t i o n a l l y s u b m i t t o t h e
d e c r e e o f f a te f o u n d m a p p e d o u t t h e r e . I f f a te c a n b e r e a d v i a s u c h
ra t i on a l o r d e r o r A,6yo<; in th e s ta r s , th e n i t c a n a l so b e d i sc er n ed in
t h e e n t r a i ls o f s h e e p w h e n r i g h d y c u t u p a n d o b s e r v e d .1 2
T h u s C i c e r o
w a s t o r e m a r k t h a t t h e S t o i c d o c t r i n e o f d e t e r m i n i s m o r f a te , b e
c a u s e it w a s b a s e d u p o n t h e e n d o w m e n t o f n a t u r e w i t h m i n d , w a s
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h " o r a c l e s a n d e v e r y t h i n g el se w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d w i t h
d i v i n a t i o n . " 1 3
T h u s t h e r o le p l a y e d b y a u g u r y a n d d i v i n a t i o n i n t h e R o m a n c o n
s t i t u ti o n a l s c h e m e w a s l e g i t i m a t e d i n t e r m s of a S t o ic c o s m o l o g y .
P h y s ic s w a s s t u d i e d i n G r a e c o - R o m a n p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o ls i n o r d e r
t o a c h i e v e n e i t h e r a d i s i n t e r e s t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n a t u r e n o r a t e c h
n o l o g y w i t h w h i c h t o c o n t r o l it . R a t h e r p h y s i c s , l ik e m e t a p h y s i c s ,
w a s u s e d to s e r v i c e t h e o r i e s o f e t h i c s . T h e r e w a s a n e e d t o k n o w
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e in o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r h o w e t h i c a l l y t h e
b e h a v i o u r o f h u m a n b e i n g s c o u l d fit w i t h i n i t. T h e E p i c u r e a n d i s
c o v e r e d t h a t d e a t h , i n t h e l ig h t o f a n a t o m i c t h e o r y o f t h e u n i v e r s e ,
w a s d i s s o l u t io n a n d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o fe a r o f e t e r n a l p u n i s h m e n t ,
a n d t h is a s s u c h w a s t h e p u r e l y e t h i c a l v a l u e o f G r e e k a t o m i s m .
L u c r e t i u s n o t o r i o u s l y , a t t h e e n d o f h i s g r e a t w o r k , p r o d u c e d s e v
e r a l q u i t e c o n f l i c ti n g e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a c e r t a i n s p r i n g
w i t h o u t c o m i n g t o a n y c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t w h i c h of t h e m w a s t h e
11
Ibid. 2 , 2 9 : " N a t u r a es t i gi tu r q u a e c o n t i n e a t m u n d u m o m n e m e u m q u e t u e a -
tur , e t e a q u i d e m n o n s i n e s e n s u a t q u e r a t i o n e ; o m n e m e n i m n a t u r a m n e c e s s e es t
q u a e n o n s o li t ar i a s it n e q u e s i m p l e x s e d c u m a l i o i u n c t a a t q u e c o n e x a h a b e r e
a l i q u e m i n s e p r i n c i p a t u m , u t i n n o m i n e m e n t e m , i n b e l u a q u i d d a m s i m i l e m e n t i su n d e o r i a n t u r a d p e t i t u s . . . P r i n c i p a t u m a u t e m i d d i c o q u o d G r a e c i f iy e uo v iK o v
v o c a n t , q u o n ih i l i n q u o q u e g e n e r e n e c p o t e s t n e c d e b e t e s se p r a e s t a n t i u s . . . "12 De Divinat. 1 , 1 1 : " d u o s u n t e n i m d i v i n a n d i g e n e r a , q u o r u m a l t e r u m a r t i s e s t ,
a l t e r u m n a t u r a e . Q u a e e s t a u t e m g e n s a u t q u a e c iv i t a s, q u a e n o n a u t e x t i s p i c u m
a u t m o n s t r a a u t f u l g o r a i n t e r p r e t a n t i u m a u t a u g u r u m a u t a s t r o l o g o r u m a u t s o r t i u m
( e a e n i m f e r e a r t i s s u n t ) a u t s o m n i o r u m a u t v a t i c i n a t i o n u m ( h a e c e n i m d u o n a t u -
r a li a p u t a n t u r ) p r a e d i c t i o n e m o v e a t u r ? q u a r u m q u i d e m r e r u m e v e n t a m a g i s ar b i-
t r o r q u a m c a u s a s q u a e r i o p o r t e r e . e s t e n i m v i s e t n a t u r a q u a e d a m , q u a e t u rn
o b s e r v a t i s l o n g o t e m p o r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n i b u s , t u r n a l i q u o i n s t i n c t u i n f l a t u q u e d i v i n o
f u t u r a p r a e n u n t i a t . "13 De Fato 1 5 , 3 3 : " Q u o d c i r c a si S t o i c i s q u i o m n i a f a t o fieri d i c u n t c o n s e n t a n e u m
e st h u i u s m o d i o r a c u l a c e t e r a q u e q u a e a d d i v i n a t i o n e m p e r t i n e n t c o m p r o b a r e . . ."
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2 4 C H A P T E R T W O
" t r u e " e x p l a n a t i o n .1 4
S o l o n g a s a n y e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e a t o m i c
t h e o r y f i t t e d , t h e n t h e u n i v e r s e w a s m a d e s a f e f o r E p i c u r e a n e t h i c s .
L i k e w i s e t h e S t o i c c o s m o l o g y j u s t if i e d S t o i c e t h i c s . T o li ve a c c o r d i n g
t o n a t u r e w a s t o l iv e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r a t i o n a l w il l o f t h e w o r l d - s o u l ,
a n d t o s u b m i t t o t h e d e c r e e o f t h a t r a t i o n a l w i ll w a s to a c t r a t i o n a l l y
a n d t h e r e f o r e f re e ly .
B u t w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e a p o l i t i c a l a n d e v e n c o n s t i t u
t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n t o S t o i c e t h i c s i n t h i s r e s p e c t . D i v i n a t i o n b e c a m e
t h e w a y o f r e a d i n g t h e w i l l o f t h e w o r l d s o u l , w h e t h e r i n t h e s t a r s
o r o n t h e l i n i n g o f a s h e e p ' s s t o m a c h , a n d h o w t h e f u t u re a c c o r d i n g
t o w h a t w a s r e a d t h e r e w o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e o p e r a t i o n o f
r i g h t r e a s o n . I n d e e d p o l it i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , i n a n y a g e , a s t h e e t h i c a l
j u s t if i c a ti o n o f f o r m s o f h u m a n g o v e r n m e n t , h a s n o t u n f a i rl y b e e n
r e g a r d e d a s a b r a n c h o f e t h i c s . I n m o d e r n t i m e s t h e f a c t -v a l u e d i s
t i n c t i o n i n e t h i c s h a s l e a d t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e
a s t h e c li n ic a l s t u d y o f t h e m a c h i n e r y o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d p o l i ti c a l
p h i l o s o p h y a s t h e j u s t if i c a ti o n o f t h e f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t b y w h i c h
h u m a n b e i n g s " o u g h t t o b e g o v e r n e d , " g iv e n a n y n u m b e r o f r a d i
c a ll y d i ff e re n t, p o ss i b le g o v e r n m e n t a l m a c h i n e s .
T h u s w i t h S t o i c i s m a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f d i v i n a t i o n a s a f e a t u r e o f
a p o l it ic a l c o n s t i t u t i o n w e f in d c o s m o l o g y e m p l o y e d a s a m e a n s o f
e x p l a i n i n g h o w p e o p l e o u g h t t o l iv e , n o t s i m p l y a s i n d i v i d u a l s b u t
a s a s o c ie t y . R o m a n m a g i s t r a t e s n e e d e d t h e r e s o u r c e s o f d i v i n a t i o n
i n o r d e r t o p e r c e i v e t h e d i v i n e , r a t i o n a l o r d e r o f t h e w o r l d a n d t o
d e d u c e t h e f u t u r e f r o m i ts p r e s e n t r a t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n s (pronoia). T h e y
n e e d t h i s , n o t s i m p l y s o t h a t t h e y a s i n d i v i d u a l s c a n " l iv e a c c o r d i n g
t o n a t u r e , " b u t so t h a t t h e y c a n a li g n s o c i e t y w i t h n a t u r e ' s i n e x
o r a b l y r a t i o n a l w i l l, a n d s o t h a t s o c ie t y c a n fr e el y a n d r a t i o n a l l y
a c c e p t w h a t is i ts d e s t i n y t o b e a n d t o a c h i e v e .
2 A 3 . Augury and d ivination: Imperial Cult as sacrament
I n t h i s r e s p e c t S t o i c i s m of f er e d a k i n d o f s a c r a m e n t a l t h e o l o g y w h e n
a p p l i e d t o d i v i n a t i o n . B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n n p o i n t e d t o t h e w a y i n
w h i c h r e l i g i o n o r d e r s s o c i a l r e a l i t y . E x p e r t s a r i s e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f u n iv e r s e s o f so c i a l r ea l i t y , w h o se so c i a l fu n c t io n is t o h a rm o n i s e
m y t h s a n d p r o d u c e a p i c t u r e of t h e n a t u r a l a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d
i n t o w h i c h h u m a n s o c ia l r e l a ti o n s , i n c l u d i n g p o l it ic a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ,
14 De Rer. Nat. 6 , 8 4 8 - 9 0 5 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E RI A L C U L T 2 5
c a n b e a n c h o r e d . T h u s th e so c ia l o r d e r is b o t h h a r m o n i s e d a n d s ta
b il is ed , a n d i m m u n i s e d a g a i n s t c h a o t i c c h a n g e a n d d i s o r d e r . H u m a n
s o c ie t ie s t h u s a p p e a r t o b e c o m e a s u n c h a n g e a b l e a n d g i v e n a s t h e
n a t u r a l o r s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r in a p r o c e s s t h a t is o b v i o u s l y a n i ll u
s i o n . 1 5 W e ca n s ee t h e so c i a l fu n c t io n o f co l l eg es o f au g u rs in s u c h
a l i g h t .1 6
B u t s u c h u n i v e r s e s o f d i s c o u r s e , p r o d u c e d b y s u c h e x p e r t s , d o n o t
c o m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e s u d d e n l y a n d p e r f e c d y , b u t h a v e t h e i r o w n h i s t o r y
o f d e v e l o p m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o a S t o i c u n i v e r s e o f d i s c o u r s e , d i v i n a t i o n
s o u g h t t o i n c a r n a t e t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r i n t o p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l p l a n s
a n d p r o p o s a l s i n o r d e r t o g i ve t h e m v a l u e a n d e n a b l e t h e m t o r ef le c t
t h e d i v i n e p u r p o s e (pronoia). T h e a u g u r s , w h o r e a d t h e f u tu r e a n d
th e d iv in e wi l l i n su c h ev e n t s a s t h e flig ht o f b i r d s an d th e co u r se
o f t h u n d e r s t o r m s , w e r e a d i s t in c t c o l le g e i n C i c e r o ' s t i m e . T h e harus-
pices, w h o c o n s u l t e d t h e e n t r a i l s o f v i c t i m s , o n l y b e c a m e a c o l l e g e in
th e tim e o f C lau d i u s a n d co n t r ib u t ed fu r th e r t o su ch a p ro j e c t l i cen sed
b y S t o i c i s m .1 7
A t th e c lo se o f t h e d i a lo g u e , i n t h e co u rs e o f t h e first
c e n t u r y b e f o r e C h r i s t , C i c e r o c o n c e d e d g r u d g i n g l y h i s b e l i e f t h a t
B a l b u s ' S t o ic i sm " s e e m e d to b e m o r e a p p r o x i m a t e d t o t h e a p p e a r
a n c e o f t h e t r u t h . "1 8
T h e r e w e r e c l e a rl y a s y e t still p o w e r f u l E p i c u r e a n
a n d A c a d e m i c a l te r n a t i v e s t h a t w o u l d d e n y l e g i t i m a t i o n to s u c h
p o l i ti c o - c u l ti c a c t s a s d i v i n a t i o n , a n d s o d e p r i v e t h e o r d e r o f R o m a n
s o c ie t y o f s u c h a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d t o t a li s i n g l e g i t i m a t i o n .
N o r i n d e e d w a s y e t t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e E m p e r o r p a r t o f t h e s a c r a
m e n t a l b o n d w h i c h r e i n f o r c e d a n d r e n e w e d r i g h t r e a s o n ( o p G o q Xoyoq)
a n d l aw (vouxx;), a n d m a d e th e c i t i zen su b jec t t o t h e n eces s i t y o f
t h e r a t i o n a l pronoia o f F a t e . W e s h a ll o b s e r v e a t e n d e n c y , b e g u n b y
A u g u s t u s , t o c o n n e c t th e s a c r a m e n t a l p o l it ic a l a c t s o f d i v i n a t i o n w i t h
t h e E m p e r o r t h r o u g h r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e c o ll eg e o f a u g u r s a n d
1 5
P . B e r g e r a n d T . L u c k m a n n , The Social Construction of Reality, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n
1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 3 f f . , a n d P . B e r g e r , The Social Reality of Religion, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n
1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 3 0 - 3 5 ff.1 6
J . B a y e t , Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine, (P a r is : P a y o t 1 9 5 7 ) ,
p p . 5 8 - 5 9 : " L e s h a r u s p i c e s i n t e r p r e t a i e n t d ' a p r e s l ' e t a t d u f l u x s a n g u i n , l a c o u l e u r ,
l a c o n fo r m a t i o n d e t e l l e o u t e l l e p a r t i e d u fo i e (pars familiaris, ' d e c h e z n o u s ' ; pars
hostilis, ' d u d e h o r s ' ; o u n e u t r e ) . L e s exta p o u v a i e n t a i n s i d o n n e r d e s i n d i c a t i o n s s u r
l ' o r dr e , l e d e s o r d r e , l e c h a o s d e l 'u n i v e r s e . M a i s il s p o u v a i e n t , p o u r l ' i m m e d i a t , c o n -
s e il le r o u d e c o n s e i l l e r u n e a c t i o n . "1 7
L i e b e s c h u e t z ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 2 2 .18 De Nat. Deor. 3 , 9 5 : " . . . m i h i B a l b i a d v e r i ta t i s s i m i l i t u d i n e m v i d e r e tu r e s s e
p r o p e n s i o r . "
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2 6 C H A P T E R T W O
p o n t i f f s o v e r w h i c h h e w a s t o p r e s i d e a s Ponttfex Maximus. Bu t i t was
to t ak e t h r ee an d fo u r cen tu r i e s u n t i l D ec iu s T ra j a n , a n d f in a lly Ju l i a n ,
fo r t h e cu l t t o b e fo cu sed o n a s in g l e s ace rd o ta l ac t i n wh ich a l l c i t
i z e n s m u s t l e g a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e . I t w a s o n l y t h e n t h a t f i n a l l y a n d u n
a m b i g u o u s l y t h is c e n t r a l a c t o f w o r s h i p b o t h s y m b o l i s e d i m p e r i a l
u n i t y a n d e ff ec te d w h a t it s y m b o l i s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d w h i c h
R o m e r u l e d .
B u t i n i ti a l ly m o s t o f t h e i n g r e d i e n t s t h a t w e r e t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e
l a t e r , fu ll y - fl ed g ed c u l tu s w er e t h e r e . W e ca n s ee r e f l ec t i o n s o f t h e
s a c r a m e n t a l i t y o f t h e a c t s o f h i m w h o e x e r c i s e d t h e ius augurium, a n d
wh a t was b e l i ev ed to b e a t s t ak e i n t h o se ac t s , r e f l ec t ed i n t h e h i s
t o r i o g r a p h y o f t w o w r i t e r s w h o d e s c r i b e d h i s t o r ic a l e v e n t s i n t h e
R e p u b l i c a n d la t e R e p u b l i c a t t h e t i m e of t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e
P r i n c i p a t e o r s h o r d y a f t e r w a r d s .
2 A 4 . Livy and Lucan: Augury as political sacrament
T i t u s L i v iu s ( 59 B . C . - 1 7 A . D . ) , b o r n i n t h e y e a r o f J u l i u s C a e s a r ' sf i r s t c o n s u l s h i p , c o m m e n c e d w r i t i n g h i s h i s t o r y i n 2 7 B . C . , f i v e y e a r s
a f t e r O c t a v i a n ' s v i c t o r y a t A c t i u m ( 3 1 B . C . ) . I n Ab Urbe Condita 4 , 2 0 , 7
h e r e c o r d s a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h A u g u s t u s in w h i c h t h e l a t t e r h a d
r e c a l l e d a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n a l i n e n b r e a s t p l a t e t h a t h e h a d r e a d i n
t h e t e m p l e o f J u p i t e r F e r e t r i u s . H e r e " A u g u s t u s C a e s a r " is d e s c r i b e d
a s " t h e f o u n d e r o r r e s t o r e r o f a ll t h e t e m p l e s (templorum omnium con-
ditorem aut restitutorem )"19
L i v y , li ke L u c a n , a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d r e p u b l i c a n s y m p a t h i e s t h a t
w e r e s h o w n i n t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e s a l m o s t l o v i n g l y t h e
o l d r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s . N o d o u b t h e b e l i e v e d i n A u g u s t u s '
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s a c t s , n o t a s r e v o l u t i o n a r y , b u t a s res publicae resti-
tutae. T h u s L iv y w a s n e v e r p a r t y t o a n y p o l it ic a l m o v e m e n t t o r e s t o r e
th o se fo rm s . I t m ay b e t h a t h e was s a t i s f i ed b y th e way in wh ich
A u g u s t u s n o t o r i o u s l y c l o a k e d h i s m i l i t a r y a u t o c r a c y b y u s i n g s u c hr e p u b l i c a n t i d e s a s princeps (senatus), o r h is p r e r o g a t i v e s i n t e r m s o f
t h e r e p u b l i c a n imperium proconsular, o r tribunicia potestas. B u t o n e w o n
d e r s w h e t h e r a m a n o f h is i n t e ll i g e n c e c o u l d e v e r h a v e b e e n p e r
s u a d e d b y t h e k i n d o f p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i s t w h o a s s u r e s u s t h a t h e h a s
a b o l i s h e d n e i t h e r t h e o ffic e o f M o n a r c h , P r i m e M i n i s t e r , n o r L e a d e r
o f t h e O p p o s i t i o n , s in ce h e ca r r i e s a ll t h re e of fices i n h i s o n e p e r so n .
1 9
L i v y 4 , 2 0 , 7 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P ER I A L C U L T 2 7
T h e r e m u s t , o n e fe els , h a v e b e e n s o m e t h i n g m o r e , w h i c h c o n
v i n c e d h i m t h a t t h e p a s t a g e , b y s o m e f at ef ul n e c e s s i t y , h a d g o n e
f o r e v e r . T h a t c o n v i c t i o n I a m g o i n g t o s u g g e s t w a s a r e l i g io u s c o n
v i c t i o n a b o u t t h e n e e d f o r t h e pax deorum i n a so c i e ty wh ich h ad lo s t
it. T h e e m p e r o r A u g u s t u s , a s Pontifex Maximus, c o n t r o l l i n g t h e ius
augurium, a l o n e c o u l d r e s t o r e t h a t p e a c e a n d s ta b i l it y . I t w a s i n d e e d
a f a t e f u l n e c e s s i t y t h a t L i v y , t h o u g h n o t L u c a n , m i g h t h a v e c o n s i d
e r e d t o h a v e e x i s t e d n o t i n r e a l i t y b u t o n l y i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e
su p e r s t i t i o u s m a sse s . B u t i t w as a so c i a l r ea l i t y t h a t L iv y fo u n d i r r e
s is ti ble a n d u n a b l e t o b e c o u n t e r e d .
A s i m i l a r t h e m e w e sh a l l t r a c e a l so i n t h e c a s e o f M a r c u s A n n a e u s
L u c a n u s ( 3 9 - 6 5 A . D . ) , w h o w a s i n v o l v e d i n f a il ed c o n s p i r a c y t o t a k e
N e r o ' s l i f e ,2 0
i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h i c h h e c o m m i t t e d s ui c id e a l o n g
w i t h h i s c o - c o n s p i r a t o r s , h i s u n c l e s S e n e c a a n d G a l l i o . W e s h a ll s e e
i n h i s c a s e p a r t i c u l a r S t o i c d o c t r i n e s u n d e r p i n n i n g h i s b e l ie f i n t h e
n e e d f o r a c u l t o f a u g u r y t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum w h i c h w a s a l s o
l i n k e d w i t h a s i n g l e dominus. L u c a n h i m s e l f h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d
b o t h quaestor a n d augur. S i n c e L u c a n c o n s p i r e d t o r e p l a c e N e r o w i t h
a n o t h e r princeps, h i s a i m w a s n o t t o r e s t o r e t h e r e p u b l i c . I n h i s c a s e
t o o , t h e r e f o r e , w e w it n e ss t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s o m e o n e h o s ti le t o a n
e m p e r o r , a n d i n d e e d h o st il e t o t h e m e m o r y o f J u l i u s C a e s a r , n e v e r
t h e le s s a c c e p t i n g t h e e n d o f r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t as s u c h . H e r e
t o o w e s h a l l a r g u e t h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s t h e m e a n s o f a c h i e v
i n g t h e pax deorum, w a s c r i t i c a l i n L u c a n ' s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , a n d w a s
s e e n a s a re a l i t y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s a n d n o t s i m
p l y a s a p u r e l y s o c i a l p r o d u c t .
W e s h a ll s e e h o w e v e r t h a t b o t h w o r k s a r e p r o b l e m a t i c i n v i e w o f
t h e f a c t t h a t w e c a n n o t b e s u r e h o w t h e y e n d e d . T h e t e n t h b o o k
o f L u c a n ' s Pharsalia was l e f t u n f in i sh ed , an d th e c lo s in g b o o k s (4 6 -1 4 2 )
o f L iv y ' s Ab Urbe Condita h a v e a ls o b e e n l o st , t h o u g h w e d o h a v e
f r a g m e n t s t h a t s u r v i v e . B o o k 4 5 e n d s a b r u p t l y i n 1 6 7 B . C . T h e
r e m a i n i n g lo st b o o k s , u s e d b y D i o C a s s i u s as h is p r i n c i p l e s o u r c e ,
c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e P r i n c i p a t e o f A u g u s t u s a n d th e d e a t h o f D r u s u s
i n 9 B . C . W e w i ll n e e d t h e r e f o r e t o t r y t o r e c o n s t r u c t h o w L i v y
w o u l d h a v e c o m p l e t e d h i s b a s i c t h e m e s f r o m t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e
b e g a n t h e m .
W e s h a ll b e g i n w i t h t w o p a s s a g e s w h i c h e x e m p l i f y f ro m t h e e a r l i e r
M a r t i a l , Epigr. 7 , 2 1 a n d 2 3 ; S ta t i u s Silvae V I I , 3 1 - 3 2 .
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2 8 C H A P T E R T W O
b o o k s o f L i v y h o w i n f ac t h e w o u l d h a v e r e g a r d e d A u g u s t u s in t h e
l a t e r b o o k s h a d t h e y s u r v i v e d . W e s h a ll t h e n e x a m i n e t h e s pe c if ic
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a u g u r y a n d t h e pax deorum a n d t h e p e r c e i v e d
p o p u l a r w e i g h t t h a t t h is h a d i n t h e la t e R e p u b l i c , a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n
L i v y , s u p p o r t e d a s w e s h a ll s e e b y S u e t o n i u s a n d C a s s i u s D i o .
2 A 4 . 1 . Livy, augury and the p a x d e o r u m
O n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s L i v y m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t a m a g i s t r a t e is r e s p o n
s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e c u l t u s f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e pax deorum. T h e pax r e q u i r e d
m i g h t b e u p o n m a n - m a d e d i s a s te r s s u c h a s w a r o r c iv il w a r , b u t it
m i g h t a l so b e u p o n t h e d e s t r u c t i v e c h a o s o f n a t u r e itself. I n 4 6 4 - 4 6 3
B . C . L i v y r e c o r d e d t h e r a v a g e s o f d i s e a s e i n R o m e t h a t f o ll o w e d
d e f e a t in b a t t l e a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e A e q u i a n d o t h e r l os se s ( 3 ,7 , 6 ).
T h e d i s e a s e a l s o w a s a c a s e o f d i v i n e d i s p l e a s u r e , o f t h e deum ira 21
T h e S e n a t e o r d e r s i n d i v i d u a l p r a y e r s ( 3 ,7 ,7 ) . T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e
d i s eas e p as ses is d e sc r ib ed a s fo l lo ws :
. . . l i tde by l i t tle, ei the r bec aus e th e p ea ce of the g ods h ad be en ob tained by request (pace deum impetrata) or because the more difficult
t ime of yea r had passed, bodies dea de ne d by diseases beg an to recover
the i r hea l th .2 2
I t is a t first s i g h t cu r io u s t h a t L iv y is s cep t i ca l ab o u t t h e o b t a in in g
t h e pax deum impetrata b y i n d i v i d u a l p r i v a t e p r a y e r , i n p l a c e o f t h e
deum ira m a r k e d b y t h e p l a g u e . L i v y i n t r o d u c e s h e r e a s m a l l n o t e o f
s c e p t i c i s m s in c e h e a d m i t s a p u r e l y n a t u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e . B u t L i v y ' sp e r s o n a l s c e p t i c i s m o n th i s a n d o t h e r o c c a s i o n s s h o u l d n o t b l i n d u s
t o t h e f a c t t h a t h e d e s c r i b e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e g e n e r a l p o p u
l a t i o n o f w h a t h e p e r s o n a l l y finds s u p e r s t i t i o u s .2 3
G e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e pax deorum is o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e s p ec if ic
in s t ru m en t o f o ff ic ia l cu l t b y m e a n s o f a pontifex e x e r c i s i n g t h e iu s
2 1
3 , 6 , 5 : ". . . u r b e m R o m a m s u b i ta d e u m i ra m o r b o p o p u l a r i . "2 2
3 , 8 , 1 : " i n d e p a u l a t i m s e u p a c e d e u m i m p e t r a t a s e u g r a v i o r e t e m p o r e a n n i i a m
c i r c u m a c t o d e f u n c t a m o r b i s c o r p o r a s a l u b r i o r a e s s e i n c i p e r e . "2 3
1 , 3 1 , 6 - 8 : T u l l u s " w h o p r e v i o u s l y h a d t h o u g h t i t l e s s f o r k i n g s t o d e v o t e t h e i r
m i n d s to s a c r e d r i t e s (sacris dedere animum), s u d d e n l y b e c a m e s u b j e c t t o a l l k i n d s o f
g r e a t a n d d e p r a v e d s u p e r s t i t i o n s (magnis parvisque superstitionibus), and f i l l ed the p o p
u l a c e w i t h r e l i g i o u s s c r u p l e s (religionibus)." A t t h e e n d o f t h e P u n i c W a r , i n 2 0 4 B . C .
w e r e a d , 2 9 , 1 4 , 2 : " t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d f il le d m i n d s w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o u s f e a r s (supersti-
tionum), a n d t h e y w e r e i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e p o r t e n t s (ad credenda prodigia)." Cf. also 1
p r . 7 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f L i v y ' a a p p r o a c h t o r e l i g i o n a n d f o r b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e P . G .W a l s h , Livy: His Historical Aims and Method s, 2 n d E d . (B r i s to l : C l a s s i c a l P r e s s 1 9 8 9 ) ,
c h a p t . 3 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 2 9
augurium. T h e pax deorum is n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o ff ic ia l a u g u r y
a n d n o t p r i v a t e p r a y e r .2 4
I n 2 0 8 B . C . , i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e l e v e n t h
y e a r o f t h e F ir s t P u n i c W a r , t h e c o n s u l s w e r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h " a
n u m b e r o f r e p o r t e d p o r t e n ts (prodigiis aliquot nuntiatisf f o r w h i c h " t h e y
d i d n o t s u c c e e d i n a n y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x p i a t i o n (non facile litabant)."
(2 7 ,2 3 ,1 )
T h e T e m p l e s o f F o r t u n a a n d M a r s a t C a p u a h a d , a l o n g w i th
m a n y t o m b s , b e e n s tr u c k b y l i g h te n i n g , a n d m i c e h a d g n a w e d t h e
g o l d i n J u p i t e r ' s t e m p l e a t C u m a e . A s w a r m o f b e e s h a d s e tt le d a t
C a s i n u m ' s f o r u m , a t C a e r e a v u l t u r e h a d f low n i n t o t h e t e m p l e o f
J u p i t e r , a n d V o l s i n i i' s l a k e w a s s t a i n e d w i t h b l o o d ( 2 7 , 2 3 , 2 - 4 ) . E a c h
o f s u c h o m e n s w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e n a t u r a l s i g n s i n t e r m s o f
w h i c h a u g u r s r e a d t h e f u t u r e . Y e t i t w a s c l e a r l y t h e d u t y o f t h e c o n
su ls t o o b t a in i n t h e f ace o f t h e se o m e n s t h e pax deorum m a r k e d b y
t h e i r r e v e r s a l :
On account of these prodigies (horum prodigiorum causa) for one whole
d ay (diem unum) suppl icat ion was made (supplicatio juit). For several days(per dies aliquot) full-grown victims were slaughtered but without suc
cessful expiation (hostiae maiores sine litatione caesae), with the invited peace
of the gods asked for so long but not secured (diuque non impetrata pax
deum). On the heads of the consuls (in capita consulum) terrible conse
que nces revolved even thoug h the republ ic it self was un ha rm ed (re pub
lico incolumi exitiabilis prodigiorum eventus vertit).
27 ,23 ,4
I t w as t h u s o f p o l i t i ca l a s we l l a s o f cu l t i c im p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e v is
ib le pax deorum w a s s e c u r e d in r e s p o n s e t o w h a t a u g u r y h a d first
e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e c o n s u l s w e r e c l e a r l y a s r e s p o n s i b l e in 2 0 8 B . C . f or
o b t a i n i n g t h e pax deorum a s S u l p i c i u s S e v e r u s , t h e m i l i t a r y t r i b u n e
h a d b e e n in 3 8 9 B . C . w h e n th e F a b i i w e r e m a s s a c r e d a t C r e m a r a
a n d th e r o u t a t A l i a o c c u r r e d . R o m e w a s d e s t r o y e d b e c a u s e " o n t h e
d a y a f t e r t h e I d e s o f J u l y (postridie Idus Quintiles) h e h a d n o t m a d e
a n a c c e p t a b l e s a c r i f i c e (non litasset)" a n d t w o d a y s l a t e r h a d e x p o s e d
t h e a r m y t o t h e e n e m y " w i t h o u t s e c u r i n g t h e p e a c e o f t h e g o d s (neque
inventa pace deum)." (6 ,1 ,12)
I t is im p o r t a n t , i n v i ew o f t h e l a t e r s ig n i f i can ce o f a u g u ry fo r t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t , t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a u g u r y per se w a s n o t a c c e p t e d b u t
o n l y t h a t w h i c h c o n f o r m e d t o R o m a n t r a d i t i o n . I n 4 3 0 B . C . , i n
2 4
W a r d e F o w l e r ( 1 9 1 1 ) , pp . 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ff.; B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 5 9 - 6 0 ; L i e b e s c h u e t z
( 1 9 7 9 ) , pp. 5 6 - 6 5 .
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3 0 C H A P T E R T W O
r e s p o n s e t o a p l a g u e t h a t h a d b r o k e n o u t i n s u c c e s s i o n t o a d r o u g h t ,
s t r a n g e s a cr if ic i al r it e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o h o m e s i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e
t h e pax deorum. T h e r e w a s s e e n " i n e v e r y s t r e e t a n d s h r i n e (in omnibus
vicis sacellisque) f o r ei g n a n d u n c u s t o m a r y r it e s o f p r o p i t i a t i o n (peregrina
atque insolita piacula) f o r s e e k i n g t h e p e a c e o f t h e g o d s (pacis deum
exposcendae)." ( 4 , 3 0 , 1 0 ) A c c o r d i n g l y t h e aediles w e r e to s ee " t h a t n o n e
b u t R o m a n g o d s (non nisi Romani di) s h o u l d b e w o r s h i p p e d , n o r i n
a n y o t h e r w a y t h a n t h e a n c e s t r a l (neu quo alio more quam patrio cole-
rentur)." (4 ,3 0 ,1 1 )
W e find f u r t h e r m o r e t hi s p r i n c i p l e a g a i n e m p h a s i s e d in t h e c o u r s e
o f t h e w a r a g a i n s t H a n n i b a l ( 2 1 3 B . C . ) . H e r e i t w a s n o t s i m p l y a
case o f sacr i f ices mo re patrio per se b u t i n d e e d a c a s e o f p r o p h e c y a n d
r i t u a l s u c h a s m i g h t b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a u g u r y . T h e r e w a s a " c r o w d
o f w o m e n w h o w e r e f ai li n g t o f o ll ow t h e c u s t o m s o f t h e f a t h e r s i n
the i r sacr i f ices (nec sacrificantum. . . deos patrio more)." (2 5 ,1 ,7 ) I t was
p r o p h e t s (vates) as we l l a s p e t ty p r i e s t s (sacrificuli) w h o w e r e i n v o l v e d
(2 5 ,1 ,8 ) , so t h a t t h e augur's a r t w a s c l e a r l y i n v i e w . T h e r e l i g i o u s
m o v e m e n t w a s p u t d o w n v i o le n d y b y t h e p r a e t o r M a r c u s A e m i l i us
( 2 5 , 1 , 1 1 ) . H i s e d i c t s t a t e d :
. . . wh oev er has pro phe t ic books or p raye rs (quicunque libros vaticinos pre-
cationesve) or a written ritual for sacrifice (aut artem sacrificandi conscriptam
haberet), he should bring all those books and let ters to him (eos libros
omnis litterasque ad se) befo re 1st A pril (ante kal Apriles defend), in o rder
that no one in a public or sacred place (neu quis in publico sacrove loco)
should sacrifice by means of a new or foreign rite (novo aut externo ritusacrificaret).
25,1 ,12
C l e a r l y t h e r e f o r e t h e d i v i n a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e (vates), a n d t h e r i t u a l
i n t e n d e d t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum a g a i n s t p r o p h e c i e s o f t h e i r ira, w e r e
b o t h u n d e r t h e p o l it i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e m a g i s t r a t e s , w h o a ls o w e r e
t o m a i n t a i n s tr ic tl y t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n c h a r a c t e r .
T h u s L i v y d e s c r i b e s , a l b e i t w i t h s c e p t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e g r o u n d s
fo r b e l i ev in g th e superstitio, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c u l t a i m e d
a t a v e r t i n g t h e ira a n d p r o d u c i n g t h e pax deorum impetrata, a n d t h e
p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i ty o f m a g i s t r a t e s .2 5
T h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s m o r e -
2 3
A d m i t t e d l y h e r e s e r v e s T a c i t u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a s prava religio
f o r t h e B a c c h a l i a n c u l t t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e r i o t ( 2 9 , 1 6 , 6 ) f r o m w h i c h t h e s t a t e r e l i g i o n h a d d e l i v e r e d t h e m a s s e s ( 2 9 , 1 6 , 7 ) . B u t i n 1 , 3 1 , 8 t h e t r a d i t i o n (tradunt) is
r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e " s a c r i f i c e w a s b e g u n a n d c o n d u c t e d i m p r o p e r l y (non rite initum aut
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P ER I A L C U L T 31
over specif ical ly pont i f ical in that i t extends to the minut iae of sacri f ices
t h a t m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d more patrio. A s t h e e x a m p l e o f A e m i l iu s s h o w s ,
s u c h s a c r i f i c i a l p r a c t i c e s i m p l i e d t h e k n o w l e d g e a n d e v e n c o n t r o l o f
t h e f u t u r e . I t e x t e n d s m o r e o v e r f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l t o t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r
i n t h a t t h e p o p u l a r m i n d a s s o c i a t e d n a t u r a l d is a s t e rs w i t h p o l i ti c a l
e v e n t s , d e s p i t e L i v y 's p e r s o n a l s c e p t i c i s m . T h u s fa r w e c a n l e a r n
f r o m t h e full p o r t i o n o f L i v y ' s w o r k t h a t s u r v i v e s d o w n t o 1 67 B . C .
w h e re it b r ea k s off.
B u t c a n w e g l e a n a n y f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t f o r o u r i n q u i r y
f ro m th e f r ag m en t s o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f h i s w o r k th a t h a s n o t su rv iv ed ?
L u c a n , a s w e s h a ll s h o r d y s e e , d e s p i t e L i v y ' s p e r s o n a l s c e p t i c i s m ,
a g r e e s w i t h h i m t h a t p r o d i g i e s a n d o t h e r s ig n s o f t h e ira deorum
i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e civ il w a r f r o m t h e
d e a t h o f C a e s a r o n w a r d s . F o r L u c a n t h e e x i s t in g c u l t w a s g e n e r a l l y
r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g u n a b l e , w i t h o u t r e f o r m a t i o n , t o a c h i e v e t h e pax
deorum. Did L iv y ' s o r ig in a l t ex t t h e re fo re co n ta in ev id en ce t h a t Au g u s tu s ,
a s Pontifex Maximus a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e c u lt o f a u g u r y , w a s
p o p u l a r l y s e e n t o b r i n g t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l i g i o u s p r o b
l e m o f a c h i e v i n g t h e pax deorum, i n a s o c i e t y o t h e r w i s e u n s t a b l e a n d
i n a s t a te o f i n e v i ta b l e c o ll ap s e ? T h e A u g u s t a n p r o p a g a n d a m a c h i n e
d e v e l o p e d a n d f o s te r e d t h a t p o p u l a r f e el in g i n o r d e r to p r o v i d e p o l i t
i c al l e g i t i m a t i o n f or t h e P r i n c i p a t e .
O f t h e e x i s t in g s u r v i v i n g n a r r a t i v e o f L i v y , b o o k s 1 1 - 2 0 a r e a l s o
l o st , a s w e l l a s t h e e n d i n g f r o m 1 6 7 B . C . o n w a r d s , f r o m b o o k s
4 6 - 1 4 2 . W e p o ss e ss v a r i o u s O x y r h y n c h u s f ra g m e n t s a l o n e w i t h s u m
m a r i e s f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s o f B o o k s 3 7 - 1 4 2 . T h e s e th e r e f o r e o v e r
l a p w h a t s u r vi v e s ( 3 7 - 4 5 ) a n d w h a t is l os t ( 4 6 - 1 4 2 ) , a n d w h i c h e n d
i n 9 B . C . W e a ls o h a v e th e w o r k k n o w n u n d e r t h e n a m e o f Julius
Obsequens, w h i c h is a b o o k o f p r o d i g i e s a t R o m e t h a t b e g i n s 1 9 0
B . C . a n d e n d s i n 1 1 B . C .
W e w il l t h e r e f o r e a s k t h e s p e c u l a t i v e q u e s t i o n a s t o h o w in g e n
e r a l t e r m s L i v y w o u l d h a v e e n d e d h is h i s t o r y i n 1 1 B . C . a n d w i t h
w h a t c u l ti c c o n c o m i t a n t s h e w o u l d h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e p e a c e o f
A u g u s t u s f r o m A c t i u m i n 3 1 B . C . o n w a r d s . W e c a n l o o k f irsdy a t
h o w A u g u s t u s is d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f ew r e f e r e n c e s i n B o o k s 1 a n d 4 ,
curatum id sacrificium) w i th th e r e s u l t th a t , b e c a u s e o f h i s " fa u l ty c o n d u c t o f th e r i t e "
(prava religione), J u p i t e r s t r u c k h i m w i t h a t h u n d e r b o l t . H e r e q u i t e c l e a r l y prava reli
gio r e fe r s t o i m p r o p e r as o p p o s e d t o q u i t e p r o p e r c e r e m o n i a l a c t i v i ty a n d n o t t o
b a r e r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f .
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3 2 C H A P T E R T W O
a n d h o w o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s L i v y c o u l d h a v e d e s c r i b e d h i m i n h i s
final B o o k 1 4 2 . W e c a n t r y t o g a u g e t h e c u l t i c c o n c o m i t a n t s t o
O c t a v i a n ' s v i c t o r y f r o m t h o s e a c c o m p a n y i n g o t h e r v i c t o ri e s a n d
d e f e a t s t h r o u g h o u t L i v y ' s h i s t o r y . Julius Obsequens w i l l h e l p u s h e r e ,
s i n c e o n e o f h i s s o u r c e s w a s L i v y ' s l a t e r b o o k s t h a t h a v e n o t s u r
v i v e d . W e a r e a b l e f r o m t h i s w o r k t o v i e w t h e k i n d s o f p r o d i g i e s
r e c o r d e d f r om 1 67 B . C . o n w a r d s , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e d .
W e sh a l l first s ee h o w L iv y p re f ig u r es Au g u s tu s m y s t e r io u s ly i n
h i s ea r ly ch a p t e r s , a n d h o w h e a s so c i a t e s h i s figu re w i th t h e augur's
office.
2 A 4 . 2 . Augustus' Early prefiguration: 8,6,9 and 5,23,4-11
I n 3 4 0 B . C . T o r q u a t u s t h e c o n s u l p e r s u a d e d t h e s e n a t e t o w a r w i t h
t h e L a t in s a ft er t h e d e a t h o f A n n i u s w h o h a d s p u r n e d R o m a n J u p i t e r .
In the f ie ld o f ba t t l e :
There in the st i l lness of the night both consuls are said to have been
visited by the same apparit ion (visa species) of a man of greater than
h u m an s t a tu re (viri maioris quam pro hum ano habitu) an d m o re au g u s t
(augustiorisque) w ho dec la red tha t the co m m an de r o f one side an d the
army of the other must be offered to the Manes an d M o th e r E a r th
(Deis M anibus M atrique Terrae deberi).
8 ,6 ,9 -1 0
T h e a d v i c e g i v e n b y t h i s vir augustior w a s c l e a r l y c u l ti c a n d a u g u r a l .
T h e y r e s p o n d e d w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t " v i c t i m s m u s t b e s l a i n t o
a v e r t th e w r a t h o f h e a v e n (averruncandae deum irae victimas caedi)" T h e
" e n t r a il s c o r r e s p o n d e d t o w h a t h a d b e e n s e e n i n t h e d r e a m (extis
eadem quae in somnio visa fuerant portenderentur)." ( 8 , 6 ,1 1 ) T h e p r e v i s i o n
o f A u g u s t u s a s s o c i a t e s h i m t h e r e f o r e w i t h t h e c u l t o f a u g u r y .
W e m a y n o t e s e v e r a l o t h e r s u c h p a s s a g e s t h a t p r e f i g u r e A u g u s t u s
i n t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f L i v y . H e r c u l e s is d e s c r i b e d a s formamque viri
aliquantum amp liorem augustioremqu e hum ana. T o t h e g o d t h a t b e a r s t h i s
h u m a n f o r m is m a d e t h e p r o m i s e t h a t h e s h o u l d h a v e t h e aram max-
imam d e d i c a t e d b y t h e " g r e a t e s t n a t i o n o n e a r t h . " ( 1 , 7 , 9 )2 6
L i v y w o u l d
2 6
S e e a l s o L i v y praef. 7 ; 5 , 4 1 , 8 ; 8 , 9 , 1 0 . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o A u g u s t u s is d e n i e d b o t h
i n t h e s e p a s s a g e s a n d t h o s e c i t e d i n m y t e x t b y W a l s h ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 1 5 - 1 6 s u p p o r t
i n g H . E r k e l l , Augustus, Felicitas Fortuna, ( G o t e b o r g 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 1 9 , b u t s e e L . R o s s
T a y l o r , T h e D i v i n i t y o f t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r , i n American Philological Association,Philological Monographs, 1 ( C o n n e c t i c u t 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 w h o p o i n t s o u t th a t i n
L i v y 1,7 H e r c u l e s a n d R o m u l u s in a t t a i n i n g D i v i n i t y a r e p r o t o t y p e s o f A u g u s t u s
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 3 3
h a v e s e e n t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h i s p r e f i g u r e m e n t i n t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f
t h e Ara Pacis t o A u g u s t u s (Augustae) o n h is r e t u r n f r o m S p a i n a n d
G a u l i n 9 B . C . , w h i c h w a s t h e v e r y d a t e o n w h i c h A u g u s t u s c o n
d u c t e d h i s o w n lustrum o f t h e c i ty . T h u s w e c a n s e e t h e d i a l o g u e
b e t w e e n L iv y a n d t h e Ara c o n c e p t u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h h i s p e r c e p
t io n s a n d i d e a l i z a t i o n s of A u g u s t u s a n d h i s d i v i n e p u r p o s e . I t s h o u l d
b e f u r t h e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t L iv y is q u i t e f o n d o f d i s c r e t e a l l u s i o n s
t o A u g u s t u s ' l a t e r c u l t. F o r e x a m p l e , h e c it e s t h e c a s e o f t h e i r r e v
e r e n c e o f M a r c u s F u r i u s C a m i l l u s , w h o s u b d u e d t h e V e i i i n 3 9 6
B . C . , a n d d e s c r i b e s h i m a s maximus imperator omnium. At h i s adventus
t h e c r o w d s t h r o n g e d i n u n u s u a l n u m b e r s , t h o u g h n o t q u i t e w i t h t h e
cuncta ex Italia ad comitia mea confluente multitudine t h a t m e t t o e l e c t
A u g u s t u s a s Pontifex Maximus in Res Gestae c. 10 .
F u r t h e r m o r e F u r i u s r o d e in t o t h e c it y o n a c h a r i o t d r a w n b y w h i t e
h o r s es i n i m p e r s o n a t i o n o f J u p i t e r a n d t h e S u n G o d ( A p o ll o; 5 , 2 3 , 4 - 1 1 ) .
T h e l a t t e r , a s w e s h a ll l a t e r s e e , w a s t h e d r e s s o f O c t a v i a n w h e n h e
c o m m e m o r a t e d A c t i u m i n 2 8 B . C . T h u s t hi s w a s t h e f o r m o f d r e s s
t h a t a M a r c u s F u r i u s C a m i l l u s c o u l d o n l y h a v e w o r n w i t h i r r e v e r
e n c e , b u t w h i c h t h e A u g u s t u s of s u p e r h u m a n p r o p o r t i o n s (visa species
viri maioris quam pro humano habitu augustiorisque) c o u l d n o w w e a r a s
b e f i t t i n g h i s s t a t u s n e a r i n g d i v i n i t y ( 8 , 6 , 1 2 ) .2 7
2 A 4 . 2 . 1 . Aug ustus: 1,19,1-3, 28,2,2 and the lost ending
W e c a n s e e m o r e o v e r a c l e a r p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e l e g e n d a r y r o le o f
N u m a a n d t h e h i s to r i c a l r o l e o f A u g u s t u s , i n r e l a t i o n t o a u g u r y a n dt h e pax deorum.
N u m a i s p r o p o s e d a s k i n g ( 7 1 6 B . C . ) . H e i n si st s t h a t t h e g o d s b e
co n su l t ed a s fo l l o ws :
Be in g su m m o n ed , h e co m m an d ed th a t j u s t as Ro m u lu s h ad o b ey ed
the augural omens in founding his ci ty (augurato urbe condenda) and assum
ing regal power (regnum adeptus est), so too in his own case the gods
should be consul ted . Accordingly an augur, who thereafter , as a mark
j u s t a s i n H o r a c e Odes 111 ,14 ,1 ; I V , 5 , 3 5 ; Ep. 1 1 , 1 , 5 . B o th a r e c a l l e d augustus, a n d
" i n s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s i n th e e a r l y b o o k s L i v y u s e s th e w o r d augustus i n c o n tr a s t t o
humanus i n w h a t w o u l d s e e m t o b e a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o c a l l t o m i n d t h e e m p e r o r ' s
p o s i t i o n . " S e e a l s o L . R o s s T a y l o r , L iv y a n d t h e N a m e A u g u s t u s , i n ClassRev 3 2
( 1 9 1 8 ) , p p . 1 5 8 - 1 6 1 .2 7
B . O . F o s t e r i n t h e L o e b e d i t i o n r e m a r k s t h a t h e w a s p r o b a b l y m i s t a k e n a b o u t
p o p u l a r r e s e n t m e n t s i n c e t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f J u p i t e r i n d r e s s a n d c h a r i o t w a s c u s
t o m a r y . B u t th i s m i s s e s th e p o i n t t h a t L i v y is m a k i n g r e g a r d i n g A u g u s t u s a n d h i s
s u c c e s s o r s b y p r e t e n d i n g t h a t F u r i u s ' b e h a v i o u r w a s s o u n u s u a l .
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34 C H A P T E R TWO
of honour, was made a priest of state in permanent charge of that
function (publicum id perpetuumque sacerdotiumJiiit), conducted him to the
citadel. . .
1,18,6
T h e augur took his lituus, the crooked staff, marking out the right
and left sides of the hea vens , and po in te d to wh ere the gods should
send signs, which accordingly they did (1,18, 7-10). Livy therefore
co nne ct ed special acts of au gu ry with N um a ' s second foundin g of
R o me after Romu lus. Thi s fact on its own might not appea r significant,
but Livy then immediately associates the event with Augustus' estab
lish ment of the pr inc ipa te:
When he was thus empowered with kingship (qui regno ita potitus), he
prepared to found the new city afresh (urbem novam . . . de integro condere
parat), that had been founded on force and armed might (conditam vi
et armis), upon law, and statutes, and morals (iure earn legibusque ac moribus)
. . . He thought it necessary that his warlike people should be softened
by the disuse of arms, and built the temple of Jan us at the bot tom of
the Argilentum, as an index of peace and war . . . Twice since Numa 'sreign it has been closed: once in the consulship of Titus Manlius, after
the conclusion of the First Punic War; the second time, which the
gods permitted our own generation to witness, was after the battle of
Actium, when the emperor Caesar Augustus had brought about peace
on land and sea . . .
1,19,1-3
T h u s the re is a parallelism bet wee n Nu m a an d Augus tus, wh o also
sought to replace power based vi et armis with an authority that was
founded iure earn legibusque ac moribus. Furthermore, the inaugurat ion
of peace was associated with the Te mpl e of J a nu s . Wo ul d not Livy's
lost ending have exploited further this parallel?
Augustus himself gives direct confirmation that this is the case in
the Res Gestae. He records that on his return from his successes in
Spain and Gaul:
The altar of the peace of Augustus (aram PacisAugustae/pcou.6v Eipf|VT|<;
lepaoTfjq) the Senate, in thanks for my return (pro reditu meo/bnzp xr\c,
E \ I T \ < ; inavobov) ordered to be consecrated in the Campus Martius, in
which it ordered that magistrates and priests and Vestal Virgins should
make an annual sacrifice.
The temple of Ja nu s on the Quirinal, which our ancestors wished
to remain shut, when peace (pax) had been secured by victories through
out the whole Roman empire, by land and by sea, had been remembered to have been closed only twice from the foundation of the city
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 3 5
(a condita urbe) before I was born, this the Senate decreed should be
closed three t imes while I was princeps.
Res Gestae 1 2 - 1 3
T h i s p a s s a g e t h e r e f o r e c l e a r l y c o n n e c t s t h e a n n u a l s a c r i f i c e s a t t h e
Ara Pacis w i t h a u g u r y a n d t h e pax deorum, a n d al so w i t h t h e T e m p l e
o f J a n u s . T h e Res Gestae m a y o n l y s u r v i v e i n o n e o f i ts s e v e r a l r e p r o
d u c t i o n s a s t h e m o n u m e n t f ro m A n k y r a . B u t t h e o r i g i n a l o f t h a t
i n s c r i p t i o n , b y i ts o w n a d m i s s i o n , w a s o n t w o b r o n z e p i l l a r s s e t u p
a t R o m e ,2 8
p r e s u m a b l y i n r e l a t io n t o t h e m o n u m e n t a l c o m p l e x o f
Solarium a n d M a u s o l e u m o f w h i c h t h e Ara o r ig i n al ly f o r m e d p a r t .2 9
T h e r e m a i n s o f t h e Ara Pacis, d e d i c a t e d i n 9 B . C . , w e r e i d e n t i fi e d
o r i g in a l l y b y F . v o n D u h n i n 1 8 7 9 , u n d e r t h e P a l a z z o F i a n o o n t h e
wes t s i d e o f t h e V ia F l am in ia , an d acco rd in g ly r ec o n s t ru c t e d (P la t e l ) .3 0
O n t h e s o u t h e r n s i de o f t h e a l t a r A u g u s t u s a n d A g r i p p a (a t t h a t
t i m e h i s d e s i g n a t e d s u c c e s s o r ) , a r e b o t h d e p i c t e d w e a r i n g v e i l s t h a t
a r e t h e sy m b o l s o f p r i e s t l y o ff ice : p r i e s t s w o re v e i l s fo r s ac r i f i ce .
A r o u n d A u g u s t u s s t a n d t h e pontifices a n d augures, w i t h flamines i n t h e i r
h e l m e t - l i k e l e a t h e r h e a d c o v e r i n g , t h e galerus, w i t h t h e p o i n t o r apex
a t t h e t o p . T h e c u l ti c e m p h a s i s o n t h e pax deorum is q u i t e t r a n s p a r
e n t . T h e Pontifex Maximus i s A u g u s t u s himself, wh o , a s s i s t ed b y h i s
h e i r A g r i p p a , is t o p e r f o r m t h e r i t e h i m s e l f t h a t is t o s e c u r e t h a t
m e t a p h y s i c a l pax.31
I n t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis, Au g u s tu s a t f i r s t s i g h t m ay
28 Res Gest. praef.: " . . . in c i s a r u m i n d u a b u s a h e n e i s p i ll is , q u a e su n t R o m a e p o s i -
t a e , e x e m p l a r s u b i e c t u m . "2 9
E . B i a n c h i , Ara Pacis Augustae, ( R o m e : F r a te ll i P a l o m b i 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 7 - 8 . T h e
a c c u r a c y o f t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d b y N . H a n n e s t a d , i n T r a d i t i o n
i n L a t e A n t i q u e S c u l p t u r e . C o n s e r v a t i o n - M o d e r n i s a t i o n - P r o d u c t i o n , i n Acta Jutlandica
6 9 , 2 , H u m a n i t i e s S e r i e s 6 9 , (A a r h u s : U n i v e r s i t y P re s s 1 9 9 4 ) w h o a r g u e s t h a t c o n
t i n u o u s r e w o r k i n g h a s r e m o v e d a n y o r i g i n a l A u g u s t a n c o n t e n t t o t h e f r i ez e s . B u t
s e e i n re p l y A . C l a r i d g e , L a t e - a n t i q u e r e w o r k i n g o f t h e A r a P a c i s a n d o t h e r i m p e
r ia l s cu lp ture? in JRA 1 0 ( 1 9 9 7) , p p . 4 4 7 - 4 5 3 .3 0
E . P e t e r s o n , A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , i n Sonderschriften des Osterreichischen A rchaologischen
Instituts in Wien, B d I I, ( W i e n : A l f r e d H o l d e r 1 9 0 2 ) , p p . 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 ; E . L a R o c c a , Ara
Pacis Augustae in occasione del restauro delta fronte orientate, ( R o m a : " L ' E r m a " d i B r e t sc h n e i d e r
1 9 8 3 ) ; G . K o e p p e l , D i e h i s t o r i s c h e n R e l i e f s d e r r o m i s c h e n K a i s e r z e i t , V , A r a P a c i s
A u g u s t a e , i n BJb, 1 8 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p . 1 0 2 ; D . F i s h w i c k , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n t h e L a t i n
W e s t : S t u d i e s i n t h e R u l e r C u l t o f t h e W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ,
in EPRO 1 0 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) 1 , 1 , p . 9 8 d i s c u s s e s t h e p r e c i s e d a t i n g o f t h e c o m p l e t i o n a f te r
i ts o r i g i n a l " c o n s t i tu t i o n " i n 1 3 B . C . S e e a l s o ibid. p p . 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 .3 1
B i a n c h i ( 1 9 9 4 ) p p . 1 3 - 1 6 ; D . C a s t r i o t a , The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Imagery
of Abund ance in Later G reek and Early Rom an Imperial Art, ( P r i n c e t o n : U . P . 1 9 9 5 ) , p p .
1 2 4 - 1 4 4 .
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36 C H A P T E R TWO
appear to be Pontifex Maximus and augur simply priest at an altar of
an auguriumof ext rao rd ina ry dimens ion tha t produc es the golden age
over which Tellus, and Pax preside, in which the earth yields its abun
da nc e (Plate 2). It migh t be th ough t therefore t ha t aug ury, the pax
deorum, and the aetas aurea form one distinct aspect of the rel igious
significance of Augustus quite different from tha t of his dei fication
as Roman emperor. The two strands are often considered to be quite
separate. My argument here will be that nevetheless in the ideology
of the Imperial Cult both strands were in fact conflated, at least in
ma ny instances of "th e reciprocal rela tion of art-objec t an d viewer,
viewer an d art-object tha t creates a 'di alogue' out of whi ch me an
ing is born."3 2
Firsdy, as Fears pointed out,3 3
abstract qualities and virutes such
as Pax and Concordia wer e personified in the form of gods a nd god
desses. The Ara Pacis was therefore not simply the means of secur
ing pax th rough augurium bu t also the mea ns of wor shi ppi ng the
goddess Pax herself. But note the addi tio n of the adjective that points
to the divinity of the Emperor himself (Augustus/lefiacToq). The full
tide of the alt ar is the Ara Pacis Augustae or the PCOJJXX; Eipr|vr|<; lePaaxriq.
Both the sacerdotal and augurial strand is thus in process of conflation
with that which asserts the emperor's divinity. The divine essence of
Pax loses its in de pe nd en ce an d is ma de par t of the divine essence
of the Emperor whose name is Augustus.
Secondly the distinction between the priest of a cult and the divin
ity worshipped was not always strictly maintained. Augustus may
appear depicted on the Ara Pacis as a priest veiled for sacrifice. But
Tiberius was so depicted in the Temple at Smyrna erected in his
hono ur as a priest of the cult of whose worsh ip he was the object.
As Price points out, "the gods often held their own eponymous priest
hoods, an d are often shown ma ki ng sacrificial offerings," pr es um ab ly
to themselves.3 4
We must note therefore the centrality of the cult to the Augus ta n
settl ement , and to the pe rso nal role of bo th Augus tus himself a nd
his successors in the sacral acts or auguria of that cult. Pax Augusta is
an abstraction, personalised as a divinity, but related when used as
3 2 E i s n e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) p. 52, and f o o t n o t e 1 and re l a t ed t e x t .3 3
J.R. F e a r s , The C u l t of V i r t u e s , in ANRW 2 , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 8 2 7 - 9 4 8 .3 4
S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult inAsia Minor, ( C a m b r i d g e :U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 185.
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 3 7
a q u a l i f y i n g a d j e c t i v e t o t h e e m p e r o r ' s o w n d i v i n i t y . T h e r e w o u l d
t h e r e f o r e s e e m to b e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e Res Gestae, L i v y ' s c o n
c e r n s w i t h p r o d i g i e s a n d t h e c u lt i c m e a n s f or d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e
t h r o u g h augurium, a n d d e v e l o p i n g c o n c e p t s o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s o w n
d i v in i t y . T h e r e m a r k t h a t t h e t e m p l e o f J a n u s h a d o n l y b e e n c l o s e d
t w i c e a(b) condita urbe in Res Gestae 13 recal ls , af ter a l l , the t i t le of
L i v y 's o w n w o r k . F u r t h e r m o r e , it w i ll b e im p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e
a u g u r a l a n d p r i e s d y t h e m e s o f t h e Ara w i t h t h o s e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f
d i v i n i s a t i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r himself. W e d o w e l l t h e r e f o r e t o a s k
w h e t h e r s u c h a r o l e w a s n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e l o s t e n d i n g o f L i v y .
N u m a ' s a u t h o r i t y , m o r e o v e r , a s L i v y d e s c r i b e s i t, w a s c l e a r ly r e l a t e d
to the o f f ic ia l cu l t o f augury , to the publicum id perpetuumque sacerdotium.
W e m a y w e l l a s k w h e t h e r it is n o t p o s s i b l e t h a t L iv y e n d e d h i s h i s
t o r y b y d r a w i n g s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s i n t h e c a s e o f A u g u s t u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
t o h i s s e c u r i n g t h e pax deorum af te r ce n t u r ie s o f c iv il s t ri fe a n d d iv ine
p o r t e n t s . C e r t a i n l y in t h e s e c o n d r e f e r e n c e t o A u g u s t u s w e f in d
p r e f i g u r e d h i s c l a i m e d , u n i v e r s a l r e i g n o f p e a c e . R e g a r d i n g S p a i n ,
h e r eco r d s t h a t i n 2 0 6 B .C . i t w as o n ly p a r t l y co n q u e re d a n d co n t in u es :
Accordingly the f i rs t of the provinces entered by the Romans (Itaque
ergo prima Romanis inita provinciarum), at least those of the mainland (quae
quidem continentis sint), are the las t to be conquered in our own age by
the leadership an d good fortune of Aug ustus Ca esa r (postrema omnium
nostra demum aetate ductu auspicioque Augusti Caesaris perdomita est).
28,12,12
W e c a n p a r a l l e l t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e v i c t o r y i n S p a i n w i t h t h e i d e
o l o g y o f A u g u s t u s ' n a s c e n t I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e a n n u a l sa c ri fi ce s o f
t h a n k s g i v i n g a t t h e Ara Pacis w e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o Res Gestae c. 12, for
h i s r e t u r n (pro reditu/urcep xfjq eufjq £7cav68o\)) ex Hispania Galliaque. T h e
s a c e r d o t a l r a t h e r t h a n i m p e r i a l r o l e , w i t n e s s e d a s w e h a v e s e e n i n
t h e s o u t h p a n e l o f t h e Ara, w o u l d a ls o s u p p o r t th i s c o n c l u s i o n .
L i v y ' s l o s t e n d i n g c r i e s o u t f o r t h e f e a t u r e t h a t o t h e r s o u r c e s b yt h e m s e l v e s w o u l d b e su ff ic ie n t t o e s t a b l i s h . R o m a n p o l i ti c a l t h e o l o g y
c o n n e c t e d A u g u s t u s ' ius augurium with h is off ice of Pontifex Maximus,
an d a l so wi th h i s h i s to r i ca l ro l e a s ach i ev in g th e pax deorum w h e r e
o t h e r s h a d f a i l e d . B e f o r e t h e r e f o r e w e l o o k a t L i v y ' s t r e a t m e n t o f
p r o d i g i e s , l e t u s r e c o r d t w o w r i t e r s w h o c o n n e c t A u g u s t u s ' o f f i c e s p e
c if ica ll y w i th t h i s au g u ra l fu n c t io n . In b o th Su e to n iu s a n d Di o C as s iu s
w e h a v e l a t e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n if i c a n c e o f A u g u s t u s ' t it lea n d r o l e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e ius augurium.
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3 8 C H A P T E R T W O
2 A 4 . 2 . 2 . Suetonius A u g u s t u s 7
S u e t o n i u s , w r i t i n g i n t h e r e i g n o f H a d r i a n ( A . D . 1 2 0 ), c l e a r ly r e g a r d s
t h e d i v in e ti d e o f A u g u s t u s , t a k e n b y O c t a v i a n , a s c lo s el y c o n n e c t e d
w i t h h i s a u g u r a l f u n c t i o n . T h i s m a y r e fl ec t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r D o m i t i a n t h a t w e sh a ll d e s c r i b e a n d e v a l u a t e
i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r . B u t t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis h a d r e f l e c t e d
s u c h a f u n c t i o n , a s w e s h a ll a r g u e f u r t h e r ( 2 B 1). S u e t o n i u s m a y
h a v e u s e d L iv y a s a s o u r c e , a n d w e m a y t h e r e f o r e h e r e t o o c a t c h
t h e t e n o r a n d t e n d e n c y o f L i v y 's l os t e n d i n g .
S u e t o n i u s r e c o r d s t h a t O c t a v i a n t o o k C a e s a r ' s n a m e u n d e r h i s
g r e a t u n c l e ' s w i ll , a n d t h a t o f A u g u s t u s , o n t h e a d v i c e o f M u n a t i u s
P l a n c u s . R a t h e r t h a n c al l h i m s e l f R o m u l u s as f o u n d e r o f t h e c i ty ,
h e c h o s e t h e n a m e A u g u s t u s . T h e r e a s o n t h a t S u e t o n i u s g i v e s c o n
n e c t s t h a t t i d e w i t h t h e ius augurium:
He preferred to be called Augustus (Augustus potius vocaretur), not only
with a new but more s ignif icant surname (non tantum novo sed etiam
ampliore cognomine), but also because religious places which are conse
crated by an "augur ' s" r i tual (quod loca quoque religiosa et in quibus augu-
rato quid consecratur) are cal led "august" (augusta dicantur), either from the
increase or from the m ov em en t an d feeding of b i rds (ab auctu vel ab
avium gestu gustuve) jus t as Ennius informs us when he wri tes (sicut etiam
Ennius docet scribens):
Afterwards Rome had been founded by an augus t augury
(Augusto augurio postquam incluta condita Roma est).
Sueton ius , Augustus, 1
T h u s S u e t o n i u s r e g a r d e d t h e t i d e Augustus a s m e a n i n g a n d i m p l y i n g
someone assoc ia ted wi th the o f f ice o f augur a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f augurium.
W e sh a l l n o w , f r o m a d i f fe r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , s e e h o w D i o C a s s i u s
a l so m a k e s t h is c o n n e c t i o n .
2 A 4 . 2 . 3 . Dio Cassius 37,24,1 and (Epitome) 51,20,4
D i o w r o t e h i s w o r k , o f w h i c h a l a r g e p a r t s u r v i v e s o n l y i n t h e f o r m
o f an Epitome ( 5 1 - 7 7 ) , d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s a n d
e n d e d it a t h i s o w n s e c o n d c o n s u l s h i p i n 2 2 9 A . D . I t s e e m s c l e a r
t h a t u n t il t h e e n d o f t h e S e c o n d P u n i c W a r D i o h a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e
s o u r c e t o L i v y . B u t f r o m t h e n o n w a r d s , t h e r e is a c l e a r d e p e n d e n c e
o n t h e l a t t e r a s is s h o w n b y t h e o v e r l a p w i t h t h e b o o k s t h a t s u r v i v e
f or t h e p e r i o d u n t i l 1 6 7 B . C . w h e n L i v y ' s a c c o u n t b r e a k s off. D i o
ex p l i c i t y r e fe r s t o L iv y , Sa l lu s t , an d Ar i an a s h i s so u rces .3 5
6 7 , 1 2 , 4 ; 4 0 , 6 3 , 4 ; 6 9 , 5 1 , 1 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 3 9
M i l l a r h a s d e s c r i b e d D i o ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e r e i g n o f A u g u s t u s a s
" t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e a n d s a t i s f a c t o r y o n e t h a t w e h a v e . "3 6
T h e q u e s
t i o n o f D i o ' s s o u r c e s is a c o m p l e x o n e . T h e r e is a d i s p u t e r e g a r d
i n g w h e t h e r 5 3 , 1 7 - 1 9 m a r k s t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m L i v y ' s l os t e n d i n g
a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e lo s t h i s t o r y o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s , o r w h e t h e r
t o t h e c o n t r a r y t h e b r e a k w i t h L i v y c o m e s a t B o o k 5 4 . B u t s i n c e
t h e p a s s a g e s o n w h i c h I w i ll r e l y a r e b e f o r e e i t h e r p u t a t i v e p o i n t o f
d e p a r t u r e , th is d i s p u t e n e e d n o t d e t a i n u s h e r e .3 7
I n v i e w o f w h a t w e h a v e a r g u e d t o b e t h e r o l e o f t h e prodigia in
L i v y a s a n i n d e x o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f R e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
o r d e r , w e m a y b e c o n f i d e n t t h a t D i o , a t l e a s t i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f
t h e m e a n i n g o f A u g u s t u s ' n a m e , is f o ll o w i ng L i v y . S t o i c n a t u r a l t h e
o lo g y a s a t h eo lo g y o f t h e augurium is spec i f ica lly re f lec ted in b o th
a c c o u n t s . D i o d o e s n o t h o w e v e r f o l l o w S u e t o n i u s , a n o t h e r o f h i s
s o u r c e s ,3 8
i n h is d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f " A u g u s t u s . " M e n t i o n i n g
O c t a v i a n ' s d e s i r e t o b e c a l le d R o m u l u s , r e p r e s s e d i n f a v o u r o f t h is
t i d e , X i p h i l i n u s ' Epitome c l a i m s t h a t t h e t i t l e r e f e r s t o " w h a t i s m o r e
t h a n h u m a n (nkz\6\ xi r\ Kccxd dvGpcoTcoix;)," a n d to h o w p re c io u s a n d
sa c re d o b j ec t s a r e d es c r ib ed (rcdv xa y a p i d ev x iu d x ax a m i x d i ep cox axa
a u y o u a x a 7rpoaayopeuexa i ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f Sebastos
( l e p o c o x o q ) i n G r e e k , w h i c h c o m e s f r o m t h e v e r b " t o r e v e r e ( a e p d £ -
e o G a i ) . " ( 5 3 , 1 6 , 8 ) T h u s t h i s t i t l e d o e s n o t i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t a n y
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e n a m e o f " a u g u r " a s it d i d i n S u e t o n i u s .
Y e t D i o ( X i p h i l i n u s ) m a k e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n i n a n o t h e r w a y , a n d
o n e t h a t r e la t e s h i s a c c o u n t to t h e u n d e r l y i n g t h e o l o g y o f L u c a n ' s
Pharsalia, if n o t L i v y ' s . D i o r e c o r d s a s h o r t r e s p i t e f r o m w a r d u r i n g
t h e e v e n t s o f t h e F i r s t T r i u m v i r a t e i n 6 3 B . C . I t is a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t
h e r e fe r s t o t h e augurium saiutis, t h e s a c r e d r i t u a l f o r s e c u r i n g s a l v a
t i o n o r s a fe ty , f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f w h i c h t h e s e e v e n t s c a l l. H e
c l a i m s : " . . . t h e y e v e n h e l d t h e so c a l l e d augurium salutis, af te r a very
l o n g i n t e r v a l . F o r t h i s o f c o u r s e i s a k i n d o f a u g u r y . "3 9
H e e x p l a i n s
t h a t p e r m i s s i o n w a s s o u g h t w h e t h e r t h e y c o u l d a s k f or p r o s p e r i t y ,
3 6
F . M i l l a r , A Study of Cassius Dio, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 8 3 .3 7
I n f a v o u r o f t h e f o r m e r , s e e M . A . L e v i , D o p o A z i o : a p p u n t i s u l le f o n t i a u g u s -
tee: D i o n e C a s s i o , i n Athen. 1 5 (1 9 3 7 ) , p . 3 ; i n fa v o u r o f th e l a t t e r s e e F . A . M a r x ,
D i e Q u e l l e n d e r G e r m a n e n k r i e g e be i T a c i t u s u n d D i o , Klio 2 9 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 9 4 . S e e
a l s o M i l l a r ( 1 9 6 4 ) p p . 8 3 - 8 7 ff.3 8
M i l l a r ( 1 9 6 4 ) p p . 8 5 - 8 7 .3 9
3 7 , 2 4 , 1 : c oa xe m i TO oicov iouoc TO Tfjq hyeiaq cov ouo cop ivov 5 i a 7cdv\> noXkov
Tcoifjaai. TOVTO 8e 8f | uavTe(a<; Tiq xponoq E O T { .
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40 C H A P T E R TWO
and that this special augural rite would only be offered on a day in
which there was a complete military cessation (37,24,2). Thus dur
ing civil wa r it was impossible to cel ebr ate this rite. Th ei r at te mp t
nevertheless on this occasion is thus described:
Nevertheless it was in some way possible at that time for the divina
tion to be held (TO oicoviouxx eiceivo rcoir|9f)vai), but it was impure (ox>
(xevToi KocBotpov eyevexo). For certain birds flew from the unlucky quar
ter, and for this reason they repeated the augury (dvejiavTevaavTo).
Other unlucky omens too occurred.
Dio 37,25,1
Amongst these were thunderbolts from a clear blue sky, earthquakes,
and ghos ts (ei8coA,d xe 7toMxx%60i dvBpcorccov e(pavida0r|).
Dio therefore records the firm belief that due to civil war, the
means for securing by augury the pax deorum we re no t effective.
Whenever they were tried, they proved to be counterproductive:
augury at that time only resulted in further supernatural disturbances.
But when his Epitomist, Xiphilinus deals with his account of Augustus,
an d the op en ing of the door s of the tem ple of Ja nus, whi ch as we
have seen Livy most certainly described, he is able to show how
Augustus has achieved the pax deorum and performed the augurium
salutis with favou rable o ut co me . O f all the ho no ur s th at Ca es ar
(Augustus) received, this was the most significant:
Nevertheless the action which pleased him more than all the decrees
was the closing by the senate of the gates of the temple of Janus ,implying that all their wars had entirely ceased, and the taking of the
augurium salutis (TO oicbviauxx TTI<; i)y£(a<;), which had at this time fallen
into disuse for the reasons that I have noted.
Dio (Xiphilinus) 51,20,4
Xiphilinus has already explained that Caesar (Augustus) by now con
trolled the state cult, and although he does not use the title Pontifex
Maximus, which by his time was an ecclesiastical title, he nevertheless tells us that Augustus could "choose as many priests as he wished
and appoint them in office (iepeocq... ocovq av del eGeAriaei TtpoaipeioOai
7cpoaKaTeaxr |aavTo) ." (51,20,3) Thus for Dio the re is a direct con
nection between Augustus' role in history, the Imperial Cult, and
the cultic means of achieving the pax deorum through augury that
appears to reflect what he found in Livy as the primary source for
this part of his work.We shall shortly see that the pax deorum, that fails in the civil war
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 4 1
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a u g u r y w h o s e f u n c t i o n i t is t o s e c u r e i t, is a t h e m e
t o o o f L u c a n ' s Pharsalia. Bu t l e t u s b r i e f ly n o w see wh e th e r L iv y sh o ws
a n y i n d i c a t i o n o f s u b s c r i b i n g t o s u c h a t h e o l o g y o f h i s t o r y a s w e l l .
2 A 4 . 2 . 4 . Livy and Augustus: portents and a u s p i c i a
I n 4 , 2 0 , 7 , o f w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y m a d e m e n t i o n , L iv y c r e d i t s
A u g u s t u s w i t h r e b u i l d i n g t h e t e m p l e s a s t h e conditor et restitutor omnium
templorum. I n Res Gestae c . 1 9 a n d 2 1 h e b o a s t s , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s ,
o f e r e c t i n g t h e t e m p l e s o f A p o l l o i n t h e P a l a t i n e , o f D i v u s J u l i u s i n
t h e C i r c u s F l a m i n i u s , a n d a t t h e C a p i t o l o f Juppiter Triumphans a n d
Juppiter Tonans. H e a ls o r e s t o r e d s a c r e d o r n a m e n t s to t h e s h r i n e s o f" a l l t h e p r o v i n c e s o f A s i a . " (c . 2 4 ) I t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d i n L i v y ' s c a s e
t h a t t h e n a t u r e a n d t y p e o f p r o d i g i e s a r e si m i l ar t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k ,
a n d n o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h i s r e s p e c t a p p e a r s i n Julius Obsequens a s e v e n t s
d r a w n e a r e r t o t h e d e a t h o f C a e s a r i n 4 4 B . C . B u t t h e s h e e r v o l
u m e o f t h e s e p r o d i g i e s , o c c u r r i n g n o w e v e r y o n e y e a r o r t w o , s h o w s
a d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e o n h is e a r l i e r b o o k s . T h e c e n t u r y b e f o r e t h e
c iv il w a r was o n e i n w h i ch t h e ira deorum i n c r e a s e d , r e q u i r i n g s t r o n g e ra n d d i v i n e r m e a n s o f s e c u r i n g th e i r m o r e l a s t i n g pax.
P r o d i g i e s f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t h r o u g h o u t L iv y ' s h i s t o r y a r e r e c o r d e d
w i t h s u c h f e a t u r e s a s l i g h t e n i n g st r i k i n g t e m p l e s , s h o w e r s o f e a r t h o r
s t o n e s , a m u l e p r o d u c i n g a c o l t , a t w e l v e y e a r o l d h e r m a p h r o d i t e
e x e c u t e d b y o r d e r o f t h e haruspices, a r a in o f b l o o d , a n e w i s l an d in
t h e s e a , a m u l e w i t h t h r e e fe e t, J u n o ' s i m a g e s h e d d i n g t e a r s , t u r n
i n g h e a d s o f i m a g e s o f t h e g o d s d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e , a b s e n c e o fv u l t u r e s o v e r c o r p s e s , b l o o d t r i c k l i n g f r o m l a n d , w o o l g r o w i n g f r o m
t r e e s , w a t e r d r i p p i n g f r o m a s t a t u e , a k i t e d r o p p i n g a w e a s e l i n t h e
S e n a t e , a m e t e o r s e e n i n t h e sk y, a n d a b o y b o r n w i t h f ou r h a n d s
a n d f e e t , e t c .4 0
T h e c u l t ic m e a n s o f d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h prodigia so a s t o r e s to re t h e
pax deorum a r e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e r e c o r d e d i n a n s w e r t o s u c h prodi
gia. B u t , f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g u n t i l 1 7 6 B . C . , t h e r e c o r d s o f d i v i n a
t i o n a r e r e c o r d s o f c o n t i n u a l l y s uc c es sf ul c o n d u c t o f t h e r i t u a l w h e t h e r
it r e c o r d s f a v o u r o r h o s ti l it y f or a p r o p o s e d c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . F o r
e x a m p l e , i n 3 4 0 B . C . D e c i u s a n d M a n l i u s t h e c o n s u l s o f f e r s a c r i f i c e
a n d t h e haruspices a r e p r e s e n t t o i n f o r m t h e m o f w h e t h e r t h e g o d s
h a v e b e e n p r o p i t i o u s :
4 0
1 , 2 0 , 7 ; 4 , 2 1 , 5 ; 5 , 1 4 , 4 ; 5 , 1 5 , 1 ; 2 4 , 1 0 , 1 3 ; 2 7 , 3 7 , 6 - 8 ; 4 1 , 1 6 , 6 , e t c.
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4 2 C H A P T E R T W O
T h e haruspex i s reported to have indicated to Decius that the head of
the liver (caput iocineris) had been cut on the friendly side (a familiari
parte caesum): otherwise the v ict im had been accepted by the gods (alio-
qui acceptam dis hostiam esse); Manlius had succeeding in gaining propi
t iat ion (Manlium egregie litasse).
8,9,1
B u t f r o m 2 1 5 B . C . , a l t h o u g h s o m e auspicia ar e s ti ll success fu l , e x a m
p l e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n w h i c h t h e auspicium f a i l s o r e n c o u n t e r s g r e a t
d i f f i c u l t y . I n 2 1 5 B . C . i n t h e w a r a g a i n s t H a n n i b a l , F a b i u s d i d n o t
v e n t u r e t o l e a d h i s a r m i e s a c r o s s t h e r i v e r V o l t u r n u s :
. . . he was con cer ned at f irst (occupatus primo) that he should repeat the
auspicia (auspiciis repetendis); then with portents (dein prodigiis) which were
reported one af ter another (quae alia super alia nuntiabantur) and while
he was making expiat ion (expiantique) th e haruspices continually replied
that i t was by no means easy to gain propit iat ion (ea baud facile litari
haruspices respondebant).
2 3 , 3 6 , 9 - 1 0
T h e cu l t i ts e lf w as b e g i n n in g to f ail t o ac h i e v e t h e pax deorum t h a t
w a s t h e o b j e c t o f expiare a n d litari, an d to f a i l b ecau se t h e cu l t i c r i t
u a l i ts e lf w as u n su c ces s fu l .
I n 2 1 2 B . C . , i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e P u n i c W a r , t h e c o n s u l T i b e r i u s
G r a c c h u s e x p e r i e n c e d a m o r e se r i o u s f a il u re o f t h e a p p a r a t u s o f
haruspicium:
As Gracchus was sacri f ic ing (sacrificanti) before he left Lucania, anunfavourab le por ten t (triste prodigium) occurred . When sacri f ice had been
accompl i shed (sacrificio perpetrato), two snakes glided stealthily up to the
entrails (ad exta) and set about devouring the l iver (adedere iocur). W h e n
for that reason the sacrifice was repeated (sacrificium instauraretur) on the
advice of the haruspices (haruspicum monitu), and the entrai ls were pre
served with greater care (intentius exta reservarentur), they relate that a
second and third t ime the snakes sl i thered forward, and, having tasted
the liver (libatoque iocinere) escap ed u n h a rm ed . T h o u g h th e haruspices h a d
forewarned that the portent appl ied to the general (a d imperatorem id
pertinere prodigium) and that he should beware of the h idden plans of
men, st i l l the impending fate could not be averted by any foresight
(nulla tamen providentia fatum imminens moveri potuit).
2 5 , 1 6 , 1 - 4
T h u s fo r L iv y th e cu l t i c m ean s fo r s ecu r in g su cces s sh o w co n tam in a t io n
a n d f a i l u r e a t a c r i t i c a l m o m e n t i n R o m e ' s h i s t o r y , a t t h e p i v o t a l
m o m e n t f or t h a t h i s to r y a n d its s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w a s
t h e w a r w i t h C a r t h a g e . T h i s p a s s a g e is o f i n t e r e s t fo r t h e f u r t h e r
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 4 3
r e a s o n t h a t L i v y r e v e a ls t h a t , b e y o n d h is s c e p t i c is m a b o u t t h e m y t h s
o f t h e g o d s , t h e r e li es a S t o i c c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r a n d
t h e w a y i n w h i c h N a t u r e lo se s its h a r m o n y .4 1
L i v y c o n t i n u e s w i t h s o m e e x a m p l e s o f f a v o u r a b l e u s e s o f t h e c u l t .
I n 2 0 9 B . C . t h e auspicia a r e u n f a v o u r a b l e i n t h a t t h e y g i v e w a r n i n g ,
bu t s t i l l there i s no t fa i lu re o f the r i tua l itself. T h u s F a b i u s i s p r e
s e r v e d t h r o u g h a u g u r y f r o m H a n n i b a l ' s t r i c k e r y .4 2
Sim i l a r ly i n 2 7 ,2 6 ,1 4
M a r c e l l u s s i m p l y i g n o r e d t h e hostia caesa iocur sine capite a n d i s d e f e a t e d ,
w i t h o u t a n y fa i lu r e o f t h e c u l t itself. I n t h e M a c e d o n i a n w a r in 2 0 0
B . C . t h e C o n s u l s ' r i t u a l (rem divinam rite peractarri) fin ds a p p ro v a l b y
t h e haruspices w h e n t h e y p r o n o u n c e t h e exta t o b e laeta. T h e y e v e n
o n t h i s o c c a s i o n c l a i m t h a t t h e e n t r a i l s " p o r t e n d e x t e n s i o n o f t h e
b o r d e r s , v i c t o r y a n d t r i u m p h (prolationem finium victoriamque et triumphum
portendi)" (3 1 ,5 ,7 ) S im i l a r s cen es a re wi tn es sed in 1 9 1 B .C . a s we l l
a s i n 1 7 2 B . C .4 3
B u t i t r e m a i n s p o s s i b l e t h a t , g i v e n a n e v e n t s u c h
a s t h e civ il w a r f r o m 4 4 B . C . o n w a r d s , a n d t h e d e c a d e s t h a t l e a d
u p t o i t, L i v y s h o u l d h a v e r e c o r d e d t h e fa i lu r e s o f t h e augurium a n d
haruspicium, a i m e d a t s e c u r i n g t h e pax deorum t h a t h a d e m e r g e d in
t h e e a r l i e r cr is is o f t h e P u n i c W a r . I n t h a t c a s e a f a r s t r o n g e r e x p i
a t i o n a n d c l e a n s i n g o f t h e c i ty w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d , in t h e f o r m o f
a n A u g u s t a n I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a t w o u l d h a v e t h e s u p p o r t o f fortuna,
fatum, a n d providentia t h a t T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s h a d l a c k e d i n 2 1 2 B . C .
A s I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , f r o m 1 71 B . C . o n w a r d s o u r o n l y
so u rce t h a t w i l l en ab le u s t o s tu d y L iv y ' s u se o f prodigia is Julius
Obsequens.^ H e r e w e find s o m e e v i d e n c e o f a n i n t e n s i f i c a t io n b o t h o f
prodigia a n d t h e i n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e R e p u b l i c a n c u l t t o d e a l w i t h t h e m
w i t h o u t r e f o r m a t i o n . I n 1 7 6 B . C . t h e l iv e r o f a n a n i m a l , s a c r if i c ed
b y t h e c o n s u l , m e l t e d a w a y (Julius Obsequens 9 cf. L iv y 4 1 ,1 4 ,7 ) . T h e
C o n s u l P o s t u m i u s in 1 5 2 B . C . f o u n d n o h e a d o n t h e l i v e r o f a l a r g e
n u m b e r o f s a cr if ic i al a n i m a l s w h i l s t s a c r if i c in g b e f o r e d e p a r t u r e f or
b a t t l e ( 1 7) . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , a ll m a g i s t r a t e s a n d p r i e s t s r e s i g n e d
4 1
W a l s h ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 5 4 - 6 1 .4 2
2 7 , 1 6 , 1 5 : " F a b i o a u s p i c a n t i , p r i u s q u a m e g r e d e r e t u r a b T a r e n t o , a v e s s e m e l
a t q u e i t e r u m n o n a d d i x e r u n t . H o s t i a q u o q u e c a e s a c o n s u l e n t i d e o s h a r u s p e x c a v e n -
d u m a f r a u d e h o s t i l i e t a b i n s i d i i s p r a e d i x i t . "4 3
3 6 , 1 , 3 : " e a o m n i a s a c r i f i c i a l a e ta fu e r u n t , p r i m i s q u e h o s t i i s p e r l i t a tu m e s t , e t
i ta h a r u s p i c e s r e s p o n d e r u n t , e o b e l l o t e r m i n o s p o p u l i R o m a n i p r o p a g a r i . . . ." C f.
a ls o 4 2 , 2 0 , 2 - 4 .4 4
T h e n u m b e r s c it e d a r e f r o m t h e e d i t i o n b y A . C . S c h l e s i n g e r a n d R . M . G e e r ,
in vo l . 14 o f L ivy in the Loeb Classical Library ( L o n d o n / M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H e i n e m a n n /
H a r v a r d 1 9 6 7 ) .
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4 4 C H A P T E R T W O
w h e n haruspices p r o p h e s i e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d a ll d i e f o l lo w i n g a w h i r l
w i n d t h a t d e s t r o y e d a g i l d e d s t a t u e i n f r o n t o f t h e t e m p l e o f J u p i t e r
(18) . W h i l e t h e a u s p i c e s w e r e b e i n g t a k e n , i n 1 3 7 B . C . , t h e c h i c k e n s
escap ed an d f l ed (2 4 ) .
A t J u l i u s C a e s a r ' s s a c r if ic e a s d i c t a t o r ( 4 4 B . C . ) , t h e exta w e r e
d i s c o v e r e d t o b e d e v o i d o f a h e a r t (exta sine corde). (6 7) B u t G a i u s
O c t a v i u s , a s h e e n t e r e d R o m e t o b e e n r o l l e d i n t h e gens Julia, a p p e a r e d
s u r r o u n d e d b y a r a i n b o w - l i k e a r c . A c o m e t a p p e a r e d a s h e s ac r if ic e d
a t t h e t e m p l e o f h i s d i v i n e m o t h e r , V e n u s . A h o w l i n g o f d o g s w a s
h e a r d b y n i g h t b e f o r e t h e h o u s e o f t h e Pontifex Maximus, a m o n g s t
m a n y o t h e r p o r t e n t s ( 6 8) . B u t a t t h is p o i n t , i n 4 2 B . C . , Julius Obsequens
b r e a k s f r o m t h e l u r i d d e t a i l s o n l y t o r e c o u n t , n o t i n t h e u s u a l y e a r
o r t w o a f t e r w a r d s , b u t i n 1 7 a n d 11 B . C . s o m e s m a l l d e t a i l s c o n
c e r n i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e a n d t h e s w a r m o f b e e s a r o u n d D r u s u s .
W h e r e Julius Obsequens f a i l s , D io f ro m h i s so u rce en ab le s u s t o co n
t i n u e L i v y 's s t o r y . I n 4 7 , 4 0 , 1 - 5 h e lis ts t h e p o r t e n t s o f 4 2 B . C . i n
l u r i d d e t a i l s , b u t t h e n g o e s o n t o p o i n t t o c u l t i c i r r e g u l a r i t y w h e n
h e r e c o r d s t h a t t h e praefectus urbanus c e l e b r a t e d t h e f es ti va l o f J u p i t e r
L a t i a r i s t h a t w a s n e i t h e r h is p r e r o g a t i v e , n o r w a s it o r d i n a r i l y o b s e r v e d
a t t h a t t i m e .
W e s e e t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e s c e n e w a s se t f o r t h e r e l ig i o u s r e f o r
m a t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e g r a n t i n g t o A u g u s t u s o f t h e iu s
augurium c o u l d h a v e p r e f i g u r e d i n L i v y ' s f i n a l b o o k .4 5
W h e n w e n o w
t u r n t o L u c a n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e c iv il w a r , w e a r e o n
firm er g r o u n d . H e r e , le ss s p e c u l a t i v e l y , i t c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t
L u c a n c l e a rl y c o n c e i v e d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e pax Augusta,
w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e pax deorum t h r o u g h t h e iu s
augurium o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t c o n c e p t o f pax is
u n d e r p i n n e d b y a S t o i c m e t a p h y s i c of fatum a n d fortuna, a n d b y t h e
c o n c e p t o f a r a t i o n a l , m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r t h a t u n i t e s t h e r a t i o n a l
a c t i o n o f n a t u r e w i t h t h e r i t e s o f t h e haruspicium p e r f o r m e d t o d i v i n e
th e fu tu re a n d in d ee d in so m e s en se t o co n t ro l i t. I t is t h e re fo re t o
L u c a n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f s u c h t h e m e s t h a t w e n o w t u r n .
2 A 4 . 3 . Lucan's Stoic theology and h a r u s p i c i u m
L i v y w a s u n d o u b t e d l y s c e p ti c a l a b o u t t h e m y t h s a n d le g e n d s o f t h e
g o d s a n d t h e i r c u l t , a l t h o u g h h i s g r a s p o f S t o i c c o n c e p t s o f fatum
A:> Res Ges. 7 , 2 : p o n t i f e x m a x i m u s , a u g u r , X V v i r u m s a c r is f a c i u n d i s , V I I v i r u m
e p u l o n u m , frater arval i s , sodal i s T i t ius , fe t ia l i s fu i .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E IM P E R I A L C U L T 4 5
a n d fortuna w a s s li gh t. W e s a w i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s
i n 2 1 2 B . C . t h a t L iv y w a s p r e p a r e d t o s et fatum a n d fortuna a g a i n s t
t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f augurium a n d haruspicium, a n d t o a r g u e t h a t t h e f or
m e r h a d v a n q u i s h e d t h e p o w e r s o f t h e l a t t e r . L u c a n w i ll n o t a g r e e
to such a poss ib i l i ty .
L u c a n d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e i n t o h i s e p i c p o e t r y , q u i t e c o n t r a r y t o
c o n v e n t i o n , t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s . T h e s e h e r a t h e r
r e p l a c e s w i t h t h e S t o i c c o n c e p t i o n o f fatum a n d fortuna u n d e r p i n n e d
b y t h e S t o i c m o n i s m o f n a t u r e o r (p ua iq a s t h e m a t t e r w h o s e u l t i
m a t e c h a r a c t e r i s Xoyoq a n d w h i c h is t h e r e f o r e r e a s o n a b l e , d i v i n e
a n d e n d o w e d w i t h p u r p o s e . B u t t h o u g h h e w ill d i sm i s s a n a n t h r o
p o m o r p h i s m t h a t c o n c e a l s t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e d i v i n e W h o l e a n d
i t s o p e ra t i o n , h e wi l l n o t d i sm i s s a l so t h e cu l t o f augurium a n d harus
picium, an d so s e t t h i s ag a in s t fatum a n d fortuna a s L i v y h a d d o n e .
T h e r e a s o n is t o b e f o u n d i n t h e S t o i c i s m o f h i s u n c l e , S e n e c a ,
w i t h w h o m h e w a s t o b e i n v o l v e d i n a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t N e r o t h a t
w o u l d c o s t b o t h o f t h e m t h e i r l iv e s . S e n e c a r e p l ie s t o t h e q u e s t i o n
o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i n g s s u c h a s auspicia r e v e a l f u t u r e e v e n t s w i t h
o u t b e i n g d e li b e r a te l y se n t t o d o s o b y s o m e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a l l y
c o n c e i v e d d i v i n e a g e n c y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y :
You make God too lazy and the adminis t ra tor of something t r iv ial , i f
he is the d isposer of dreams to some people but exta to o thers . The
lat ter nonetheless are conducted under the resources of the d iv ine (ista
nihilominus divina ope geruntur), even if the wings of birds are not directly
guided by a god (si non a deo pennae avium reguntur), nor the entrails of
catde shaped by their very axe (nec pecudum viscera sub ipsa securi for-
mantur). T h e scroll of fate is un w ou nd on a different, r at ion al prin ci
p le (alia ratione fatorum series explicatur), which issues everywhere indications
of the future (indicia venturi ubique praemittens), some of which are pro
pit ious to us (ex quibus quaedam nobis familiaria) an d o th e r s u n k n o wn
(quaedam ignota sunt). Whatever has happened is a s ign of some future
even t (Quicqu id Jit, alicuius reijuturae signum est). Chance even ts and ran
dom occurrences wi thou t Xoyoc, (fortuita et sine ratione vaga) do not al lowdivinat ion (divinationem non recipiunt); in whatever subject mat ter there is
o r d e r (cuius res ordo est), there is also the possibility of prediction (etiam
praedictio est).
Sen eca Quaestiones Maturates 2,32,4
T h e w i n g s o f b i r d s a r e n o t d i r e c t e d b y t h e g o d (non a deo pennae avium
reguntur), b u t d i v i n e r e s o u r c e s a r e s till i n v o l v e d (divina ope geruntur).
T h a t d iv i ni ty is t h e i m m a n e n t ratio o r Xoyoc, o f t h e w o r l d a n d b e c a u s ethe wor ld cons i s t s o f an o rder ly se r ies o f even ts , the fu tu re i s p red ic tab le
(cuius res ordo est, etiam praedictio est) a n d c a n b e r e a d i n p r e s e n t o b j e c t s
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4 6 C H A P T E R T W O
s u c h a s exta o r flights o f b i r d s . D i v i n a t i o n t h e r e f o r e b e c o m e s a r a t i o
n a l p o s s i b i l i t y . S e n e c a h a s c l e a r l y f o r g e d a n e c e s s a r y l i n k b e t w e e n
ordo ( i n co n t ra s t t o fortuita et sine ratione vaga), ratio (Xoyoq), fatum a n d
divinatio. H e h a s al so d e m y t h o l o g i s e d h i s t h e o l o g y i n t h e p r o c e s s . W e
s h a l l n o w s e e t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e r e f l e c te d i n L u c a n ' s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
2 A 4 . 3 . 1 . Lucan's P h a r s a l i a and the p a x d e o r u m
L u c a n i n Pharsalia, 1, 5 2 2 - 6 0 5 d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r a l t u r m o i l o f t h e
c iv il w a r b u t a l so e m p h a s i s e s its s u p e r n a t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t . T h e c h a o s
o f s o c ie t y w a s m i r r o r e d i n a c h a o s in n a t u r e . T h e i m a g e s o f t h e
Lares i n h o m e s b e g a n t o s w e a t (5 7 ), a n d w i l d b e a s t s le ft t h e w o o d sb y n i g h t a n d m a d e t h e i r l a ir s i n t h e c it y ( 5 5 9 - 5 6 0 ) . M o n s t r o u s b i r t h s
t o o k p l a c e ( 5 6 2 - 5 6 3 ) . T h e a n c i e n t , S y b i ll in e p r o p h e c i e s , f o r e b o d i n g
ill (diraque per populum Cum anae carmina vatis), w e r e r e p e a t e d a g a i n
(volgantur). ( 5 6 4 - 5 6 5 ) A F u r y w i t h a flam ing p i n e tr e e h e l d d o w n
w a r d s w i t h h i s s i n g h a i r a n d o f g i g a n t i c s iz e s t a l k e d t h e c i ty ( 5 7 2 - 5 7 4 ) .
T h e g h o s ts o f S u l l a a n d o f M a r i u s , t h e m s e l v e s t h e f o r m e r d e s t r o y
e r s o f t h e c iv il p e a c e , w e r e s e e n t o w a l k a g a i n a m i d t h e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l d i s o r d e r s :
. . . e medio visi consurgere Campo
Tristia Sullani cecinere oracula manes,
Tollentemque caput gelidas Anienis ad undas
Agricolae Marium jracto fugere sepulchro.
L u c a n , Pharsalia, 1 , 5 8 0 - 5 8 3 .4 6
A c u l t i c n o t e is s o u n d e d i n t h e p a s s a g e b y t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m tristia.
Tristis, a s w e h a v e s e e n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L i v y 's a c c o u n t o f T i b e r i u s
G r a c c h u s i n 2 1 2 B . C . , o f t e n c o n t r a s t s w i t h laeta a s a n a d j e c t i v a l
d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n u n f a v o u r a b l e a s o p p o s e d t o f a v o u r a b l e c o n s u l t a
t i o n o f t h e exta}1 T h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f A r i m i n u m , w h e n t h e y s ee
C a e s a r ' s l e g i o n s h a v i n g c r o s s e d t h e R u b i c o n , c r y o v e r t h e i r " c i t y
w a l l s d a m n e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r u n l u c k y s it e (o tristi damnata loco)," a n d
s i g h f o r " d e e p p e a c e a n d t r a n q u i l i t y (pax alta. . . tranqu illa quies)." ( 1 ,
2 4 8 - 2 5 0 )
A r r u n s t h e o l d E t r u s c a n haruspex is n o w s u m m o n e d (Tuscos de more
vetustolacciri vates), o f w h o m i t is s a id :
. . . F r o m t h e c e n t r e o f t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w a s s e e n t o r i se ,
T h e s h a d e o f S u l l a p r o p h e s y i n g i n a u s p i c i o u s t h i n g s ,
A n d r e a r i n g h i s h e a d b e s i d e A n i o ' s c o o l s t r e a m s ,M a r i u s b u r s t f r o m h i s s e p u l c h r e a n d p u t th e fa r m e r to f l i g h t .
L iv y , 2 5 , 1 6 , 3 - 4 , q u o t e d a b o v e p . 4 8 ; 2 7 , 2 6 , 1 4 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 4 7
.... Quorum qui maximus aevo
Arruns incoluit desertae moenia Lucae,
Fulminis edoctus motus venasque calentes
Fibrarum et monitus mantis in aere pinnae.1 , 5 8 5 - 5 8 8 .4 8
H e o r d e r s t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e m o n s t e r s " w h i c h n a t u r e , a t v a r i a n c e
w i t h herself, h a d b r o u g h t f o r t h (discors protulerat natura)" ( 5 8 9 - 5 9 0 )
C l e a r l y t h e ratio o r Xoyoq t h a t fo l l o ws a p ro g res s io n o f ordo w a s n o t
n o w p r e s e n t i n N a t u r e w h i c h h a s l o s t i t s pax.
T h e p o n t i f f s , w h o a l o n e c l e a r l y h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y (pontifices, sacri
quibus est permissa potestas), i n c l u d i n g t h e " F l a m e n s p o r t i n g a r o u n d h i s
p o i n t e d c a p o n h i s e x u l t e d h e a d (tollens apicem generoso verticeflameri)"
( 60 4) p e r f o r m t h e c e r e m o n y o f p u r i f ic a t i o n t h a t h e r e c o m m e n d s
a r o u n d t h e pomerium, o r ci ty b o u n d a r y ( 5 9 1 - 5 9 5 ) , j u s t a s L i v y h a d
f r e q u e n d y d e s c r i b e d a s i m i l a r p r a c t i c e f o l l o w i n g prodigia tristia.49 B u t
a c c o r d i n g t o L u c a n , w h o m a y h a v e h a d s o m e s u p p o r t i n L i v y ' s l o s t
c lo s in g b o o k s , t h ey a r e u n su cc es s fu l . F o r A r r u n s is f i n a ll y t o f ail t o
a c h i e v e t h e pax deorum.
H e tr i e s e x p i a t i o n o v e r t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e f a ll en t h u n d e r b o l t s
( 6 0 6 - 6 1 0 ) . H a v i n g p e r f o r m e d o f a ll t h e s e r i te s , h e tr i es t o p e r f o r m
a s ac r i f ice . T h e b u l l ' s n e ck , w h e n su b jec t ed t o a b l o w o f t h e k n i fe ,
p r o d u c e d a t e r r ib l e v e n o m i n s t e a d o f r e d b l o o d (diffusum rutilo dirum
pro sanguine virus). ( 6 0 9 - 6 1 5 ) H e is m o r t i f i e d (palluit attonitus), a n d c o n
s u l t s t h e e n t r a i l s t o s e e t h e r e , n o t t h e p e a c e , b u t t h e a n g e r o f t h e
g o d s (iram superum raptis quaesivit in extis). ( 61 7 ) Q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e
s ic kly a n d d e f o r m e d o r g a n s , a s e c o n d l o b e is g r o w i n g u p o n o n e l o b e
o f t h e l iv e r ( 6 1 7 - 6 2 9 ) .
T h u s A r r u n s , maximus aevo o f a l l t h e E t ru sc an s , fa ils t o s e cu re t h e
pax deorum b u t o n l y t h e i r ira, e v e n t h o u g h h e i s edoctus i n t h e s c i en ce
o f t h e haruspex. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e pax r a t h e r t h a n t h e ira i s m a r k e d
b y t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f a c h a o t i c n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s . T h e g h o s t s
o f S u l l a a n d o f M a r i u s h a d w a l k e d a g a i n , w o m e n h a d g iv e n b i r t h
4 8
. . . o n e o f w h o m o f g r e a t e s t a g e ,
A r r u n s d w e l t i n t h e d e s e r t e d s i t e o f L i c a ,
L e a r n e d i n t h u n d e r b o l t ' s c l a s h a n d i n t h e w a r m e n t r a i l s ,
A n d i n d a n g e r h e r a l d e d a l o ft t h e a i r b y e a c h w i n g e d b ir d t h a t
w a n d e r s t h e r e . . .4 9
E . g . L iv y 3 9 , 2 2 , 5 : " H o s t i i s m a i o r i b u s c o n s u l e s p r o c u r a r u n t u r b e m q u e l u s -
t r a v e r u n t " ; 4 5 , 1 6 , 6 : " E t a l i o r u m p r o d i g i o r u m c a u s a . . . s a c r i f i c a t u m e s t e t u r b s l u s-
trata ." Julius Obsequ. 1 2 : " U r b e lu s t r a ta p a x d o m i fo r i s q u e fu i t. "
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4 8 C H A P T E R T W O
t o m o n s t r o u s c h i l d r e n , a n d A r r u n s ' c o n c l u s i o n fr o m h is o b s e r v a t i o n
o f t h e s t r a n g e a n d m o n s t r o u s exta w a s t h a t t h e i n f e r n a l g o d s h a d
e n t e r e d t h e b o d y o f t h e s l a u g h t e r e d b u l l (caesique in pectora tauri inferni
venere dei). ( 6 3 3 - 6 3 4 ) C l e a r l y t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h e pax deorum r e q u i r e d
t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f discors natura.
2 A 4 . 3 . 2 . Lucan's explanation of the i r a d e o r u m
N i g i d i u s F i g u l u s n o w m a k e s c l e a r w h a t is a t s t a k e ( 6 3 8 - 6 7 2 ) . T h e
u n i v e r s e m a y b e f o r e v e r g o v e r n e d b y n o l a w (nulla cum lege per aevum/
mundus, et incerto discurrunt sidera motu), o r b y a f a t e f ro m n o w o n h o s
t i le t o R o m e a n d h u m a n i t y (aut, si fata mo vent, urbi generique paratur/humano matura lues)." ( 6 4 1 - 6 4 5 ) T h e p e r s o n of t h e E m p e r o r h i m s e l f
m a y n o t y e t b e , b e f o r e D e c i u s T r a j a n , r e g a r d e d g e n e r a l l y , e v e n b y
th e Greek c i t y - s t a t e s t h a t so u g h t t o e s t ab l i sh h i s cu l t , a s t h e s ac ra
m e n t a l b o n d th a t e s t a b li s h e d p o li ti c al a n d n a t u r a l o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t
a n e m p i r e t h a t s o u g h t to e n c o m p a s s t h e w o r l d . B u t i t is s i g n if i c a nt
t h a t L u c a n r e g a r d s t h e p r o b l e m o f s e c u r i n g p o l it ic a l o r d e r a t R o m e
a s a c o n c o m i t a n t o f r i g h t i n g t h r o u g h its o ffic ia l c u l t — t h r o u g h t h epontifices, sacri quibus est permissa potestas— an u p s e t a n d c h a o t i c n a t u r a l
o r d e r (discors natura), w h i c h h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s th e r e f o r e fo r t h e h u m a n
r a c e (urbi generique. . . humano).
A c c o r d i n g t o L u c a n (F i g u lu s ), a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n w o u l d g o h a n d
i n h a n d w i t h a r e l i g i o u s a n d c u l t i c s o l u t i o n . T h e p o l i t i c a l c h a o s o f
t h e c iv il w a r o f s o m e s e v e n t y y e a r s b e f o r e O c t a v i a n w a s t h u s b u t a
r e f l e c ti o n o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s c o s m i c c h a o s w h i c h w a s t h e ira deorum.B o t h n e e d e d t o b e r i g h t e d , a n d b y a d if fi cu lt , m y s t e r i o u s p r o c e s s ,
t h e pax deorum o b t a i n e d . T h a t pax w i l l o n l y c o m e w i t h a dom inus (cum
dom ino pax ista venit). ( 6 7 0 ) R o m e ' s f r e e d o m (civili tantum iam libera bello)
(672) is b u t a re f lec t ion o f co sm ic d i s o r de r : i t i s b u t the c iv il w a r a s
a r e f le c t i o n o f c o n s t e l l a t i o n s s t r a y i n g f r o m t h e i r c o u r s e s (cur signa m ea
tus/deseruere suos mundoque obscura feruntur?). (664)
I n s e t t i n g t h e s c e n e f or h i s e p i c p o e m o n t h e ci vi l w a r L u c a n h a sth e re f o re e f fec ti v e ly r u l ed o u t t h e k i n d o f ro l e fo r t h e g o d s w h i ch
t h e y w e r e g i v e n b y V e r g i l i n i m i t a t i o n o f H o m e r .5 0
T h e g o d s p l a y
5 0
S . H . B r a u n d , Lucan: Civil Wa r: T ranslated w ith Introduction and Notes, ( O x f o r d :
C l a r e n d o n 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . x x i i - x x i i i ; F . M . A h l , Lucan: An Introduction, ( I th a c a a n d L o n d o n :
C o r n e l l 1 9 7 6 ) r e m a r k s p e r c e p t i v e l y , p . 2 8 3 : " T h e r o l e o f t h e g o d s in t r a d i t i o n a l
e p i c is s u p e r s e d e d b y a k i n d o f S t o i c h y l o z o i s m ; t h e O l y m p i a n s y i e l d t o t h e w o r k i n g s o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . F o r b e t w e e n m a n a n d n a t u r e t h e r e is s ti ll a b o n d t h a t
n o l o n g e r ex i st s b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e g o d s . "
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 4 9
n o d i r e c t p a r t i n t h e a c t i o n : t h e y d o n o t i n t e r v e n e t o g i v e s u c c o u r
o r e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h e h e r o e s i n t h e t a le . T h e y a r e r e p l a c e d b y
t h e S t o i c c o n c e p t s o f fortuna, fatum, o r fata. T h u s t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e
cu l t o f au g u ry a t t h e o p e n in g o f t h e w o r k is o f g r ea t s ig n i f i can ce i n
d e s c r i b i n g t h e u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g o f t h e h i st o r ic a l e v e n t s . T h e pax deo
ru m a n d t h e ira deorum, r e f l ec t ed i n t h e n a t u ra l a s we l l a s i n t h e c iv il
o r d e r , p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e u l t i m a t e c h a r a c t e r
o f R o m a n p o l it i c a l lif e. T h u s L u c a n ' s S t o i c i s m d e m y t h o l o g i s e s h i s
acco u n t , b u t l eav es i t n ev e r th e l e s s wi th a (p u o iq wh ich i s u l t im a te ly
e n d u e d w i th Xoyoc;, b u t w i th a n opGoq Aoyoq f r ac tu re d by th e m ys
t e r io u s s u p e r n a t u r a l f or ce s a t w o r k w i t h i n b o t h n a t u r e a n d h u m a n
so c i e ty .
T h u s L u c a n p r o d u c e d a t h e o l o g y e x p l i c i t l y i n S t o i c t e r m s t h a t
j u s t i f i e d b o t h t h e e m p e r o r a s Pontfex Maximus a n d p r o c u r e r o f t h e
pax deorum. H i s s u c c e s s w a s m o r e o v e r i r o n i c a l i n v i e w o f h i s c l e a r
m i s t r u s t o f N e r o ' s a m b i t i o n s ,5 1
an d h i s c l ea r r eg re t s a t t h e l o s s o f
r e p u b l i c a n l i b e r t y .5 2
B u t h i s d o c t r i n e o f f a t e , j u s t i f i ed i n t e rm s o f
S t o i c i s m , w i t h i ts c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s f or t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f a u g u r y a n d
d i v i n a t i o n , s e e m s t o h a v e m a d e w h a t h a d c o m e t o p a s s n e c e s s a r y
a n d i n e s c a p a b l e . H i s c o n s p i r a c y , af t er al l, w a s n o t a i m e d a t t h e
r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e r e p u b l i c , b u t si m p l y t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e t y r a n t N e r o
i n f a v o u r o f a n o t h e r princeps.
L u c a n e n d s h i s c l e a r l y u n f i n i s h e d w o r k i n t h e y e a r 4 8 - 4 7 B . C . T h i s
is u n f o r t u n a t e f or o u r p u r p o s e s in c e w e d o n o t k n o w o n w h a t n o t e
h e w a s t o c o n c l u d e h i s e p i c . S o m e c o u n t e r p a r t s e e m s r e q u i r e d t o
t h e ira deorum d e s c r i b e d s o v i v i d l y i n s u c h l u r i d h u e s . B y w h a t s u c
c es sf ul m e a n s , a s t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o A r r u n s ' f a i l u r e , w a s t h e final
pax deorum t o b e s e c u r e d ? S u r e l y b y m e a n s o f s o m e t h i n g li ke t h e
augurium salutis t h a t D i o ( X i p h i l i n u s ) h a d c l a i m e d t h a t A u g u s t u s s u c
c e s s f u l l y c e l e b r a t e d w h e r e o l d e r , R e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t r a t e s , h a d f a i l e d ?
W h e r e a n d w h e n w a s e n a c t e d t h e s uc c es sf ul c l e a n s i n g o f t h e pomerium,
a n d t h e s a c ri fi ce o f a b u l l w h i c h w e n t n o r m a l l y w i t h t h i s c e r e m o n y ?
5 1 L u c a n , Pharsalia 1, 2 6 5 - 3 3 0 ff.) 2
I n v i e w o f t h i s I fin d t o o s tr o n g J . C . B r a m b l e , L u c a n , i n E J . K e n n e y a n d
W . V . C l a u s e n ( e d s . ) , The Cambridge History of Classical Literature, V o l . 2 : L a t i n L i t e r a t u r e ,
( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 5 4 3 - 5 4 5 : " t h er e is n o t h i n g i n t h e p o e m t o w a r r a n t
t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a g r o w i n g d i s c o n t e n t w i t h C a e s a r i s m , " q u o t e d i n B r a u n d ( 1 9 9 2 ) ,
p . x v i . I t i s h o w e v e r tr u e t h a t N e r o w o u l d h a v e id e n t i f ie d h i m s e l f w i t h P o m p e y a s
o p p o s e d t o C a e s a r in v i e w o f h i s g r e a t -g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r L u c i u s D o m i t i u s A h e n o b a r b u s ,
P o m p e y ' s g e n e r a l w h o is d e s c r i b e d m o s t f a v o u r a b l y i n Pharsalia 2 , 4 7 8 - 5 2 5 , s ee
B r a u n d ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p . x v .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 5 1
n e c t i o n i n t e r m s o f S t o i c m e t a p h y s i c s r e g a r d i n g e i u o c p u i v r ) o r fatum
o r fortuna, a n d ratio or opGoq Xoyoq i n S t o i c t h e o l o g y . M o r e o v e r w e
h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a s t r o n g s e n s e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e A u g u s t a n a g e
t h a t t h e c iv il w a r h a d c o n s t i t u t e d a s u p e r n a t u r a l d i s t u r b a n c e in t h e
o r d e r o f n a t u r e a s w e l l a s s o c ie t y u n p a r a l l e l e d i n R o m e ' s h i s t o ry .
S u c h a d i s t u r b a n c e r e q u i r e d a n e q u a l l y u n p a r a l l e l e d s e t t i n g r i g h t
t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f t h e i m p e r i a l augurium. W e h a v e s e e n s u c h a
t h e o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s i s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a i lu r e i n L u c a n a n d L iv y , a n d
i n w r i t e r s s u c h a s S e n e c a o r D i o .5 5
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t, n o m o r e t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , h a d
e s t a b l i s h e d e i t h e r r e l i g i o u s o r ci vi l p e a c e . A u g u s t u s w a s r e q u i r e d t o
p e r f o r m a n a c t o f a u g u r y w h i c h w o u l d b e su f fi ci en tl y p o w e r f u l , a s
t h e e x i s t i n g c u l t w a s n o t , t o c o p e w i t h t h is d i s o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e n a t
u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s , a n d t h u s t o p r o v i d e t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s o f
s e t t in g b o t h n a t u r e a n d s o c ie t y r i g h t . A s w e h a v e s e e n , A u g u s t u s
m a d e p o s s i b le a c c o r d i n g t o D i o t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e augurium salutis,
a n d h i s n a m e f or S u e t o n i u s w a s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h o n e w h o p o s s e s s e d
t h e ius augurium (Augustus — augur, augurium).^
I n Res Gestae c . 4 ,2 A u g u s tu s c l a im s th a t h is " su cces s fu l m i l i t a r y
a c h i e v e m e n t s , b y l a n d a n d b y s e a , d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h l e g a t e s (res a
me aut per legatos meos. . . terra marique prospere gestas)," a r e u n d e r " m y
f a v o u r a b l e o m e n s (auspicis meis)," ac co rd in g ly t r an s l at e d ociaio ic ; o icovoiq
i n t h e G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Res Gestae w h o s e o r ig i n a l p o s i t i o n w a s
o n t w o b r o n z e c o l u m n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Ara Pacis f r o m t h e r e i g n
o f T i b e r i u s o n w a r d s . T h e r e h a d b e e n m e n t i o n i n c . 3 o f t h e o a t h
s w o r n t o h i m p e r s o n a l l y (sub sacramento meo) b y " t h r e e t h o u s a n d R o m a n
c i t i z e n s . " T h e Ara Pacis is n o t y e t t h e a l t a r o n w h i ch h i s d iv in i t y is
d i r e c t ly w o r s h i p p e d , w i t h t h e p e a c e o f t h e e m p e r o r s u p p l i c a t e d w i t h
i n c e n s e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n o a t h o f i m p e r i a l lo y a l ty as it w a s t o
b e c o m e i n t h e r e i g n o f D e c i u s T r a j a n ( A . D . 2 5 1 ) . I t is a s y e t t h e
i m m o r t a l g o d s w h o a r e to b e t h a n k e d f o r h i s v i c t o r y , b y d e c r e e o f
t h e S e n a t e (ex senatus consulto), a n d n o t h i s d i v i n e p e r s o n a g e itself. B u t
w e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e a n d p e r s o n a l
i z e d Pax b y t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n Pax Augusta s h o w s t h e d i s c r e t e a s s i m i
l a t i o n o f Pax t o t h e e m p e r o r ' s o w n d i v i n it y .
5 5
F o r n a t u r e r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c h a o s a n d o r d e r o f c i v il s o c i e t y s e e L u c a n , Phar
salia, 4 , 4 9 - 1 3 0 , e s p e c i a l ly e .g . 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 , w h e r e " . . . p a r v o F o r t u n a v ir i c o n t e n t a
p a v o r e , p l e n a r e d i t . . . " a n d " . . . s e r v a t o q u e l o c o r e r u m d is c es s it a b as tr is u m o r , e t
i m a p e t i t . . ."%
R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 .
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5 2 C H A P T E R T W O
In c . 7 ,3 we read : Pontifex M aximus, augur, XV virum sacris faciundis,
VII virum epulonu m, frater arvalis, soda lis Titius, fetialis fui. T h u s a s p a r t
o f t h e p r o c e s s t h a t l in k e d d i v i n a t i o n w i t h t h e p e a c e o f t h e G o d s ,
A u g u s t u s w a s t o r e o r g a n i s e t h e f o u r m a j o r c o l l e g e s (fetiales, Salii,
Sodales Titi, a n d t h e jratres Arvaks). T h e ab i l it y o f t h ese co ll eg es t h ro u g h
a u g u r y t o a f f e c t t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s w a s r a d i c a l l y r e d u c e d . A f t e r 4 4
B . C . t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e c a se o f t h e t e m p o r a r y b l o c k i n g o f a n e l e c
t i o n , a n d t w o c o n s u l t a t i o n s o f t h e S i b y l li n e b o o k s .5 7
T h e i r m a r k o f
s u b m i s s i o n t o h i m a s n e w l y h e r e d i t a r y Pontifex Maximus w a s t o m a k e
sac r i f i ce s an n u a l ly a t t h e Ara Pacis a n d o n i m p e r i a l a n n i v e r s a r i e s a t
t h e Ara Numinis Augusti o n t h e C a p i t o l a n d i n t h e T e m p l e o f Mars
Ultor.58 T h e a c h i e v e m e n t b y s o c ie t y o f t h e pax deorum w a s f r o m n o w
o n to b e t h ro u g h th e of fice o f t h e princeps. 59
T h a t h i s o ff ice as Pontifex Maximus, t h o u g h de iure fo r l ife , w as n o w
to b e de facto h e r e d i t a r y is i m p l i e d i n c . 1 0 :
I refused the office of Pontifex Maximus when the people offered me
that pr ies thood (poputo id sacerdotium deferente mihi) which my father hadheld, so that I should not replace my still-living colleague. After some
years , w he n he [Lepidus] who ha d occupied th is pr ies thoo d (quod sac
erdotium) at the outbreak of the civil war had died, I accepted i t , dur
ing the consulship of P. Sulpicius and C. Valgo [ 1 2 B . C . ] , from all
I ta ly when such a mult i tude had gathered together for my comitia as
never before was repor ted a t Rome.
C l e a r l y it w a s n o t a n of fic e f r o m w h i c h A u g u s t u s w o u l d a d m i t , f ol
l o w i n g h i s s e l f - s e r v i n g e x a m p l e , t h a t a p e r s o n c o u l d b e d e p o s e d b y
p o p u l a r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m e a n s . I t w a s n o t a n o r d i n a r y b u t a n e x t r a
o r d i n a r y g a t h e r i n g t h a t h a d c o n v e y e d t h e t i d e o n h i m . I n a s s u m i n g
t h e p o s i t i o n o f Pontifex Maximus h e h a d u n i t e d t h e R o m a n R e l i g i o n
o r g a n i c a l l y i n h i s p e r s o n .6 0
F r o m e a r l i e s t t i m e s , t h e ius divinum w a s e x e r c i s e d b y t h e c o l l e g e
o f p o nt if fs a n d a u g u r s . I n d e e d , b e f o r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e p u b l i -
5 7
W a r d e F o w l e r (1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 4 3 5 - 4 3 7 ; L i e b e s c h u e t z ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 6 3 .5 8
R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 1 9 9 a n d p p . 2 2 2 - 2 2 3 .59 Ibid. p . 6 5 .6 0
B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 7 9 : " L e p i d e m o r t , A u g u s t fu t p l e b i s c i t e G r a n d P o n t i f e . E t
s o u d a i n il a f f ir m a d e s d r o i t s e x o r b i t a n t s s u r l a f o n c t i o n . N o n s e u l e m e n t il n e d e s c e n -
d i t p a s a u F o r u m o c c u p e r l a d e m e u r e o f f i c i e l l e d e s a c h a r g e , p r e s d e l a Regia; m a i s
il n a t i o n a l i s a p o u r y s u p p l e e r u n e p a r t i e d e s a d e m e u r e d u P a l a t i n ; y c o n s a c r ao f f i c i e l l e m e n t u n e s ta tu e e t u n a u te l d e V e s ta ; u n i t l e c u l t e d e l a d e e s s e a c e l u i d e
s e s P e n a t e s . "
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 5 3
c a n g o v e r n m e n t , t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h a t c o l le g e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n
t h e k i n g , a n d t h e leges regiae w e r e a b o u t t h e r i tu a l a n d m o r a l m e a n s
o f a c h i e v i n g t h e pax deorum, b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e T w e l v e
T a b l e s . 6 1 T h e k i n g , o r i g i n a l l y , a d v i s e d b y t h e t w o a u g u r s w h o w i t h
h i m c o n s t i t u t e d a c o l l e g e , p o s s e s s e d t h i s r i g h t t o t a k e t h e a u s p i c e s
(habere auspicia)? 2 T h e ius divinum t h a t h a d p a s s e d t o t h e Pontifex Maximus
w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s n o w t o p a s s a g a i n t o
a h e r e d i t a r y r u l e r ,6 3
e v e n t h o u g h A u g u s t u s m i g h t c l o a k h i s m o n a r
c h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r t h e r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s o f princeps, tribunicia potes-
tas, imperium proconsulare e t c .6 4
H i s v e r y t i t l e o f a r e c o n s t r u c t e d imperator
i n p r e f e r e n c e t o rex f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s e d t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f a u t o c r a c y
l e g i ti m i s e d i n r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s . B u t a s L i e b e s c h u e t z p o i n t e d o u t , t h e
i m p e r a t o r h a d t h e r e s p o n s ib i l it y o f t a k i n g t h e auspicia w i t h t h e r e s u l t
t h a t t h e l i f e l o n g a n d h e r e d i t a r y Pontifex Maximus w a s n o w t h e r e l i
g i o u s e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e n o w l if e lo n g a n d h e r e d i t a r y imperator. I f po l i t
i c a l p o w e r w a s t o b e f o r l i f e , t h e n c l e a r l y r e l i g i o u s p o w e r w i t h w h i c h
it w a s i n e x t r i c a b l y a s s o c i a t e d m u s t b e s o t o o . T h e r e s u l t w a s t h u s
t h e f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f b o t h s e c u l a r a n d s p ir i t u a l p o w e r in t h e
h a n d s o f a s in g le p e r s o n . 6 5
F r o m h i s a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e final c o n t r o l o f t h e ius divinum a s Pon
tifex Maximus c e r t a i n e s c h at o lo g i ca l a n d e v e n — t o t r a n s p o s e a J u d a e o -
C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i n to a p a g a n c o n t e x t — " m e s s i a n i c " c o n s e q u e n c e s
t h e r e b y f o ll o w e d . T h e r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e c u lt i n t e r m s o f t h e e x t r a
o r d i n a r y pax o f a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y princeps w a s t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e
6 1
W a r d e F o w l e r ( 1 9 11 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 7 3 .6 2
Ibid. p p . 3 0 1 - 3 0 1 .6 3
B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 0 1 : " . . . c e G r a n d P o n t if e n e p u t p r e n d r e c o m p e t a n c e
r e l i g i e u s e " r o y a l e " , a c o te d u Rex Sacrorum, q u ' a p r e s l a f i n d e l a m o n a r c h i c : a l u i
a l o r s a p p a r t i n r e n t l a h a u te m a i n s u r l e f o y e r p u b l i c , v o i s i n d e l a Regia; sur l e ca l -
e n d r i e r e t l e s f e t e s ; l e c h o i x d e s V e s ta l e s , d u Flamen Dialis; l a d i s c i p l i n e s a c e r d o t a l e ;
l a s u r v e i l l a n c e d e s r e l i g i o n s fa m i l i a l e s e t d u c u l t e d e s m o r t s . . . . P o u r v u d u d r o i t
d ' au s pi ce e t d e c o m m a n d e m e n t (auspicium e t imperium), il d o m i n a i t l ' e n s e m b l e d e l ar e l i g i o n . . ." ; E . P a i s , L e r e l a z i o n i f r a i s a c e r d o z i e l e m a g i s t r a t u r e c i v i l i n e l l a
R e p u b l i c a r o m a n a , i n Ricerche sulla storia e sul diritto publico di Rom a, I , ( R o m e 1 9 1 5 ) ,
p p . 2 7 3 - 3 3 5 : " C o n A u g u s t o s i c h i u d e i l c i c l o d e i r a p p o r t i d e i s a c e r d o t i d e f r o n t e
a i m a g i s t a t i c u r u l i . . . C o n A u g u s t o si r i t o r n o a l io st e s s o p e r i o d o r e g i o , q u a n d o P a u -
to r i ta s a c r a , i l c o m a n d o m i l i t a r e e l a g i u r i s d i z i o n e c i v i l e s i t r o v a v a n o r i u n i t e n e l l a
u n i c a p e r s o n a d e l rex." ( Q u o t e d B a y e t 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 2 7 6 f o o t n o t e 2 .6 4 Res Gest. 6 , 2 ; 1 0 , 1 c f . R . S y m e , The Roman Revolution, ( O x f o r d : U . P . 1 9 6 0 ) , p p .
3 1 3 - 3 3 6 f f .b
* L i e b e s c h u e t z ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 1 0 : " T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y w h i c h e n t i t l e d a
R o m a n m a g i s t r a t e t o g i v e o r d e r s , t h e i m p e r i u m , h a d a r e l i g i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t , t h e
a u s p i c i u m , w h i c h e n t i t l e d i t s h o l d e r t o r e c e i v e d i v i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f
t h e c o m m u n i t y b y t a k i n g t h e a u s p i c e s . "
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5 4 C H A P T E R T W O
t h e o lo g i c a l p r o b l e m o f h o w t o s e c u r e a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum
f r o m q u i t e e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i s s o lu t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r : t h e c h a o s o f
n a t u r e m i r r o r e d t h e p o l i t i c a l c h a o s , t o w h i c h t h e prodigia t h a t m a r k e d
t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e r e p u b l i c a n auguria a n d haruspicium b o r e w i t n e s s . T h u s
A u g u s t u s w a s d u l y a u t h o r i s e d t o u s e t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s o f augurium
t o c o n t i n u e t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f p o l i ti c a l s o c ie t y i n t o a n a t u r e w h o s e
o r d e r , in t e r m s o f 6p06<; Aoyoq, h a d b e e n e x t ra o r d i n a r i l y r e s to re d . I t
w a s a g o l d e n a g e o f pax a n d fortuna t h a t w a s a c c o r d i n g l y n o w c o m
i n g a b o u t . W e s h a ll n o w t r a c e s o m e l i t e r a r y e x a m p l e s o f h o w t h is
n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c ia l r e a l it y w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d .
2 A 6 . Augustus' Messianism and the p a x d e o r u m
I n Res Gestae c . 1 1 w e re ad o f t h e a l t a r o f Fortuna Redux, c o n s e c r a t e d
b y t h e s e n a t e b e f o r e t h e t e m p l e o f Honor a n d Virtus a t t h e C a p e n a n
G a t e , i n t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r A u g u s t u s ' s a f e r e t u r n (pro reditu meo). I m
m ed ia t e l y fo l l o win g , i n c . 1 2 , w e a l so fin d t h a t A u g u s tu s d e sc r ib e s
t h e pax t h a t h e b r i n g s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a r e t u r n i n g a g e o f p e a c e ,p l e n t y a n d h a p p i n e s s . T h a t c o n t e x t c a n b e r e a d a l r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y
w o r k o f V e r g i l . I n Eclogues 4 w e r e a d o f a n e w a g e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e a n c i e n t k i n g d o m o f S a t u r n , i n w h i c h t h e V i r g i n A s t r a e a o r J u s t i c e
is t o r e t u r n , h a v i n g b e e n t h e l a s t o f t h e g o d s t o l e a v e t h e e a r t h .
T h e " l a s t a g e (ultima aetas)" f o r e t o l d b y t h e S i b y l l i n e b o o k s (Cumaei
carminis) h a d c o m e , w h i c h w a s t h e a g e o f t h e r a c e o f i r o n (ferrea).
N o w w i t h t h e b i r t h o f t h e b o y - c h i l d (nascenti puero), t h e g o l d e n a g er e t u r n s t o t h e e a r t h (aetas aurea mundo), a n d w i t h it t h e k i n g d o m o f
S a t u r n a n d A s t r a e a g o d d e s s o f J u s t i c e (iam redit et Virgo, redeunt Saturnina
regno). T h u s t h e aetas aurea is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d i v i n e c h i l d b o r n o f
a V i r g i n . T h e puer is a d d r e s s e d a s : " d e a r o f f sp r i n g o f t h e g o d s (cara
deum suboles), g r e a t s o u r c e o f g r o w t h f r o m J u p p i t e r (magnum incre-
mentum lows)" (I. 4 9 ) A l t h o u g h w e m a y d e s c r i b e th i s o d e a s " m e s
s i a n i c , " it is i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e g o l d e n a g e t h a t is h e r ein v i ew is n o t o n e t h a t ex i s t s e t e rn a l ly a s t h e g o a l o f h i s to ry , b u t is
r a t h e r a r e t u r n i n g g o l d e n a g e (Eclogues 4 , / . 4 - 1 0 ) .6 6
" T h e g r e a t s e r i e s
6 6
A J . B o y l e , The Eclogues of Virgil: Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Latin Text,
( M e l b o u r n e : H a w t h o r n P r e s s 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 m e n t i o n s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e s , t h e r e w e r e t o b e t e n a g e s w i t h t h e la s t r u l e d b y A p o l l o . T h e G r e a t
Y e a r (magnus ordo) i s a n a s t r o l o g i c a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f a v a s t p e r i o d o ft i m e c o m p l e t e d w h e n t h e p l a n e t s o c c u p i e d t h e p o s i t i o n s t h e y h a d h e l d a t t h e b e g i n
n i n g o f t h e w o r l d . S e e H e s i o d , Works and Days, and c f . P lato Repub. 4 1 5 A - C . S e e
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5 6 C H A P T E R T W O
s i g n i f i c a n t m e a n s f o r a c h i e v i n g s u c h a r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y w a s A u g u s t u s '
a u g u r a l o ffic e a n d a c t s , c e n t r a l as w e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e w e r e
t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . I n d e e d , s u c h a c u l t w a s a s a c r a m e n t a l n e c e s
s i ty g iv en th e i n s t ab i l i t y p r o m is e d b y a cy c li c v i ew o f h i s to ry : sp i r
i t u a l p o w e r w a s e x e r c i s e d o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y b y t h e Pontifex
Maximus w h o c o n t r o l l e d t h e c u l ti c m e a n s o f s e c u r i n g a n d p r o t r a c t
i n g t h e pax deorum. C e r t a i n l y V e r g i l i n t h e F o u r t h Eclogue h a s t r a n
s c e n d e d s u c h a c y c li c v i e w w h i c h it o t h e r w i s e p r e s u p p o s e s . W e a r e
f a r c l o s e r i n t h e s e l i n e s , a s N i s b e t h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t o t h e J u d a e o
C h r i s t i a n i d e a t h a t : " w h e n a n e w c r e a t i o n is c o m p l e t e t h e r e is n o
s e c o n d d e t e r i o r a t i o n . " 7 1
B u t V e r g i l h e r e a s s o c i a t e s t h e aetas aurea, w h o s e t u r n i n t h e c y c l e
o f Fortuna h a s c o m e r o u n d , u n i q u e l y w i t h t h e b i r t h o f a b o y - c h i l d
(nascenti puero; I. 8 ) . T h a t b i r t h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f t h e
V i r g i n A s t r e a (Virgo) a n d t h e k i n g d o m o f S a t u r n , a n d t h e " d e s c e n t
o f a n e w o ff s p r in g f r o m h i g h e s t h e a v e n (nova progenies caelo demittitur
alto; I. 5 - 6 ) . " T h e c h i ld :
will receive the gift of the life of the gods and will see gods,
ilk deum vitam accipiet divosque videbit,
mixed with heroes and himself by them will be seen,
permixtos heroas et ipse videbitur Mis,
and will rule the globe that he sets at peace by his paternal virtues
pacatumque reget patriis virtutibus orbem.
I 1 5 - 1 7
T h e r e fo ll ow s a n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t a r i s e s d e v o i d o f s e r p e n t s a n d t h e i r
p o i s o n , w h e r e g o a t s p r o d u c e m i lk i n a b u n d a n c e a n d t h e r e n e e d b e
n o f e a r o f l i o n s . T h e e a r t h u n t i l l e d a b o u n d s w i t h fr ui t (/. 1 8 - 2 5 ) .
B u t th e p a s t r e p e a t s it se lf i n t h e f u t u r e , a n d t h e r e is a s e c o n d T i p h y s ,
a s e c o n d v o y a g e o f A r g o , a n d a s e c o n d A c h i l l e s s e n t t o T r o y
( / . 2 6 - 3 6 ) . B u t w h e n t h e c h i l d b e c o m e s a n a d u l t , t r a d e b y s e a w i l l
c e a s e b e c a u s e e v e r y l a n d w il l b e s el f- su ff ic ie n t i n a b u n d a n c e . Y o k e
a n d o x e n , a n d p r u n i n g h o o k , s h a l l b e c a s t a s i d e . L a m b s w i l l p r o
d u ce w o o l o f d i f f e ren t c o lo u r s (/. 3 7 -4 5 ) . Su ch i s t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e
aetas aurea u s h e r e d i n w i t h t h e b i r t h o f t h e c h i l d . T h e pax deorum
a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t h e c h il d h a s n o w e x t e n d e d t o a ll t h e g l o b e , a n d
e x t e n d s b e y o n d t h e r e s t o r e d m o r a l o r d e r o f h u m a n s o ci e ty t o t h e
n a t u r a l o r d e r i t s e l f (pacatum que reget patriis virtutibus orbem ).
N i s b e t ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 6 1 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E RI A L C U L T 5 7
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o i n q u i r e w h o m V e r g i l i n t e n d e d t h e c h i l d t o b e .
A s i n i u s P o l l i o , t h e c o n s u l w h o i n 4 0 B . C . n e g o t i a t e d t h e t r e a t y o f
B r u n d i s i u m u n i t i n g A n t h o n y a n d O c t a v i a n , . is m e n t i o n e d i n t h e t e x t
(/ . 12). 7 2 B u t c l e a r l y t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s n e w - b o r n c h i l d w o u l d
h a v e b e e n h i g h l y e m b a r r a s s i n g if n o t a c t u a l l y d a n g e r o u s fo r P o l li o
i n v i e w o f t h e m a s t e r s w h o m h e c l e a rl y s e r v e d . E i t h e r , a s h a s m o s t
p l a u s i b l y b e e n s u g g e s t e d , V e r g i l r e f e r s t o t h e e x p e c t e d c h i l d o f O c t a
v i a n a n d S c r i b o n i a , o r t h e c h i l d is s i m p l y a n id e a l b u c o l i c i m a g e .7 3
B u t a c c o r d i n g to w h a t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y N i s b e t a s t h e ' e a s t e r n '
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e E c l o g u e , V e r g i l d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i ly n e e d t o
h a v e a n y p a r t i c u l a r b i r t h in m i n d . T h e r e w e r e a w h o l e v a r i e t y o f
e a s t e r n re l ig i o us e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d c o n n o t a t i o n s , f r om t h e A l e x a n d r i a n
f es ti va l o f H e l i o s w h e r e t h e i n i t i a t e d p r o c l a i m e d t h e i n c r e a s e o f l i g h t
f o l lo w i n g a V i r g i n b i r t h , t h r o u g h H o r u s b o r n o f I si s, t o J e w i s h
M e s s i a n i s m (Is. 7 , 1 4) . T h e i m a g e o f t h e d i v i n e c h i l d is p a r t a n d p a r
c e l o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a m i l l e n n i a l f u t u r e .7 4
T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e puer is h o w e v e r fo r o u r p u r p o s e s i r r e l e v a n t . B y
t h e t i m e t h a t V e r g i l h a d w r i t t e n t h e Georgics ( 29 B . C . ) , h e h a d b e c o m e
f ri en d o f M a e c e n a s a n d m e m b e r of h is c ir c le a r o u n d O c t a v i a n .7 5
I n
Georgics 1, 2 4 - 4 2 , h e c l e a r l y r e f le c t s, t w o y e a r s a ft e r A c t i u m , t h e
a m b i g u i t y i n t e n t i o n a l l y c u l t i v a t e d b y t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t r e g a r d i n g
C a e s a r ' s d iv i n it y . N o t y e t d i v i n e , V e r g i l n e v e r t h e l e s s p o n d e r s o n :
tuque adeo, quern mox quae sint habitura deorum
concilia, incertum est, urbisne invisere, Caesar,terrarumque velis curam te maximus orbis
auctorem Jrugum tempestatumque potentem
accipiet, cingens matema tempora myrto,
7 2
C . B a i l e y , Religion in Virgil, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 1 9 2 , s a w it p u r e l y in
t e r m s o f t h e e x p e c t e d h e i r o f O c t a v i a n . B o y l e ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 1 1 3 l i s t s o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e sa s ( i ) t h e h o p e d - f o r c h i l d o f A n t h o n y a n d O c t a v i a ( s i s t e r o f O c t a v i a n ) , ( i i ) A s i n i u s
G a l l u s , P o l l i o ' s b a b y , ( iii) A i o n H e l l e n i s t i c g o d o f t i m e a n d r e n e w a l , ( iv ) M a r c e l l u s ,
O c t a v i a ' s s o n b y a p r e v i o u s m a r r i a g e .7 3
W . B e r g , Early Virgil, ( L o n d o n : A t h l o n e P re s s 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 1 7 2 p r e s e n t s t h e
s o l u t i o n t h a t puer i s a n i d e a l i m a g e t h r o u g h o u t t h e Eclogues f o r h i s b u c h o l i c h e r o e s ,
h i s s h e p h e r d p o e t s w h o m u s t h a v e c h i l d - l i k e s o u l s . D a p h n i s h a s t h i s t i t l e i n Eclogues
5 , 5 4 , cf. 4 , 1 1 w h e r e h e i s " a d o r n m e n t o f t h e w o r l d a n d a d o r n m e n t o f t h e a g e . " T h e
iuvenis in Eclogue 1 a n d t h e puer iuvenis a n d D a p h n i s a r e d e i f i e d h e r o e s . V e r g i l ' s r e l a
t i o n t o P o l l i o w a s l i t e r a r y a n d n o t p o l i t i c a l , a n d h e w a s h o n o u r i n g h i m w i t h a l l u
s i o n s t o h i s p o e t r y ( p p . 1 5 8 - 1 6 2 ) .7 4
N i s b e t ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 6 2 .7 5
B a i l e y ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 8 7 1 9 6 .
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5 8 C H A P T E R T W O
an deus immensi venias maris ac tua nautae
numina sola colant, tibi serviat ultima T huk. . .
/ . 2 4 - 3 07 6
C l e a r l y h e r e t h e puer w h o s e b i r t h w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e pax deorum
s h o w n i n t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r i n w h i c h e a r t h y i e ld e d its b o u n t y a n d
w h o w o u l d r u l e t h e g l o b e i n Eclogue 4 , 1 7 (reget patriis virtutibus orbem )
h a s b e c o m e O c t a v i a n . I n Georgics 1,27 i t is O c t a v i a n w h o , w h e n
a c c e p t e d b y t h e g o d s i n t o t h e i r n u m b e r , w ill p r o v e t o b e b o t h t h e
" i n c r e a s e r o f t h e c r o p s (auctorem frugum)" a n d " t h e m a s t e r o f t h e s e a
s o n s (tempestatum que po tmtern)", a n d w e l c o m e d a s s u c h b y t h e " g r e a t
w o r l d (maxim us orbis)" (I. 2 6 ) B u t a p p a r e n t l y t h e g o d s h a v e n o t y e t
d e c i d e d t o a d m i t O c t a v i a n t o t h e i r r a n k s . L a t e r V e r g i l c h a s t i s e s t h e
g o d s o n O c t a v i a n ' s b e h a l f f or th e i r e n v y o f h i m (/. 5 0 2 - 5 0 3 ) , a n d
e n t r e a t s t h e m : " P r e v e n t n o t t hi s y o u n g m a n (iuvenem) f r o m a i d i n g a n
a g e u p t u r n e d (everso . . . succurrere saeculo)" (I. 5 0 0 - 5 0 1 ) T h e puer h a s
b e c o m e a iuvenis, l ik e D a p h n i s i n t h e E c l o g u e s .7 7
W h e n V e r g i l w r i t e s t h e Aeneid ( 2 9 - 1 9 B . C . ) , A u g u s t u s d u l y e m e r g e s
a s b r i n g e r o f t h e g o l d e n a g e a n d a t l e a s t d e s t i n e d f or d i v i n i ty . T r o j a n
C a e s a r s ha l l d e s c e n d f r o m J u l i u s " w h o s h a l l l i m i t h is e m p i r e w i t h
t h e o c e a n , a n d h is f a m e w i t h t h e s t a r s . " ( 1 ,2 8 7 ) W h e n V e n u s h i s
m o t h e r w e l c o m e s h i m t o h e a v e n , t h e n " t h e h a r s h a g e s s h a ll s o ft en
w h e n w a r s h a v e c e a s e d (aspera turn positis mitescent saecula bellis)" (1 ,291)
T h u s i n t h e f a m o u s li n e s V e r g i l c a n s i n g t h e p r o p h e c y o f t h e S i b y l
h e a r d i n t h e u n d e r w o r l d :
Hie vir, hie est, tibi quern promitti saepius audis,
Augustus Caesar, divi genus, aurea condet
saecula qui rursus Latio regnata per arva
Saturno quondam. . . .
6 , 7 9 1 - 7 9 47 8
7 6
" A n d Y o u O C a e s a r , w h a t t h e c o u n c i l s o f t h e g o d s w il l d e c i d e f or y o u e r e
l o n g , o n l y i n t h i s i s u n c e r t a i n , w h e t h e r y o u c h o o s e t o l o o k t o t h e c a r e o f t h e c i t y
a n d o f [ a l l ] l a n d s , a n d t h e m i g h t y w o r l d w e l c o m e y o u a s t h e a u g m e n t o r o f t h e i r
c r o p s a n d t h e p o t e n t a t e o f t h e s e a s o n s , w r e a t h i n g y o u r b r o w w i t h y o u r d i v i n e
m o t h e r ' s m y r d e , o r w h e t h e r y o u c o m e a s g o d o f t h e v a s t s e a a n d s a i lo r s w o r s h i p
y o u r d i v i n i t y a l o n e , t o y o u f a r t h e st T h u l e w i l l s u b m i t . . ."7 7
S e e n o t e 4 9 a b o v e . S e e a l s o Georg. 3 , 1 3 - 4 4 ; 4 , 5 6 0 . S e e a l so H o r a c e Epode 1 6 ;
O v i d , Metamorph., 1 5 , 8 6 7 - 8 7 0 . C f. R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 7 5 - 1 8 0 .
7 8 « T h i s j s t h e m a r i 5 m i s i s n e w h o m y o u h a v e o ft e n h e a r e d p r o m i s e d , A u g u s t u s
C a e s a r , s o n o f G o d , w h o s ha l l f o u n d t h e g o l d e n a g e o n c e m o r e o v e r t h e field s
w h e r e S a t u r n o n c e r e i g n e d . . . "
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THE F O UNDAT I O NS O F T H E I M P E RI AL CUL T 5 9
T h e g o l d e n a g e h a s c o m e r o u n d a g a i n i n t h e c y c l e o f fortuna o r
e iu o cpu iv r i, a n d a sp ec if ic p e r s o n is t o b r i n g i t— A u g u s tu s t h e vir a n d
n e i t h e r t h e puer n o r t h e iuvenis. T h e g o ld e n ag e a s a t t h e first, a n d
t h e k i n g d o m w h i c h S a t u r n ru l e s , h a v e r e t u r n e d i n t h e u n e n d i n g
c y c l e. W e h e r e se e t h e m i r a c u l o u s a c h i e v e n t o f t h e pax deorum t h r o u g h
t h e i m p e r i a l , a u g u r i a l r i te s . T h e pax t h a t h e h a s t h u s e x e c u t e d s u b
d u e s n a t u r e a s w e l l a s s o c i e t ie s , a n d h a s s t a b i l is e d a n d m a d e r e l a
t iv e ly p e r m a n e n t t h e r e t u r n o f t h e g o l d e n a g e .
I t w a s n e c e s s a r y fo r A u g u s t u s t o c o n t r o l t h e a p p a r a t u s o f p r o p h e c y
a l o n g w i t h augurium a n d haruspicium. I n Res Gestae 7 , 3 A u g u s t u s h a d
l is te d h i s m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e quindecim virum sacris faciundis w h o s e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i t w a s t o c o n s u l t t h e S i b y l l in e b o o k s . H i s m e m b e r s h i p
a m o u n t e d t o c o n t r o l o f t h a t b o d y . A s S u e t o n i u s p o i n t s o u t (Augustus
3 1 , 1 - 2 ) , o n t h e d e a t h o f L e p i d u s h e a s s u m e d t h i s o ff ic e , a n d c o l
l e c t e d a n o n y m o u s o r a c l e s i n c l u d i n g s o m e p a r t s o f t h e S i b y ll in e o r a c l e s
o f w h i c h h e c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e hi s o w n a p p r o v e d v e r s i o n .
H e b u r n e d m o r e t h a n t w o t h o u s a n d b o o k s o f o r a c le s i n g e n e r a l c i r
c u l a t i o n , b u t a l s o r e m o v e d s o m e o f t h e b o o k s o f t h e S i b y l l in e o r a
c le s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e saecula aurea, a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s
f or its e x i s t e n c e a n d c o n t i n u a n c e w e r e s e c u r e ly u n d e r h i s c o n t r o l .
V e r g i l h a d l i v e d t o s e e n e i t h e r t h e d e i f i c a t i o n n o r t h e i n a u g u r a
t i o n o f t h e saecula aurea, w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n 1 7 B . C . o n e y e a r a f te r
h i s d ea th , a s we sh a l l n o w b r i e f ly d i s cu s s .
P A R T B . T H E I N A U G U R A TI O N A N D R E C E P T I O N OF
THE I M P E R I A L C U L T
A S ib y ll in e o r a c l e w a s p r o d u c e d w h i c h p r o p h e s i e d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n
o f t h e ludi saeculares i n o r d e r t o i n a u g u r a t e t h e n e w a g e ( 1 7 B . C . ) .
T h i s w a s o n e p o s i ti v e f ru it fr o m A u g u s t u s ' m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e quin-
decimviri sacris faciundis b e f o r e h i s a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f PontifexMaximus o n L e p i d u s ' d e a t h ( 1 3 B . C . ) . H o r a c e c o m p o s e d t h e Carmen
Saeculare f o r t h i s o c c a s i o n , i n w h i c h s p e c i a l h o n o u r w a s g i v e n t o
A p o l l o a n d D i a n a , t h e p a t r o n g o d s o f A u g u s t u s o n t h e P a l a t i n e h i ll .
T h e r e w as a l o ca l t e m p le o f A p o l lo i n t h e v i c in i t y o f t h e field o f
A c t i u m o n w h i c h O c t a v i a n w o n t h e c r i t i c a l b a t t l e i n 3 1 B . C . A s o n e
o f t h e a ct s o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n , t hi s t e m p l e w a s e x t e n d e d , a n d c o i n s
w e r e s t ru c k i n A s i a M i n o r s h o w i n g O c t a v i a n w e a r i n g a l a u r e l c r o w nf a s h i o n e d lik e t h a t o f A p o l l o . B u t i n R o m e i ts e lf t h e t e m p l e o f A p o l l o
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6 0 C H A P T E R T W O
w a s d e d i c a t e d n e x t t o O c t a v i a n ' s h o m e o n t h e P a l a t i n e ( 9 th O c t o b e r ,
2 8 B . C . ) , o n t h e d o o r s o f w h i c h d i s p l a y e d t h e f o r m of Apollo Vindex.
I n t h e l i b r a r y a d j o i n i n g t h e t e m p l e w e r e t o b e f o u n d a s t a t u e o f
O c t a v i a n , habitu ac statu Apollonis ( S u e t o n i u s , Aug. 2 9 , 3 ) . 7 9 A s w e h a v e
s e e n , t h is w a s t h e f o r m o f d r e s s w h i c h a M a r c u s F u r i u s C a m i l l u s
c o u l d o n ly h a v e w o r n w i t h i r r e v e r e n c e ( Liv y 5 , 2 3 , 4 - 1 1 ) , b u t w h i c h
t h e A u g u s t u s , o f s u p e r h u m a n p r o p o r t i o n s (visa species viri maioris quam
pro hum ano habitu au gustiorisque), c o u l d n o w w e a r a s b e f i t t i n g h i s status
n e a r i n g d i v i n i t y ( 8 , 6 , 1 2 ) .
T h u s t h e first p o i n t o f a l o n g l i n e o f d e v e l o p m e n t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d
t h a t w a s t o l e a d t o t h e E m p e r o r b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s A p o l l o , Sol Invictus,
o f a u n i v e r s a l i m p e r i a l a n d p a g a n r e l ig i o n . A p o l l o w a s t h e g o d w h o ,
a c c o r d i n g to P r o p e r t i u s , h a d e st a b li s he d b y h is c o m m a n d t o O c t a v i a n
a n e w w o r l d o r d e r a s mundi servator.80 I t w a s A p o l l o w h o h a d p r e s i d e d
a t A c t i u m .8 1
W e s h o u l d h o w e v e r n o t e t h a t d e d i c a t i o n o f t h e Forum
Iulium a n d t h e t e m p l e o f Divus Julius i n 2 9 B . C . e m p h a s i s e d t h e c o n
n e c t i o n w i t h V e r g i l ' s filius dei, genus deorum a n d t h u s b o u n d e s c h a t o -
l o g y a n d c u l t s e c u r e l y t o g e t h e r . T h e carmen saeculare i n v o k e d A p o l l o
a n d n o t J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s .8 2
L e t u s s e e h o w t h e Ara Pacis p r o v e d
t o b e a n i c o n o f t h is d e v e l o p m e n t .
2B 1 . The A r a P a c i s and the p a x d e o r u m
T h e Ara Pacis, d e d i c a t e d i n 9 B . C . , g a v e p r o m i n e n c e t o A u g u s t u s
a n d A g r i p p a a s v e i le d sacerdotes a b o u t t o p r e s id e o v e r t h e sac r i fi ce a sp a r t o f t h e augurium pacis t h a t p r o v i d e d t h e pax deorum. T h i s w a s t h e
e v e n t t h a t w e h a v e a r g u e d w a s a n t i c i p a t e d b y b o t h L i v y ( 1 , 1 9 , 1 - 3 ;
2 8 , 1 2 , 1 2 ) a n d b y L u c a n a s t h e o u t c o m e t o t h e l a t t e r 's u n f i n i s h e d
e p i c o f t h e C i v i l W a r ( 2 A 4 . 2 . 1 a n d 4 . 3 . 1 ) . T h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e
Ara a s s o c i a t e d t h e s e c u l ti c a c t s w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e saeculum
aureum. O n th e le ft p a n e l o f t h e ea s t e rn s id e w e f ind a d e p i c t i o n o f
T e l l u s (P l a t e 2 ), w h o s e l o in s a b o u n d w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e e a r t hp r o m i s e d a s i n V e r g i l , Eclogues, 4 , 1 8 - 2 5 . I n t h e Carmen Saeculare,
c o m p o s e d f o r t h e Ludi Saeculares o f 17 B . C . , H o r a c e h a d t a k e n u p
t h is t h e m e a n d s u n g :
7 9
F i s h w i c k (1 9 8 7 ) , 1 , 1 p p . 8 1 - 8 2 .8 0
P r o p e r t i u s 4 , 6 , 3 7 .8 1
S e e a l s o V e r g i l , Aen. 8 , 7 0 4 - 7 0 5 : " A c t iu s h a e c c e r n e n s a r c u m i n t e d e b a t A p o l l od e s u p e r . . ."
8 2
F i s h w i c k (1 9 8 7 ) 1 ,1 p . 8 8 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T 6 1
Fertilis Jrugum pecorisque Tellus
spicea donet Cererem corona
nutriant fetus et aquae salubres,
et Iovis Aurae. . . Carmen Saeculare, 2 9 - 3 3 .8 3
O x e n a n d s h e e p a c c o m p a n y Tellus i n t h e p a n e l w h i l e t w o n y m p h s ,
o n e w i t h a s w a n a n d t h e o t h e r a d r a g o n , t h e Aurae Velificantes, s y m
b o l i s e a i r a n d w a t e r r e s p e c t i v e l y ( P la t e s 3 a n d 4) . M o r e o v e r , t h e
i n t e r n a l d e c o r a t i o n s o f t h e e n c l o s i n g w a l l c o n t i n u e t h is t h e m e o f t h e
saeculum aureum. T h e u p p e r s tr i p o f t h is d e c o r a t i o n " is p u n c t u a t e d b y
t w e l v e l u x u r i a n t g a r l a n d s , m a d e u p o f d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o f f r u i t — g r a p e s ,
figs, a p p l e s , p e a r s , o li ve s , p l u m s , p i n e c o n e s , p o m e g r a n a t e s — a n d e v e n
s p o n t a n e o u s v e g e t a t i o n — o a k , iv y l a u re l , a n d p o p p i e s . "8 4
T h u s t h e
saeculum aureum is t h e u n m i s t a k a b l e a n d i n t e n t i o n a l p o i n t o f t h e i c o n o
g r a p h y o f t h e augurium pa cis. A r o u n d t h e h e a d o f T e l l u s ' c h i l d c l u s
t e r t h e p r o d u c e o f s u b e r a b u n d a n t n a t u r e ( P la te 5 ).
I n 1 3 B . C . , o n L e p i d u s ' d e a t h A u g u s t u s b e c a m e Ponttfex Maximus.
I t w as a t t h i s p o in t t h a t h e h a n d e d o v e r t h e o ff ic ia l r e s id e n c e o f t h e
Pontfex Maximus i n t h e f o r u m t o t h e V e s t a l V i r g i n s , a n d t u r n e d h i s
o w n h o u s e i n t o t h e T e m p l e o f V e s t a . H e r e , i l l u m i n a t e d b y a fire
t h a t w a s e v e r b u r n i n g , w o r s h i p w a s o f f e r e d t o V e s t a a n d t h e Penates
o f A u g u s t u s .8 5
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e h o w , w i t h t h e r e m o v a l o f h i s
o w n h o u s e a n d its h o u s e h o l d g o d s f r o m t h e p r i v a t e t o t h e p u b l i c
d o m a i n , A u g u s t u s h a d g i v e n t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f a n c e s t o r w o r
s h i p a n e w a n d p u b l i c f o c u s . O a t h s w e r e n o w t o b e s w o r n b y h i s
d i v i n e Genius. I t w a s t h e s w e a r i n g b y t h e Genius o f t h e e m p e r o r t h a t
w a s t h e e s s e n t ia l f e a t u r e o f t h a t c u l t u s o p p o s e d b y e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .
2 B 2 . L a r e s and P e n a t e s : From M a n e s to G e n i u s
I n 3 0 B . C . t h e s e n a t e h a d p a s s e d a d e c r e e t h a t a l i b a t i o n b e p o u r e d
t o O c t a v i a n ' s Genius a t e v e r y b a n q u e t , b o t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e ( D i o5 1 , 1 9 , 7 ) . T h u s t h e c u l t o f t h e Genius o f O c t a v i a n f o u n d i ts w a y i n t o
8:* F e r t i l e i n c r o p s a n d c a t t l e s h a l l M o t h e r E a r t h ,
c r o w n C e r e s w i t h h e r g a r l a n d o f w o v e n c o r n ,
m a y t h e y i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u c e t h o s e h e a l t h y r a i n s ,
a n d J o v e ' s g e n t l e w i n d s .8 4 G . S a u r o n , L e M e s s a g e s y m b o l i q u e d e s r i n c e a u x d e l 'A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , in
CRAI 1 2 6 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 8 1 - 1 0 1 ; Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 1 7 2 - 1 8 3 ; G a l i n s k y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p .
4 5 8 - 4 6 8 ; B i a n ch i ( 19 9 4 ) , p . 2 5 .B f' R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 7 7 - 1 7 9 .
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6 2 C H A P T E R T W O
p r i v a t e h o u s e s , s i n c e l i b a t i o n s h a d b e c o m e a r e g u l a r f e a t u r e o f t h e
R o m a n d i n n e r .8 6
N o w i n 12 B . C . , w h e n h e h a d b e c o m e Pontifex
Maximus, t h e e m p e r o r ' s Genius w as m a d e p a r t o f t h e o ff ic ia l o a th o f
t h e s t a t e . 8 7 A l t a r s w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Lares Augusti (Plate 10) .
O n e c ri ti c al f e a t u r e o f R e p u b l i c a n , R o m a n r e l ig i o n , w h i c h s h o u l d
n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d , w a s t h e h o u s e h o l d c u l t s t o a n c e s t r a l genii, a n d t o
t h e Lares a n d Penates, t h e s o - c a ll e d g o d s o f h e a r t h a n d h o m e . T h e
h e a r t h o f t h e h o u s e w a s s a c r e d , f e s t o o n e d w i t h flow ers a t e a c h p h a s e
o f t h e l u n a r m o n t h , a t Kalendae, Nonae a n d Idus. T h e r e b u r n e d th e
f i r e t h a t w a s c o n s i d e r e d s a c r e d . H e r e e a c h d a y t h e paterfamilias offered
a p o r t io n o f foo d , ass i gn ed to th e sacr i f ic ia l flames , fo r th e Genii o f
t h e d e p a r t e d o f t h e f am i l y, w h o w e r e t h e s e m i - d i v i n e Lares et Penates 88
T h o u g h d o u b t s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d a b o u t t h e p r e c i se h i s t o ri c a l
o r i g i n o f t h e c u l t , O v i d (Fasti 3 , 5 5 ,5 7 ) p o r t r a y s t h e d e v e l o p e d f o r m
o f t h e cu l t o f t h e g o d d es s Larentia as a f e s t i v a l o f t h e d ead .8 9
T h e
p r i v a t e c e r e m o n i e s f o r t h e Lares t h a t O v i d d e s c r i b e s s e e m t o b e
a n c i e n t . I t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t o r ig i n al ly th e Di Manes w e r e
s h a d o w y a n d o n l y v a g u e l y p e r s o n a l b e i n g s , m a d e fu lly p e r s o n a l o n l y
b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n c e p t o f p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y i n t h e first
c e n t u r y B . C . C l e a r l y t h e d e p a r t e d c a n n o t b e v e n e r a t e d a s i n d i v i d
u a l p e r s o n a l i t ie s b e f o r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e id e a o f p e r s o n a l
i m m o r t a l i t y h a s t a k e n p l a c e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e f o r e i t m i g h t b e t r u e
t h a t : " G e n e r a l l y h o w e v e r , w h e r e t h e s o u ls a r e t h o u g h t t o b e p r e s e n t
o n e m a d e a s a c ri fi c e t o t h e m , " t h is c o u l d o n l y b e p o s s i b l e w h e n
s u c h s o ul s w e r e c o n c e i v e d a s d i s ti n c t a n d d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e p e r s o n a l
e n t i ti e s , t h a t is t o s a y w h e n t h e c o n c e p t o f p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y h a d
a c h i e v e d a c l e a r a r t i c u l a t i o n .9 0
8 6 Ibid. p p . 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 .8 7
F . B o m e r , D e r E i d b e i m G e n i u s d e s K a i s e r s , i n Athen. 4 4 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 7 7 - 1 3 3 .8 8
B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 6 5 : " L a g r a n d e f et e d u G e n i u s e s t a l 'a n n i v e r s a i r e d e n a i s -
s a n c e d u p a t e r f a m i l i a s . M a i s o r i g i n a l l e m e n t l e G e n i u s e st b i e n a u t r e : p r i n c i p e d ef e c o n i t e g e n e t i q u e , c o m m e l ' i n d i q u e s o n n o m , e t a s s u r a n t p a r l ' i n d i v id u a u q u e l il
e s t a t t a c h e l a p e r p e t u i t e d e s g e n e r a t i o n s . "8 9
E . S a m t e r , Familienfeste der Griechen und Romer, ( B er li n: R e i m e r 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 1 1 5 - 1 1 7
w h e r e h e c o n c l u d e s : " D a n u n d a s F e s t L a r e n t a , d i e L a r e n t a l i e n , e i n T o t e n f e s t i s t ,
s o i s t a u s s e i n e r B e d e u tu n g e i n S c h l u s s a u f d e n g l e i c h a r t i g e n C h a r a k te r d e s L a r e n k u l t e s
e r l a u b t . " W i s s o w a ( 1 8 9 0 ) h a d a r g u e d a g a i n s t t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e c u l t f r o m t h e
w o r s h i p o f t h e s o u l s o f t h e d e p a r t e d , p . 1 1 9 .9 0 Ibid. p . 1 2 1 : " U b e r a l l a b e r , w o d i e S e e l e n a n w e s e n d g e d a c h t w e r d e n , o p f e r t
m a n i h n e n . D a r u m w e r d e n d i e S e e l e n d er A h n e n v o n d e n R o m e r a u s se r a m G r a b
u n d i m H a u s e a u c h a m K r e u z w e g v e r e hr t ." S e e a l s o E . J o b b e - D u v a l , Les Morts mal-faisants: "Larvae, Lem ures" d'apres le droit et les croyances populaires des Romains, (Paris :
R e c u e i l S i r e y 1 9 2 4 ) , p p . 2 - 6 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 6 3
T h e c h a n g e f r o m t h e Di Manes as a g en e ra l i s ed co l l ec t i v i t y o f t h e
d e p a r t e d t o a d e s i g n a t i o n o f a p e r s o n a l s u r v i v i n g s o u l is m a r k e d w e l l
i n e x a m p l e s t a k e n f ro m t h e e x c a v a t i o n s u n d e r S t. P e t e r ' s o f t h e
p a g a n t o m b s t h a t s t o o d o r ig i n a l l y o n t h e V a t i c a n h i l ls i d e. A n i n d i v i d
u a l n a m e f o ll o w in g th i s g e n e r a l d e s i g n a t i o n s h o w s t h e c o n s e r v a t i s m
o f fu n e ra ry ep i t ap h s in ev o k in g a w o r ld v i ew th a t h as b e en t r an sce n d ed .
C i c e r o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d r e a m o f S c i p i o A f r i c a n u s (De Republica
6 ,1 0 ) i n w h i c h h e is a l iv e a n d w i t h t h e i m m o r t a l s i n t h e m i l k y w a y ,
o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o u l s d e s c r i b e d i n A e n e a s ' v i s i t t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d
i n V e r g i l , Aeneid, 6 , is a w h o l e c o n c e p t u a l w o r l d a w a y f r o m e p i t a p h s
su ch a s sit sibi terra levis ( " m a y t h e e a r t h r e s t l ig h t u p o n y o u " ) a n d
t h e a m o r p h o u s u n i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h g o d d e s s e x p r e s s e d i n s u c h l i n e s
as : cinis sum cinis terra est terra dea est ergo ego mortua n on sum ( " I am ash ,
a s h is e a r t h , e a r t h i s d i v i n e , t h e r e f o r e I a m n o t d e a d " ) .9 1
T h e r e p
r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s u c h i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e V a t i c a n m a u s o l e a a s M a r c i u s
H e r m e s o r M a r c i a T h r a s o n i s , o r t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e is le s o f th e
b l e s s e d o r t h e B a c c h i c m e n a g e r i e w h e r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l w o u l d r e p o s e
i n e t e r n a l b l e s s e d n e s s , a l l r e v e a l e d a c u l t u r e w h i c h , f r o m t h e l a t e
first c e n t u r y B . C . , h a d b e c o m e o b s e ss e d w i t h p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y .9 2
T h i s c h a n g e to a c o n v i c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y u n d o u b t e d l y
se rv ed to g iv e sh a rp e r d e f in i t i o n t o t h e genii o f h e a r t h a n d h o m e , t h e
Lares a n d Penates, w h o w e r e n o l o n g e r t h e g e n e r a l i s e d s p i r i t s o f t h e
d e a d b u t c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s d i s t i n c d y s u r v iv i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . I t w a s
t hi s i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t A u g u s t u s c o u l d n o w d e p l o y in m a k i n g t h e
e m p e r o r w o r s h i p o f t h e e a s t e r n c ul ts c o n s i s t e n t w i t h R o m a n r e l ig i o u s
t r a d i t i o n . I n 7 B . C . h e s et u p t h e Lares Compitiales, t h e "Lares a t t h e
c r o s s r o a d s " w h e r e h e se t t h e i m a g e o f h is o w n Genius a m o n g s t t h e
s t a t u e s .9 3
W e h a v e p r e s e r v e d a n a l t a r o n w h i c h ministri o f a compi-
tu m a r e d e p i c t e d h o l d i n g s ta t u e t t e s o f t h e Lares a n d Genius Augusti
(Plate 11) .
W e m a y n o w s e e h o w , i n t h e u n f o l d i n g lo g ic o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,
d e if ie d i n d i v i d u a l q u a li t ie s c o u l d n o w f o r m a c o h e r e n t c o n n e c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e n e w p u b l i c c u l t o f t h e A u g u s t a n Lares a n d t h e saeculum
aureum.
91 CIL 6 , 4 , 2 9 6 0 9 a n d 9 , 3 1 8 4 d i sc u s s e d i n J . T o y n b e e a n d J . W a r d P e r k in s , The
Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations, ( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s G r e e n 1 9 5 6 ) , p p .
1 0 9 - 1 1 6 .9 2 Ibid., p p . 7 3 - 9 3 .m
R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 8 4 - 1 8 6 ; F i s h w i ck ( 1 9 8 7 ) 1 ,1 p p . 8 4 - 8 5 .
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6 4 C H A P T E R T W O
2 B 3 . The cultic deification of virtues
T h e s h a r p e n i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e Lares, t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
f r o m t h e Di Manes ( t h e " G h o s t G o d s " ) i n t o d i s t i n c t , p e r s o n a l i s e d genii,e n a b l e d a n e w p u b l i c c ul t o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s i n d i v i d u a l q u a l i ti e s t o
b e f o r m e d . S u c h q u a l i t i e s a s Concordia, Pax, Fortuna, o r Salus i n t u r n
c o n n e c t e d w e l l w i t h t h e m e s s i a n i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e s e v i r t u e s a s c h a r
a c t e r i s i n g t h e saeculum aureum. L et u s sk e t ch b r i e f ly o u r j u s t i f i ca t i o n
f o r s u c h a n a s s e r t i o n .
C u l t s o f v i r t u e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d in R e p u b l i c a n t i m e s . W e find f o r
e x a m p l e t h e t e m p l e o f Concordia, b u i l t i n 2 1 6 B . C . , v o w e d b y t h ep r a e t o r L . M a n l i u s f or d e l i v e r a n c e fr o m s e d i t i o n , o f Salus a n d Victoria
a f t e r t h e S a m n i t e W a r s , a n d o f Fors Fortuna b u i l t b y S p . C a r v i l i u s
a ft er h is c a m p a i g n a t C o m i n i u m a n d i n E t r u r i a .9 4
As such the de i f i
c a t i o n o f s u c h v i r t u e s i n e a r l y R o m a n r e l i g i o n w a s o f a p i e c e w i t h
s im i l a r p rac t i ce s i n t h e He l l en i s t i c E as t . He re we f i n d cu l t s o f N{KT|,
Eipr|vr| , n i a x i q , E u a e p e u a , E u v o u i a , O i X a v 6 p c o 7 u a , OiAoaTopyia , a n d
A i Kai oau vr ] .
9 5
T h e c u l t o f Genius Pub licus m o r e o v e r w a s t o f o r m a b r i d g e b e t w e e n
t h e p r i v a t e a n d h o m e - b a s e d l i b a t i o n s a n d t h e genii o f d e p a r t e d a n c e s
t o r s , a n d p u b l i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f Af^iioq i n t h e G r e e k c i t y s t a t e s .9 6
N o w t h e d i v i n e e s s e n c e w o r s h i p p e d w a s n o t t h a t o f s h a d o w y , i n d i
v i d u a l sp i r it s i n p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o full p e r s o n a l i t i e s b y t h e
l a t e R e p u b l i c . R a t h e r it w a s t h e c o l l e c ti v e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e s o c ia l
g r o u p . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c ul t o f t h e g o d d e s s R o m a a s a p e r s o n i fi c a ti o no f R o m e i ts e lf w as c l ea r ly l i n k ed wi th su c h an o b j e c t i f i ca t i o n o f t h e
c o l l e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y .
At f i r s t su ch d e i f i ed v i r t u es were s een a s t h e g o d o r g o d d es s t h a t
a c c o m p a n i e d t h e r e p u b l i c a n g e n e r a l . B u t f r o m t h e t i m e o f S u l l a
o n w a r d s t h e H e l l e n i s t i c t e n d e n c y w a s n o t s imply to see the de i f ied
v i r t u e s a s a c c o m p a n y i n g , b u t i n d e e d as b e i n g i n c a r n a t e in , t h e r u l e r
himself. S u l l a a d o p t e d t h e t i d e o f Felix fo r h imsel f a f te r h i s v ic to r iesi n 8 2 B . C . . F r o m t h a t t i m e h e w r o t e h i s n a m e a s L . C o r n e l i u s S u l l a
F e l i x . L i k e w i s e h is a s s o c i a t e , Q . C a e c i l i u s M e t e l l u s P i u s , u s e d t h e
t i tl e o f P iu s i n h is n a m e .9 7
C i c e r o , i n Pro Lege Manilia (6 B.C. ) , d i s -
9 4
L i v y 2 2 , 3 7 , 5 ; 2 2 , 3 3 , 7 ; 1 0 , 4 6 , 1 4 . S e e a l so F e a r s ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 8 3 4 - 8 3 5 .9 5
X e n o p h o n , Cyrop., 1 ,1 ,3 ; 8 , 1 , 2 1 - 2 , 2 8 ; 8 , 6 , 2 3 ; 8 , 4 , 6 - 8 ; 8 , 5 , 1 - 1 6 . C f. F e a r s ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,
p p . 8 4 9 - 8 5 0 .% Ibid. p p . 8 5 1 - 8 5 2 .97 Ibid. p . 8 7 7 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 6 5
t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n virtutes populi Rom ani a n d virtutes imperatoris w h e n
h e c l a im ed th a t t h e g i f t o f Fortuna a l o n g w i t h P o m p e y ' s o t h e r s u p e r
h u m a n a t t r i b u t e s (haec divina atque incredibilis virtus imperatoris)98 c o u l d
o n l y b e t h e i r s b y a c c e p t i n g P o m p e y h i m s e l f a s t h e i r i n c a r n a t i o n . A s
h e s ay s :
. . . s ince you are able to put in cha rge of the w ar a c om m an de r (impe
ratorem) in whom is a remarkable knowledge (in qu o sit eximia scientia) of
war, except ional v i r tue (singularis virtus), bril l iant authority (clarissima auc-
toritas), except ional for tune (egregia fortuna), why are you hes i ta t ing , O
R o m an s, from using this grea t benefit w hich is offered an d gr an ted
you by the immorta l gods , in o rder to p reserve and increase theRepubl ic?
Pro Lege Manilia, 1 6 . "
T h u s Virtus a n d Auctoritas co u ld a l so b e s a id n o t s im p ly t o b e cum eo
b u t r a t h e r in quo sit. Salus w a s a l s o t o a p p e a r o n c o i n s i n p r a y e r f or
P o m p e y ' s p e r s o n a l r e c o v e r y i n 5 0 B . C .1 0 0
Res Gestae 1 2 r e c o r d s t h e e r e c t i o n o f a n a l t a r n o t s i m p l y t o Pax
b u t t o Pax Augusta. T h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e a l ta r ' s r e li e f s h o w s " t h e
e p i p h a n y o f Pax, Felicitas, Concordia a n d Pietas i n t h e p e r s o n o f A u g u s t u s
a n d hi s r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n a n d u n i v e r s a l o r d e r . "1 0 1
H i s a c h i e v e
m e n t o f t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum, r e q u i r e d b y t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y
c o n v u l s i o n o f n a t u r e a s w e l l o f s o c i e t y t h a t w a s t h e c iv il w a r , w a s
t h e r e f o r e t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e d i v i n e e n t it i e s e x c l u s iv e l y i n
h i m s e l f a l o n e . T i b e r i u s w a s t o p r o v i d e t h e f in a l c o n s u m m a t i o n o f
t hi s d e v e l o p m e n t i n 1 0 A . D . w h e n h e r e d e d i c a t e d t h e t e m p l e o f
Concordia sp ec i f i ca l l y a s t h a t o f Concordia Augusta. S u c h a d j e c t i v a l
q u a l i f i ca t i o n s su ch a s Juno Sospita o r Janus Quirinus d e f i n e d " t h e s p h e r e ,
f u n c t i o n a l o r t e m p o r a l , i n w h i c h t h e d e i t y h a s m a n i f e s t e d h e r c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c p o w e r . "1 0 2
F r o m T i b e r i u s o n w a r d s w e f i n d e x a m p l e s o f t h e
c o n t i n u e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l d e i t y i n t h e c u l t o f v i r t u e s
t h a t s h o w s t h e i r g r a d u a l a s s i m i l a t i o n b y t h e g o d h e a d o f t h e I m p e r i a l
9 8
C i c e r o , Pro Leg. ManiL, 1 3 .9 9 Ibid. p . 8 8 2 : " . . . t h e V i r t u e s w o r k t h e i r b e n e f i c e n t i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e R o m a n
P e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e p e r s o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c s a v io u r ; t h e s e V i r t u e s a r e e m b o d i e d
i n h i s p e r s o n , a n d t h u s u p o n h i s s a fe t y d e p e n d s th e w e l f a r e o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h . "
F o r a fu ll d is c u s s i o n , s e e J . R . F e a r s , T h e T h e o l o g y o f V i c t o r y a t R o m e , i n ANRW
2 , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 7 9 7 - 8 0 0 .100 Ibid. p p . 8 8 2 - 8 8 3 .101 Ibid. p . 8 8 5 .102 Ibid. p . 8 8 6 .
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 6 7
s i d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f Victoria, Oikumene, a n d Tellus. A l o n g s i d e Roma
sits A u g u s t u s w i t h t h e c o r n u c o p i c s i g n o f C a p r i c o r n o v e r h is h e a d , a n d
in h i s r i g h t h a n d i s t h e lituus. Fortuna is d e p i c t e d c r o w n i n g h i m . T h e
d i v i n e augur h a s i s s u e d i n t h e g o l d e n a g e a s h e sits a l r e a d y a m o n g s t
t h e g o d s a n d l o o k s d o w n o n l e s s e r m o r t a l s .1 0 7
N o w h e r e is m o r e c l e a rl y
to b e s een th e s ac r am en ta l ch a ra c t e r o f t h e Im p er i a l Cu l t w h ich th ro u g h
its r i t u a l m a i n t a i n s th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum. O n t h e a l t a r o f t h e
Lares A u g u s t u s is d e p i c t e d a s augur w i t h lituus (P la te 7 ) .
L e t u s n o w s e e h o w t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s r e c e i v e d i n A s i a M i n o r
a s w e l l a s P a l e s t i n e a n d S y r i a . H e r e w e c a n e x a m i n e t h e m a t e r i a l
f a b ri c o f t h e c u l t w h o s e i c o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e r el ig i o u s m e s s a g e t h a t
i t b o r e w a s t o s e t t h e s c e n e in w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y d e v e l o p e d .
I t w a s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A s i a M i n o r t h a t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , Luke-Acts,
C l e m e n t Corinthians, t h e Apocalypse, a n d t h e I g n a t i a n L e t t e r s w e r e all
t o b e w r i t t e n .
2 B 4 . The reception of the Imp erial Cult in the E ast
T h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r c o n f ir m s a n e m b r y
o n i c s y s t e m a t i c th e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a t w e h a v e o u t l i n e d
in w h ic h t h e S to i c taSyo q d e t e rm in es a l l t h in g s b y n p o v o io c , o r b y
Fatum o r Fortuna.108 S u c h w a s t h e u l t i m a t e p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r m e t a
p h y s i c a l j u s t i fi c a t i o n w h i c h w a s le ft w h e n al l d e m y t h o l o g i s i n g i m a g e r y
o f a n y p e r s o n a l d e it y h a d b e e n e x c i s e d , a s L u c a n h a d w i s h e d t o
e x c i s e i t . B u t w e h a v e s e e n h o w t h a t m e t a p h y s i c s e r v i c e d a n e s c h a -t o l o g y , c y c li c i n c h a r a c t e r , in w h i c h t h e a g e o f i r o n a n d b r o n z e c o u l d
r e t u r n t o g o l d o n c e m o r e . W e h a v e a ls o s e e n al so h o w t h e i d e o
l og y o f t h e d i v i n e e m p e r o r m a d e t h a t g o l d e n a g e d e p e n d e n t b o t h
o n t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n , i n t h a t h e i n c a r n a t e d i ts q u a l i t ie s o f salus,
fortuna, pax, e t c . , a n d o n th e cu l t i c r it e s o f t h e auspicium. T h r o u g h a n
1 0 7
F e a r s ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 8 1 0 : " T h e i c o n o n o g r a p h y o f t h e G e m m a i ts el f b o l d l y p r o c l a i m s
t h is i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n o f C a p r i c o r n a n d t r i u m p h , m a r k i n g t h e f e c li c it a s a n d v ir
t u s o f A u g u s t u s , w h i c h h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e g o l d e n a g e f o r
m a n k i n d . . . . F l a n k e d b y R o m a a n d c r o w n e d b y F o r t u n a , th e e m p e r o r h o l d s i n h is
r i g h t h a n d t h e l it u u s , t h e m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e w i l l o f t h e g o d s i s m a n i f e s t
i n h i s p e r s o n a n d t h e e m b l e m o f t h o s e a u s p i c e s b y w h i c h T i b e r i u s h a s t r i u m p h e d . "1 0 8
I s a y " a s y s t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y " r a t h e r t h a n " t h e " b e c a u s e I t a k e E i sn e r ' s p o i n t
( (1 9 9 1 ) , p . 5 2 ) t h a t r e a c t i o n s t o i m p e r i a l w o r s h i p i n g e n e r a l w e r e n e v e r c o m p l e t e
" a n d y e t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r i l y fu lf il le d b y t h e v i e w e r s o w n p a r t i c i p a t i o n " i n n o t o n l y
t h e s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e b u t a l s o i n t h e g e n e r a l d e v e l o p i n g a n d i n c o m p l e t e t h e o l o g i c a l dis
c o u r s e t h a t g a v e m e a n i n g t o t h a t r it e. W e h a v e h e r e t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f p o l y s e m y
t o w h i c h G a l i n s k y ( 1 9 9 2 ) p o i n t e d .
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68 CHAPTER TWO
ex trao rd inary act of augury he ha d thus been able to restore a golden
age of or de r to bo th na tu re and political society that ha d previously
collapsed into evil and irrational chaos.
The celebration of this Pax Augusta on the Ara that thus bore his
divine n am e was associated not simply with a limited, Re pu bl ic an
augurium salutis but with Augustus' return from Spain and Gaul (pro
reditu meo/bnep xr\q E[ir\q ercavoSou; Res Gest. 11) bear in g a universal
peac e tha t was no w (1 6- 13 B.C.) inse para ble from his own per son
as the Pax Augustea. First the Ara Fortunae Reducis/$(&\ibqTv%r[ql(>y^pio"o)
was ere cte d at the Por ta Ca p e n a (19 B.C.), after successful ca m
paigns in Sicily, Gr ee ce , Asia, and Syria, with an nu al sacrifices. T h e n
followed in 13 B. C. the consecra tio n of the Ara Pacis itself in the
Campus Mar t ius (Res Gest. 12), followed by its dedica ti on in 9 B .C .
at the conclusion of a lustrum and a suovetaurilia, the implications of
which we discuss in our next chapter (3B 1).
T h e resp onse of the pro vin ce of Asia expr essed in the dec ree s and
letter of its proconsul in 9 B.C. mirrors a systematic theology, justified
in terms of Stoic metaphysics. Here we find the ancient augural
quest for the pax deorum united with dreams of a golden age of plenty
and peace, and with a single bringer of that age. The date itself
shows the in au gu ra ti on of the Imp er ial Cul t the re was c o-t erm inu s
with the consecr ati on of the Ara Pacis in the Campus Martius itself.
T h e saeculum aureum th at no w begins for the cities of Asia Minor
needs a new Calendar that begins with the birthday of Augustus.
T h e doc um en t, copies of whic h we hav e from Priene, Ap am ea ,
Eumenia, and Dorylaeum, reads as follows:
. . . from previous gods we have received favour (rcapd xcov rcpoxepov
7tapeiA,f|<panev . . . xcov 0ecov £\)|iev£<; mi) . . . whether the birthday of the
most divine Caesar is more pleasant or more beneficial (rcoxepov f|8e(cov
fj dxpeA.ip.coxepa eaxiv f| xov Getoxdxov Kaiaapoq yeveGXioq f| U£pa) which we
would jusdy consider to be a day equal to the beginning of all things
(r\v xr\ xcov rcdvxcov dpxfi ionv SiKcdcoq dv elvai imcAdpoijiEv) . . .1 0 9
Lines 1-6.
At this point there is note of hesitancy in the text about the real
character of this new dpxn. T h e proc onsu l of Asia seems to hesi tate
1 0 9
V. E h r e n b e r g and A.M. J o n e s , Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and
Tiberius, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 5 5 ) , no. 98, cf. a l s o OGIS 458; SEC 4 , 4 9 0 . R.K.S h e r k (Ed. and T r a n s . ) , R o m e and the G r e e k E a s t to the D e a t h of A u g u s t u s , in
Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, 4, E. B a d i a n and R. Sherk (Eds . ) ( C a m b r i d g e :
U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , no. 101 pp. 124 127.
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S OF THE I M P E R I A L C U L T 69
lest he be overwhelmed by the force of his own rhetoric. Is the dpxr|
one in which the natural world is set right from its previous meta
physical collapse, or is it merely a question of the beginning of a
new political order? H e thus continues:
If not [the beginning of all things] in nature, at least in the order of
the useful, (ei jnf| xr\ cptxjei, xcp ye xpr|0"{|icp) for even if there is nothing in
a fallen condition (ei ye oi)8ev oiyyi Siarceucxov) and changed into an
unfortunate condition (mi eiq dx\)xe<; |iexapePr|K6<; OXTIILICX) that he has
not set right (dvcopGcoaev), he has given to the whole world a different
appearance (exepcxv xe e8coKev navel xcp KOGJICO 6\|/tv), which would [as a
world] have gladly welcomed its destruction (r |8taxa dv 8e£a|ievcp cp0opdv)had not for the common good fortune Caesar been born (ei \ir\ xo
K O I V O V rcdvxcov ei)x{>XTI|LICX erceyevvriOri Kociacxp).
Lines 6-9.
Despite therefore a certain reluctance about full commitment to the
metaphysics of the saeculum aureum, the themes of the deified quali
ties of T\)%r| (eiq aTu%e<; TO KOIVOV 7 i d v x c o v e\)Ti>xr ||ia) are still found asso
ciated with the beginning of a new political order in which matters
have been "set right (dvcopGcoaev)."
If we turn from the letter of the proconsul to the 1st Decree of
the Koinon of Asia, also in 9 B .C ., we also find evidence that Stoic
metaphysics gives intellectual justification to the connections between
Fortuna, augury and the saeculum aureum. T h e reason Augustus' birth
day begins the new Calendar is that:
The Providence that has divinely ordered our life (f| 9e(coq Siaxd^ccacx
xov piov f||j.cov Ttpovoia), has brought us regard and honour (o7ccru8f|v
eiaeveyKa^ievri mi quAaTUiiav) and arranged our life with perfect good
ness (TO xeXr|6xaxov xcp pico 8IEKOA|LIR |aev dyaGov) when it brought to us
Augustus (eveyicauevri xov lepaaxov), whom Providence has filled with
virtue for the benefit of mankind (ov e iq etiepyecriav dvGpamcov ejcXripcoaev
dpexfjq) and granted both to us and to those after us as our saviour
(cooTtep f||ieiv KCXI xoiq ^leO' f|uo:<; acoxfjpex xaptaa|ievr|) who has made war
to cease and ordered the world with peace (xov navoavxa uev K 6 X E \ I O V ,
KOAUR|Govxa 8e eipr|vr|v).
Lines 32-37.
Thus we have Stoic npovoioc combined both with the reign of peace
and the personal mediator of that peace ( l e p a a x o v . . . KoaurjaovTa
8e E I P R J V N V ) .1 1 1 T h e D P E T C U are no longer individual deities b u t divine
1 1 1
T h i s t h e m e is a l s o f o u n d in an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A t h e n s in 1 A.D., see ibid.
n o . 128 p. 95 (IGRR 4 , 1 8 0 ; CIG 3 6 4 2 ) w h e r e I l p o v o i a is i d e n t if i e d w i th J u l i a A u g u s ta .
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70 C H A P T E R TWO
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h w h i c h n p o v o i a has f i l led Augustus (ov. . . ercWipcooev
dpexfiq). T h e d iv in i ty Salus or Icoxr|p{a d o e s not s i m p l y a c c o m p a n y
A u g u s t u s , but is i de n t i f i e d w i th the p e r s o n of him who is ocoxf|p, as
h e is a lso in o t h e r s i m i l a r i n s c r i p t i o n s . 1 1 2 As the p a s s a g e c o n t i n u e s ,
C a e s a r is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an ercupaveta (ercicpaveic;), ekniq a n d euayyeXia
w h i c h s u r p a s s all o t h e r h o p e s a n d p r o m i s e s m a d e . T h u s we f ind con
c e p t s h e l d b o t h by the I m p e r i a l C u l t and by the w r i t e r s of the Ne w
T e s t a m e n t (/. 37-40).113
A s i m i l a r i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m H a l i c a r n a s s u s at t h i s t im e substitutes
fo r the i d e a of n p o v o i a the e v e n s t r o n g e r S t o i c c o n c e p t of "the e t e r
n a l a n d u n d y i n g n a t u r e of the u n i v e r s e (n aicovioq Kal dGdva xoq xou
rcavioq cpuaiq)."1 1 4
In the w o r d s t h a t f o l l o w , the E m p e r o r is linked as
pater patriae w i t h the h o m e l a n d of the G o d d e s s R o m a (rcax ep a u£v xfiq
eauxou rcaxplSoq Beaq Tcburiq), as we l l as i de n t i f i e d w i th "the F a t h e r
Z e u s (Aia 8e rcaxpcoov) a n d s a v i o u r of o u r c o m m o n h u m a n r a c e ( m i
acoxfjpa xou K O I V O U xcov dv0pco7ccov yevouc;)." (/. 6-7) F u r t h e r m o r e , the
v i r t u e s are o n c e a g a i n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d i v i n e m e d i a t i o n of the
saeculum aureum t h r o u g h A u g u s t u s w h e n it is c l a i m e d t h a t " . . . ci t ies
( K O X E K ; ) . . . flourish (dvBouaiv) w i t h G o o d G o v e r n m e n t (Evvouia),
Concord ('Ouovoia), a n d P r o s p e r i t y ( m i Euexrjpia), and the flower
a n d h a r v e s t of all g o o d (dicuT| xe m i cpopd rcavxoq eaxiv d y a G o u ) . " D i o
C a s s i u s m i g h t w e l l inform us t h a t , " w h e n the s e n a t e a n d p e o p l e o n c e
m o r e c o n t r i b u t e d m o n e y for s t a t u e s of A u g u s t u s , he w o u l d set up
n o s t a t u e of himse l f , bu t i n s t e a d set up s t a t u e s (eiKovaq) of Salus
Publica ( T y i e i a q A r u i o a i a q ) , Concordia f O u o v o i a q ) , a n d Pax (Eipf|vr|<;)."
(54,33) T h e s e d i v i n e q u a l i t i e s a c c o r d i n g to t h i s in sc r ip t ion we re a l r e a dy
in a s t a t e of n e a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h his d i v i n e , a u g u r a l p o w e r s in
b r i n g i n g in the saeculum aureum.
F r o m the W e s t , f r o m N a r b o in G a u l , A . D . 12-13, we h a v e c o r r o
b o r a t i o n of the a u g u r a l t h e m e t h a t we h a v e e m p h a s i s e d in c o n n e c
t i o n w i t h the I m p e r i a l C u l t . A votum perpetuum is m a d e to the Numen
of Augustus. A n a l t a r was e r e c t e d in the f o r u m of the c i ty at w h i c h
sacr if ice was to be m a d e for the n u m b e r of ye a r s a f t e r the 9th Kal.
O c t o b e r , (23rd S e p t e m b e r ) , on w h i c h da y, his b i r t h d a y : " T h e b l e s s e d
1 1 2
Cf. the d e c r e e s M y r a in L y c i a IGRR 3,721 (= E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 )
n o . 88): T i (3 e pi ov K o u o a p a G eov l e p a a x o v 0ecov l e p a o x c o v mov a\)XOKpdxopa y n q m i
G a X d a c m q , xov evepyexrjv m i acoxfjpa xov avvrcavxoc; K o a u o i ) , Mvpecov 6 8fjuo<;.1 , 3
E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) no. 98 l i n e s 3 5 - 4 1 .1 1 4 E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) no. 98a /. 3; IBM 4,1, no. 894, l i n e 1.
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T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T 71
F o r t u n e o f t h e a g e m a d e h i m r u l e r o f t h e w o r l d (saeculi Felicitas eum
orbi terrarum rectorem edidit)" N o t o n l y t h e n , b u t o n Idus Januar. (7 th
J a n u a r y ) , t h e d a y o n w h i c h h e f i r s t a s s u m e d t h e fasces, i n c e n s e a n d
w i n e a r e t o b e of fe r e d b e c a u s e : " o n t h a t d a y firs t h e e n t e r e d u p o n
(auspicatus est) t h e e m p i r e o f t h e w o r l d (imperium orbis terrarum):'115
I f w e r e t u r n o n c e a g a i n t o t h e E a s t , w e f in d a t G y t h e i o n in L a c a o -
n i a a n i n s c r i p t i o n a n d a l e t t e r r e g a r d i n g t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c u l t t o
i n c l u d e T i b e r i u s . A u g u s t u s is c a l l e d h e r e " g o d t h e s o n o f t h e g o d
C a e sa r (Oeou K ai oa po q Geou u iou ) , S av io ur w h o b r in gs l ibe r ty (Icorf ipoq
' E X e u G e p i o u ) . "1 1 6
J u l i a A u g u s t a is e q u a t e d w i t h Tu% r|, a n d G e r m a n i c u s
w i t h N dcr). T h e s e e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e e x t e n d e d . W e h a v e p r o d u c e d
t h e r e f o r e s u f fi ci en t e x a m p l e s f or t h e m o m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h o u r c a s e
f o r v a r i o u s , d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s i n t h e c o n c e p t u a l d i s c o u r s e s t h a t w e r e
c o a l e s c i n g to f o r m t h e o l o g i e s o f i m p e r i a l w o r s h i p . T h e d i s c o u r s e o f
a u g u r y a n d p r i e s t h o o d w e r e b e i n g j u x t a p o s e d w i t h m e s s i a n i c t h e m e s .
M o r e o v e r th e S t o i c t h e o l o g y o f d i v i n a t i o n a n d Fortuna w a s a l so m a k
i n g i ts o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p a r t o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e c u l t o f
e m p e r o r w o r s h i p in c it i es b o t h o f t h e E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n E m p i r e .
L e t u s d r a w s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h e r i s e o f e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n i t y f r o m w h a t h a s p r e c e d e d .
2 B 5 . Imp lications of the Imperial Cult for early Christianity
W e s a w i n t h e d e c r e e o f t h e K o i n o n o f A s i a a n e x a m p l e o f t h e i d e
o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r t h a t w a s t o p r e f i g u r e i nt h e Apocalypse, a n d w h i c h w a s p a r t o f t h e s c e n e i n w h i c h b o t h Luke-
Acts a n d t h e l e t te r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e .
T h e K o i n o n t h a t s p e a k s f o r a ll A s i a M i n o r re f le c ts t h e t h e o l o g y o f
t h e c u l t t h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d in t h i s c h a p t e r . W e find a pax deorum
a c h i e v e d b y a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y a c t o f a u g u r y t h a t is s u e d i n n o t e m
p o r a r y e i pr |v r | b u t t h e p e a c e o f t h e g o l d e n a g e . W e find S t o i c c o n
cep t s o f n p o v o i a a n d o f (p ua iq in t e l l ec tu a l ly j u s t i fy in g b o th t h e auguriuma n d t h e c o m i n g o f t h a t a g e . W e find c o n c e p t s o f a co xr ip ia t h r o u g h
a acorn ,p expressed in tha t cu l t . La te r (3D 3 .2 ) we sha l l d i scuss fu r
t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n s s u c h a s o n e f r o m S a r d i s i n w h i c h a n e w a d d i t i o n
1 , 3 E h r e n b e r g a n d J o n e s ( 19 5 5 ) n o . 1 0 0 A , li n es 2 0 - 2 7 = IL S 112 = IGRR 4 , 1 7 5 6 ,
I ; F i s h w i c k ( 1 9 9 1 ) 2 , 1 p . 4 8 2 .1 , 6 S e e a l s o a p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t o n a n a s s o c i a t i o n f o r a n i m p e r i a l c u l t ibid. n o .
1 1 8 p . 9 3 a n d a n i n s c r ip t i o n ( A . D . 1) f r o m T e n t y r a e , E g y p t (OGIS 6 5 9 ) w h e r e
'EA,e\)6epio<; is also found, ibid. n o . 1 1 6 , p . 9 3 .
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7 2 CHAPTER T W O
t o t h e c u l t is a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e " g o o d n e w s " o f its p r o c l a m a t i o n .
" T h e c i t y i s e v a n g e l i s e d (euayye^iaOri fi noXiq)" a n d " p r a y e r s f o r s a l v a
t i o n (KOCTEDXCXC; . . . uicep xfjc; acorn, pioc<;)" a r e o f fe r e d " b y s a c r e d h e r a l d s
(8 id iepoKTipuKcov)."117
A t o t h e r p l a c e s i n A s i a M i n o r s u c h a s H a l i c a r n a s s u s , a n d G y t h e u m ,
w e f o u n d t o o s u c h t it le s p r o c l a i m e d i n t h e in s c r i p t i o n s a n d in t h e
p r a y e r s o f t h e c u l t a s acorn,p, eipr |vri, eXevQepioq, viicr), vibq xov Geou,
eXniq, uyteia , ouovoux, rcpovoia , £ 7u<pdveia , euayye Aia e t c . T h e cu l
t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s t e r r a i n i n w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y d e v e l o p e d w a s
t h u s s a t u r a t e d b y s u c h c o n c e p t s d e e p l y e m b e d d e d i n t h e m a t e r i a l
a n d i c o n o g r a p h i c f a b ri c o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c i v il is a ti on . N o r d i d th i s
s i m p l y a p p l y t o C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s e m a n a t i n g f r o m A s i a M i n o r itself.
H e r o d th e G r e a t h a d e r e c t e d i n C a e s a r e a it se lf ( 2 0 - 1 9 B . C . ) a t e m
p l e i n w h i c h s t o o d a c o l o s sa l s t a t u e o f A u g u s t u s c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e
m o d e l o f t h e O l y m p i a n Z e u s a n d a f u r t h e r s t a tu e t o R o m a , o n t h a t
o f H e r a a t A r g o s .1 1 8
C a e s a r e a P h i l i p p i w a s t o b e t h e s c e n e o f t h e
c o n f e s s i o n o f P e t e r r e g a r d i n g J e s u s n o t o n l y a s t h e C h r i s t , b u t as t h e
S o n o f t h e L i v i n g G o d (M L 8 , 2 7 - 3 0 ) .
I t w i ll b e o u r o b j ec t i v e n o w to a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s , b y l o o k in g a t
l a t e f i r s t an d s eco n d cen tu ry Ch r i s t i an wr i t i n g s , t h e e f fec t o f t h i s
I m p e r i a l C u l t i n t e r m s o f h o w e a r ly C h r i s t i a n s s h a p e d t h e i r c o m
m u n i t y a n d it s s t r u c t u r e s i n r e a c t i o n ( w h e t h e r c o n s c i o u s o r n o t ) t o
t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
1 . 7
Ehrenberg a n d Jones n o . 9 9 = / . Sardis 7,1,8, / . 1 2 - 1 4 ; Price (1984), p . 6 6
a n d p . 2 5 9 c a t . n o . 5 6 .1 . 8
Josephus, Bell.Jud. 1, 414 cf . Antiqu. 15,339; Fishwick (1987) 1,1 p. 129 and
1 4 7 .
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C H A P T E R T H R E E
I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F
C H U R C H O R D E R
Reformed Judaism in L u k e - A c t s and the Christian p a x d e i
I n th i s c h a p t e r a n d t h e n e x t t w o , w e s h a ll d e a l w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e life o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h w h i c h m i r r o r e d t h e t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t a s i t d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t o f p a g a n
R o m e . W e s h a ll d e a l i n t h i s c h a p t e r e x c lu s i v e ly w i t h Luke-Acts, for
w h i c h w e a c c e p t a d a t e a f t e r N e r o , b u t b e f o r e D o m i t i a n , o f a b o u t
8 5 A . D .1
W e sh a ll , i n C h a p t e r 4 , c o n s i d e r t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C l e m e n t
a t R o m e a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t b o t h i n t e ll e c t u
a ll y a n d p r a c t i c a l l y , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e c i r c l e o f i n A s i a M i n o ri n D o m i t i a n ' s t i m e , t o w h i c h Luke-Acts w a s a d d r e s s e d . I n C l e m e n t ' s
Corinthians t h e d e m a n d s f o r o r d e r a r e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y c o n s t r u c t e d a f t e r
R o m a n m o d e l s a n d e x p r e s s t h e v e r y c o n c e r n s w i t h n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l
c h a o s t h a t t h e S t o ic m e t a p h y s i c o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t h a d s o u g h t t o
a d d r e s s . W e s h a ll t h e n ( C h a p t e r 5 ) c o n s i d e r w h a t w e w i ll a r g u e t o
b e t h e D o m i t i a n i c t e x t o f t h e Apocalypse, a n d it s q u i t e d i f f e ren t a p
p r o a c h t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e Apocalypse m i r r o r s D o m i t i a n ' s c h a n g e si n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d , i n a m a n n e r d i f f e r e n t f r o m Luke-Acts, for
m u l a t e s a d i s t i n c t i v e c o n t r a c u l t u r e t h a t r e v e r s e s t h e i m a g e s a n d v a l
u e s t h a t d e f in e t h e c o n c e p t o f p o w e r i n t h e h o s t c u l t u r e .
I n C h a p t e r 6 w e s h a ll f in d r e f le c t e d i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , p a r
t i cu la r ly in h i s Romans a n d Ephesians, t h e m a r t y r o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f a
c o n t r a c u l t u r e . I g n a t i u s d e s c r i b e d t h e m i n i s t e r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w h o
j o i n e d h i m fr o m v a r i o u s C h u r c h e s a s a c u l ti c p r o c e s s i o n . T h e p r o c e s s i o n h a s t h e f e a t u r e s o f a C h r i s t i a n E u c h a r i s t , a s it s m e m b e r s l e a d
I g n a t i u s a c r o s s A s i a M i n o r t o t h e a r e n a a t R o m e . T h u s w e s h a l l b e
a b l e t o c o m p l e t e o u r a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e O r d e r of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
f in d s a f o r m a n d a n i c o n o g r a p h y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e O r d e r o f t h e
1 F o r a d e f e n c e o f t h is d a t i n g , s e e P .F . E s le r , C o m m u n i t y a n d G o s p e l in L u k e -A c t s : T h e s o c i a l a n d p o l it i ca l m o t i v a t i o n s o f L u c a n t h e o l o g y , in SNTMS 5 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,
p p . 2 7 - 3 0 .
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7 4 C H A P T E R T H R E E
C h r i s t i a n C u l t a s it e m e r g e s i n t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h a t
r e f le c t i o n w a s d e s t i n e d t o c o n t i n u e a n d t o d e v e l o p i n t o a n e w f o r m
i n t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n C y p r i a n a n d h is f e l lo w - b i s h o p s , a n d
t h e R o m a n E m p i r e o f D e c i u s T r a j a n .
B u t l e t u s t u rn f ir st o f a l l i n t h i s c h a p te r t o t h e r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f
e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y i n Luke-Acts. W e s ha l l a r g u e t h a t t h e p u r
p o s e o f t h a t r e f o r m u l a t i o n w a s t o e n a b l e t h e a u t h o r t o d e f in e t h e
O r d e r a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s a n a l o g o u s l y w i t h t h a t o f
t h e I m p e r i a l .
W e s h al l e n d e v o u r t o a n s w e r t w o c r i ti c a l q u e s t i o n s :
1. Why did Luke reshape Chris t ian eschatology so that he could defer
the exp ecta tion of the day of ju dg e m en t to an indefinite future? (Lk.
21 ,24d ; Acts 1,7)
2. Why, furthermore, d id Luke, c lear ly a deutero-Paul in is t in the gen
erat ion af ter the death of h is community ' s founding aposde, s t ress that
Ch rist ianity wa s the fulfilment of Ju da is m in a w ay that was even m or e
sympathetic to the lat ter than even Paul 's final posit ion (in contrast to
Galatians) in Romans 9—12?
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n s w e r to 2 . h a s b e e n t h a t L u k e ' s t w o - v o l u m e w o r k
w a s i n t e n d e d t o b e a n e c u m e n i c a l d o c u m e n t , r e c o n c i l in g d if fe r en c es
b e t w e e n P a u l ' s c h u r c h e s a n d t h e o r ig i n al J e r u s a l e m c o m m u n i t y . W e
c o u l d r e s p o n d b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t P a u l n e v e r r e a l l y a t t a c k e d J u d a i s m
i n t h e w a y t h i s v i e w p r e s u p p o s e s , b u t in f a ct s t r e s se d it s c o n t i n u i t y
i n t e r m s o f f u lf il m e n t. B u t t h e n w e m u s t as k w h y L u k e s h o u l d s t re s st h a t c o n t i n u i t y w h e n w r i t i n g fo r a g e n t il e a u d i e n c e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l
a n s w e r h a s a lw a y s b e e n s u s p e c t i n t e r m s o f h i s t o ri c a l m e t h o d s i n ce
i t i m p l i e s t h a t l a t e first c e n t u r y c o m m u n i t i e s d e v e l o p e d a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e l o gi c o f h is C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y ' s o w n i n t e r n a l d i s c o u r s e t h a t
w a s o n l y m i n i m a l l y r e l a t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y t o t h e d e v e l
o p i n g w i d e r , p a g a n c u l t u r e .2
Luke is s u p p o s e d t o b e so le ly c o n c e r n e d
w i t h h e a l i n g i n t e r n a l d i v is i o n s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y i n o r d e r t om a k e t h e c o m m u n i t y s t ro n g e r a n d m o r e s el f- se c ur e .
M o r e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e h a s , m o r e o v e r , a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e p r o b l e m
2 T h e m o s t r e c e n t s t a t e m e n t o f t h is c a s e , w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y , is J . J e r v e l l , Luke and
the People of God: A new Look at Luke-Acts, ( M i n n e a p o l i s : A u g s b u r g 1 9 7 2) , p p . 1 5 3 - 1 8 3 ,
c r i ti c i se d i n R . M a d d o x , T h e P u r p o s e o f L u k e - A c t s , i n FRANT 1 2 6 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , c h a p
t e r 3 . F o r a n e a r l i e r a n d p r o v i s i o n a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e t h e m e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r , s e eA . B r e n t , L u k e - A c t s a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r , i n JThS 4 8 , 2 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , p p .
I l l 1 3 8 .
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I M P E R IA L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 7 5
3 V . F u s c o , L u k e - A c t s a n d t h e F u t u r e o f I s r a e l , i n NT 3 8 , 1 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 1 - 1 7 .
J . L . H o u l d e n , T h e P u r p o s e o f L u k e , i n JSNT 2 1 ( 1 98 4 ) , p p . 5 3 - 6 5 c r it ic is e d M a d d o x
( 1 9 8 2 ) f o r h i s a t t e m p t s t o m o d i f y w h a t h e s a w a s t h e e x t r e m e v i e w o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y
o f j u d a e i s m r e p r e s e n t e d b y s u c h w r i te r s a s j e r v e l l ( 1 9 7 2 ) a n d G . D . K il p a tr i ck , T h e
G e n t i l e s a n d t h e S t r a t a o f L u k e , i n Verborum Veritas, ( E d.) O . B o c h e r a n d K . H a a k e r( W u p p e r t a l : 1 9 7 0 ) .
4 H o u l d e n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 6 2 . S e e a l s o J . J e r v e l l , R e t r o s p e c t a n d P r o s p e c t in L u k e -
A c t s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n SBL.SPS 3 0 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p . 3 8 4 . F o r f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e
F . B o v o n , E t u d e s l u c a n i e n n e s . R e t r o s p e c t i v e e t p r o s p e c t i v e , i n RThPh 1 2 5 ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p .
1 2 5 - 1 2 9 , w h o p o s e s t w o q u e s t i o n s : " L e p r e m i e r . . . . L a L o i m o s a i q u e e s t- e ll e e n c o r e
v a l i d e p o u r L u c ? . . . . L e s e c o n d d i r i g e l e r e g a r d v e r s l a p o s i t i o n s o c i a l e d e L u c . "3 H . C o n z e l m a n n , The Theology of St. Luke, t r a n s l a t e d b y G . B u s w e l l ( L o n d o n :
F a b e r 19 6 1 ) , p p . 2 0 2 - 2 0 6 .fa T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a f o r m a l l e g a l s t a t u s o f a religio licita w a s o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d
b y H a r n a c k a n d W e n d t . F o r r e f e r e n c e s a n d f u r t h er s u p p o r t f or t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w
s e e C o n z e l m a n n ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 1 3 7 - 1 4 4 . T h i s v i e w h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d r e c en t l y b y
M a d d o x ( 1 98 2 ) , p p . 9 1 - 9 3 a n d E s le r ( 1 9 8 7 ), p p . 2 1 1 - 2 1 4 .
t h a t I s r ae l is r ec o g n i s ed in Luke-Acts i n a w a y t h a t s u r p a s s e s e v e n
P a u l a s t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e c u r s o r t o C h r i s t i a n i t y .3 Lk. 1 -2 lo ca t e s t h e
o r i g i n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t h e c i r c le o f s u c h p r i e s t s a n d p r o p h e t s o f
t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e as Z a c h a r i a h a n d A n n a . W o u l d e v e n t h e P a u l
o f Romans 9 - 1 1 h a v e b e g u n a G o s p e l a d d r e s s e d to g e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s
i n t h e w o r d s o f Lk. 1,5 (eyevexo . . . iepeuq xiq ovo j iaxi Za ^ ap ia q )? C e r
t a in ly , i n o rd e r t o ex p la in su ch fea tu re s i n Luke a s a d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t ,
H o u l d e n p o s t u l a t e d th e e x i s te n c e o f " p r e - M a r c i o n i t e M a r c i o n i t e s " a s
i n f l u e n c i n g t h e q u i t e u n - P a u l i n e s i g n if ic a n c e o f t h e T e m p l e i n Luke-
Acts} I r e je c t a s p u r e h y p o t h e s i s s u c h a n u n d o c u m e n t e d m o v e m e n t
w i t h i n t h e e a r ly C h u r c h . I p r o p o s e i n s t e a d t o p r o d u c e d o c u m e n t e d
e v i d e n c e fr o m t h e l i t e r a tu r e a n d b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
t o s u p p o r t m y c l a i m t h a t t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t o f r e p u b l i c a n
r e l i g i o n b y A u g u s t u s w a s t h e r e a l c o u n t e r f o i l t o Luke's p i c t u r e o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y a s t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h e c u l t o f t h e T e m p l e o f J u d a i s m .
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n s w e r t o 1 is t h a t t h e d e l a y o f t h e P a r o u s i a c a u s e d
Luke t o r e s h a p e p r i m i t i v e e s c h a t o l o g y s o a s t o p r o v i d e a s p a c e f or
t h e C h u r c h i n n o r m a l h i s t o r y . 5 B u t a p h e n o m e n o n s u c h a s M o n t a n i s m
o r m i l l e n a r i a n i s t g r o u p s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e d e l a y o f t h e P a r o u s i a
d i d n o t o f i ts e lf n e c e s s a r i l y p r o d u c e s u c h a p e r c e i v e d n e e d fo r a
s p a c e f o r t h e c h u r c h i n n o r m a l h i s t o r y .
E s l e r ' s r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h e i m m e d i a t e h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o ci a l b a c k
g r o u n d t o Luke-Acts h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e n e e d t o r e p l a c e t h e t h e s i s o f
Luke-Acts as apologia, f o u n d e d o n t h e d u b i o u s le g a l n o t i o n o f t h e q u e s t
for s ta tus as a religio licita, w i t h a t h e s i s a b o u t l e g i t i m a t i o n .6
F o c u s i n g
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7 6 C H A P T E R T H R E E
o n Luke's g o s p e l i n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , I w i s h t o a r g u e t h a t t h e le g i
t i m a t i o n t h e s i s is o n l y p a r t i a l l y t r u e a n d p o s s i b l y m i s l e a d i n g . L e g i t i
m a t i o n i n s o c i o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e n o r m a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h
o n e g r o u p , i n i ts o w n se l f - i n t e re s ts , j u s t if i e s it s p r iv i l eg ed p o s i t i o n i n
p o w e r r e l a t io n s t o a n o t h e r . I w i s h t o e m p h a s i s e h e r e t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r
t h e o l o g y o f Luke is a p o l i ti c a l t h e o l o g y in t e r m s o f w h i c h T h e o p h i l u s
a n d h i s g r o u p d i d n o t s i m p l y j u s ti f y t h e i r p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r s b u t t o
t h e m s e l v e s .
T h e i m m e d i a t e h i s to r ic a l a n d s oc ia l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h T h e o p h i l u s
a n d h is c i r c l e f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s w a s o n e i n w h i c h t h e v a l u e s o f
I m p e r i a l O r d e r w e r e r e f le c t ed in t h e d e v e l o p i n g I m p e r i a l C u l t i n
A s i a M i n o r , w h o s e o r i g in s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w e h a v e t r a c e d i n
C h a p t e r 2. T h a t c o n t i n u i n g d e v e l o p m e n t r e in f o rc e d , u n d e r D o m i t i a n
in t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e f irst ce n t u r y , t h e i d e o lo g y o f a r e l i g io u s
r e f o r m a t i o n t h a t h a d a c c o m p a n i e d a p o li ti ca l r e v o l u ti o n u n d e r A u g u s t u s
f ro m 3 1 B . C . o n w a r d s .7
T h a t r e li g io u s r e f o r m a t i o n e m p h a s i s e d t h e
r e l i g io u s r o l e o f t h e e m p e r o r a s t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n c u l t
(a s o p p o s e d t o its a b r o g a t i o n ) , o r i g in a l l y c o n d u c t e d b y e l e c t e d m a g
i s tr a t e s w h o a ls o h e l d its p r i e s t h o o d s . C h r i s t i a n i t y , a s c o m m e n d e d b y
Luke t o T h e o p h i l u s ' c i r c l e , w a s J u d a i s m f ulf ill ed .8
B u t Luke e n v i s a g e d
t h a t f u l f i l m e n t , t o u s e B o v o n ' s p h r a s e , a s ' u n e c o n t r e p a r t i e r e l i g i e u s e '
s p ec i fi ca ll y t o t h e r e li g i o u s c l a i m s i m p l i e d b y A u g u s t u s ' c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
r e f o r m s : it w a s n o t s i m p l y a g e n e r a l p a r a l l e l w i t h I m p e r i a l u n i v e r -
s a li s m , a s B o v o n o r i g i n a l ly t h o u g h t .9
I w i ll a r g u e t h a t T h e o p h i l u s ' c ir c le i n h e r i t e d t h e v a l u e s o f a n i m p e
r i a l o r d e r a n d p e a c e t h a t b o r e t h e f o r m o f S t o i c m e t a p h y s i c s i n
w h i c h n a t u r e a n d s o c ie t y w e r e o n e . I ts m e m b e r s a c c e p t e d t h e i m
p e r i a l v a l u e s , d e i f i e d a s V i r t u e s , o f Victoria, Pax , Con cordia, Salus e t c . ,
7
F o r d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r s p e c if i ca l ly i n t h e e i g h t i e ss u c h a s c u l ts t o D o m i t i a n a t E p h e s u s a n d L a o d i c a e a , se e S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and
Power: The Rom an Imperial Cu lt in Asia M inor ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 1 4 0 , 1 8 3 - 1 8 5 ,
1 9 7 - 1 9 8 , 2 5 5 .8
F . B o v o n , I s r a e l , d i e K i r c h e u n d d i e V o l k e r i m l u k a n i s c h e n D o p p e l w e r k , ThLiZ
1 0 8 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , c o l . 4 0 4 : " D i e E n t w i c k l u n g d e s K a i s e r k u l t e s w a r e e i n e w e i t e r e , w i r -
k u n g s v o l l e r e L o s u n g , d e r b u n t e n V i e l f a l t d e r u n t e r w o r f e n e n V o l k e r e i n e i d e o l o g i -
s c h e E i n h e i t z u v e r l e i h e n . . . W i e v e r h a l t s i c h d i e c h r i s d i c h e v o c a t i o g e n t i u m z u
d i e s e r E i n g l i e d e r u n g d e r V o l k e r i n d i e r o m i s c h e n S t r u k t u r e n ? "9 B o v o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p . 1 2 8 : " L a d e f e n s e e t l ' il l u s t r a ti o n d e 1' u n i v e r sa l i sm e a u l o n g
d e t o u t e c eu v r e d e L u c r e p r e s e n t , a m e s y e u x , u n e c o n t r e p a r t i e r e l ig i e u s e d e s a m b i t i o n s i m p e r i a l e s r o m a i n e s . "
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IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH ORDER 77
1 0
See e.g. M.C. de Boer, Narrative Criticism, Historical Criticism, and the Gospel
o f J o h n , in JSNT 47 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 35-48 and the criticisms of S. Motyer, A Method
in Fourth Gospel Studies: A Way out of the Impasse, in JSNT 66 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp. 2 7 - 4 4 .
since they had been conditioned socially to take seriously the claim
that an originally imperfect republican religious cultus had been
reformed and perfected by the Augustus as princeps. The use of the
met hod ology of nar rati ve criticism in Ne w Te st am en t studies will
help us here since we will seek to reconstruct the ideal reader for
the text that Luke has reshaped in terms of the images of the impe
rial ideology.1 0
We shall argue that Luke has refo rmul ated early
Christian eschatology, initially in chapters 1-3, in a way that reflects
the impress of the ideology of the saeculum aureum in the Imperial
Cult. Fur th er mo re , we shall witness th ro ugho ut his wor k concep tua l
reflections of pax, concordia and providentia that bear witness to a con
cern with the theological implicat ions of Augustan settlement. In c on
sequence of such social cond iti oning, Theophi lu s and his circle sh rank
with horror at the prospect of a return to civil chaos marked by the
events that lead to Actium (31 B.C.), and which they saw as the
culmination of a century of increasingly devastating civil wars. Under
the influence of such a his tor iog raphy of decli ne, they exper ien ced
their metaphysical terror associated with the ira as opposed to the
pax deorum.
Luke's solution was to encourage them to see Christianity, as the
fulfilment of Juda i sm (2) whic h parall eled Augus tus' fulfilment of that
to which the religious practices of Republican magistrates had aspired,
namely the divine pax in both nature and society. The Order of the
Christian community, constituted by an apostolate whose Koivcovioc
conti nued the teac hin g an d heali ng ministry of Jes us alon g with the
breaking of bread (Acts 2,42), was the true me an s of pr od uc in g the
pax dei, in contrast to Augustus' pax deorum (the enx yf^/ev oupavS
eipr|VT i ; Lk. 2,24; 19,38). Here we find, in the context of imperial
order, a refashioned Christian version of the Augustan saeculum aureum.
Consequently Lk. 1-3 reshaped primitive Christian eschatology by
removing themes of tribulation, chaos, and of the future role of the
Son of M a n in ju dg me nt , so as to pr od uc e, for Th eo ph il us ' circle,
a Christian, present counterpart to the imperial peace, and the cul
tic means for securing this (1).
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7 8 C H A P T E R T H R E E
P A R T A . LUKE-ACTS: T R A D I T I O N A L ES C H A T O L O G Y T R A N S F O R M E D
T h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g y of Luke-Acts c a n n o t b e o v e r e s t i
m a t e d . I w i ll a r g u e t h a t t h is u n i q u e n e s s is h i g h l y i n f l u e n c e d b y
A u g u s t u s ' saeculum aureum s e c u r e d t h r o u g h t h e r e f o r m e d I m p e r i a l C u l t
t h a t w a s p e r c e i v e d , f o ll o w i n g o u r d i s c u s s io n in C h a p t e r 2 , t o b e
a l o n e a b l e t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum (2B). But f i rs t le t us es tabl ish that
u n i q u e n e s s in its o w n ri g h t b y c o m p a r i n g L u k a n e s c h a t o l o g y w i t h
t h a t o f Matthew a n d Mark, b e f o r e w e o f f e r a n y p a r t i c u l a r a c c o u n t o f
t h e i n f lu e n c e s t h a t p r o d u c e d i t.
3A 1 . M ark and the primitive k e r y g m a
T h e r e is v e r y l it tl e a t t e m p t o n t h e p a r t o f e i t h e r Matthew o r Mark
t o r e l a t e t h e i r s t o r y t o s e c u l a r h i s t o r y . M a r k n o t o r i o u s l y b e g i n s h i s
g o s p e l w i t h t h e m i n i s t r y o f J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , l ik e t h o s e p r i m i t i v e
C h r i s t i a n s e r m o n s e x e m p l i fi e d i n t h e m o u t h s o f s o m e o f t h e t w e l v e
a p o s d e s , t h e d e a c o n S t e p h e n , a n d P a u l i n Acts. T h e r e is n o b i r t hs t o r y a n d t h e g o s p e l b e g i n s a s it w e r e f r o m n o w h e r e . B u t Mark's
p u r p o s e is t o d o m o r e t h a n r e p r o d u c e t h e p r i m i t i v e kerugma in ex
p a n d e d f o r m .1 1
I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h its t o t a l l e n g t h , a l a r g e s e c t i o n o f Mark i s t ak en
u p wi th t h e Apocalypse o f M L 1 3 . E a r l i e r , b e fo re t h e s cen e o f t h e T ra n s
f i g u r a t io n , J e s u s h a d d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e s o m e s t a n d i n g t h e r e
w h o w o u l d n o t t a s te o f d e a t h u n t i l t h e y h a d s e e n t h e k i n g d o m o f G o dc o m e i n p o w e r (ML 9 ,1 ) . O r i g i n a l l y t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n m i g h t h a v e
c o u n t e d a s t h e re a l i s a t io n o f t h a t d e c l a r a t i o n . B u t f or M a r k t h e c o m
i n g o f t h a t k i n g d o m i s t o b e w h e n t h e e v e n t s o f h i s Apocalypse are fu l
f ille d, n a m e l y w h e n t h e a r m i e s o f T i t u s s u r r o u n d J e r u s a l e m i n A . D . 6 5
a t t h e t i m e w h e n h e w r i t e s f r o m R o m e . J e r u s a l e m w a s n o t y e t
d e s t r o y e d b u t t h e n e w s r e a c h e d t h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y t h a t i t w a s
a b o u t t o b e , a n d t h e n t h e " a b o m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e s o l a t i o n " w o u l db e s e t u p i n t h e T e m p l e a s t h e d a y o f t h e L o r d s e t i n b l o o d a n d
fire. A f te r d e s c r i b i n g t h e sh a k i n g of t h e p o w e r s o f n a t u r e in e a r t h q u a k e
a n d f a m i n e , t h e e x p a n s i o n o f e r r o r , a n d p e r s e c u t i o n a n d b e t r a y a l ,
M L 1 3 , 1 4 c o n t i n u e s :
1 1
J . S c h n i e w i n d , Z u r S y n o p t i k e r E x e g e s e , i n ThR 2 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 8 9 a n d
C . H . D o d d , The Apostolic Preaching and its Developments, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 5 6 ) ,p p . 16 32 f f . , c f . H . Koes ter , Ancient Christian Gospels, Their History and Development,
( L o n d o n : S C M 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 2 6 2 9 ff.
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I M PE R I A L IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH ORDER 79
But when you shall see the Abomination of the desolation ( T O (35e^\)yua
Tfjq epT)ucoaeco(;) [Dan. 9,27; 12,4; 10] standing where it ought not
(£OTT|K6T(X onox> ov 8ei), let the reader grasp the meaning, then let those
in Judaea flee to the hills . . . For in those days shall be the tribulation (8A.i\jnq) such as not come about from the beginning which God
created until now [Joel 2,2].
Thus the Roman community, having experienced Nero's persecu
tion in R o m e (1 3,9- 13) , he ar ed the news from Je ru sa le m of the gra d
ual crushing of the revolt by Titus. The author informs them that
Nero is about to fulfil the mysterious sacrilege prophesied by Daniel,
the TO p8eta)Y|ia zf\q epriuxbaecog. It is the immediate consequence ofthis imminent and strange act that the last events of the world's his
tory are to occur (13,20-28).1 2
Far from Mark's gospel therefore, as the theory of the interpreter
of St. Peter suggests, being written for a generation to come who would
otherwise lack Peter's teaching now that he had been martyred, the
author expected no future history for which to write.1 3
His commu
nity was the community of the End time, with no need for a continu
ing authority structure with a continuing tradition handed down. For
hi m the re was to be no future his tory of this wor ld, an d ther efo re
there was little need to write the events of J e s u s ' ministry, death and
resurrection as dated events in a history that would continue. His
written account was a reassurance to the Roman community that
they had little longer to wait, and the eschatological events justify
ing their faith would soon take place.
We shall now see that Matthew deals with the problem of the delay
of the parousia, which had not immediately followed the destruction
of Je ru sa le m, quit e differently from the wa y that Luke-Acts was to
propose.
1 2 S.G.F. Brandon, Jesus and the ^ealots: A Study of the Political Factor in Primitive
Christianity, (Manchester: U.P . 1961), pp. 38 7 -3 91 dates Mark post 71 A.D. on the
g r o u n d s that account of the rending of the veil in ML 15, 38 reflects the writer's
e x p e r i e n c e of the triumphal procession of Vespasian at Rome in which the purple
t e m p l e - c u r t a i n s were included in the spoils and were afterwards deposited with
c o p i e s of the Tor ah in the imperial pala ce, see Jo se phu s, Bell. Jud. 6, 387-391 and
7 , 1 6 2 . But even if this were the case, the historical closeness of the Roman com
m u n i t y to the events of which they as yet had no certain account could still result
in what had happened nourishing the imminent apocalyptic expectations to which
Mark bears witness.1 3 Papias apud Eusebius H.E. 111,39,15 is clearly legendary and based upon the
prior i ty of Matthew as an apostolic authority.
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8 0 C H A P T E R T H R E E
3 A 2 . M a t t h e w ' s heightened apoca lypticism: a hope frustrated
Matthew w a s w r i t t e n a t a s i m i l a r t i m e t o t h a t o f Luke-Acts, b u t w i t h a
c o n s i d e r a b l y d if fe r en t p u r p o s e . R e d a c t i o n c r it ic i sm h a s s h o w n r e fl e ct e d
i n t h e v a r i o u s p e r i c o p e s c o n f l i c t i n g t r a d i t i o n s b e a r i n g t h e m a r k s o f
t r a n s m i s s i o n t h r o u g h r iv a l g r o u p s i n a d i v i d e d C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y .
E g a l i t a r i a n , cl e ri c al is t, a n d c h a r i s m a t i c g r o u p s v i e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r ,
a n d Matthew's s o l u t i o n is p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p e r s o n o f a b r i d g e - b u i l d e r
a n d r e c o n c i l e r , w h e t h e r a c t u a l o r i d e a l , w h o w ill b r i n g t h e g r o u p s
t o g e t h e r .1 4
B u t t h e s h a d o w o f t h e E n d T i m e still h o v e r s o v e r t h e
a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e T w e l v e A p o s t l e s a r e s e n t f o r th , a n d J e s u sa s s u r e s t h e m t h a t , t h o u g h t h e y w ill e x p e r i e n c e p e r s e c u t i o n , t h e y w ill
b e b e a t e n i n s y n a g o g u e s a n d l e a d b e f o r e s y n a g o g u e c o u r t s a n d h a n d e d
o v e r t o g e n t i le m a g i s t r a t e s f or p u n i s h m e n t , n e v e r t h e l e s s :
Go not into the way of the pagans, and do not enter a ci ty of the
Sa m ari tan s ; bu t go rath er to the lost sheep of the hou se of Is ra el . . .
You shall not have completed the cit ies of Israel unti l the Son of Man
shal l come.1 0
B u t t h e a u t h o r o f Matthew k n ew a t t h e t im e o f h i s w r i t i n g , in t h e
l a t e e i g h ti e s i n A n t i o c h i n S y r i a , t h a t J e r u s a l e m h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d .
T h e u s e o f t h a t g o s p e l b y e a r l y w r i t e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S y r i a a n d
A n t i o c h c l e a r l y d e t e r m i n e s t h i s a s h i s p l a c e o f o r i g i n . T h e c i t a t i o n s
o f t h i s g o s p e l b y I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h (circa 1 0 7 A . D . ) ,1 6
a n d p a r t i c
u l a r l y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s in g l e b i s h o p s in h i s w r i t i n g w h e r e Matthew's
c l e r ic a l is t f a c t i o n h a s o n l y p r e s b y t e r s a n d t e a c h e r s , r e v e a l t h e m i d -
e ig h t i e s a s t h e m o s t l i k e ly d a t e . Ig n a t iu s ' s i n g l e b i sh o p s h av e a t t h e
l a t e r t i m e s e e m i n g l y a b s o r b e d t h e c h a r i s m a t i c f u n c ti o n s o f o n e o f
t h e o p p o s i n g g r o u p s .1 7
B u t t h o u g h J e r u s a l e m h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d , th i s d o e s n o t l e a d h i m
t o t o n e d o w n o r l im i t t h e s c o p e o f t h e M a r k a n a p o c a l y p s e . M L 1 3 ,
w i t h i t s 3 7 v e r s e s h a s b e e n e x p a n d e d i n t o t w o c h a p t e r s , Mat. 2 4 - 2 5 ,
1 4
R . E . B r o w n a n d J . - P . M e i e r , Antioch and Rom e: New Testament Cradles of Catholic
Christianity, ( N e w Y o r k : P a u l i st P r e ss 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 5 7 - 7 2 cf. A . B r e n t , P s e u d o n y m i t y
a n d C h a r i s m a i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f t h e E a r l y C h u r c h , in Aug. 2 7 , 3 ( 1 98 7 ), p p . 3 6 9 - 3 7 4 .15
Mat. 1 0 , 1 - 2 3 .
I g n a t i u s , Ephes. 1 4 , 2 (Mat. 12 ,33 ) ; Smyrn. 1,1 (Mat. 3 ,15 ) ; 6 ,1 (Mat. 1 9 , 1 2 ) ; Polycarp
2 , 2 (Mat. 1 0 , 1 6 ) .
C . T r e v e t t , P r o p h e c y a n d A n t i - E p i s c o p a l A c ti v it y : A T h i r d E r ro r C o m b a t t e dby Ignat ius? in JE H 3 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 6 5 1 7 1 , f o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f w h i c h s e e , B r e n t
( 1 9 8 7 ) , p p . 3 4 7 3 7 6 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE OR I GI N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 81
1 8
D.E. N i n e h a m , The Gospel of St. Mark, ( L o n d o n : A. and C. B l a ck 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 354
f o o t n o t e : "St. L u k e ' s v er s i o n is not a v e r b a t i m r e p r o d u c t i o n of the o r i g i n a l but an
a t t em p t , a l t ern a t i v e to St. M a r k ' s , to d ea l w i t h a w e l l - k n o w n p r o p h e c y of p r o f a n a t i o n w h i c h had not been fu l f i l l ed wi th reference to the t e m p l e . " Cf. G.B. C a i r d ,
St. Luke, ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 2 3 1 - 2 3 2 .
with 51 and 46 verses respectively. The chapters owe their expan
sion to par ab les of the Last Judgeme nt , such as the Days of No ah
(24,37-42), the Lazy Servant (24,43-51), Wise and Foolish Virgins
(25,1-13), the Talents (25,14-30), and the Sheep and the Goats
(25,31-46). But where ML 13,14, in its reference to the T O pSe^uyua
xf|<; epTjuxooecoc; £<JTT|K6TGC OKOV O U 8ei, refers to what stands in its tem
ple before the im mi ne nt de struc tion of Je ru sa le m, Mat, 24,15 simply
transfers the prophecy to what will stand "in an holy place (ev TOTCCO
ayico)" unspecified. The Markan apocalypse is still to be fulfilled imm i
nently even though , since the Je ru sa le m tem ple alrea dy now be en
dest royed, the pa rt icular place wh er e its fulfilment is to begin can
no longer be specified.
But for the author of Luke-Acts, this conce pt ion of the End time
found in one of his early Christian sources, Mark, cannot and will
not be any longer sustained.1 8
3A 3. L u k e ' 5 transformation of the apocalyptic tradition
Whilst not abroga ting the original apoca lypt ic description of the com
ing of the End, Luke dissociates this descr ipt ion from the dest ruc tion
of Je rusa lem . All references t o th e shadowy and myst er ious p8eta)Y|i(x
Tfjq epr||itt>G£co(; are omitted. In Lk. 21,20-24 we read:
When you shall see Jerusalem encircled by armed camps, then know
that its desolation (f| epr|ucflGi<; ai)Trj<;) has drawn nigh . . . and Jerusalem
shall be trodden down by the pagans until the times of the pagans
( K a i p o i eOvcov) are fulfilled.
Only after the unspecified and protracted K a i p o i eOvcov will the heav
enly powers be shaken and the signs seen (21,25-27). The epf|(icooi(;
of Je ru sa le m is taken ou t of salvation hi story an d placed securely in
secular history in which the ch ur ch is to have a mission an d or ga n
isation that endures in secular time.
T h e parti cularly Luca n accou nt an d doc tri ne of the Ascension also
impl ies this. Je su s is lifted up int o he av en from wh e nc e in t he
unspecifiable future he will one day return. (Acts 1,9.) For forty days
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8 2 C H A P T E R T H R E E
b e f o r e , on e q u e s t i o n t h a t is h i g h l i g h t e d is the q u e s t i o n a b o u t the
o c c u r r e n c e of the a p o c a l y p t i c e v e n t s , b u t Je su s wi l l g iv e n o a n s w e r ,
l e t a lo n e an y a s s u r a n c e of t h e i r i m m e d i a c y , b u t r a t h e r p o i n t s to a
c o n t i n u i n g t e m p o r a l m i s s i o n in w h i c h the c h u r c h can e x p a n d f r o m
J e r u s a l e m to S a m a r i a a n d i n d e e d to the u t t e r m o s t p a r t s of the e a r t h
( 1 , 6 - 8 ) . P r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e t i m e n o l o n g e r c o a l e s ce i m p e r c e p t i b l y
i n t o one as the End remorse less ly f loods in to the p r e s e n t , as in e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y . T h e a p o s t l e s are not to s t a n d g a z i n g i n t o
h e a v e n ( 1 , 9 - 1 1 ) , as if for the i m m i n e n t r e t u r n of J e s u s , but are to
r e p a i r the o r g a n i s a t i o n of an i n d e f i n e t l y c o n t i n u i n g c o m m u n i t y by
r e p l a c i n g J u d a s w i t h M a t t h i a s in o r d e r to b r i n g the n u m b e r of the
a p o s t l e s b a c k up to t w e l v e ( 1 , 1 5 - 2 6 ) .
T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to C o n z e l m a n n ' s o r i g i n a l t h e s i s , the a u t h o r of
Luke-Acts has r e m o v e d the p r e s e n t f r o m any i m m e d i a t e c o n t a c t w i t h
t h e e s c h a t o n . He has t h u s c r e a t e d a s p a c e for the e x i s t e n c e of a c o m
m u n i t y w h i c h w i l l f u n c t i o n in s e c u l a r h i s t o r y w i t h an ecc l e s i a s t i ca l
O r d e r t h a t w ill p r e s e r v e its i d e n t i t y a n d c o n t i n u i t y . But let us now
e x a m i n e how the C h u r c h O r d e r for w h i c h the a u t h o r n ow m a k e s
p r o v i s i o n was s h a p e d a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d of the i m p e r i a l r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n of s e c u l a r h i s t o r y by his p a g a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d w h i c h
it in c o n s e q u e n c e r e f l e c t e d .
P A R T B. LUKE-ACTS IN THE C O N T E X T OF I M P E R I A L H I S T O R Y
Luke i n t r o d u c e s his b i r t h n a r r a t i v e w i t h a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n o t e l i n k i n g
C h r i s t ' s b i r t h w i t h A u g u s t a n h i s t o r y in his s t o r y of th e c e n s u s ( 2 , 1 - 3 ) .
I n 3,1 the m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s is r e c o r d e d as b e g i n n i n g "in the fifteenth
y e a r of T i b e r i u s C a e s a r , " h e n c e 30 A.D. , w i t h P o n t i u s P i la t e n a m e d
a s the " g o v e r n o r " (Tiyeuoveuovio*;) of J u d a e a , H e r o d as t e t r a r c h of
G a l i l e e , P h i l i p of I t u r a e a , a n d L y s a n i a s of A b i l e n e . T h e a c t i o n of
C l a u d i u s in e x p e l l i n g the J e w s f ro m R o m e is r e c o r d e d , in e x p l a n a t i o n of the p r e s e n c e of A q u i l a a n d Prisc i l l a (Acts 1 8 ,2 ) . Ga l l i o is m e n
t i o n e d as " p r o - c o n s u l (avBuTcdiou) of A c h a e a " ( 1 8, 12 ), w i t h w h o m
w e h a v e a l r e a d y met as L u c a n ' s u n c l e w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e w i t h
h i m on the fa i lu re of t h e i r c o n s p i r a c y to t ak e Nero ' s l i f e (2A 4). W e
a l s o m e e t w i t h P o r c i u s F e s t u s , s u c c e e d i n g F e l i x as g o v e r n o r (Tiyejicov).
(Acts 2 3 , 2 5 - 2 7 ; 2 4 , 2 7 )1 9
W e k n o w fu r th e r w h a t t r a n s p i r e d r e g a r d i n g F e s tu s and his s u c c e s s i o n by C e s t i u s
F l o r u s f r om J o s e p h u s , Antiqu. 20, 197 203; B.ell. Jud. 2 , 1 6 6 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 8 3
2 0
P . A . B r u n t , Roman Imperial Themes, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 3 2 9 - 3 3 1 .2 1
J o s e p h u s Antiqu. 2 0 , 1 0 2 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t hi s c e n s u s
a n d Lk. 2 , 1 - 3 s e e E . S c h u r e r , G . V e r m e s , a n d F . M i l l a r , The History of the JewishPeople in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), ( E d i n b u r g h : T . & T . C l a r k 1 9 7 3 ) ,
p. 3 8 1 a n d p p . 4 1 6 - 4 2 7 . S e e a l so J . M . C r e e d , The Gospel According to St. Luke,
( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 2 8 3 1 .
B u t w e d o w e l l t o a s k w h e t h e r t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h s e c u l a r h i s
t o r y is p u r e l y c h r o n o g r a p h i c , o r w h e t h e r t h e r e is s o m e f u r t h e r p u r
po se re f lec ted in th e ch o i ce o f a t l eas t so m e of the se da te s a n d figures.
S u c h a p u r p o s e , m o r e o v e r , m a y r e f l e c t i n s o m e w a y t h e c o n c e r n s
r e f l e c te d i n t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s w e h a v e o u t l i n e d
i n o u r s e c o n d c h a p t e r .
3B 1 . The Augustan census ofhk. 2,1-2
I t is ea sy t o d i sm i s s t h i s p a s sa g e fo r h i s to r i ca l r e a s o n s fo r w h i ch n o
d o u b t i t o u g h t t o b e d i s m i s s e d . F o r t h i s a u t h o r , u n l i k e Matthew, M a r yd i d n o t o r i g i n a l l y li ve w i t h J o s e p h i n B e t h l e h e m , o n l y t o m o v e t o
N a z a r e t h f r o m t h e h o u s e in w h i c h J e s u s w a s b o r n d u e to t h e m a l i g
n a n c y of H e r o d a n d A r c h e l a u s (Mat. 2 , 1 ; 1 1 ; 1 3 ; 2 2 - 2 3 ) . I n s t e a d
t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts e n v is a g es J o s e p h a n d M a r y li vi ng i n N a z a r e t h ,
a n d , i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f Micah 5 , 2 , i n v o k e s t h e
A u g u s t a n c e n s u s . I t is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e w a s a n y c e n s u s
i n v o l v i n g e a c h p e r s o n w i t h i n t h e E m p i r e r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e . T h e r e w e r e h o w e v e r p r o v i n c i a l c e n s u s e s . 2 0
T h a t e a c h R o m a n c it iz e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d h a d t o e n r o l f or
s a c ri fi c e a t t h e a l t a r o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t o a w a i t t h e l a t e r g e n
e r a l c i t iz e n s h i p l a w of C a r a c a l l a in 2 1 2 A . D . , w h i c h m a d e t h e D e c i a n
p e r s ec u t io n (2 5 1 A .D . ) p o s s ib l e a s w e sh a l l s ee . B u t t h a t a t t h i s t im e
" the whole wor ld shou ld be enro l led (d rcoYpacpeaGai rcaaav TT^V OIKOU-
u i v r | v ) " i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f a " d e c r e e ( 8 6 y | i a )" o f A u g u s t u s is p r o b l e m a t i c a p a r t f r o m t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m o f m i g r a t i o n t o o n e ' s p l a c e
o f b i r t h . A m o r e l o c a l census u n d e r C y r e n i u s a s g o v e r n o r o f S y r i a
w o u l d s e e m m o r e c r e d i b l e . C e r t a i n l y w e h a v e r e c o r d e d in J o s e p h u s
a c e n s u s c o n d u c t e d w i t h g r e a t o p p o s i t i o n b y t h is g o v e r n o r in A . D .
6 o r 7 .2 1
B u t w h y s h o u l d t h i s l o c a l c e n s u s (avxr] f| arcoypOMpri) b e a s s o
c i a t e d w i t h s o m e g e n e r a l w o r l d - w i d e e d i c t o f A u g u s t u s b y t h e a u t h o r
o f Luke-Acts? A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e m o t i v a t i o n fo r h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n w ill e x p o s e h is d i s c r e t e p u r p o s e .
T h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts c l e a r l y w i s h e d t o a s s o c i a t e t h e b i r t h o f
J e s u s w i t h A u g u s t u s , t h e m e n t i o n o f w h o s e n a m e in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
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8 4 C H A P T E R T H R E E
t h e t h i s p a r t i c u l a r ac co u n t o f t h e b i r t h o f t h e t ru e M e ss i a h is ev o ca t iv e
o f m a n y o f t h e t h e m e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o w h i c h w e d r e w a t t e n
t i o n i n o u r s e c o n d c h a p t e r .2 2
W e h a v e s e e n h o w , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e
A s i a M i n o r o f t h e P r o c o n s u l a r d e c r e e o f 9 B . C . , A u g u s t u s ' b i r t h d a y
w a s c e l e b r a t e d a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e saeculum aureum (r\ xou Geioxd-
xou Kouaapoq yeveGA.ioq fijiepa iiv xr\ xcov rcdvxcov ap%r\ ior |v . . .). (2B 4)
A s i a M i n o r w a s o f c o u r s e t h e s c e n e o f m u c h o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f
Luke-Acts.
R e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e o f c e n s u s t a k i n g , A u g u s t u s s t a t e s:
In my sixth consulate [28 B.C.] I conducted a census [censum populi]of the people with my col league Marcus Agrippa. I held a lustrum after
an interval of forty-two years. At this lustrum, 4 ,063 ,000 Roman c i t i zens
were regis tered (censa sunt capita). I performed a second lustrum in the
consulship of G aiu s Ce nso rinu s an d G aius Asinius [8 B.C.] act ing
alone, by virtue of consular imperium. At this lustrum 4 ,2 3 3 ,0 0 0 0 Ro m an
cit izens were registered. I held a third lustrum, by virtue of a consular
imperium, with my son, Tiberius Caesar , as my col league, in the con
sulship of Sextus Po m pe ius an d Sex tus A ppu leius [A.D . 14]. At this
lustrum 4,937,00 0 Ro m an ci t izens we re regis tered .
Res Gestae '8,2
I t is i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , to e m p h a s i s e t h a t , a s t h e w o r d lustrum s u g
ge s t s , t h e r e w a s a r e l i g i o u s d i m e n s i o n t o s u c h a c t s . T h e lustrum w a s
p r o p e r l y t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c e n s u s , a s is s e e n i n L i v y ' s a c c o u n t
o f S e r v i u s , o n e o f t h e l e g e n d a r y f o u n d e r s o f t h e R o m a n c o n s t i t u t i o n
( 5 3 4 B . C . ) . T h e lustrum h e r e r e fe r s t o t h e " p u r i f i c a t i o n " o f t h e c i t i z e nb o d y a fte r its n u m b e r s h a d b e e n d e t e r m i n e d [censu perfecto), a n d t h e
c a p a c i t y o f e a c h p e r s o n in t h e r a n k n o w a l l o tt e d t h e m t o c o n t r i b u t e
t o t h e co s t o f t h e w a r a g a i n s t t h e V e i . T h e c e r e m o n y (suovetaurilia)
w a s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w h e r e a p i g , s h e e p , a n d b u l l
were s ac r i f i ced (L iv y 1,44,2). I t w a s t h is c e r e m o n y t h a t w a s d e p i c t e d
in re l ie f on the Ara Pacis (2 A 4 .2 .1 a n d 2 B 1 a n d P l a t e 6) .
W e h a v e a r g u e d i n o u r s e c o n d c h a p t e r t h a t , i n h is r e c o n s t r u c t i o no f t h e c u l t w i t h i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , A u g u s t u s
2 2
F o r L u k e ' s u s e o f s e c u l a r c h r o n o g r a p h y t o s u c h a p a r a l l el b e t w e e n J e s u s ' k i n g
d o m a n d t h a t o f A u g u s t u s , se e C . T a l b e r t , L i te r a ry P a t te r n s , T h e o l o g i c a l T h e m e s ,
a n d t h e G e n r e o f L u k e - A c t s , i n SBLMS 2 0 (1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 4 4 - 4 5 ; R . E . B r o w n , The
Birth of the Messiah, ( G a r d e n C i t y N Y , D o u b l e d a y 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 3 . T h e s e r e fl ec t io n s
a r e a l s o t a k e n u p i n h i s a c c o u n t o f Luke-Acts a s apologia pro imperio t o a C h r i s t i a n
g r o u p b y P . W . W a l a s k y , " A n d s o W e C a m e to R o m e " : T h e P o li t ic a l P e r s p e c t i v eo f S t . Luke , in SMTSMS 4 9 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 2 5 - 2 8 . S e e a l s o K . W e n g s t , Pax Romana and
the Peace of Jesus Christ, t r an s . J . B o w d e n , ( L o n d o n : S C M 1 9 8 7 ) , ' p p . 8 9 1 0 5 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 8 5
n L i v y 3 9 , 2 2 , 4 - 5 ; 4 2 , 2 0 ; Julius Obsequ. 1 3 ; 4 4 ; 4 6 ; 4 9 ; 5 2 ; 6 3 .2 4 T h i s p o i n t is w e l l m a d e b y B e r v e , L u s t r u m , i n PWK 1 3 , 1 - 2 c o ls . 2 0 4 0 - 2 0 5 9 ,
s e e e . g . 2 0 4 1 : " M a n w i r d d u r c h a u s a n e i n e ' s a k r a l - p r o fa n e ' E i n h e i t a ls W u r z e l z u
d e n k e n h a b e n , d i e a u c h d e r r e a l i s t i s c h e C h a r a k t e r d e r r o m i s c h e n R e l i g i o n u n d d i eH e i l i g k e i t d e s S t a a t s r e c h t e s g e r a d e z u f o r d e r t . . ."
25
^Ibid. c o l s. 2 0 4 3 2 0 4 6 .
p r e s u p p o s e d a k i n d o f s y s t e m a d c t h e o l o g y i n w h i c h t h e d i f fe r e n t c u l
t ic f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e w e r e b r o u g h t u n d e r h is c o n t r o l a s Pontifex
Maximus a n d t h u s h e a d o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e a r g u e d t h a t t h e
saeculum aureum c o u l d o n l y r e t u r n a n d b e g u a r a n t e e d lo n g e n d u r a n c e
b y a p a r t i c u l a r a c t o f augurium, w h i c h h e u n i q u e l y p e r f o r m e d a n d
w h i c h D i o m e n t i o n e d as t h e augurium pacis ( 2 A 5 ) . T h e pax deorum
p r o v e d c o n s t a n t l y e l u s i v e t o t h e R e p u b l i c a n c u l t , e v e n t h o u g h , f o l
l o w i n g v a r i o u s o u t b r e a k s o f t h e s t r a n g e s t p r o d i g i e s , r i t u a l a t t e m p t s
h a d b e e n m a d e t o o b t a i n it ( 2A 4 .1).
W e m a y n o w a d d t h a t a lustrum o f t h e c i ty w a s p e r f o r m e d fo l
l o w i n g m a n y o f t h e s e o u t b r e a k s i n o r d e r to s e t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l
o r d e r r ig h t a g a i n a n d to p r o d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d pax t h a t w a s t o b e
t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f A u g u s t u s a l o n e . W e h a v e c o u n tl e s s e x a m p l e s o f
th i s i n L iv y .2 3
W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t i m p l i c i t i n L i v y is t h e n o t i o n
t h a t s u c h e x a m p l e s b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e f r e q u e n t a s t h e p o l i t
i c al b r e a k d o w n o f t h e R e p u b l i c w a s r e f le c t e d in t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y
c h a o t i c s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r . A r r u n s m o r e o v e r r e q u i r e d t h e p u r i f ic a t i o n
o f t h e c i t y l i m i t s , i ts s a c r e d b o u n d a r y t h e pomerium, b u t t o n o av a i l
w h e n h e sa w w h a t t h e haruspicia i n d i c a t e d ( L u c a n Pharsalia 1, 5 9 3 - 5 9 5 ) .
(2A 4 .2 )
I t w o u l d b e e a s y o f c o u r s e t o s e c u l a r i s e t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e c e n s u s
and cu t i t o f f f rom i t s re l ig ious roo ts so as to make a lustrum af te r
p o r t e n t q u i t e d i f fe r e n t f r o m a lustrum a f t e r a c e n s u s .2 4
T h e r o o t s o f
b o t h i s i n t h e a p o t r o p a e i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e c u l t , a s t h e suovetaurilia
c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d .2 5
T h e r e f o r m e d c u l t i n w h i c h A u g u s t u s a s Pontifex
Maximus a c h i e v e d t h e pax deorum, n o w a l m o s t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e saecu
lum aureum, r e q u i r e s a c e n s u s .
T h o u g h t h e lustrum i s r e l a t ed o r ig in a l ly t o t h e imperium proconsulare
and no t to the o f f ice o f Pontifex o r augur, t h ey a re i n p ro ces s o f a s so
c i a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e s e o ff ic es , o n c e h e l d b y
d i ff e re n t r e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t r a t e s , b y t h e s a m e e m p e r o r . T h e e v i d e n c e
f o r t h i s p r o c e s s o f a s s o c i a t i o n i s t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis
itself. T h e suovetaurilia i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s ( L i v y 1,44,2) p r o v i d e d
t h e s c e n e a r o u n d S e r v i l i u s , o n e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o u n d e r s o f t h e
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8 6 C H A P T E R T H R E E
c o n s t i t u ti o n o f o l d R e p u b l i c a n R o m e . W i t h i n th e e n c l o s u r e a r o u n d
the a l ta r , we f ind the Dedicatio o f 9 B . C . t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f w h i c h ,
a s R a d l e g h R a d f o r d a r g u e d , t o o k t h e f o r m o f a suovetaurilia.2^ C l e a r l y
t h i s c e r e m o n y f o l l o w s t h e s e c o n d lustrum r e c o r d e d i n Res Gestae 8 ,2
i n t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f G a i u s C e n s o r i n u s a n d G a i u s A s i n i u s (8 B . C . ) .
T h u s t h e Ara Pacis, i n A u g u s t u s ' respublicae restitutae, h as d ep ic t ed o n i t s
f r e sco es t h e n ew suovetaurilia o f t h e n e w S e r v i u s c e l e b r a t e d o n c e m o r e
i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w h e r e t h e Ara o r ig in a l ly s to o d (P l a t e 6 ) .
B u t n e w c o n n e c t i o n s a r e m a d e w i t h t h e Ara's i c o n o g r a p h y , w h i c h
c l ea r ly r e l a t e s t h e saeculum aureum t o t h e pax o f n a tu re a s we l l a s o f
s o c i e t y , a n d t h a t d e i f i e d p e a c e w a s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h A u g u s t u s a s
t h e Pax Augustea. T h u s p r e v i o u s d i s p a r a t e i m a g e s a r e b e i n g c o m b i n e d
i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g a n d l e g i t i m a t i n g d i s c o u r s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
U s i n g th e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis a s a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Res
Gestae a t t h is p o i n t , w e c a n t h e r e f o r e d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t A u g u s t u s ' s
s e c o n d lustrum was fo l lo wed b y a suovetaurilia c e l e b r a t e d a s a c r i t ic a l
t u r n i n g p o i n t i n R o m e ' s h i s t o r y w i t h a t r u l y L i v i a n s i g n if i c a n c e .
I n d e e d , a s B u c h n e r h a s s h o w n , w e c a n n o t d i v o r c e t h e p u r p o s e o f
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Ara f r o m t h e Horologium n o r i n d e e d f r o m t h e
w h o l e c o m p l e s i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e M a u s o l e u m
a n d t h e Ustrinum o f A u g u s t u s .2 7
E i s n e r m a k e s n o r e f e r e n c e t o R a l e g h R a d f o r d ' s i d e n t if i c a ti o n o f
t h e suovetaurilia o n t h e Ara Pacis.28 B u t i n a n y c a s e , I w o u l d a c c e p t
h i s g e n e ra l t h es i s t h a t t h e s ig n i f i can ce o f su c h a n a r t e fa c t d o e s n o t
r e s t o n t h e r e c e i v e d " n a t u r a l i s m " i n a r t - h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h
e n t a i l s t h a t , b e c a u s e a r t i m i t a t e s n a t u r e , t h e n e a c h figure m u s t r e f e r
to a sp ec i f i c h i s to r i ca l s i t u a t i o n . I h av e r e fe r red t o t h e o r ig in s o f t h e
2 6 C . A . R a l e g h R a d f o r d , S o m e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s i n R o m e a n d I t a ly , i n JRomS
2 9 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 4 9 : " T h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d u p p e r f r i e z e o n t h e t w o s i d e s o f t h e e n c l o s u r e
is a h is t o ri c a l r e c o r d o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e s o l e m n C o n s e c r a t i oi n 1 3 B . C . , a c e r e m o n y in w h i c h t h e F l a m i n e s , m a g i s t r a t e s , s e n a t o r s , a n d m e m b e r s
o f t h e i m p e r i a l f a m i l y t o o k p a r t . W i t h i n , t h e f r ie z e a r o u n d t h e a lt a r r e c o r d s t h e
D e d i c a t i o i n 9 B . C . a n d t h e r i t u a l l a i d d o w n f o r p e r i o d i c s a c r i f i c e s . O n l y a s m a l l
par t o f th i s f r i e ze surv ive s , but suf f i c i ent to sh ow th at the sc en e rep res en ted i s the
S u o v e t a u r i l i a . " S e e a l s o P . Z a n k e r , The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, ( t rans .
A . S h a p i r o ) , ( A n n A r b o r : U . o f M i c h i g a n 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 7 2 - 7 3 a n d fig . 5 7 ; p . 1 4 4
fig. 116.2 7 E . B u c h n e r , Die Sonnenuhr des Augustus: Nachdruck aus RM 1976 und 1980 und
Nachtrag iiber die Ausgrabung 1980/1981, ( M a i n z a m R h e i n : P h il ip v o n Z a b e r n 1 9 8 2 ) ,
p p . 3 4 5 - 3 4 8 .2 8 J . E i s n e r , C u l t a n d S c u l p t u r e : S a c r i f i c e i n t h e A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , i n JRomS
8 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 5 0 - 6 1 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 8 7
Ibid. p . 5 2 .
i c o n o g r a p h y , a c c e p t i n g t h a t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h is n o t s o m u c h w r o n g
a s l i m i t e d . T h e L i v i a n t h e m e s o f lustrum a n d suovetaurilia w e r e t o
b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l a n d o p e n - e n d e d c o n c e p t u a l o r g a n i s a t i o n
o f i m a g e s , o n l y l o os e ly r e l a t e d t o a n y o n e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e y e n t e r e d
a n d f o r m e d p a r t o f a c o l l e c ti v e a n d o n g o i n g s o c i al r e s p o n s e in w h i c h
t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a n y o n e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t e d t o b u t w a s n o t
ex h a u s t iv e o f t h e wh o le . " A Jew i sh v i ew, for i n s t an ce , o r a P y th ag o r ea n
o n e m i g h t h a v e b e e n v e r y d i ff e re n t f r o m t h a t o f a R o m a n p r i e s t . . .
T h e s a cr if ic i al p r o c e s s . . . o f w h i c h t h e A r a P a c i s w a s t h e s e t t i n g ,
w a s p e r m a n e n t l y i n c o m p l e t e a n d y e t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r i l y fu lfille d b y
t h e v i e w e r ' s o w n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e . " 2 9 I p r o p o s e s e e
i n g t h e d i s c o u r s e i n w h i c h Luke-Acts o p e r a t e s a s e m b o d y i n g a s u b s et
o f g e n e r a l a n d o p e n - e n d e d i m p e r i a l i m a g e s , n o t e v e ry o n e of w h i c h
w i ll b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e v e r y m e m b e r o f t h e g e n e r a l se t . W e c a n a d d
t h e n a m e of t h e C h r i s t i a n T h e o p h i l u s a n d t h e t h i r d E v a n g e l i s t t o
d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o f p e r s o n s , l ik e E i s n e r ' s J e w i s h s a g e o r P y t h a g o r e a n
p h i l o s o p h e r , w h o s e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e d e v e l o p i n g i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r , i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h a t o f R o m e , w e r e
s i m i l i a r l y o p e n - e n d e d .
W e c a n n o w b e g i n t o s e e w h y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts w i s h e d t o
g i ve a l o c a l c e n s u s o f Q u i r i n u s s u c h a u n i v e r s a l , w o r l d - w i d e p e r
s p e c t i v e , q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e a d d e d , m i g r a t o r y f e a t u r e w h i c h c o u l d
b r i n g o r d i n a r y r e si d e n ts o f N a z a r e t h t o B e t h l e h e m . H e h a s t a k e n a
m e m o r y o r r e c o r d o f t h e c e n s u s o f Q u i r i n u s i n 6 - 7 A . D . a n d a p p l i e d
t h is t o t h e b i r t h o f C h r i s t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e w a s c l e a r l y n o c h r o n o
l o gi c al c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n th i s e v e n t a n d t h e r e i g n o f H e r o d t h e
G r e a t , n o r i n d e e d w i t h t h e suovetaurilia a t R o m e i n 9 B . C . t h a t h a d
fo l lo wed th e lustrum o f 8 B . C . T a k i n g a n a r r a t iv e - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h ,
w e m a y s ay t h a t h e n e e d e d t o p a r a l l e l f or h i s r e a d e r s i n T h e o p h i l u s '
c i r c le t h e b i r t h o f J e s u s w i t h t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d
t h u s t o c o m p a r e t h e r e l i g i o u s c l a i m s m a d e b y t h e f o r m e r w i t h h i s
c l a im s fo r t h e l a t t e r .
L u k e n e e d e d a c e n s u s i n J u d a e a — e v e n t h o u g h th is o n l y o c c u r r e d
i n 6 - 7 A . D . — i n o r d e r t o p a r a l l e l t h e lustrum a t R o m e i n 8 - 9 B . C .
H i s d e s i r e t o l e a d h i s r e a d e r s t o a s s o c i a t e t h e i m a g e r y e v o k e d b y
c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y u n r e l a t e d e v e n t s h a s l e a d h i m t o c o n f u se h i s c h r o n
o l o g y . I n t h is p a r a l l e l , L u k e w a s s t r a n g e l y p r o p h e t i c , a n d s h o w e d a
s e n s it iv i ty t o w h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i m p l i e d a n d i n t o w h a t it w a s
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88 C H A P T E R T H R E E
to deve lop finally, un de r Decius Tr aj an (A.D. 251). Ac co rd in g to
this later conception, the Imperial Cult required a census of all those
Caracalla had made citizens (A.D. 212) in order that their partici
pation in the Imperial Cult could thus be secured with the object
of securing once again the pax deorum. A 86YUOC was therefore req uir ed
that drcoypdipeaGou rcaoav T T I V oiKou |Li8vr|v, even though in Caracalla's
or in De ci us ' case the place of res idence and not a jou rne y to the
pla ce of bi rt h to be enro lled was to pr ov e sufficient.
Let us now pursue this possibility further, and see how the author
of Luke-Acts pre sup pos es, in cont ras t to his earlier an d trad itio nal
apocalyptic archetypes, an eschatology closer to the pre-occupations
of the vision of Vergil' s Fou rt h Ec logue an d the role th at it ca me
to play in the Imperial Cult (2A 6).
3B 2. Cultic background of the altar of incense in Lk. 1,5-2,52
The scene that surrounds Christ's birth, according to the author, is
a cultic one. The narrative opens with an angelic visitation by anal tar of inc ense . In fact the ver b Guuiacjou occurs onc e an d the noun
Ouuiociia twice wi thi n two sente nces wh ic h read :
It happened while [Zachariah] was exercising his priesthood ( E V xcp
iepaxeveiv) in the daily order (xf\ xd^ei xfjq ecpriuepiac;) before the Lord,
he was chosen by lot to offer incense (ekaxe xov 0\)(iidaai) according
to the custom of priestly officiants, when he entered the temple of the
Lord, while all the multitude of the people were praying outside atthe hour of incense (e^co xfj copra xov 6v |Liid|iaxo<;). And the angel of the
Lord appeared standing on the right hand side of the altar of incense
(xov 8i)aiaaxr|pio\)xov 6\)uidu.axoc;).
Luke 1 , 8 - 1 1
As we shall see when we discuss the Apocalypse, incense was a char
acteristic feature of the Imper ia l Cul t an d is clearly reflected in the
imagery there. Here we should note that the practice of offeringincense was pa rt of the Ol d Te st am en t cultus, an d tha t the au th or
refers primarily to one particular practice from that cultus which he
has selected for a particular purpose. Aaron burns incense on the
alta r before the Ta be rn ac le veil every mor ni ng an d there is no cultic
arrangement by hours (Exodus 30 ,1 , and 7). In 1 Chronicles 1 3 , 1 0 - 1 1 ,
however, we read of the priests and levites who, in their daily divi
sions (£(pr|U£p{ai<;), burn incense to the Lord early in the day.
3 0
For the i r 24 d i v i s i o n s see 1 Chron. 2 3 , 1 6 ; 28,13 and J o s e p h u s Antiqu. 12, 265.
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IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH ORDER 89
3 1
S.R.F. Price, Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, (Cambridge:
U.P . 1984), p. 208.3 2 D. Fishwick, The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult
of the West ern P rovince o f the Ro m an Empire , in EPRO 108 (1991) 1,1, p. 133
footnote 24 6 and Plate 19, an d 2,1 p. 5 0 4 and pp. 5 6 5 - 5 6 6 .3 3 Price (19 84) , p. 185 an d Plate 1 b.34
SEG 11,92 2 93 3 (Gytheum); Ehr enber g and Jo ne s (1955) no. 102 (a); IGRR 4,
35 3 b 20 attests the use of inc ens e on Trajan' s altar at Pe rg amon .3 5 Fishwick (1991) 2,1 p. 513.
But it is interesting also to no te t ha t the Je wi sh cultic act of offering
of incense with which Luke-Acts chooses to begin the announce
ment of the forerunner of the Messiah was also characteristic of the
Imperial Cult. The inscription from Gytheum regarding the decree
of Tiberius refers to three images (eiKovaq) of divine Augustus Caesar
(9eou lePcccTou), Ju li a, a nd T ib er iu s Augustus, displayed on th re e suc
cessive days. It then continues:
. . . let a table (xpane^a) be set up by him in middle of the theatre
and let an incense charger (or altar) (Gvuiaxfipiov) be placed upon it
(E 7UK£{C 0C D) and let the councillors and all ranks together offer sacrifice
(£7ci0\)excoaav) before the players (aKpoduaxa) enter for the safety (xfjq
xcov f|ye|i6vcov acoxripicc*;) of the rulers.3 1
We have, moreover, a bronze statuette from Lugdunum depicting a
priest of the Imperial Cult holding an incense box in his left hand
and with his right depositing a few grains on an altar (Plate 15). A
statuette conveys the image of a characteristic pose of the office of
the person depicted.
3 2
The image of an act of censing for a priestof the Imperial Cult is as characteristic as that of the depiction of
a medieval priest performing manual acts at Mass with the Host in
his hands.
Augustus is depicted on one cult statue wearing a Roman toga
but veiled as a priest with a patera (y\akx\) in his right hand, which
was used to hold incense as well as wine or other cereal offerings.3 3
Ho we ve r , ther e are clear associat ions be tw ee n the (pidXr) and incensein early Christian images as Apoc. 5,8 makes clear. There are clear
references to incense associated with the Imperial Cult at Gytheum
in A.D. 15 and at Pergamon circa A.D. 1 3 8 .3 4 The burning of incense
and libations was already common in the Hellenistic ruler cult in
Ptolemaic Egypt before its adaptation to emperor worship. 3 5 T h e r e
is arg uab ly, therefor e, a clear association be twee n the Imp eri al Cul t,
the practice of general ruler-worship from which it was derived, and
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9 0 C H A P T E R T H R E E
t h e o f fe r in g o f i n c e n s e a n d w i n e in t h e p a g a n r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r a l h e r
i t a g e o f T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r c l e ( P l a t e 1 4 ) .3 6
T h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts t h e r e f o r e h a s s e l e c t e d f r o m t h e J e w i s h c u l t
a p a r t i c u l a r a c t t h a t e v o k e s p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a r i s o n b y g e n t i l e r e a d
e r s i n A s i a M i n o r a n d in S y r i a , a n d e v e n b y J e w i s h r e a d e r s i n
C a e s a r e a P h i l ip p i w h e r e th e H e r o d i a n t e m p l e of S e b a s t e s t o o d , w i t h
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . I t is a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t r e p r e s e n t s
t h e r e a l , p a g a n b a c k c l o t h f o r h i s s e e m i n g l y J e w i s h b a c k c l o t h , if Luke
is w r i t t e n a ft e r A . D . 7 0 w h e n t h e J e w i s h T e m p l e rites h a v e b e e n
a b o l i s h e d . I n d e e d , t h e J e w i s h b a c k c l o t h w o u l d h a v e h a d n o v a l u e
f or L u k e as a d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t u n l e s s J e w i s h i m a g e r y c o u l d b e r e -
s e rv i ced a s a co n t ra -c u l tu ra l r e sp o n se t o p a g a n ritua l. I t is w i th t h e
H e l l e n i s t ic , p a g a n i n c e n s e - r i t u a l w i t h w h i c h h i s r e a d e r s w o u l d b e
f a m i l i a r . Y e t i n t h e o p e n - e n d e d , d e v e l o p i n g c o n c e p t u a l d i s c o u r s e o f
p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e c u l t , n e w J u d a e o C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t s a r e n o w
d e v i s e d a n d a s s i m i l a t e d w i t h p a g a n o n e s . E i s n e r ' s f o r m u l a t i o n o f a r t -
h i s to r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s c l e a r ly g e n e r a l r e l e v a n c e . W e h a v e s e e n
h o w e v e r t h a t t h e Ara Pacis o f A u g u s t u s ( 2B 1) h a d e x p r e s s e d i c o n o -
g r a p h i c a l l y t h e m e s s a g e o f a M e s s i a n i c g o l d e n a g e w e ll r e f l e c te d i n
th e l i t e ra ry w o r k s o f h i s co u r t p o e t s (2 A 6 ) . W e sh a l l n o w see h o w
t h a t g o l d e n a g e is n o w r e f l e c te d b y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts a n d t h e
r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l t t h a t h e se ts i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e r e f o r m e d
R o m a n c u lt o f a d i v i n e a n d a u g u r a l e m p e r o r .
3 B 3 . Eschatological promise and the reformed Jewish Cult
W e h a v e a l r e a d y o u t l in e d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r h a s b r o k e n
w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l a p o c a l y p t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s , n o t s o m u c h d e n y i n g t h e m
b u t s i m p l y i n s u l a t i n g t h e p r e s e n t f r o m t h e i r e ff ec t b y p l a c i n g t h e m
i n a f ar a n d i n d e f i n it e f u t u r e . T h e k i n d o f g o l d e n a g e e s c h a t o l o g y
w i t h w h i c h h e r e p l a c e s t h is a p o c a l y p t i c i m a g e r y is b e i n g fu lfille d i n
t h e p r e s e n t b y t h e b i r t h a n d m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s t h e M e s s i a h . B u t its h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h a t g o l d e n a g e is m a d e ,
n o t t h r o u g h J o h n t h e B a p t i s t a l o n e e v e n w i t h o u t hi s a p o c a l y p s e o f
b l o o d a n d fire. T h e f o r e r u n n e r is g i v e n a s u p e r n a t u r a l b i r t h e v e n
t h o u g h o f a d if f e r e nt k i n d t o t h a t o f J e s u s .
S u c h a l s o w a s t h e p o s i t i o n a r g u e d i n M . N i l s s o n , GGR? 2 , p . 3 3 7 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 9 1
B o t h a r e a n n o u n c e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t e m p l e c u l t a n d its p r i e s t
( Z a c h a r i a h ) a n d f e m a l e p r o p h e t e s s . F e m a l e p r o p h e t e s s e s w e r e n o t
u s u a ll y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e J e w i s h C u l t , u n li k e t h e S i b y l i n t h e R o m a n
c u lt . T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t of t h e g o l d e n a g e is t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m
o f c u l t i c h y m n s (Mag nificat, Nunc Dimittis, etc . ) , l ike the Carmen Saeculare
o f H o r a c e . T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f J o h n ' s b i r t h t h a t m a k e s Z a c h a r i a h
d u m b t o o k p l a c e in t h e t e m p l e a t t h e a l t a r o f i n c e n s e (Lk. 1,5-25).
H i s a g e d w i f e E l i z a b e t h , m i r a c u l o u s l y w i t h c h i l d g i v e n h e r a g e , m a y
l e a v e t h e t e m p l e p r e c i n c t t o v is it M a r y in N a z a r e t h i n G a l i l e e , a n d
t h e r e s h e m a y h e a r f r o m M a r y ' s l ip s t h e Magnificat ( 1 , 2 6 - 5 6 ) . H e
m a y r e c o v e r h i s v o i c e a t t h e b i r t h o f J o h n a n d s i n g h i s h y m n o f
t h a n k s g i v i n g ( 1 , 5 7 - 8 0 ) .
B u t t h e s c e n e w i ll r e t u r n , a ft e r t h e A n g e l s ' S o n g , t o t h e S h e p h e r d
a n d t h e b i r t h of C h r i s t ( 2 , 1 - 2 1 ) o n c e m o r e t o t h e T e m p l e , w h e r e M a r y
a n d J o s e p h t ak e t h e C h r i s t ch i ld i n o rd e r t o o ffer t h e s ac r if i ce s fo r
p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d t h e r e S y m e o n w i ll s i n g t h e Nunc Dimittis ( 2 , 2 2 - 3 5 ) .
A n n a p u r s u e s h e r w i d o w h o o d i n t h e t e m p l e f r o m w h i c h s h e n e v e r
d e p a r t s , a n d w h e r e s h e f as ts a n d p r a y s , l ik e t h e S i b y l , t e l li n g w h a t
h a s o c c u r r e d t o all w h o a w a i t r e d e m p t i o n i n J e r u s a l e m (naciv xoiq
7ipoo8exoii£vot<; Xmpqoivf
I ep o u o aA, f | | n ; 2 ,3 6 -3 9 ) . F in a l ly t h e sp ec i a l
m a t e r i a l o f Luke-Acts e n d s a t t h is p o i n t w i t h t h e y o u n g C h r i s t i n t h e
T e m p l e a s t o u n d i n g t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e T e m p l e ( 1 , 4 1 - 5 2 ) .
B u t g i v e n t h a t i t is a r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m f r o m w h i c h a r i s e s
t h e h o p e o f t h e g o l d e n a g e , i n w h a t t e r m s is s u c h a n a g e e x p r e s s e d ,
w h i c h , l i k e A u g u s t u s ' augurium pacis, t h e c u l t w i l l t h r o u g h i t s c e n t r a l
f i g u r e u s h e r in ( 2 B 1)? W e s h a l l n o w s e e t h e c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n s
b e t w e e n t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e v a r i o u s cu l ti c h y m n s a n d t h a t o f th e
I m p e r i a l C u l t .
3 B 3 . 1 . eipf |vr | , ocoxrip and the p a x d e o r u m in L u k e - A c t s
W e h a v e a l r e a d y d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h s u c h v i r tu e sas Eipr|vr]-/fex, 'Ouovoiot— Concordia a r e n o t m e r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t d e i t i e s
b u t a r e a s s o c i a t e d , a s t h e y h a d b e e n f r o m S u l l a ' s t i m e , w i t h t h e p e r
so n a l i t y o f t h e imperator ( 2 B 3 ). I t w a s n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e n o w t o
h a v e t h e A u g u s t a n p r e s e n c e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e saeculum aureum
i n w h i c h t h e s e v i r t u e s w o u l d b e re a l i se d . S i m i l a r t h e m e s a r e n o w
re f l ec t ed i n t h e sp ec i a l t im e th a t h as co m e ro u n d , t h e ev i au x o v Ku p io u
S E K T O V w h i c h , i n t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n s p e c i a l a d d i t i o n s t o Mark a n d Q,is w h a t J e s u s b e g i n s h i s m i n i s t r y b y " h e r a l d i n g ( ic r |p u £ ai ). " (Lk. 4 ,1 8 )
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92 C H A P T E R T H R E E
Thi s passage by itself parallels the Imper ial Cul t wit hou t the re
ap pe ar in g at first sight to exist an y necessar y connec ti on be tw ee n
such a cont ing en t an d paral lel th em e. T h e reference is to the free
ing (A,\>xpcoci<;) of the land eve ry 50th year, t he year of Jub i lee (Lev.
25,10). T h e para llel in the Imper ia l Cu lt is wit h a Stoic re tu rn of
the golden age after the disintegration into iron, after which the
cycle of history makes its full turn to the saeculum aureumwith Fortuna
Redux. W e have exa mi ne d how the met aphys ics of such a not ion was
inc orpo rat ed into the funda ment al assump tions of the Impe rial Cult
(2A 6). But like Augu stus , and unlike Ol d Test am en t forshadowings,
the evuxuTov Kupiou 8eicx6v and the c on sequ ent Xmpwoiq is made
de pe nd en t for its fulfilment on a un iq ue per son , Je su s. T h u s the
ap pe ar an ce of con ting enc y in the parallel ism is mist aken . T he r e is
a direct conne ction be twee n the use of Ol d Te st am en t promis e an d
the mat rix of the ideology of the Impe ria l Cul t whi ch shap es the
envi saged fulfilment of that pr omise.
IcoTTipia was an ot he r of these virtuous condi tions associated with
the extraordinary pax deorumwhich Augustus as augur was to achieve.
Za ch ar ia h prop hesies on the birth of J o h n his son the fulfilment of
pr om is ed Auxpcoaiq in th at Go d has "ra ised up th e horn of salvat ion
for us (acoxripiaq TIJIIV; Lk. 1,69)." Here again acoxripia has an O ld
Testament background where such phrases as "salvation from our
enemies (acoxripiav e£ e^GpSv; 1,71)" are derived from 2 Sam. 22,3,
and Ps 17,18-19 in the process of his construction of a hymn (Lk.
1,71-72). I n pr epa ri ng the way for the Lo rd J o h n is "to give know
ledge of salvat ion (xou Souvcu yvcooiv ocoxripiaq) to his people (xcp Xa&
auxou) in the forgiveness of their sins (ev dcpeaei 6c|iapxicov; 1,77)."
Here also the Old Testament background reveals a fulfilled Judaism
which parallels the imperial ideology but shows no necessary con
nection with it.
But when we turn to Luke's association of the divine plan (rcpoyvcooK;,
pou^T|) with themes of acoxr |p{a and ocoxrip, we find more than a
merely contingent parallelism but rather a more positive connection.
Squires has emphasised the at least partial roots of Luke's concept
of pr ov iden ce in the linguistic usage of K p o v o i a in Hellenistic uni
versal histories such as Diodorus Siculus and Dionysius of Halicar-
nassus.3 7
But ther e is a mor e direct connect ion in the association of
1 7
J.T. S q u i r e s , The P l a n of God in L u k e - A c t s , in SINTS m o n o g r a p h s e r i e s 76
( C a m b r i d g e : 1 9 9 3 ) , pp. 15 17; 3 8 - 4 6 ; 103 108.
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE O R I G I N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 93
npovoia with ocoxrip in the ideology of the Impe ri al Cult . It is this
association in the temp lat e of imper ial ideology tha t arguab ly deter
mines Luke's association of such Old Te st am en t th eme s as he c on
structs these a round Je su s as acoxf|p.
W e have alr eady note d from the Ko in on of Asia's dec ree in 9 B.C .
the descr iption of Augustu s as the one "Prov idenc e (npovoia) gr an te d
to us as our saviour (coarcep Tijieiv mixoiq ixeO'fuxaqocoxfipaxapiaaiievri)
who has made war to cease and ordered the world with peace (xov
rcauaavxa jiev 7i6A,euov, Koouriaovxa 8e e ip r | v T w ) ."3 8
We have examples
too from Sardis between 5-2 B.C., and Gytheion in Laconia in
Ti be ri us ' reign (2B 4). W e ma y note further examples in the case
of Antio chus IV an d Juli us Ca es ar .3 9
The passage continues:
through the compassion of our God,
in which the dawn (&vaxoA,t|) from on high has visited us,
to appear to those seated in darkness and in the shadow of death,
to guide (Kax£\)0\)vai) our feet into the way of peace (eiq 686v eipf|vt|<;).
Luke 1,78-79
T h e feeling of gloom and des pon den cy, of darkness an d the s had ow
of death, is not to be attributed to an expression of the feeling of
Israel under enemy occupation. Were that the focus of these sentiments,
they would not have been included in this highly crafted literary text
addresse d to The op hi lu s, a R o m a n of some rank , as is shown by
his be in g addressed as "Y ou r Excellency (icpdxiaxe Geotpita),"4 0
aboutwhom we shall hav e some mo re to say late r (3C 2). T h e t hem e is
not of revolutionary chaos or natural convulsion but of a golden age
3 8
E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) , pp. 8 2 - 8 3 no. 98 (b) l i n e s 3 4 - 3 6 and IB 4.3 9
See a l s o M.P. N i l s s o n , G e s c h i c h t e der g r i e c h i s c h e n R e l i g i o n in HA 5,2,2 ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,
p p . 3 7 1 - 3 7 2 for e x a m p l e s in the c a s e of C a e s a r and A n t i o c h u s IV. Cf. F i s h w i c k
( 1 9 8 7 ) 1,1 pp. 1 1 - 1 2 , 27, 48, 50.40
Lk. 1,3. L. A l e x a n d e r , The P r e f a c e to L u k e ' s G o s p e l . L i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n and
s o c i a l c o n t e x t in L u k e 1.1-4 and A c t s 1.1, in SINTS m o n o g r a p h s e r i e s 78 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ,
p . 133: ". . . Kpdxiaxoq was a p p l i e d p r o p e r l y to p e o p l e of e q u e s t r i a n r a n k . But it is
n o w a c c e p t e d tht it is f o u n d w i t h w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n . . . and so its use d o e s not
p r o v e t h a t T h e o p h i l u s was a R o m a n o f fi ci a l. " But L u k e u s e s th i s w o r d o n l y in one
o t h e r p l a c e , Acts 2 3 , 2 5 , w h e r e C l a u d i a s L y s i a s a d d r e s s e s his l e t ter : xcp KpaxCaxcp
f i y e u o v i 0T|A,iia. C l e a r l y L u k e u n d e r s ta n d s th i s t e r m as th a t of a high rank ing of f i c ia l ,
a n d th e r e fo r e in a s e n s e c o n s i s ta n t w i th OGIS 614, 4-5 ( g o v e r n o r of A r a b i a ) ; 6 2 9 , 1 6 8
( C o r b u l o ) ; 6 6 7 , 4 ( p r e f e c t of E g y p t) ; J o s e p h u s , Antiqu. 20,12 ( g o v e r n o r of S y r i a ) . See
a l s o R.L. Fox, Pagans and Christians, ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 4 3 0 - 4 3 1 .
O n T h e o p h i l u s as a r e a l p e r s o n and not a p s e u d o n y m for a " ty p i c a l " C h r i s t i a n ,
s e e A l e x a n d e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 1 8 8 - 1 9 0 ff.
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE O R I G I N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 95
Furthermore those "seated in darkness and in the shadow of death"
in Lk. 1,79 are members of the world described in the proconsul of
Asia's letter as one that "would have gladly welcomed its destruc
tion (TI8IOTCX av 8ef;auevcp cpGopav)."44 T h e birt h of August us ha d b ee n
the "beginning of the good life of nature and of society (dpxfiv TOU
(iiou Koci ifjq ^cofiq), which is the end and limit of feeling regret (xou
jiexapi^eaGou)."4 5
Likewise in the angels' song to the shepherds, peace
(eipr|vr|) is an no un ce d "u po n ea rth am ong st me n with w h o m G o d is
well p leased (ev ravGpcbrcoiq eu8oK{a( ; ; Lk. 2,14) ."4 6
Finally Symeon in
the Nunc Dimittis links his de pa r tur e "in pe ac e (ev eiprivp)" wi th "thy
salvation (TO acoTripiov aou; 2 ,29-30) ."
But the presence of salvation, peace, and the saeculum aureum was
associated, according to Vergil's Fourth Eclogue, with the birth of a
chi ld wh o (/. 15), possessed the "life of th e gods (deum vitam)." By the
time he wrote Aeneid 6, 791-794, Vergil associated the divine person
age with Augustus Caesar, genus divorum, qui condet saecula aurea (2A 6).
Augustus moreover was quite literally fdius dei since he was not only
Caesar' son but also of the gens Julia whose divine ancestor had been
Venus. It would be quite wrong to underrate the strong religious
impression made by such expressions and attributes on the way in
which the Emperor was regarded in Asia Minor in the late first cen
tury.4 7
Let us now examine the Lukan parallels with such imperial
titles. O n c e ag ain we shall not e tha t it is the imper ial ideology that
controls his selection of Old Testament themes and provides the pat
tern into which he fits them.
3B 3.2. Virgin Birth and Jesus as Son of God (Lk. 2,26-35)
The author of Luke-Acts did not invent the story of the Virgin Birth.
A variant of that same tradition is found in Mat. 1,18- 25. O n the
generally accepted, four document hypothesis, Luke did not know
44
Ibid, l ine 8.45
Ibid, l i n e 1 0 - 1 1 .4 6
See a l s o N i l s s o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 371.4 7
T h u s I f ind quite faci le B.W. J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e
1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 w h e r e he r e g a r d s D o m i t i a n ' s d i v i n e a p p e l l a t i o n as: "all but
i n c r e d i b l e . . . t e r m s u s e d by flatterers such as M a r t i a l , S t a t i u s, J u v e n t i u s C e l s u s (or
Pliny) to s e c u r e a fa v o u r f r o m an a u to c r a t h a r d l y c o n s t i tu te p r o o f th a t th e y w e r e
i n s t r u c te d or r e q u i r e d to use t h e m . . ." I h a v e f o l l o w e d h e r e the g e n e r a l th e s i s of
P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) and F i s h w i c k (1 9 8 7 ) th a t it is w r o n g to s e c u l a r i z e R o m a n p o l i t i c s and
t o m a r g i n a l i z e the r e l i g i o u s d i m e n s i o n in th i s way. See a l s o K. S c o t t , The Imperial
Cult under the Flavians (New Y o r k : A r n o 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 102 103 and f o o t n o t e 7 a b o v e .
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9 6 C H A P T E R T H R E E
M a t t h e w ' s s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l , o r vice versa. B u t t h e r e a r e s i g n i f ic a n t
d i f f e ren ces .
F i r sd y , i n Lk. 1 ,3 2 , w h a t M a r y is t o co n c e iv e is t o b e ca l l ed " S o n
o f t h e H i g h e s t (vibq u O i o x ou ) ," a n d t h e r e f o r e S o n o f G o d a l r e a d y b y
c o n c e p t i o n . M o r e o v e r t h is t i d e is l i n k e d w i t h n o t o n l y t h e " t h r o n e
o f D a v i d h is F a t h e r " a n d r u l e " o v e r t h e h o u s e o f J a c o b f o r e v e r , "
b u t a lso w i th a n ev e r l a s t i n g k i n g d o m , s in ce : " o f h i s k in g d o m (xfiq
p ao i t a io cq au x o u ) t h e re sh a l l b e n o en d ( O U K eoxoci xeXoq; 1 ,3 2 -3 3 ). "
Bu t i n Mat. 1,18-25 t h is c o n n e c t i o n is n o t m a d e .
J e s u s is r e f e r r e d t o s i m p l y a s " k i n g o f t h e J e w s " i n t h e q u e s t i o n
o f t h e M a g i ( 2 , 1 - 2 ) . T h e a d o r a t i o n o f t h e M a g i f o r e s h a d o w s t h e
h o m a g e o f t h e G e n t i l e s t o b e g i v e n t o I s r a e l ' s M e s s i a h . M a r y is t o
h a v e a ch i ld a n d " w h a t is b e g o t t e n (yevvrjGev) i s o f th e H o ly Sp i r i t
( E K 7CV£U|XCXTO<; eax iv ay io u ; 1,20)." H i s n a m e J e s u s i m p l i e s t h a t " h e
sha l l save (ocbae i ) h i s peop le f rom the i r s ins . " (1 ,21) Matthew h e r e
u ses t h e v e rb o co oe i r a th e r t h a n th e A u g u s t a n t i tl e ocoxrip w h i ch , a s
w e h a v e s e e n , is u s e d b y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts (3 B 3 .1 ) . T h e ch i ld
is b o r n i n B e t h l e h e m ( t he c i ty o f D a v i d ) ( 2 , 5 - 6 ) . I n Matthew w h a t i s
yevvr|0ev eic rcveujiotToq . . . a y t o u is n o t c o n n e c t e d t h e r e f o r e w i t h t h e
t i d e mbq x ou G eou . T h e c h i l d " b e g o t t e n o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t " is a m i r
a c l e t h a t i n d i c a t e s M a r y ' s p u r i t y , so t h a t J o s e p h s h a l l n o t " p u t h e r
a w a y , " ( 1 , 2 0 ) a n d s i m p l y f u l f i l s a M e s s i a n i c p r o p h e c y (Is. 7 , 1 4 ) a b o u t
a v i r g i n a n d a c h i l d c a l l e d E m m a n u e l ( 1 , 2 2 - 2 3 ) . Y io q x ou G eou is n o t
t h e r e f o r e c o n n e c t e d i n Matthew w i t h t h e m o d e o f C h r i s t ' s v i r g i n a l
b i r t h n o r t h e r e f o r e w i t h th e g o l d e n a g e a s b o t h i n A u g u s t a n l i te r a
t u r e a n d i n Luke-Acts. J e s u s is c a l l e d " S o n o f G o d " i n Mat. 2 , 1 5 , b u t ,
as wi th the d iv ine vo ice a t h i s bap t i sm f i r s t in Mat. 3,17 as in M k.
1 , 1 1, t h e t i d e h a s t h e s e n s e o f a d o p t i o n r a t h e r . t h a n b i r t h , i n a l l u
s io n to t h e ad o p t io n o f I s r ae l i n Hos. 11 ,1 o r the k ing as I s rae l ' s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n Ps. 2 , 7 . T h u s in Matthew n o c o n c l u s i o n i s d r a w n
f r o m t h e V i r g i n B i r t h t o J e s u s ' d i v i n e s t a t u s o t h e r t h a n t h a t o f
M es s i a h i n fu l fi lm en t o f Is. 7 , 1 4 .4 8
T h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e A u g u s t a n e q u a t i o n genus divorum (= Jilius dei -
saeculum aureum) i s, t h e r e f o r e , b y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts a l o n e . M a r y
a s k s h o w t h is c a n b e s i n c e s h e h a s n o t c a r n a l k n o w l e d g e o f a m a n
4 8 F o r a f u r th e r d i s c u s si o n a n d fu ll b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e J . N o l l a n d , N o S o n - o f - G o d
C h r i s t o l o g y i n M a t t h e w 1.18-25, in JSMT 6 2 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 3 - 1 2 .
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IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF C H U R C H O R D E R 97
(Lk. 1,34) and therefore invites Gabriel's rather clinical a n d techni
cal explanation. H e replies:
The Holy Spirit (rcveuua ayiov) shall come upon you (ikevoETca ini ae),and the power of the Highest (mi 5\>va|ii<; \)\j/iaTO\)) shall overshadow
you (enioKiaoEi A O I ) ; therefore that holy thing which is born ( 8 1 6 m i
XO yevvcouevov ayiov) shall be called a son of God (ICA .r|9T|a£Tai vxbq 0 e o v ) .
Luke 1,35
Clearly the author of Luke-Acts, just like the Augustan poets, wishes
to show how the figure at the centre of his Christian cult is quite
literally divine by procreation, and in no analogical or allegoricalsense. In Eel. 4,6, the mother of the child to be born was a Virgo, and
her seed the "dear offspring of the gods (cara deum suboles)" (I. 49) so
that T O yEvvcouEvov clearly parallels suboles.
Our comparison of Mathaean a n d Lukan accounts of the Virgin
Birth show that not every selection a nd development of Old Testament
proof texts will yield the sense in which Luke uses his divine titles.
Luke affirms the use of Old Testament concepts of acorn p ia in supportof his tide of acoTr|p because he can thereby construct a parallelism
with the imperial ideology, just as he does when he interprets O ld
Testament prophecies of the Virgin Birth as a divine procreation.
But it is not the case that the author will take on the categories
of the Imperial Cult without radical reinterpretation. It is not a pagan
cultus with which we are presented but a reformed Jewish one in
which Jes us' Messiahship stands realised. Con tra -cul tur es to someextent produce mirror images of their host culture: they reverse the
categories and values of what they reflect. A n d this is what is clearly
happening here. Luke is holding up to Theophi lus and his circle
inverse mirror images of their pagan culture that reverse the cate
gories a n d values of what those images reflect.
It has often been pointed out that the language of Lk. 1,35 almost
self-consciously rules out any humanly conceived activity of God onMary's womb, such as when Anchises fathered by the seduction of
Venus Aeneas a n d thereby the gens Julia (Vergil Aenid 1, 617-620).
The divine activity in the miraculous birth is described in highly
abstract terms. T h e an thropomorphism of "shall come upon you
( E X E U O E T C U £7ci ae)" is all but obliterated by making the subject of this
verb "holy spirit (7W£uuoc a y i o v ) . " T h e equivalent expression in different
terms, in the second stanza of a Hebrew poem, likewise makes it
clear that JWEUUXX otyiov is the depersonalised "power of the Highest
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98 CHAPTER THREE
(8t>vaui<; i)\|nGTorj)" and its action is d e v o i d of directly physical con
tact ("shall overshadow you (eTuoKidoei GOI)") .4 9
It is strictly therefore thr ou gh this depers ona lis ed process that the
"holy t h i n g which is born (816 KGU TO yevvcojaevov ayiov) shall be called
a son of God (K A ,r)6r|a£Tai vibq GEOU; Lk. 1,35)." Yet as we have
pointed out, there was no such connection b e t w e e n the title son of
God and d i v i n e progeny in the tradition which preceded Luke, and
no justification from his Ol d Tes ta me nt mate rial . His theology of
the Virgin Birth is the result of the impress of the template of impe
rial ideology upon that material. Mk. 15,39 places that title in the
m o u t h of the centurion where the author uses it as a double-entendre:
his readers knew what the title really meant, without any concession
such as Luke makes to a pagan theology of d i v i n e procreation. The
author of Luke-Acts is therefore creating a metaphysical sense in which
Jesus can be seen as a d i v i n e progeny in self-conscious reflection on
the position of Augustus in the Impe rial Cul t. He refashions the con
cepts of that cult and t he co mm un it y at the cent re of whi ch it stood
in order to present his own contra-cultural image that identifies his
own counter group.
But we shall now examine a t h i r d strand in the cultic h y m n s , and
aetiological stories associa ted with it, in te rms of the con tra-c ult ura l
response of the community of Luke-Acts to Augustan concept of Victoria,
its messian ic associations, and its divinisation from an abstr act te rm
into a personal one.
3B 3.3. Victoria and the Magnificat (Lk. 1,46-55)
We saw how in the republican cult Victoria was turned into one of
the d i v i n e personalities of the e m p e r o r . We observed m o r e o v e r the
ic onogra ph ic expression of this process in the inscr iptions on the
gemma Augustea where Roma appears alongside representations of
Victoria, Oikumene, and Tellus. Alongside Roma sits Augustus with t he
cor nuc opi c sign of Ca pr ic or n over his he ad, a nd in his right han d
is the lituus. Fortuna is depicted crow ni ng him (2B 3 and Plate 13).
T hus Victoria and Salus were qualities achieved through the sacerdo
tal qualit ies of the figure of Augustus , genus divorum, standing as pre
siding priest of a cult which sacramentally c o u l d secure the saeculum
aureum.
4 9
V. Taylor, The Historical Evidence for the Virgin Birth, (Oxford: Clarendon 1 9 2 0 ) ;
Brown (1977), pp. 314 316.
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 9 9
T h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n , in a l o g ic a l s e n s e , b e t w e e n t h e
c o n c e p t s o f Victoria a n d Salus i n b a t t l e , a g o ld e n ag e , a h u m a n figu re
o f d i v i n e a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l p a r e n t a g e , a n d a s e ri es o f s a c r e d a c t s
c e n t r e d u p o n a c u l t. I n t e r m s o f t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y p o s t
C h a l c e d o n , M a r y ' s v i rg i ni ty a n d t h e m a n n e r o f h e r c o n c e p t i o n h a s
s i g n i fi c a n c e f o r t h e t h e o l o g y o f i n c a r n a t i o n . B u t t h e r e is a s a b a c k
g r o u n d t o t h e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t i n Luke n o n e o f t h e l a t t e r t h e o l o g i
c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e r n s o f C h a l c e d o n . W i t h o u t su c h a c o n t e x t ,
t h e r e is n o n e c e s sa r y c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n a n d t h e
c o n t e n t s o f t h e Magnificat. T h a t h y m n , fr o m t h e c e n t r e of t h e C h r i s t i a n
c u l tu s , c o n s i d e r e d a s J u d a i s m r e f o r m e d , d o e s n o t h a v e M a r y m e d i
t a t i n g o n a n d g l o r y i n g i n t h e tw o n a t u r e s m a d e o n e i n w h a t s h e
c o n c e i v e s .
R a t h e r s h e i n t e r p r e t s t h e s i g n if i c a n c e o f t h e genus dei, t h e u io q T O U
G eou w h i c h s h e b e a r s , i n t e r m s o f a m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y . T h o u g h f or
m a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e a c t u a l t e r m Victoria (Ndcrj) is not explicity used,
o t h e r t e r m s i n d i c a t i v e o f s u c h a d i v i n e a b s t r a c t i o n a r e . M a r y ' s
TarcelvcoGK; h a s b e e n e n d e d b y G o d w h o is 6 S u va x oq , a n d w h o h a s
" s h o w n (ercornaev) t h e m i g h t (Kpdioq) o f h i s a rm (ev p p a x i o v i a u x o u ) "
a n d " s c a t t e r e d t h e p r o u d ( 8 i e o K 0 p 7 u o e v urcepcpdvouq; Lk. 1,48-51)."
" H e h a s c a s t d o w n ( ic aO e ita v) t h e m i g h t y ( S u v d a x a q ) f r o m t h e i r
t h r o n e s (anb 0 p6 vco v; 5 2 ) . " P r e v i o u s l y t h e p r o m i s e d b i r t h o f M a r y ' s
c h i l d h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e G povoq a n d fiaoiXeia o f D a v i d
wh ich , l i k e t h e i d ea l imperium Rom anum, wi l l h av e n o en d (Lk. 1,32-33).
F u r t h e r m o r e , Z a c h a r i a h ' s t h a n k s g i v i n g fo r t h e b i r t h o f J o h n t h e
B a p t i s t s e t s t h e t h e m e s o f acoxripia, XuTpcoaiq, a n d acpeaic; in t h e m il
i t a r i s t i c c o n t e x t o f t h e Kepctq acorn, piocq w h i c h g iv e s d e l i v e r a n c e e £
exGpcov ( 1 , 6 9 - 7 0 ; 7 3 ). T h o u g h n o t sp e c if ic a ll y n a m e d , t h e k i n d o f
e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e d e i f i e d Victoria w a s n o t a b s e n t f r o m t h e
w o r s h i p o f M a r y ' s c h i l d b y T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r cl e .
W e c a n , f o ll o w i n g p a r t i a l l y a n a r r a t i v e - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h , c o n s t r u c t
t h e i d e a l r e a d e r f r o m s u c h p a s s a g e s a n d f i n d t h a t o u r c o n s t r u c
t i o n is i n f o r m e d b y t h e c u l t u r a l a n d h i st o r i c a l t e m p l a t e w h i c h o r d e r s
t h e t h e m e o f Victoria (Niicn,) i n t h e Im p e r i a l Cu l t . Su c h a t e m p l a t e
m a k e s i n te l li g ib l e h o w T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i rc l e w o u l d r e g a r d t h e
r e c o r d o f t h e e v e n t s o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l b i r t h a n d a d i v i n e C h i l d w h i c h
u sh e r s i n a r e ig n o f Pax o r eip rivn. as a l te rn a t iv e im ag es to tho se o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ( P la te 5) . T h a t c u l t, f r om 9 B . C . o n w a r d s , t r a n s
fig ured th e l a n d sc ap e o f r e l i g io u s a r ch i t e c t u r e a n d cu l tu re i n t h e As i a
M i n o r o f t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e L u k a n w r i t i n g s , a s w e ll a s a t C a e s a r e a
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IMPERIAL I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 101
s o c i e ty w i t h w h i c h t o r e p l a c e t h e p r e s e n t . T h i s is a c h a r g e t h a t w e
m i g h t l a y r a t h e r a t t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Apocalypse, as we sha l l see . A
c o n t r a - c u l t u r e is n o t a n a l t e r n a t iv e c u l t u r e , a s w e m u s t n o w — a n d
in a L u k a n c o n t e x t — e x p l a i n .
P A R T C . L U K A N I M A G E S O F C O N T R A -C U L T U R E
A c r e a t i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i s a s y m b i o t i c s t r a t e g y l e a d i n g t o s o c ia l
i n t e g r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n anomie. A c o n t r a - c u l t u r e is n o t a m i r r o r i m a g e
o f t h e cu l tu re t h a t it r e f l ec ts , w i th d i ff e ren t p e r s o n s r ep l ac in g t h ea u t h o r i t y figures w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e s t h a t t h e y i n h a b i t a n d
t h e i r w e b o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s le ft u n a l t e r e d . I n t h a t r e s p e c t a c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e is n o t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a l t e r n a t i v e ( C h a p t e r 1, p p . 1 1 - 1 4 ff.).
C o h e n ' s j u v e n i l e g a n g s , f or e x a m p l e , w e r e n o t c h a l l e n g i n g t h e status
quo b u t c r e a t i n g a s o l u t i o n w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o l iv e s y m b i o t i c a l l y
w i t h i n i t. T h e i r r e v e r s a l o f s o c i e t y 's v a l u e s w a s p a r t o f t h e c r e a t i o n
o f a s o c i a l r e a l i ty w h i c h g a v e t h e m s t a t u s t h a t b r o a d e r s o c ie t y d e n i e dt h e m , a n d t h u s i n o n e w a y p r o t e c t e d t h a t s o c i e t y f r o m r e v o l u t i o n
a r y d e s t r u c t i o n . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e d e l i n q u e n t s o l u t i o n a s s u c h
w a s n o t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s o l u t i o n .
S i m i l a r l y Luke-Acts r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l s o l u t i o n w h i c h i s
s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i v e , o v e r c o m i n g a s i t d o e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e o f
anomie i n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h a t c o n t r a - c u l t u r e a n d t h u s r e d u c i n g
p r e s s u r e s t o w a r d s a c t u a l a n d d i s r u p t i v e anomia w i t h i n t h e h o s t c u l t u r ei n w h i c h i t is f o u n d . T h a t t h e t h e m e s o f Victoria a n d Pax a r e n o t t o
b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n a p o l i ti c a l ly r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a y is m a d e q u i t e c l e a r
b y Luke's r a d i c a l a d j u s t m e n t , u n i q u e a m o n g s t t h e s y n o p t i c e v a n g e
l ists, o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c m e s s a g e o f J o h n t h e B a p t i st w h e n t h e l a t t e r
is r e c o r d e d a s e x h o r t i n g t h e g i v i n g o f f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g t o t h o s e i n
n e e d . T a x - c o l l e c t o r s a r e n o t t o e x a c t m o r e t h a n t h e i r a l l o t t e d a m o u n t .
R o m a n s o l d ie r s a r e t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i r w a g e s (Lk. 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 ) .B u t l et u s n o w e x a m i n e h o w t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e i n f o r m s b o t h p a r t s o f Luke-Acts. W e b e g i n b ri e fl y w i t h t h e
L u k a n e s c h a t o l o g y (3 C 1) a n d f o ll o w w i t h a m o r e e x t e n d e d t r e a t
m e n t i n Acts (3C 2) .
3C 1 . The imperial banquet (Lk. 1,52-53; 3,1)
Pax a n d Victoria i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e r e f o r m e d J u d a i s t i c c u l t , a n d i ts
p r o m i s e d g o l d e n a g e u s h e r e d i n b y a S o n o f G o d b o r n o f a V i r g i n ,
w e r e n o t e x a c t m i r r o r i m a g e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w h i c h t h e y t h u s
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1 0 2 C H A P T E R T H R E E
r e f l e c te d i n t h e f o r m o f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d d i s t o r t i o n s . T h e r e f o r m e d ,
J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n c u l t p r o v i d e d a s o l u ti o n fo r t h e h u n g r y a n d m e e k
w h o w e r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h g o o d t h i n g s w i t h t h e r i c h s e n t a w a y e m p t y
(Lk. 1,52-53). T h e V i r g i n ' s c h i l d , w h o is t h e s i g n o f t h e saeculum
aureum o f AuTpcoaiq, eiprivr) a n d acoxripia, is b o r n i n a m a n g e r (Lk.
1,11), l i k e t h e h u n g r y a n d t h e o p p r e s s e d . Luke's scene i s thus h i s
c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c r e a t i o n o f a s c h e m e o f s i g n if i c a n c e i n w h i c h t h e d i s
p o s s e s s e d a n d m a r g i n a l i s e d a r e g i v e n t h e i r o w n , n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
r e a l it y t h a t a s si g ns t h e m d i g n i t y a n d s t a t u s w i t h h e l d b y " n o r m a l "
s o c i e t y . A s s u c h L u k e w a s i n v i t i n g T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r c l e t o a c c e p t
a l so t h e e g a l i t a r i a n d e m a n d s o f t h e J e s u s M o v e m e n t , po s s ib l y o v e r
l o o k e d b y P a u l . 5 1
T h e " j u d g e m e n t " w h i c h m i g h t b e s e e n i n Lk. 1 , 5 2 - 5 3 , w h e r e t h e
m i g h t y a r e t h r o w n d o w n a n d t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k e x a l t e d , f i t s f a r
m o r e c lo s el y w i t h p a r a l l e l s i n t h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n t h a n w i t h O l d
T e s t a m e n t t h e m e s of j u d g e m e n t . B u t t h e b e n e fi c ia r ie s in M a r y ' s s o n g
o f l ay c r ip m an d Au xp co aiq h a v e n o c o u n te rp a r t i n t h e so c i a l r ev o lu
t i o n m a r k e d b y t h e a d v e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d its c e l e b r a t i o n
o f N u cr|. I n t h e l a t t e r i t w a s n o t t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k , b u t l e a d i n g
f r e e d m e n a n d m e m b e r s o f t h e Ordo Equester w h o b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e
A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n .
A s Z a n k e r p o i n t s o u t , t h e s e g r o u p s p r e v i o u s l y w i t h o u t s o c i a l s t a
t u s c o u l d n o w a c h i e v e s o ci a l r e c o g n i t i o n t h r o u g h t h e r e l ig i o u s r e s p o n
s ib il it ie s o f p r i e s t h o o d s . T h e s a c ri fi ci a l p r o c e s s i o n d e p i c t e d o n t h e Ara
Pacis d i s p l a y s t h e n e w l y c o n s t i t u t e d , l e a d i n g a r i s t o c r a c y .5 2
F o r e x a m p l e ,
the eques t r ians were made p r ies t s o f the cu l t o f the Lupercalia. M o r e o v e r ,
l e a d i n g f r e e d m e n (liberti) g a i n e d r e li g io u s f u n c t i o n s a n d c o r r e s p o n d
i n g so c i a l s t a t u s t h r o u g h t h e c u l ti c s h r i n e s o f t h e i r v a r i o u s g u i l d s
a n d a s magistri in the cu l t s o f the Compitalia w h i c h w e r e t h e 2 6 5 vici
o r c it y - d is t r ic t s c r e a t e d b y A u g u s t u s i n 7 B . C . , a n d fo r w h i c h w e
h a v e c o m m e m o r a t i v e a l t a r s ( P l at e 8 ). E v e n w o r t h y s la v es c o u l d p a r
t i c i p a t e a s ministri a t t h e s e s h r i n e s w h o t h e r e b y a c h i e v e d t h e s t a t u s
o f p u b l i c of fic e a n d c o u l d r e c o r d t h e i r n e w s t a t u s b y t h e i r p a r t i c i
p a t i o n i n p r o c e s s i o n s o n i m p e r i a l fe as t d a y s . T h e A l t a r o f t h e L a r e s
s h o w s p r o b a b l y A u g u s t u s h a n d i n g o v e r t w o s ta t u e t t e s o f t h e Lares
5 1 G . T h e i s s e n , Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity, t r an s . J . B o w d e n , ( P h i l a d e lp h i a :F o r t r es s 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 - 3 0 .
5 2 Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 1 2 3 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 1 0 3
5 3 Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 1 3 1 a n d p . 1 3 3 f ig . 1 0 9 .5 4 F i s h w i c k ( 1 9 9 1 ) 2 , 1 p p . 4 8 2 - 5 0 1 .55
Ibid. p . 5 8 6 , c i t i n g IGRR 4 , 1 6 0 8 c . S e e a l s o 3 C 3 . 2 .06 Ibid. p. 575 c f . F . Mi l lar , The Emperor in the Roma n World, ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r t h
1 9 7 7 ) , p . 3 6 a n d p . 3 6 5 ; J . G a g e , Apollon Romain, in BEFAR 1 8 2 , ( 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 2 5 7 - 2 9 6 ;
M a r t i a l Ep. 3 .
t o t h e ministri o f a compitum ( P l a te 9 ) . T h e l a t t e r w e a r s l a v e s ' d r e s s .5 3
T h e r e fe r e n c e to b a n q u e t i n g i n Lk. 1 , 5 2 ~ 5 3 is s ign i f ican t in v ie w
o f o u r l o c a t i o n o f t h e L u c a n e s c h a t o l o g y a n d it s m y t h o l o g y i n t h e
i m a g e r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . C i v i c b a n q u e t s , li ke c iv ic g a m e s , w e r e
l i n k e d t o c u l t ic c e l e b r a t i o n s o f i m p e r i a l b i r t h d a y s in t h e l e c t i o n a r y
t h a t F i s h w i c k p o s i t s a n d a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n s t r u c t .5 4
P a r t o f t h e l a rg es se
r e q u i r e d o f t h e p r e s t i g i o u s p r i e s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t h e p r o
v i s io n o f l a v is h c i v ic b a n q u e t s . T h e s e t o o , l ik e t h o s e w h o h e l d t h e
p r i e s t h o o d s a t R o m e , w e r e u s i n g s u c h o f f i c e s a s a m e a n s o f u p w a r d
s o ci al m o b i l i t y f r o m t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y w e a l t h y g r o u p s o f f r e e d m e n a n d
t r a d e s m e n . Luke h a s a v i s i o n o f a n e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n a s
a c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h a t o f A u g u s t u s . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a t t e r , t h e p r e
v i o u s ly m i g h t y a r e t h r o w n f r o m t h e i r s e a t s b y a n i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w
e rf ul , m e r c a n t i l e a n d t r a d i n g cla ss n e w l y a d m i t t e d t o p o w e r . A u g u s t u s
is d e p i c t e d o n o n e a l t a r a s p r e s e n t i n g a s t a t u e o f M i n e r v a t o t h e
magistri o f a g u i ld o f w o o d w o r k e r s (P l a t e 1 2) . F o r t h e fo rm er i t is t h e
p o o r a n d h u m b l e t h a t b e n e f i tt e d fr o m t h e c h a n g e d s t a tu s b r o u g h t
a b o u t b y t h e r e v e r s a l o f p o w e r .
A d e c r e e o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l c o u n c i l o f A s i a , a c o p y o f w h i c h is p r e
s e r v e d i n a n i n s c r i p t io n f r o m H y p a e p a , r e c o r d s t h e c h o i r o f A s i a
h o l d i n g a b a n q u e t a f t e r h y m n s a n d s a c r i f i c e s i n h o n o u r o f T i b e r i u s '
b i r t h d a y .5 5
I n t h e g a m e s w h i c h p r e c e d e d s u c h b a n q u e t s , w i t h t h e
p r o c e s s i o n o f i m p e r i a l i m a g e s f r o m a Sebasteion t o t h e g a m e s t h e m
s el ve s , t h e r ic h w o u l d h a v e p l a c e s o f h o n o u r a r o u n d t h e p r e s i d i n g
g o v e r n o r , w i t h t h e e m p e r o r ' s c h a i r o c c u p i e d b y h is i m a g e if h e w a s
n o t t h e r e i n p e r s o n .5 6
T h e n e w l y e m e r g i n g r a n k s a n d d e g r e e s o f
p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y r e p r e s e n t e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d s oc i a l i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h i n
t h e n e w i m p e r i a l o r d e r . B u t t h e o r d e r t h a t w a s c e l e b r a t e d h e r e w a s
a n e w s o c i a l o r d e r . T h e p a y m e n t f o r t h e c u l t a n d a s s o c i a t e d g a m e s ,
a n d t h e p r i e s t h o o d a w a r d e d fo r s u c h a b e n e f a c t i o n , f o r m e d p a r t o f
a s oc ia l p h e n o m e n o n o f u p w a r d m o b i l it y . A u g u s t u s ' r e v o l u t i o n , u n l ik e
Luke's, h a d n o t p r o p o s e d t o " e x a l t t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k . " B u t , a s
m y r e f e r e n c e s t o Z a n k e r h a v e s h o w n , t h a t r e v o l u t i o n h a d c e r t a i n l y
r a i s e d s e a t s o f h o n o u r f or a s o c i al c la s s t h a t h a d n o t p o s s e s s e d t h e m
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1 0 4 C H A P T E R T H R E E
b e f o r e , b u t w h i c h c o u l d ri se s o c ia l ly t h r o u g h i ts b e n e f a c t i o n s t o a
n e w c u l t c e l e b r a t i n g a p o l i ti c a l r e v o l u t i o n . T o t h a t e x t e n t Luke's e s c h a
t o l o g y r e f le c t ed t h e A u g u s t a n s e t t l e m e n t .
B e f o r e D e c i u s T r a j a n ( A . D . 2 5 1 ) p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s v o l u n t a r y a n d
w i t h o u t a n y l eg a l c o m p u l s i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e . B u t s o ci al p r e s s u r e , a s
T e r t u l l i a n ' s l a t e r De Corona w a s t o i n d i c a t e , c o u l d h a v e t h e s a m e
p r a c t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f d r a w i n g h o s ti le a t t e n t i o n to n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t s
a n d t h e d r a w i n g u p o f c h a r g e s o f scelera or o f contumacia a g a i n s t t h e m .5 7
F u r t h e r m o r e , P l i n y 's r e m a r k s s h o w t h a t , as a s o c ia l e v e n t , t h e c u l t
w o u l d n o t s i m p l y h a v e m a d e T h e o p h i l u s a s a p r o v i n c i a l a r i s t o c r a t
a n d h i s a s s o c ia t e s fe el c o n s t r a i n e d , b u t a ls o m e m b e r s o f t h e g e n e r a l
p o p u l a c e w h o d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e w e a r i n g o f f es ta l g a r l a n d s
o r th e g e n e r a l a d u l a t i o n s a n d h o r s e p l a y o f a p u b l i c h o l i d a y .
T h u s C h r i s t i a n i t y a s t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m c h a n g e s t h e
o r d e r o f p r e s t i g e a s t h e d i v i n e C h i l d b o r n o f t h e V i r g i n i ss u e s i n
t h e n e w a g e . T h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t is t o e x u l t t o i ts p o s i t i o n s
o f h o n o u r t h e T o c r c e i v o i a n d t h e T c e i v c o v x e q . T h e s e t h e m e s m o r e o v e r
c a n b e f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e b i r t h s t o r i e s i n t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y L u k a n m a t e
r i a l t h a t i n t e r l e a v e s t h e G o s p e l t r a d i t i o n a s h e t a k e s i t o v e r . T h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e ua yy eX i ov w i t h J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , a s i n Mark a n d
t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n h o m i l e t i c p r e s e r v e d i n t h e s p e e c h e s o f P e t e r e t c .
in Acts, is m a r k e d b y t h e C h r o n o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l h is t o r y . I n Lk. 3,1
th a t be g i n n i ng is g ive n " in th e fifteen th y e ar ( ev exei 8e 7cevTeKai8eKdicp)
of the consulship (xfj<; T i y e u o v i a q ) o f T i b e r i u s C a e s a r , " b u t t h e r e a r e
m e n t i o n e d a l s o t h e offic es o f b o t h P i l a t e ( p r o c o n s u l o f J u d a e a ) , H e r o d
( t e t r a r c h o f G a l i l e e , I t u r e a a n d T r a c h o n t i s ) , L y s a n i a s ( t e t r a r c h o f
A b i l e n e ) .
T h e n , i n t h e sp ec if ic all y L u c a n a c c o u n t o f t h e R e j e c t i o n a t N a z a r e t h
(Lk. 4 , 1 6 - 3 0 ) , w e s e e t h e d i v i n e C h i l d n o w g r o w n , w h o h a s a l r e a d y
a p p e a r e d a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e o l d T e m p l e c u lt . T h e r e h e a s t o n i s h e d
t h e t e a c h e r s o f t h a t c u l t w i t h h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e L a w (Lk.
> 7 A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , T h e e a rl y p e r s e c u t i o n s a n d R o m a n L a w a g a i n , i n JThS
3 , 2 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 2 1 0 w i t h w h i c h a t l e a s t i n t h i s r e s p e c t a g r e e s G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x ,
W h y w e r e t h e ea r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e r s e c u t e d ? i n Past and Present, 2 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 w h e r e
h e s a y s: " I n f a c t e m p e r o r w o r s h i p is a f a c to r o f n o i n d e p e n d e n t i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e
p e r s e c u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s . " S e e a ls o A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , W h y w e r e t h e e a rl y
C h r is t ia n s p e r s e c u t e d ? — A n A m e n d m e n t , i n Past and Present, 2 7 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 3 - 2 7 ;
G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x , W h y w e r e th e e a rl y C h r i s t i a n s p e r s e c u t e d ? — A R e j o i n d e r ,
in Past and Present, 2 7 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 8 - 3 3 ; F . M i l l a r , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d t h e
P e r s e c u t i o n s , i n Culte des Souverains dans I'Empire Romain, in Entrentiens 1 9 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ,
p p . 1 4 3 1 7 5 .
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1 0 6 C H A P T E R T H R E E
S y r i a , w h o s e p o s i t i o n w a s b e i n g r e d e f i n e d b y t h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n ,
b u t fo r t h e p o o r . P r i e s t h o o d s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i ts e lf h a d b e e n
a n i m p o r t a n t v e h i c l e f or i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r p e r s o n a l s t a t u s
am o n g s t t h e f r e eb o r n u r b a n e li t e o f t h o se c i t ie s . A risin g i n d iv id u a l
c o u l d u s e s u c h p r i e s t h o o d s t o p u b l i c i z e t h e i r n e w r a n k m a r k e d b y
th e p o s s es s io n o f t h e rcp oeSplou a t t h e ev en t s t h a t w er e p a r t o f t h e
c e l e b r a t i o n s of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t in t h e t h e a t r e s a n d a m p h i t h e a t r e s .6 1
B u t w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t Luke-Acts is a t w o v o l u m e d w o r k , a n d
i ts s e p a r a t i o n b y t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l i n t h e u s u a l o r d e r
o f New Testament c o n t e n t s h a s p e r h a p s s e r v e d t o o b s c u r e t h is f ac t. W e
m u s t n o w a d d r e s s t h e e s s e n ti a l c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e t h e m e s t h a t L u k e
i m p r e s s e d u p o n h is t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l a s t h e y a r e f o u n d i n Acts.
3 C 2 . Images of contra-culture in A c t s
T h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f T h e o p h i l u s as t h e R o m a n o f r a n k to w h o m
t h e t w o v o l u m e d w o r k is a d d r e s s e d h a s b e e n t h e fo c us o f a t t e n t i o n
f o r h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e a p o l o g e t i c c h a r a c t e r o f Luke-Acts. T h o u g ht h e first v o l u m e g i v es n o g r e a t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c i n t e r e s t s
o f t h e a u t h o r , it m i g h t n e v e r t h e l e s s b e a r g u e d t h a t Acts m o r e t h a n
c o m p e n s a t e s .
T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c th e s is is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e w a y i n
w h i c h w i se R o m a n m a g i s t r a te s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as a l w a y s u n d e r
s t a n d i n g t h a t a n y ci vi l u n r e s t is n e v e r t h e fa u l t o f C h r i s t i a n m i s
s io n a r i e s b u t is d u e t o t h e f act it io u sn ess o f u n w an to n J e w i sh o p p o s i t i o n .W i t h o u t su c h a fo u n d a t io n , i t is d if fi cu l t t o l ay t o o m u c h s t r e ss o n
t h e r a n k o f T h e o p h i l u s , s i n c e t h e w o r d s of Lk. 1 ,3 -4 su g g es t s t h a t
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r K p a x i a i o q h a s a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d c a t e c h e t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n
(ivoc emyv&q rcepi <bv Karnxr i^S AoycDV ™ \v ococpd^eiav). T h is wo ul d ha rd ly
t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t a p a g a n m a g i s t r a t e n e e d i n g to b e c o n v i n c e d o f t h e
h a r m l e s s n e s s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n o r d e r t o g i v e it t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f b e i n g
d e c l a r e d a religio licita.62
L e t u s f or t h e m o m e n t c o n s i d e r s u c h a n a p o l o g e t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
3 C 2 . 1 . The interpretation of A c t s as a p o l o g i a
I n Acts 1 8 , 4 - 1 7 t h e f a m o u s e v e n t s t a k e p l a c e a t C o r i n t h w h e r e J e w i s h
o p p o s i t i o n a n d b l a s p h e m y e n d s P a u l ' s n o r m a l p r a c t i c e o f p e r s u a d i n g
Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 ; p p . 3 1 9 3 2 8 .
S e e f o o t n o t e 6 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE OR I GI N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 107
by publ ic arg um en t Je ws an d Hellenists every Sa bb at h in the syna
gogue (v. 4). Paul transfers his preaching to the house of Titus Justus
which "bordered on the synagogue (ouvouopouaa xr\ ouvayoyfi;
v. 7)." Cr ispus the apxiauvdycoyoq is co nver te d with his househ old
and they are baptised (v. 8). But after six mon ths "th e Jew s cause
an u p roar ag ai ns t Paul (Kaxerceaxriaav 6uo6\)|Lia86v xcp Ilautap), and
bring h im to court (fiyocyov auxov eni xo P^axx)." T h e pres id ing pro
consul of Achaia is Gallio (TaXkmvoq 8e dv0U7tdxorj ovxoq xfj<; 'Axaioc<;;
v. 12).
Gallio, in the scene which follows, rejects the charges of illegal
ity, and claims that they are purely "disputes about a discussion
regarding names (^r|xf||Liaxd e a x w rcepi Xoyov icai ovojidxcov) a nd your
particular law (K<X! VOJIOU xou KCC6' uudq). " In co ns eq ue nc e, he refuses
to act as jud ge ( i c p r c r ^ eyo) xouxcov ou pouXoum eivai; v. 15). In final
exasperation he expels them from the immediate area where he
sits in ju dg em en t, while near by a nd within his view Sosthe nes the
d p x i G D v d y c o y o q is be at en , whilst Gal lio looks on wit h indifference
{v. 16-17).
The scene described here in detail exemplifies a theme now well
developed in summary throughout Acts. In 17, 5 - 9 th e Jews ar e held
responsible for "stirring up the rabble (6%Ao7ioif|oavx£<;) and causing
uproar in the city (eOopupouv xfjv 7i6A,iv)" of Th es sa lo ni ca , with th e
result that the city magistrates (rcotaxdpxou) fined Jason and others in
Paul' s abs ence, but nevertheless released the m. In 14,2 the Je ws of
Ic oni um ar e held responsible for "co rr upt in g the hea rts of the g en
tiles (eKaKcooav xdq xj/uxdq xSv eGvSv)." At Antioch (13,50) "t he J ews
incite ( r c a p c o x p u v a v ) pious women of noble rank (aePouivaq y u v a i K a q
xdq euaxriiiovaq) a nd the l ead ing ci tizens (xouq rcpcoxouq xfjq K O ^ e c o q )
an d arou sed a perse cut ion ( e 7 c r | y e ip a v 8icoyuov) against Paul and
Ba rn ab as . . ." At Lystra it is "Jews from Ic on iu m a nd An ti oc h" who
persuade the crowds, that had hitherto treated them as almost divine,
to stone them (14,19).
T h e seeming ly hi dd en , apol oget ic message is tha t an y civil unre st
att rib ute d to Chris tiani ty was in fact due to Jewi sh agi tation , an d
tha t Galli o ha d de mo ns tr at ed th e atti tude of the wise magist rate .
Such a message seemed reinforced by the closing chapters of Acts.
Here it is expressly cl aimed that Felix was favourab ly impr essed by
Paul (v. 24-25) in the face of accusations by Tertullus at the insti
gati on of An an ia s the high priest of dis tur bin g the pe ac e and insti
gat ing axdaeiq (24, 1-9 ). Felix ther efore could hav e given no cr ed en ce
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1 0 8 C H A P T E R T H R E E
t o t h e s e c h a r g e s a n d o n l y w i s h e d f o r a b r i b e i n o r d e r t o r e l e a s e h i m
(v . 26) .
P a u l m a k e s h i s f a m o u s a p p e a l t o C a e s a r b e f o r e P o r c i u s F e s t u s ,
F e l ix ' s s u c c e s s o r a n d t h u s p r e e m p t s a n y f u r t h e r j u d i c i a l p r o c e e d i n g s
a t h is h a n d s ( 2 5 , 1 - 1 1 ) . A g r i p p a t o o h e a r s h i m , a n d b o t h g e n t i le g o v
e r n o r a n d J e w i s h k i n g c o n c e d e d t h a t h a d h e n o t m a d e h is a p p e a l ,
h e c o u l d h a v e b e e n r e l e a s e d (2 6 , 30 ) . B u t t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f
p r o b l e m s w i t h r e g a r d i n g Acts a s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p o l o g y , h o w e v e r
m u c h t h e r e m a y b e e n c l ea r ly p e r i p h e r a l a p o l o g e t ic c o n c e r n s i m p l i e d
i n t h a t w o r k .6 3
3 C 2 . 2 . M odifications of the apologetic thesis
T h e p r o b a b l e d a t e o f Luke-Acts, d e m a n d e d b y m o s t s o u r c e c r it ic a l
a p p r o a c h e s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l s , is A . D . 7 5 - 8 5 .
T h e u se b y Luke o f Mark's g o s p e l , i ts elf d a t a b l e a r o u n d A . D . 6 5 ,
r e q u i r e s L u k e t o b e w r i t i n g a f te r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f N e r o in w h i c h
P a u l d i e d . W h y is t h e r e n o r e c o r d o f P a u l ' s t r ia l a n d e x e c u t i o n b e f o r e
N e r o ? T h e a p o l o g e t i c th e s i s i n s o m e o f i ts f o r m s h a s l e a d in c o n
s e q u e n c e t o t h e d e m a n d t h a t Acts m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b e f o r e
t h a t e v e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e b e f o r e A . D . 6 5 . I n o t h e r f o r m s i t h a s
r e q u i r e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e tr ia l a n d e x e c u t i o n o f P a u l h a d t o
b e d e l i b e r a t e l y s u p p r e s s e d , o t h e r w i s e t h e a p o l o g e t i c f o rc e o f w h a t t h e
a u t h o r w r o t e w o u l d b e lo st . I f f u r t h e r m o r e , a s J a c k s o n a n d L a k e s u g
g es t ed , Pa u l w as acq u i t t ed s im p ly b e ca u se o f a t im e l ap se o f tw o y ea r s ,
t h e n s u c h a v e r d i c t o f n o t - p r o v e n r a t h e r t h a n of i n n o c e n c e w o u l d
n o t h a v e h e l p e d hi s c a s e . 6 4 B u t e it h e r o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t a t i v e m o v e s
c l ea r ly face i n s u p e r ab l e d i ff icu l ti e s, t h e f ir st b e ca u s e o f t h e im p o ss i
b i li ty o f t h e e a r l y d a t e i n t h e l i g h t o f c o g e n t , s o u r c e - c r i t i c a l , h y p o t h e
ses , a n d t h e s e c o n d b e c a u s e s i m p ly i g n o r i n g P a u l ' s m a r t y r d o m w o u l d
n o t d e p r i v e it o f i ts f o r c e a g a i n s t a p r i m a r y a p o l o g e t i c c a s e .
T h e o p h i l u s c o u l d n o t fa il t o h a v e k n o w n o f t h e fa te o f P a u l a t
6 3 F o r a f ul l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c m o t i v e a n d it s l i m i t a t i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h
a s u m m a r y o f l i t e r a t u r e , s e e E s l e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , c h . 8 , w i t h w h o s e c o n c l u s i o n I a m c l e a r l y
i n s u b s t a n t i a l a g r e e m e n t , n a m e l y t h a t Luke-Acts i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s t r u c t i n g a
l e g i t im a t i o n fo r a c o m m u n i t y .b 4 F .J . F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d K . L a k e , The Beginnings of Christianity, Part 1: The Acts
of the Apostles, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 3 3 ) 1, 4 p p . 3 4 8 - 3 5 0 . F o r b i b l i o g r a p h y a n d
a d i s cu s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s s o l u t i o n s t o t h is p r o b l e m s e e W a l a s k a y ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 2 ,w h o c o n c l u d e s w i t h C u l l m a n n f r o m C l e m e n t , Cor. 5 t h a t t h e a u t h o r w a s e m b a r
r a s s e d b e c a u s e t h e c h a r g e s a g a i n s t P a u l a r o s e f r o m w i t h i n t h e C h u r c h .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 109
6 3 A l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l ly s i m p l y h i g h p r i e s ts o f t h e c u l t o f t h e g o d d e s s
R o m a , t h e y b e c a m e h i g h p r ie s t s o f t h e i m p e r i a l c u l t w h e n h e r c u l t w a s a s s i m i l a t e d
t o t h a t o f th e e m p e r o r s , s e e L . R o s s T a y l o r , T h e A s i a r c h s , in F.J . F o a k e s J a c k s o n
a n d K . L a k e , The Beginnings of Christianity, Part 1: Th e Acts of the Apostles, ( L o n d o n :
M a c M i l l a n 1 9 3 3) , v o l . V , p p . 2 5 6 - 2 6 2 ; G . R . H . H o r s l e y, T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d
t h e E p h e s i a n I n s c r i p t i o n s , i n A T 3 4 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 3 4 1 4 1 ; H o r s l e y , New Documents
I V , p p . 4 6 - 5 5 . S e e a l s o SEG 3 6 , 1 5 1 8 ; 4 2 , 1 0 2 9 ; 1 0 9 7 .
S t r a b o , X I V , 1 , 4 2 , cf. SEG 3 8 , 1 9 7 3 w h i c h c i t es t h is i n a c c u r a t e l y a s 2 , 4 2 , a n d
w h i c h s u m m a r i s e s R . A . K e a r s l e y , T h e A s i a r c h s , i n T h e B o o k o f A c t s in I ts G r a e c o -
R o m a n S e t t i n g , ( E d . W . J . G i l l a n d C . G e m p f ) , in The Book of Acs in Its First Century
Setting, V o l . 2 ( M i c h i g a n a n d C a rl is l e: E e r d m a n s / P a t e r n o s t e r 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 2 6 3 3 7 6 .
t h e c o u r t of C a e s a r N e r o , a n d i n d e e d t h e s tr es s t h r o u g h o u t Acts o n
P a u l ' s R o m a n c i ti z e n s hi p w o u l d h a v e e m p h a s i s e d t h e n e e d t o m a k e
d u e i n q u i r i e s s h o u l d h e h a v e b e e n u n c e r t a i n o f w h a t h a d a c t u a l l y
t r a n s p i r e d . B u t T h e o p h i l u s , a n d t h e i n s t r u c t e d C h r i s t i a n c i rc l e t h a t
h e r e p r e s e n t e d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n f ully a w a r e o f t h e p o s si b i li t y o f
b e i n g b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e m a g i s t r a t e th e m s e l v e s , s h o u l d t h e r e h a v e
b e e n a n y q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r s a c r if i c in g a s p a r t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,
o r e v e n , a s w a s m o r e l ik e ly a t t h e i r t i m e , f r o m c h a r g e s r e s u l t i n g
f r o m s u s p i c i o n s a b o u t t h e t r u e m o t i v e s f or t h e i r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n
( 3 C 1). T h e p u r p o s e o f Luke-Acts w a s t o s t r e n g t h e n a n d r e a s s u r e t h is
i n n e r - C h u r c h g r o u p of t h e i r a s s o c ia t io n w i t h t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k ,
a n d to c o n v i n c e t h e m t h a t t h e y w e r e h o n o u r e d a n d v a l u e d i n t e r m s
o f t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e , a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e r e w a s n o j u s t i f i c a t io n f or
s u c h i m p e r i a l h o s t il it y . T h e y w e l l k n e w o f t h e c h a r g e s o n w h i c h P a u l
w a s c o n d e m n e d b u t o f w h i c h th e y w o u l d h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d u n e a s e
a t b e i n g r e m i n d e d . T h e y k n e w s u c h c h a r g e s b u t w i s h e d f o r q u i e t
n es s a b o u t t h e m in v i ew o f t h e i r o w n d if fi cu lt p o s i t i o n , j u s t a s L u k e
w e l l k n e w t h e id e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , m i r r o r e d i n h i s e s c h a
t o l o g y w i t h i ts V i r g i n a n d d i v i n e C h i l d , b u t c h o s e to m a k e o n l y
o b l i q u e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h a t i d e o l o g y ( 3 B 3 . 2 ) .
3 C 2 . 3 . Acts and the existence of the Imp erial Cult
W e r e a d o f e v e n t s a t E p h e s u s , o n e o f t h e c e n t r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t a l o n g w i t h S m y r n a a n d T r a l l e s , w h e r e t h e o ff ic ia ls , t h e A s i a r c h s ,
h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d a s b o t h l e a d e r s o f t h e K o i n o n o f G r e e k c it y
s t at e s t h r o u g h o u t A s i a a n d a ls o h i g h - p r i e s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .6 5
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d r e c e n t l y o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t
t h e r e is e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e f or s e v e r a l A s i a r c h s i n E p h e s u s a n d
T r a l l e s a t o n e t i m e w h i c h w o u l d n o t b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e q u i v
a le n c e of th is off ice w ith th a t o f dpx iepe uq xfiq 'Aoiocc;.66
B u t n o t w i t h -
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1 1 0 C H A P T E R T H R E E
s t a n d i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s e o ffic es w e r e t h e s a m e , t h e r e w a s a t
t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g a n d p x i e p e tx ; o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . Luke a v o i d s
d i r e c t m e n t i o n o f s u c h a n of fic ia l o f t h e c u l t t h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n
a p r e s e n t r e a li ty b y A . D . 7 5 - 8 5 to b o t h th e a u t h o r a n d T h e o p h i l u s
t o w h o m h is w o r k w a s a d d r e s s e d .6 7
B o t h w o u l d b e k e e n t o a v o i d o p e n
c o n f li c t w i t h t h a t c u l t , j u s t as t h e y w e r e a n x i o u s t o b e w o r s h i p p e r s
in t h e n e w , r e fo rm ed J e w i s h cu l t w h o se e sc h a to l o g y fu lf illed a l l i ts
asp i ra t ions regard ing acoxr |p{a , e ip f |v r | , rcpovo ia e tc .
T h e a v o i d a n c e o f s u c h a c l a s h w a s p o s s i b l e , a t l e a st b e f o r e t h e
D o m i t i a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h a t c u l t, w h i c h , w e s h al l a r g u e l a t e r ,
c a n b e s o u n d l y d o c u m e n t e d f r o m t h e li t e r a r y e v i d e n c e . I n d e e d it is
a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e r e w a s a c e r t a i n n o v e l t y i n P l i n y ' s a c t o f i n v i t i n g
C h r i s t i a n s t o s a c r i f i c e , ture ac vino, b e f o r e t h e E m p e r o r ' s i m a g e (imag-
ini tuae) a s a t e st o f w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e t r u l y c r i m i n a l s ( P l in y , Ep. X ,
9 6 , 5 ) . T h e r i sk o f b e i n g c h a r g e d b y t h e s t a t e a t th i s t i m e w a s n o t
f r o m n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e c u l t w h i c h h a d n o o r g a n i s e d e n f o r c e
m e n t a t t h i s t im e a s a d e l i b e ra t e t e s t o f l o y a l ty t o t h e s t a t e , a s i t
w a s t o b e c o m e in t h e t i m e o f D e c i u s . R a t h e r t h e ris k c a m e f r o m
t h e c h a r g e o f O T C X O K ; . 6 8
I t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t T a c i t u s , i n h is a c c o u n t of N e r o ' s
p e r s e c u t i o n , s h o w s t h a t th i s w a s t h e m a i n c l a i m . P r i o r t o t h e i r c r u e l
d e a t h s i n N e r o ' s c i r c u s , t h e r e h a d b e e n a t r i a l i n w h i c h Christiani
a r e d e s c r i b e d a s m a d e d e f e n d a n t s (rei), a n d as b e i n g e x a m i n e d in a
j u d i c i a l c o n t e x t w h e r e " b y t h e i r e v i d e n c e (indicio) a l a r g e m u l t i t u d e
o f t h e m w e r e c o n v i c t e d (convicti) n o t s o m u c h f or t h e c h a r g e o f i n c e n
d i a r i s m (in crimine incendi) b u t o f h a t r e d o f t h e h u m a n r a c e (odio humani
generis)." 69 I n S u e t o n i u s Claudius 2 5 , 4 w e r e a d t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e
e x p e l l e d f r o m R o m e b e c a u s e " t h e y w e r e a l w a y s c a u s i n g u p r o a r a t
t h e i n s t i g a ti o n o f C h r e s t u s (impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis)." I n
S u e t o n i u s Nero 1 6 ,2 w e r e a d : " C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a ff li ct ed w i t h p u n
i s h m e n t (afflicti suppliciis Christiani), a c la s s o f m e n o f a n e w a n d m a l e v
o l e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n (genus hom inum superstitionis novae ac maleficae). I n e a c h
o f t h es e cases t h e r e is n o is su e o f b e in g u n w i l l i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . R a t h e r t h e c r i m e (flagitiurri) w a r r a n t i n g (supplicia)
i s one of a superstitio malefica. T h u s S u e t o n i u s r e p e a t s T a c i t u s ' c h a r g e
b7
SEG 4 3 , 74 6 . T h e t i t l e dp x ie pe ix ; xfjq 'Aciocq i s f ir st a t t e s t ed fro m M i le tu s
( A . D . 4 0 ) .( ) 8 S e e C h a p t e r 1 f o o t n o t e 1 4 .m T a c i t u s , Annul. X V , 4 4 , 3 a n d 5 , cf. W i l k e n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 4 8 5 0 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 1 1 1
( X V , 4 4 , 4 ) o f exitiabilis superstitio. I t h a s o f te n b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
superstitio, i n t e r m s o f a d e g e n e r a t e f o r m o f r e l i g i o n , e x e m p l i f i e d i n
D i o n y s i a c mania, w a s a t h r e a t t o p u b l i c o r d e r a s r e c o r d e d b y L i v y
i n t e r m s o f t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n r i o t. T h u s superstitio, axaciq, tumulare,
a n d flagitia w e r e c o n c e p t u a l l y l i n k e d .
P r i m a r i l y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n fl ic t b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d
S t a t e w a s o v e r t h e p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t o f t h e f o r m e r a s a t h r e a t t o p u b
li c o r d e r b e c a u s e i t w a s a superstitio. B u t a g a i n i t m u s t b e s t r e s s e d
t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e f o c u s m a y n o t y e t h a v e b e e n d i r e c t l y t h e s c e n e
b e f o r e t h e a l t a r o f i n c e n s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e s e t o f a s s u m p
t io n s b e h i n d t h a t cu l t w e r e n o t f a r f r o m t h e s c e n e . T h o u g h e s s e n
t ia ll y t h e j u d i c i a l f o c us m a y h a v e b e e n o n t h e cidciq c a u s e d b y a
superstitio, n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r e w a s a l w a y s t h e f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n a s t o
w h a t i t w a s a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r superstitio t h a t l e a d t o O T C X O K ; .7 0 T h e
la t t e r , a s we h av e s een , was c l ea r ly l i n k ed to t h e pax deorum t h a t i t
w a s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o s e c u r e , f o ll o w i n g a c e n t u r y
o f R e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ( 2A 4 . 1 - 2 ) .
De S t e Cro ix was t h e re fo re q u i t e m i s t ak en in d esc r ib in g th e Im p er i a l
C u l t a s h a v i n g " a l m o s t n o independent i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . "7 1
T h e pax deorum n o l o n g e r h a d a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
c o n t i n g e n c y (if t h a t is w h a t is m e a n t b y " i n d e p e n d e n t " ) t o t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e c u l t o f d i v i n e v i r t u e s h a d a c o n t i n g e n t r e l a
t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n , fo r t h e r e a s o n s
e s t a b l i s h e d b y F e a r s ' a n a l y s is o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e f o r m e r c u l t
f r o m t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f S u l l a t h r o u g h J u l i u s C a e s a r t o A u g u s t u s
(2B 3) . P l iny ' s o rder (Ep. X , 9 6 , 5 ) t h a t a c c u s e d C h r i s t i a n s deos adpellerent
et ima gini tuae. . . ture et vino supp licarent n o l o n g e r r e f e r r e d u n a m
b i g u o u s l y to d if f er e n t e n ti t ie s t h a t c o u l d b e c o n t i n g e n d y s e p a r a t e d .7 2
7 0 L . F . J a n s s e n , " S u p e r s t i t i o " a n d t h e P e r s e c u t i o n o f th e C h r i s t i a n s , i n VCh 3 3 , 2
( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 3 1 - 1 5 9 , e x p l o r e s f ul ly t h e c o n c e p t u a l r e la t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n c o n c e p t s o fhumanitas a n d t h e nomen Romanum t h a t m u s t a l w a y s s u r v i v e (superstes), a n d w h a t w e r e
p e r c e i v e d t o b e D r u i d i c a l a n d G a l l i c d e n i a l s o f s u c h a R o m a n a n d im p e r i a l r e a l
i t y , w h i c h b e a r s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t e s w i t h c h a r g e s o f odium generis humanae, superstitio
prava, Jlagitium, e t c . a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e a r i n g t h e nomen Christianum. S u c h r e l i g i o n s o r
r a t h e r superstitiones w e r e c l e a r d e n i a l s o f b o t h i m p e r i a l O r d e r a n d R o m a n c i t iz e n
s h i p . S e e a l s o R . L . W i l k e n , The Ch ristians as the Roma ns saw them, ( N e w H a v e n a n d
L o n d o n : Y a l e U . P . 1 9 8 4) , p p . 4 1 - 4 4 .7 1 D e S t e C r o i x ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 , m y i t a li c s .7 2 I n t h e l ig h t o f F e a r s ' d i s c u s s i o n , t h e i n a d e q u a c y i s e x p o s e d o f t h e s t a t e m e n t
i n D e S t e C r o i x ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 : " It i s t r u e t h a t a m o n g o u r r e c o r d s o f m a r t y r d o m s
e m p e r o r - w o r s h i p d o e s c r o p u p o c c a s i o n a l l y ; b u t fa r m o r e o f t en i t is a m a t t e r o f
sacr i f i c ing to the gods . . . A n d w h e n t h e c u l t a c t i n v o l v e d d o e s c o n c e r n t h e e m p e r o r ,
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114 CHAPTER THREE
(7ipCDT0GT(XTr|v T£ Ttjq xcov Noc^copoticov aipeaeox;) ." "H e has t ried to defile
the sanctuary of the Temple ( T O iepov erceipocaev (kPr|A,G)aai; v. 5-6)"
according to the false allegation that he had taken the gentile
Trophimus of Ephesus there (21, 28-29).
For Luke it is not therefore only the Imperial Cult that the Gospel
surpasses while satisfying its basic human aspirations for peace and
order. Lk. 1 also po rt ra ye d an olde r Ju da i sm be ing rep lac ed by a
refor med an d ren ewe d cult, beg inn ing with Gabr iel 's ap pe ar an ce at
an a lt ar of incense (z;. 9). Let us pu rsu e tha t th eme now as it evolves
in oppositio n to Je wi sh cha rges .
3C 2.3.2. Felix, Agrippa and the pax dei (Acts 22-23)
T h e aut hor has already established that an unrefo rmed Ju da is m could
not secure the pax dei, and Tertullus' charges are to support this the
sis. The proceedings against Paul begin before the Sanhedrin (Acts
22,30-23,10) .7 3
Here the pax dei of the Divine Child and the promised
new age re mai ned un secu red by Ju da is m. Wh e n Pau l claims the sup
port of Pharisaism for the doctrine of the resurrection of the bodythe result is division (eaxioOri T O 7iXf|9o<;) and cxaoiq (eyevzTO oxaoiq/
KoXXr\q 8e yivojievriq czacetoq; v. 7 a nd 10). H e r e , co nt ra ry to the
apologetic thesis, the author admits O T C X O K ; as a result of Paul's words.
But the axaoiq is a conse quence of an un re fo rm ed religion such as
the Ju da is m that Pa ul oppos ed, just as GXOLOK; was the product of
the unreformed Republic before Augustus.
Such a theme moreover has been constantly reiterated through
out Luke-Acts. Judaism unreformed cannot secure the pax dei, a nd
cannot achieve the eschatological order in nature and in society and
so fulfil the aspiration of those who sought the pax deorum through
the Imperial Cult. Eipr|vr| is characteristically used by Luke, often in
reformulation of his traditional material, in connection with the sta
bility of the political as well as the natural world. In addition to Lk.
1,79; 2,14,29 already discussed, we have some parallels with the few
references in other gospels,7 4
but some significant additions of the
author's own.
7 i
Whether this was because that body had the authority to impose the death
penalty without the consent of the civil power, or whether it met as a council of
advice for Claudius Lysias remains unclear, see H J. Cadbury, Roman Law and the
Trial of Paul, in FJ . Foakes Jackson, The Beginnings of Christianity, Part 1: The Acts of
the Apostles, (London: MacMillan 1933), vol. V, pp. 297-338, especially pp. 302-305.7 4
eipr|vr| occurs once only in ML 5,34 (= Lk. 7,50; 8,48), and four times in Jn.
14,27, 16,33, and 20,19,21,26 (= Lk. 24,36). In all of these instances, the reference
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1 1 6 CHAPTER THREE
T h e g o a l of the T r i u m p h a l E n t r y was i n d e e d the L a s t S u p p e r ,
f o r w h i c h its e v e n t s h a v e p r e p a r e d the way. T h e a u t h o r n o w c h o o s e s
t o i n t r o d u c e h e r e the t h e m e of th e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e of the r e f o r m e d
J e w i s h c u l t t h a t J e s u s is c r e a t i n g t h r o u g h his d e a t h .
3 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . T h e L a s t S u p p e r and the r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l tu s
T h e T w e l v e are e n t r u s t e d w i t h the k i n g d o m in the f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :
A n d I en t rus t to you (K&Y<» 8iax{6e|xai \)|iTv) even as my Fa th e r has
en t rus ted to me (mGox; 8ie9ex6 not) a kingdom (PaaiXe(av) in order tha t
you may eat and drink with me in my k in g d o m (ev xf[ pocoiAeia uo\))
a n d sit u p o n th ro n es j u d g in g the twelve tribes of Israel (ml m 8 r |o ea0 e£7il 0p6vcov Taq ScoSeica (p-uA.aq Kplvovxeq TO V 'Iopar|A,).
Luke 2 2 , 2 8 - 3 0
T h e f i n a l w o r d s are t r a d i t i o n a l (QJ a n d f o u n d in Mat. 19,28 in a
d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t . H e r e the p r o m i s e to sit on t w e l v e t h r o n e s j u d g i n g
th e twe lv e t r i b es is not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the fiaoxkeia but the naXiy-
yeveala, a n d t h e r e is no r e f e r e n c e to the M e s s ia n i c b a n q u e t . T h u s
Luke w i s h e s to a s s o c i a t e t h e s e w o r d s w i t h the O r d e r a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n of the r e f o r m e d c o m m u n i t y , a n d w i t h the c e n t r a l c u l t i c m e a l
t h a t r e p l a c e s o r ig i n a l J u d a i s m . But t h i s g o sp e l su g g es t s in t u r n a c o n
t r a - c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t to the s a c r i f i c i a l g a t h e r i n g at the I m p e r i a l
C u l t , w i t h its c e l e b r a t i o n of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y of the i m p e r i a l c i t y
s t a t e , and the C h r i s t i a n saeculum aureum f o r e s h a d o w e d in c h a p t e r s
1-2, in w h i c h the h u n g r y w o u l d be fed and the r i ch s en t away
e m p t y . W h e t h e r one a c c e p t s the t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n w h i c h o m i t s Lk.
2 2 , 1 9 b ~ 2 0 or t h a t w h i c h r e t a i n s it , t h e r e r e m a i n s n e v e r t h e l e s s a fo re
t a s t e of the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t . T h e b r e a k i n g of b r e a d by the
c o m m u n i t y of the T w e l v e (Acts 2,46) p a r t i a l l y fu lfils t h a t e s ch a to lo g y .
T h e d i s p u t e a b o u t g r e a t n e s s o c c u r s i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e the p r o m i s e
o f the t w e l v e t h r o n e s to the T w e l v e (Lk. 2 2 , 2 4 - 2 7 ) . H e r e o n c e a g a i n
t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t r e c a s t i n g of the t r a d i t i o n by the a u t h o r in p u r
s u a n c e of his s p e c i a l t h e m e . T h e p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s , b o t h Mat. 2 0 , 2 0 - 2 8
a n d ML 1 0 , 3 5 - 4 5 , are a d d r e s s e d in the f o r m e r c a s e to the specif ic
c l a i m of the m o t h e r of the s o n s of Z e b e d e e , and in the l a t t e r to
J a m e s a n d J o h n t h e m s e l v e s . In Lk. 2 2 , 2 4 the d i s p u t e is a g e n e r a l
o n e a b o u t " w h i c h of t h e m s h o u l d be g r e a t e s t . " T h u s Matthew a n d
Mark's spec i f ic ques t ion of a p o s i t i o n for two i n d i v i d u a l s in an a s s u m e d
h i e r a r c h i c a l a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e (Mat. 2 0 , 2 3 ; ML 10,40 = oiq T I T O I U O C G -
Tcti) is t r a n s f o r m e d by Luke i n t o the q u i t e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n of the
k i n d of s t r u c t u r e of a u t h o r i t y i t s e l f in the c o m m u n i t y and its cu l t .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE OR I GI N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 1 17
7 ( i
W a l a s k a y ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 36 r e g a r d s the r e m o v a l of mx a f ro m the M a r c a n Kocxa-
i cu p i ev a i v and m x e ^ o v G i d ^ o v o i v as a m o d i f i ca t i o n of the sever i ty of t h es e e x p r e s s i o n s .
T h e apxovxeq xcov eOvcov and the neydtan are descr ibed in Mat. 20,25
and Mk. 10,42 in identical terms. But in Lk. 22,25 Luke readapts
these words diplomatically for Theophilus. He does not refer to a
single PaoiXeuq and thus does not single out the Emperor too bla-
tandy. Rather the expression oi pa oi tai q xcov eBvcbv cush ions the blaten-
ness of such a direct reference by the obliqueness of a general plural.
The readaptation of K o c x e ^ o u o i d ^ o u o i v to e^ouoid^ovxeq enables Luke
th en to ad d euepyexou ica tan)vxai.7 6
Euepyexriq was the characteristic
te rm for the benefa cto r of a Gr ee k city-state in Asia Mi no r , an d the
ter m was partic ularly used of some one wh o en do we d a temple an d
cult to the Emperor. Once again we see the contra-cultural images
in the reformed cult of Juda i sm wi th its reverse reflections of social
structure and order. That order was represented and celebrated in
the assigned seating places for the banquet ensuing from cultic sacri
fice. It is in such a context that Luke chooses to locate the reversal
of role-va lues , in wh ic h the grea te r in age (6 uei^cov) mu st becom e
as the younger (6 vecoxepoq) and t he (consular) ruler (6 Tiyoujxevoq) as
the one who serves at table (6 8IOCKOVCOV; Lk. 22,26-27). Unlike in
Mat. 20,26-27 and Mk. 10,43-44, there is no hint that you can be
come great and a leader in the community by first becoming humble.
Jesus asserts rat her that to be great at the Mes sia nic /Impe ria l ba nque t
would be to recline (dvociceiuevog), yet he is not great because he
himself does not recline but is amongst them as one who serves (eyo)
8e ev uiocp ujicov eijii ox; 6 SIOCKOVCOV; Lk. 22,27).
That reformed cult can now be shown to exhibit the pax dei as a
counterpart to the pax deorum.
3C 2.3.2.2. T h e pax dei and the early community in Acts
T h e Twelve , as the foundati on of the reforme d cult, are at te nded
by those who "continued with one accord ( r c p o o K o c p x e p o u v x e q ouoGu-
|xcc86v) in the temple (ev xcp iepcp), breaking b read at home . . ." (Acts
2,46). This takes place in the community of equals promised by Mary
(Acts 2,44-45; 4,32-37 cf. Lk. 1,52-53) in contrast to the dynasts of
the city states of Asia Mi nor whose impe rial sacrificial ba nq ue ts cel
eb ra te d rank an d power. It is in the Porti co of So lo mo n tha t t he
"signs and wonders (ar||ieia Kai xepaxa)" take place "through the
hands of t he apos tles (8id xcov xeipcov xcov drcooxotaov)" where "they
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118 C H A P T E R T H R E E
were all of one accord (6uo0\) |Lia86v; Acts 5,12)." The reformed cult
thus continu es its pre sen ce, as with A n na a nd Ze ch ar ia h, in the shell
of the old: it demo ns tr at es its unit y and lack o f a x d a i q i n its 6uo0\)-
ua86v , a wo rd t ha t is he re re pe at ed a second time in the cont ex t of
the old Temple.
T h e promis e "to set right ou r feet in the way of peac e ( K a i e \ ) 0 \ ) v a i
xovq noSaq eiq 686v Tfjq eipr |vr |q)" is thus continued. But so also is the
theme that the pax dei, as the counterpart to the pax deorum, is marked
by absence of strife and unity (6uo0i) |Lia86v) in the reformed cult that
eme rges out of Ju da is m. August us' cult ha d similary em er ge d out of
Re pu bl ican religion that possessed cults of individual Virt ues , b ut
which were now collectively associated with the corporate personal
ity of the em pe ro r. T h e cult of Vir tue s, like Chr ist ian ity as re for med
Judaism, was marked by Concordia ('Ouovoioc), Disciplina, Simplicitas
(d(peA,6ir|<; cf. Acts 2,46 see also 2,42, etc).
It is as the represen tat ive of the ref ormed cul tus tha t be ga n with
Anna and Zechariah that Paul appears before both Festus and Herod
Agrippa at the conclusion of Acts. Before the former he rebuts the
ch ar ge of Tert ull us tha t the re for med cultus ca nn ot satisfy the con
tra-cultural re qui re me nt s of achie ving wh at the Imp eri al Cult set out
to achieve in terms of the pax dei (2A 2.1). But the main people
addressed in his speech in the presence of Porcius Festus who has
by this time replaced Felix (Acts 24,27) are the latter. Agrippa and
Bernice ap pe ar here as the representatives of unre form ed J ud ai sm
(25,13-26-32) .
As Campenhausen has pointed out, Paul stands here as the sur
viving apostolic witness, the original Twelve now having vanished
from the scene. Indeed, the Twelve always were shadowy figures in
Acts: they function as literary constructs that support the distinctive
Lucan theology that overlays earlier material.7 7
The Paul that now
stands alone insists to Agrippa that he represents the reformed cul
tus of An na a nd Zec har iah :
7 /
An ear l ier trad i t ion of the c h u r c h o f J e r u s a l e m and t h e i r e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c
ta t i o n s s i g n i f i c a n c e may n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t in the m a te r i a l th a t the
a u t h o r u s e s . See H. von C a m p e n h a u s e n , Der U r c h r i s t l i c h e A p o s te l b e g r i f f , in StTh
V o l . 1 Fasc. I—II (1947), pp. 9 6 - 1 3 0 ; 1 3 3 - 1 4 4 . Idem. K i r c h l i c h e s Amt und g e i s t l i c h e
V o l l m a c h t , in BeitrHistTh 14 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , c h a p t e r 2; W. S c h m i t h a l s , Das K i r c h l i c h eA p o s t e l a m t . E i n e H i s t o r i s c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g , in FRIAMT 61, ( 1 9 6 1 ) . Acts is real ly
n o t the a c t s of the T w e l v e A p o s t l e s , but of P e t e r , J a m e s , J o h n , and P a u l .
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1 2 0 C H A P T E R T H R E E
p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t A s ia M i n o r , as it w o u l d h a v e b e e n o b l i q u e l y in
t h e t r i a l an d m a r t y r d o m of P a u l at R o m e b e fo re N e r o .
B u t an i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n for our a c c o u n t n ow e m e r g e s . If b o t h
b e f o r e the S a n h e d r i n , b e f o r e F e l i x , a n d b e f o r e A g r i p p a a n d F e s t u s
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t was the b a c k c l o t h to w h a t Luke-Acts p r o c l a i m s b o t h
a b o u t p a g a n i s m and the J u d a i s m w h i c h C h r i s t i a n i t y r e f o r m e d , why
i s t h e re su ch a s i l e n c e a b o u t the I m p e r i a l C u l t i t s e l f in the ci t ies of
A s i a M i n o r t h a t P a u l v i s i t s , and in p a r t i c u l a r at E p h e s u s ?
3 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 . P a u l in E p h e s u s (Acts 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 0 )
N o w h e r e was the s i l e n c e m o r e d e a f e n i n g t h a n at E p h e s u s w h e r e , inActs 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 0 , t h e r e is r e c o r d e d a d i s t u r b a n c e (v. 23 : xdpotxoq) that
a l m o s t l e a d s an i n d i c t m e n t for GTOLOIC, (V. 40: K I V 8 \ ) V £ U O U £ V e y i c a t a i o G a i
ax d aeax ; ) . T h e r i o t of the s i l v e r s m i t h s o v e r the a t t a c k on t h e i r t r a d e
i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the c u l t of A r t e m i s is d e s c r i b e d in h i g h relief.
T h o u g h the I m p e r i a l C u l t e x p e r i e n c e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n a c o n s i d e r
ab l e d ev e lo p m en t sp ec i f i ca l l y in E p h e s u s , as we sha l l see (5A 2), n e v e r
th e l e s s it was a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e in m o r e t h a n r u d i m e n t a r yf o r m in P a u l ' s t i m e . T h e r e was a Sebasteion or c u l t r o o m , a v d o q ,
w i t h i n the xejievoq of the Artemisium,79
a t e m p l e of A u g u s t u s w i t h i n
th e c i t y i t s e l f d a t i n g f ro m 27 B . C . ,8 0
and an e a r l i e r t e m p l e of R o m a
a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r .8 1
T h e Sebasteion was the w o r k of P. V e d i u s P o l l i o
u n d e r p r i v a t e i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m A u g u s t u s to i n c o r p o r a t e his cu l t i n to
G r e e k t e m p l e s u n d e r g u i s e of financial a n d l e g a l r e o r g a n i s a t i o n .8 2
C l e a r l y E p h e s u s h a d b e e n at the v e r y c e n t r e of the d e v e l o p m e n t swh ich f i r s t a s so c i a t ed the E m p e r o r w i t h an e x i s t i n g c u l t w h e t h e r of
R o m a , the V i r t u e s , or of A r t e m i s , a n d t h e n by s l o w d e g r e e s syn-
t h e s i s e d the w o r s h i p of one w i t h the o t h e r .
C e r t a i n l y Acts 19,35 k n o w s of the d i s t i n g u i s h e d t i t l e of " t e m p l e -
k e e p e r (vecoKopoq)" h e l d by the c i t y , a l t h o u g h it focuses on b e i n g
vecoKopoq xfjq u£YaA,r|<; 'ApxeuiSoq. Yet w h e r e a s s im i l a ti o n w i t h e m p e r o r
79
IBM 5 2 2 = ILS 9 7 and CIL 3, 7 1 1 8 . For f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y see P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) ,
p. 2 5 4 and 1 3 4 f oo tn o te 7.8 0
/. Eph. 1 1 1 , 9 0 2 = SEG 2 6 , 1 2 4 3 ; /. Eph. 4 0 4 = SEG 3 9 , 1 2 1 0 . See a l s o Pr i ce
( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 254.
8 1
Dio C a s s i u s , 5 1 , 2 0 , 6 : K a i a a p 5e ev xovxcp xd xe aXXa ex p r | u a x { £ e i , m i xeuevrj
xfl xe 'Pcouri mi xcp rcaxpi xcp K a ia a p i , i ipcoa oruxov 'I OX JAA OV o v o u d a a q , ev xe 'Ecpeocp
m i ev N i m i a y e v e o B a i ecp fjK ev a i ) x a i yap x o x e ai K O X E I C , ev xr\ ' A a i a m i ev xe xf|
B i ( h ) v ( a 7cpoexexiur|vxo. mi xovxoix; | i ev xoiq ' P C O U O U O K ; xoiq n a p ' a u x o i q e r c o i K o v o i xiuav
upoaexa^e • xoiq 5e 8f| ^evoiq, "EXXr\va<; a tp a q eT c i m A i a a q , eaDxcpx w a , x oiq uev ' A a i a v o i q
ev nepydjico, xo iq 8e B i Gv v o i q ev N i K o u t | 8 e { a , xeueviaai e7iexpe\|/e.82
SEG 40, 1001.
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 121
w o r s h i p h a d p r o c e e d e d a s a t E p h e s u s , t h e r e w o u l d b e " a u n i o n o f
n e o c o r a t e s . "8 3
Al th o u g h ev id en ce fo r t h i s t i d e sp ec i f i ca l l y fo r a c i t y
w i t h a n i m p e r i a l t e m p l e is c l e a r e r i n t h e t i m e o f D o m i t i a n , H a d r i a n ,
a n d C a r a c a l l a , t h o s e d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e f o u n d e d o n e a r l ie r a ss im i
l a t i o n . 8 4 T h e A s i a r c h s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d c o n t e n t i o u s l y w i t h p r i e s t s
o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d c e r t a i n o f t h e s e off ic ia ls a r e d e s c r i b e d i n
Acts 19 ,31 as P a u l ' s fr ien ds (xive<; 8e xcov 'Aa ia px & v, ovxeq auxcp (pitau).
A n d t h is w a s i n a p r i n c i p l e c i ty , a f t e r P e r g a m o n , o f t h e K o i n o n o f
A s i a w h i c h h a d is s u e d t h e d e c r e e o f 9 B . C . t o w h i c h w e h a v e m a d e
f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e ,8 5
a n d w h i c h p o s s e s s e d s h r i n e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
t h e r e u n d e r C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o . 8 6
O n t h e a p o l o g e t i c t h e s i s , t h e o m i s s i o n o f s u c h r e f e r e n c e s w o u l d
b e t o d e f e n d C h r i s t i a n i t y b e f o r e t h e m a g i s t r a t e . T h e d e f e n c e , h o w
e v e r , w o u l d b e , a s i t is p r e s e n t e d i n Acts, t o s ay t h e l ea s t , p o o r ly
c o n s t r u c t e d . R a t h e r , w e h a v e a r g u e d , t h e a p o l o g e t i c m o t i f s h o u l d b e
s u b s u m e d u n d e r a n d m a d e s u b s i d i a r y t o Luke's g e n e r a l p u r p o s e i n
l e g i t i m a t i n g t h e s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l it y o f T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is
C h r i s t i a n g r o u p . T h e r e n e e d n o t b e a n y final c la s h b e t w e e n t h e
R o m a n e m p i r e a n d t h e f a it h t h a t t h e y a v o w . I f n o t u n t i l u n d e r
D o m i t i a n , t h e n a t l e a s t u n t i l P l i n y ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , s a c r i f i c i n g i n
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s n o l i t m u s t e s t f o r C h r i s t i a n l o y a l t y t o t h e
e m p i r e . T h e e a r l ie r q u e s t i o n w a s r a t h e r w h e t h e r a d h e r e n c e t o
C h r i s t i a n i t y l e a d t o t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n supersitio t h a t l e a d t o o x d a i q
a n d t h u s u p s e t t h e pax deorum. I t c o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e s u p p o s e d t h a t
C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a b s e n t f r o m i m p e r i a l f e s t i v a l s i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f s u c h
a m a l i g n i n t e n t i o n .
Luke-Acts h a s s h o w n t h a t , t o t h e c o n t r a r y , T h e o p h i l u s ' f a it h l e a d s
to the t rue e ip r iv r i , the pax dei, w it h ocoxripia, viicri a n d a saeculum
aureum p r o m i s e d t o t h e J e w i s h F a t h e r s a n d fu lf ille d i n a r e f o r m e d
c u l t i n w h i c h a n e w a g e h a s d a w n e d t h r o u g h a D i v i n e C h i l d b o r n o f
d i v in e p a r e n t a g e b y m e a n s o f a h u m a n V i r g i n . A t o n e p o i n t F e s t u s
m i g h t a c c u s e P a u l o f b e h a v i n g lik e a B a c c h i c m a e n a d , w h e n h e sa y s:
" Y o u a r e r a v i n g , P a u l ( u m v r ) , UavXz), y o u r m a n y w o r d s h a v e t u r n e d
y o u r m in d to a f r en zy (x d nokka a e y p d u ^ a x a eiq uxxviav 7cepixpe7cei)."
B u t P au l is r e c o r d ed a s r ep ly in g , i n t h e fu ll co n t ex t o f t h e d i s c o u rse
8 3 F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1 ,4 , p . 2 5 0 .84
Ibid. 1,5 p p . 2 4 4 - 2 5 6 ; P r ic e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 6 5 - 6 6 ; p p . 7 2 - 7 3 ; F i s h w i ck ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,
1 ,1 p . 22 .8 5 IB 4 and 2C 1 .8 ( > R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 2 5 7 .
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122 CHAPTER THREE
of legit imati on cons tr uc te d by the au th or : "I a m not rav in g (o\>
umvouou) . . . bu t I speak the words of tr ut h a nd of self-discipline
(aXXa aXi)Qeia<; m l acocppoouvriq priuaxa a7co(p98yyo|iai; Acts 26,24)."
Theophilus and his contemporaries had been brought up in a
pa ga n bac kg round, ou di ne d in ou r first chap te r, of a civil wa r requir
ing an extraordinary act of augurium, in order to set right a disor
der ed na tu re as the metaphysi cal coun te rp ar t of a diso rder ed emp ir e
(2A 5). Th ese keenly felt, religious asp irat ions, we re witnessed by the
ideology of the Imp eri al Cult found in Vergil, Ho ra ce , Ovid , an d
Lucan, amongst others, and by the inscriptions such as that of the
Ko in on of Asia. Su ch religious aspi rati ons could no w find the ir sat
isfaction in the new, reformed Ju da eo -C hr is ti an cult, with its contr a-
cultural reversal of impe rial po we r an d privilege. Luke will therefore
not allow his purpose to be destroyed by suggesting a head on col
lision between Christ and Caesar in which the one must nihilate the
other. Rather than being nihilated, imperialist religious aspirations
must be better satisfied and fulfilled by the exxxyyeAaov xoiq rcxcoxoiq
(Lk. 4,18).
But alth ough the possibility of ult ima te conflict betw een the reli
gious needs of the empi re a nd those of Chr ist ian ity is pl ace d in the
background, the possibility of that clash is nevertheless still tactfully
represented, as we shall now see.
3C 2.3.3. Implied references to the Imperial Cult
W e shall no w examine a nu mbe r of passages in whic h the Imp eri al
Cult and its ramifications are implied, even though the author has,
for the reasons that we have given, suppressed any overt references.
3C 2 . 3 . 3 . 1 . Th e death of He ro d Agripp a (Acts 12,21-22)
In C aesarea the temple of Tt>%r| or Fortuna ha d be co me assimilated
with the genius of Caesar , by the process of gradual imperial deification
that we have described.8 7
The scene takes place "on a Calendar date
(xotKxfi fil^epa)." Here we have, arguably, the festival of the dies natalis
8 7
Eusebius, Mart. Pal. 1 1 , 3 0 ; Josephus, Antiqu. 1 6 , 1 3 6 , cf. K. Lake, The Chronology
o f A c t s , in Foakes Jackson and Lake (1933) 1,5 pp. 450-452 cf. L. Levine, Caesarea
u n d e r Roman R u l e , in SJLA 1 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 2 7 - 2 9 . See also A. Raban, The Harbours
o f Caesarea Maritima: Results of the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation Project,
1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 5 , in BAR International Series (1989) 491, pp. 5 1 - 5 3 ; Idem. Kouodpeia fj npbq
S e p a a x c p Xiuevi: two harbours for two entities? in Caesarea P a p e r s , Straton's Tower,
H e r o d ' s Harbour, and Roman and Byzantine Caesarea, (Michigan: Ann Arbor1 9 9 2 ) , in JRA Suppl. Ser. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 6 8 - 7 4 ; E. Krentz, Caesarea and early
C h r i s t i a n i t y , in JRA, Suppl. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 2 6 1 2 6 5 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 1 2 3
o f A u g u s t u s a t C a e s a r e a , o r if n o t h is Quinquennalia c o m m e m o r a t i n g
h is d e f e a t o f A n t h o n y i n t h e m o n t h o f A u g u s t t h a t b e a r s h is n a m e .
T h e s c e n e is t h e r e f o r e , f r o m t h e o u ts e t , s u r r o u n d e d b y r e p r e s s e d
i m a g e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . H e r o d a p p e a r s lik e a d i v i n e m o n a r c h
o f t h e G r e e k c i ty s t a te s o f A s i a M i n o r a n d E g y p t " c l o t h e d in r o y a l
ra im e n t ( ev Su o d u ev o q eo & nx a p aa iA ,uc f|v ), a n d , h a v in g t ak en h i s j u d i
cia l sea t ( r aG ia aq erci xou pfiuaxoq), h e m a d e a sp ee ch (eSruir iyopei) to
t h e m . " T h e Sfjuoq r e t o r t s t h a t t h e y h e a r " t h e v o i c e o f G o d a n d n o t
o f a m a n , " a n d i n c o n s e q u e n c e H e r o d is e a t e n w i t h w o r m s b e c a u s e
" h e d i d n o t g i v e g l o r y t o G o d . "
A s E u s e b i u s (H.E. 1 1 ,1 0 ,3 ), f o l lo w i n g J o s e p h u s (Ant. 1 9 , 3 4 3 - 3 5 1 )
w e l l k n o w s , H e r o d ' s a c t i v i t y o n t h i s o c c a s i o n w a s h i s c e l e b r a t i o n o f
" sp ec t ac l e s i n h o n o u r o f C a e sa r (cu vexeA,e i 8' evxauGa Gecopiaq eiq XTVV
K a i o a p o q x iu f |v ) ." F u r t h e r m o r e , H e r o d " k n e w t h a t t h e fe sti va l w a s
for t h e l a tt e r 's saf ety (urcep xfjq e K e i v o u ocoxripiaq eopxr|v xiva xauxrjv
ercioxdnevoq) a n d a t i t w e r e a ss e m b le d (Kal n a p ' auxriv TiGpoioxo) a
m u l t i t u d e o f t h o se i n o ff ice a n d o f h ig h r a n k in t h e p ro v i n c e (xcov
K ax d xf v e rc ap xi av ev xeA,ei K al rcpoPeprjKo xcov eiq dc^iav TcArjGoq)." C le a r l y
th e g a m e s (Gecop iaq), as so c i a te d wi th th e e m p e r o r ' s sa fe ty (ocoxrjp iaq) ,
a t w h i c h t h e e v e n t s o f Acts 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 2 t o o k p l a c e , a r e h e l d a t C a e s a r e a
w h e r e a t e m p l e o f h is c u l t w a s t o b e f o u n d . T h o s e g a m e s t h e r e
f o r e i m p l y a c e l e b r a t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h a t c u l t . T h e r e i s t h u s
i m p l i c i t i n t h is e x a m p l e a w a r n i n g t o t h e c ir c le of T h e o p h i l u s t h a t
t h e w o r s h i p o f d i v i n e r u l e r s is q u i t e f o r e ig n t o t h e J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n
t r a d i t i o n s . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e a g a i n s t w h a t is r e g a r d e d a s a t y p i c a l
p a g a n ( as o p p o s e d t o a J e w i s h ) t e n d e n c y is g i v e n a t L y s t r a : P a u l a n d
B a r n a b a s a r e i d e n ti f ie d w i t h H e r m e s a n d Z e u s , a n d t h e p r i e s t o f
Z e u s e x p r e s s e s w i l l i n g n e s s t o o ff er t h e m s a c ri f ic e . T h e y v e h e m e n t l y
o b j e ct w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o n o t h e i s t i c J e w i s h a r g u m e n t in r e b u t t a l
(Acts 1 4 , 1 1 - 1 8 ) .
T h u s T h e o p h i l u s a n d hi s c ir c le a r e t a c i d y w a r n e d t h a t t h o u g h
t h e r e n e e d b e n o c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s a n d t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t , s u c h a c o n fl ic t m i g h t a r i s e . I n t h e i r r e f o r m e d J e w i s h
c u l t t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d t h e t r u e m e a n s f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e pax dei b o t h
f o r t h e m s e l v e s a n d f o r t h e e m p i r e , a n d w i t h pax t h e t r u e saeculum
aureum i n i t i a t e d b y t h e D i v i n e C h i l d w h o w a s t h e o n l y t r u e filius dei.
W h e t h e r t h e o x d o i q w a s in s o c ie t y o r r e fl e c te d m e t a p h y s i c a l l y i n t h e
w o r l d o f n a t u r e , t h e t r u e e ip r| vr | a n d v i ia i w a s t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m
a n d fi na ll y t h e T r i u m p h a l E n t r y a n d t h e b l o o d o f t h e c ro s s . B u t
t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t a v o i d t h e appellatio t h a t c a l l e d o n a ll m e m b e r s o f
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124 CHAPTER THREE
a particular Asiatic city state to worship on one or several of the
ma ny bi rthdays celebrating the divination of Augustus and his hei rs—
and with full confidence (dacpdXeioc, Lk. 1,4) that they were obtain
ing the pax dei by better means—, nevertheless there was a danger
that the cult migh t develop further. Pliny, if not Dom it ia n, was to
show how it could become a f u l l - b l o w n loyalty test and lead inevitably
to a clash of allegiance.
That the author was aware of such a possibility is shown in the
next passage that we shall consider.
3C 2.3.3.2. Acts 17,7 and 18,13Ha vi ng char ge d the Je ws at Thes saloni ca with a BopuPoq, the author
reco unt s ho w Ja so n a nd othe rs are haul ed before the poli tarchs for
having given house-space to "those who have placed in a state of
agitation ( d v a a x a i c o a a v T e q ) the civilised world (TTJV oiKoi)|ievr]v)." (Acts
17,6) This was the self-same oiKouuivri or Roman Empire that receives
the 86yuxx reg ar ding the census in Lk. 2, 1, which we ar gu ed would
have been associated, in terms of a Gr a ec o -Ro ma n religious context, with the ritual lustrum of the city bo unda ri es over the reforms
of which Augustus took control (Res Gestae 8,2) in becoming Pontifex
Maximus (3A 1.1). Luke has assi mil ate d—a nd in so doi ng d ist ort ed—
an even t which , if historical, was a census that pertained to Syria,
with an event involving the oiKO\)|i8vr| in which Augustus himself was
immediately involved and with it by implication his cult.8 8
Furthermore,
this self-same oiKou u ivr i is recorded as worshipping along with allAsia, Artemis of Ephesus, but in a context in which the universal
character of that worship was becoming increasing guaranteed by the
association of the Emperor with the cult of this goddess (Acts 19,27).
In this con tex t therefore we can rea d the accusat ion of Jaso n , an d
Paul and his companions to whom the latter had given shelter:
All these are acting contrary to the decrees of Caesar (omoi navxeq
dTtevavTi TCOV SoyiidxcQv Kouoapoc; rcpdaaouai), saying that there is a
different emperor, Jesus (potoiAia exepov Aiyovxeq elvai 'Inaovv).
Acts 17,7
This passage clearly cannot be used to support the view that Luke-
Acts is addressed as an apology to a R o m a n magistra te. T h e polit archs
simply do not judg e the accur acy of the accusa tion at all, nor hear
S e e footnotes 20 and 21 above.
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 12 5
m
T h a t t h e cl a r it y a n d v a l i d i ty o f t h e m o d e r n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e c u l a ra n d t h e r e l i g i o u s a r e o n l y a p p a r e n t c a n b e s e e n i f o n e t r ie s t o a p p l y t h e d i s t i n c
t i o n i n t h e s p e c if ic a r e a s o f a b o r t i o n , d e n o m i n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , e u t h a n a s i a e t c .
a n y f o r m a l r e p ly . T h e y s im p l y d is m is s J a s o n , a n d t h e b r o t h e r h o o d
t h e n s e n d s P a u l a n d S i l a s a w a y b y n i g h t t o B e r o e a (v . 8 - 9 ) .
W e s a w t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a s a l r e a d y m a d e c l e a r J e s u s ' c l a i m t o
k i n g s h i p , a n d t h a t c l a i m w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a d i l y a c c e p t e d b y
T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r cl e . I n t h a t r e s p e c t t h e y c l a s h e d w i t h t h e e n d s
o f t h e s t a t e . Bu t Luke c a n r e a s s u r e t h e m t h a t t h e c l a s h is w i t h t h e
p e r c e i v e d c u l t i c a n d r e l i g i o u s m e a n s t o a c h i e v i n g t h e s t a t e ' s r e l i g i o u s
e n d s , a n d n o t t h e e n d s t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s d i s c r e t e l y o p t i n g o u t o f t h e
Im p er i a l Cu l t d o es n o t co n f l i c t fu n d am en ta l l y wi th t h e so c i a l , r e l i g io u s ,
a n d p o l it i c a l e n d s o f s u c h a s o c i e ty . T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r cl e c o u l d
n o t o f c o u r s e a v o w a l l e g i a n c e t o i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y o n l y i n a n o n -
r e l i g i o u s , s e c u l a r s e n s e : t h e i r u n i v e r s e o f d i s c o u r s e d i d n o t m a k e t h e
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e c u l a r a n d t h e s a c r e d .8 9
T h e o b j e c t o f p a r
t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d u s i n g t h e s p e c i a l a c t o f a u g u r y
w a s t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum, t h e saeculum aureum a n d t h e d i v i n e C h i l d
l e ad in g to t h e fu l f ilm en t o f p r o m ise s o f a c o r n , pioc e t c . , a n d th es e w er e
p r o p e r r e l ig i o u s e n d s . B u t t h e t r u e f u lf il m e n t o f t h o s e e n d s w a s
t h r o u g h t h e t r u e c o u n t e r p a r t s t o t h e i r m e a n s f o u n d in t h e r e f o r m e d
J e w i s h c u l t .
D i s c r e t e l y , t h e r e f o r e , a n d in t h e l a n g u a g e o f t a n g e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e ,
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is p r e s e n t a s a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f c l a s h w i t h
T h e o p h i l u s ' ci rc l e w h i c h m a y n e v e r t h e l e s s still b e a v o i d e d . C h r i s t i a n i t y
itself, a s e x p r e s s e d i n Luke, w i l l n e v e r u p s e t t h e pax deorum a n d n e v e r
t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e i m p e r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n a t t h e c u l ti c l e ve l i n o r d e r t o
s e t t h e w o r l d r i g h t . T h e y m i g h t s i m p l y a v o i d c o n f l i c t a s t h e p o l i t a r c h s
a t T h e s s a l o n i c a h a d d o n e .
B u t a l t h o u g h i n t h e s u n l i g h t o f h i s C h r i s t i a n - i m p e r i a l e s c h a t o l o g y
Luke m i g h t c o n v e y fe e li ng s o f g r e a t o p t i m i s m t o T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s
c i r cl e , h e n e v e r t h e l e s s e n c a p s u l a t e s h is c o n c e r n a b o u t o t h e r a s p e c t s
o f t h e i r l e g a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e p a s s a g e s t h a t w e s h al l n o w e x a m i n e .
3 C 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 . L e g a l O b l i g a t i o n a n d C u s t o m : Acts 1 6 , 2 0 - 2 1H a v i n g a r g u e d t h a t Luke-Acts is a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n b o t h o f G r a e c o -
R o m a n a n d J e w i s h s o c ia l r e a l i t y s o a s t o l e g i t i m a t e C h r i s t i a n i t y i n
t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w e a r e n o w i n a p o s i t i o n to r e a d t h e m e s s a g e
o f t h i s f u r t h e r t e x t t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r c l e , t o
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126 CHAPTER THREE
whom the Imperial Cult, whether in Rome or Asia Minor, would
ha ve clearly be en of religious significance.
We need to consider what message Theophilus would have derived
from the incident at Philippi in which Paul and Silas are brought
before t he dpxovxeq/axpccxriYoi. T h e slave ow ne rs of the exorcised
maid charge that:
These men are causing dis turbance to our city (oi)xoi oi avGpcojcoi
eKxapdaoovciv f||icov xfjv noXiv), and as Jews ('Io\)8aioi imdpxovxeq mi)
are proclaiming customs (mxayyeM.o'uaiv e&n,) which it is unlawful for
us to accept or practice being Romans (d O X > K e^eaxiv f)(iiv rcapaSexeaOai
o\)8e rcoieiv Tcouaioiq ot>civ).
Acts 16,20-21
Pau l an d Silas, after a mi racu lous freeing from thei r pri son bond s,
are finally released by officials who are embarrassed that they have
publicly bea te n un co nd em ne d Ro m a n citizens. Thi s fact howe ver
does not of itself acquit them from the ma in cha rge. Wh ethe r they
wer e Je ws wh o were Ro m a n citizens or not, an d whet he r they ha d
caught the magistrates off-guard on another matter, the central charge
nevertheless remained.
T h a t central charge was tha t th ough Je ws might be ex em pt from
Graeco-Roman religious customs, Gentiles were not, particularly those
with Roman citizenship throughout the Greek city states of Asia
Mi no r. And this leads us directly to the me an s by whi ch Jews could
avoid the requirement, whether purely social or legal, to take partin the Imperial Cult, and thus to refrain from appearing in proces
sional white, following the supplicatio, with myrtle wreathes on their
hea ds an d myrtle br anches in their hands . T h e grounds of the social
acceptability of non-partic ipati on, later with Decius Traj an to b ec om e
the legal acceptability, was ancestral custom. In the specific words
of the char ge against Paul :
This man persistendy persuades people (dvarceiBei oi)xo<; zovq dvGpamouc;)
contrary to the law (rcapd xov VOJIOV) to worship God. (aepea9ai xov 0e6v).
Acts 18,13
Theophilus , Kp d xiaxoq , and his circle, living in Asia Minor in the
eighties of the first century, woul d have found this ar gu me nt of gre at
significance for their personal circumstances (3B 3.1). Standing at
the forefront of the successors to the Gree k city states in c ommuni
ties such as Ephesus, Pergamon, Antioch in Pisidia, etc., they well
knew that there was no legal compulsion on them to participate in
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 127
B r o w n a n d M e i e r ( 1 9 8 3 ) c h a p t . 2 .
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . Y e t t h e H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e t h a t h a d f o r m e d t h e i r
p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e w o r l d w a s o n e t o w h i c h t h a t c u l t u s w a s c r i t i c a l .
T h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n h a d p r o d u c e d t h e pax deorum, a n d r e
o r d e r e d t h e c o s m i c a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s l o c a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r
w i t n e s s e d i n a c e n t u r y o f c iv il w a r s w i t h w h i c h c o u n t l e s s p r o d i g i o u s
n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d ( 2 A 4 ) . T h e r e w a s a s t r o n g l y fe lt
m o r a l a n d p a t r i o t i c c o m p u l s i o n to c o n t i n u e w h a t h a d b e e n c el e
b r a t e d i n t h e d e c r e e s o f t h e K o i n o n o f A s i a a n d e l s e w h e r e (2 B 4 ) .
B u t t h e y h a d b e e n c a t e c h e t i z e d a n d r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e p o s t - P a u l i n e
c o m m u n i t i e s i n A s i a M i n o r , a n d w e r e n o w C h r i s t i a n s .
H o w c o u l d t h e i r n e w f a i t h e n a b l e t h e i r r e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e c o m
m u n i t y f r o m w h i c h it h a d a l i e n a t e d t h e m ? H o w c o u l d t h is p e r c e i v e d ,
s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d fo r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f s o c ia l o r d e r a f t er
b lo o d y so c i a l s t r i f e , fu l f i l l ed i n t h e Im p er i a l Cu l tu s t h a t h ad s ecu red
t h e pax deorum, n o w e x p e r i e n c e n e w f u lf il m e n t b y t h e n e w r e l i g i o n ?
O n e w a y w o u l d b e t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r r e l i g i o n a s a v a l i d f o r m o f
J u d a i s m , a n d t h u s t h e s o ci al a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n b e
u n d e r s t o o d a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e i r s o c i e t y . B u t h i s t o r i c a l l y P a u l
h a d s u g g e s t e d , a t l e a s t t o t h e G a l a t i a n s , a r a d i c a l d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e L a w a n d C h r i s t o n w h o s e c ro ss t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s h a d b e e n
d e s t r o y e d (Gal. 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 ) . T h e r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h is d i s j u n c t i o n
h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s o f t e n e d i n Rom. 9 - 1 1 .9 0 B u t h e r e t h e G e n t i l e
m i s s i o n w a s still e m p h a s i s e d a s d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e J e w i s h , w i t h t h e l a t
t e r t o e x p e r i e n c e p u r e l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f u l f i l m e n t , d e s p i t e t h e m e t a p h o r
of the g raf t ing o f the wi ld o l ive on to the o r ig ina l s tem (Rom. 1 1 , 1 7 - 2 4 ) .
T h e d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts o f f e r s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l P a u l . T h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s i n t o w h i c h
T h e o p h i l u s h a s b e e n c a t e c h e t i z e d is t h e J e w i s h c u l t u s , b u t a reformed
J e w i s h c u l t u s ( 3B 1 - 3) . I f t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f u n r e f o r m e d I s r a e l
i s s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e , a fortiori a r e f o r m e d I s r a e l s h o u l d b e , w h i c h is
t h e t r u e f ul fi lm e n t o f p a t r i a r c h a l p r o m i s e d f r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l .
B u t t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t h a s g o n e f a r b e y o n d t h e s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y
o f a m e r e l y p a s s iv e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Luke-Acts offers a pos i t ive rea
s o n f or n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n , n a m e l y t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t , n a m e l y t h e pax deorum a n d t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s f o r t h e c o n
t i n u a n c e o f t h e saeculum aureum is f ar b e t t e r a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e
eiprivTi o f B e t h l e h e m ( 3B 3 . 1 - 3 ) a n d t h e T r i u m p h a l E n t r y ( 3 C 3 . 2. 1) ,
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128 CHAPTER THREE
and the V ( K T | and acoxripia tha t follow from the bi rt h of Ch ild from
the Virgin , an d his de at h an d resur recti on.
Such an ideology thus opened the prospect for Theophilus and
his group to overcome their alienation and positively, through the
cre ati on of a con tra-cul tu re, to rei nte gra te themselves into the social
fabric of their societies by means of a new religion that would achieve
the perceived objective of those societies. As such, the ideology was
doomed to fail and the attempt prove to be in vain. But the Lucan
writing remain an enduring testimony to such a failed attempt.
According to Fox and others Theophilus may have witnessed the
trial and also perhaps the execution of St. Paul.9 1
They could have
comforted themselves in the light of the imagery of Luke-Acts that
even a less tyrannical emperor than Nero would not have been
justified in exe cut ing Paul for oxaoiq and for te achi ng non-ances tr al
religious customs. The pax that Sebastos had claimed through his
reforme d cult, Chri st ha d achi eved thr ou gh his. Th is comfo rting re
assur ance ha d an ch or ed the ques tio ned legitimacy of the reforme d
Chr ist ian in the un am bi gu ou s legitimacy of the Jew is h cult. But the
re-assurance was now to collapse with the final exclusion of any rep
resen tative of Chr ist iani ty on the roll of Jewish nam es that ha d pa id
the tax for the destroyed Temple at Aelia directly into the treasury
as required by law.
Vespasian had imposed the Jiscus Iudaicus on every J e w of at least
20 years of age. What they had previously paid to the Temple at
Jerusalem destroyed in the crushed revolt was now paid into the
imperial treasury.9 2
According to Suetonius, this tax applied to all
Jews observing their ancestral eGr|.93
Domitian now encouraged denun
ciations of those who lived as Je ws wit hout ma ki ng open professions
as well as thos e who conce ale d thei r Je wi sh origin. Kereszte s argues
convincingly that the former class indicated gentiles who were con
sidered to be converts to Ju dai sm to wh om the infamous physical
inspection for circumcision would not necessarily apply. The aep6 |Li£voi
often st opped far short of convers ion to full J uda i s m.9 4
It was the
9 1
R.L. Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the second century to
the conversion of Constantine, (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 430-432 ff.9 2
Josephus, Bell. Jud. 1,152.9 3
Dio Cassius 6 5 , 7 , 2 ; Suetonius, Domit. 12,2 cf. P. Keresztes, The J e w s , the
C h r i s t i a n s , and the Emperor Domitian, in VCh 27 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 1-28 to which I am
heavily indebted for my comments here.9 4
Keresztes ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 5 quoting G. La Piana, Foreign Groups in Rome during
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE O R I G I N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 129
th e F i r s t C e n tu r i e s of the E m p i r e , in HThR 20 ( 1 9 2 7 ) , pp. 2 7 5 - 3 9 0 and G.F. M o o r e ,
Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, ( H a r v a r d : U.P. 1 9 2 7 ) , p. 5. M o r e
r e c e n t l y see SEG 39, 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 4 1 ; 40,41, 918 ; 1840; 42, 726; 1226; 1 8 1 3 ; 43, 1298.
"5
K e r e s z t e s ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 6.
s c a n d a l of t h e s e d e n u n c i a t i o n s t h a t N e r v a e n d e d a n d w h i c h f o r m s
the s ign i f icance of the insc r ip t io n F I SC I I V D A I C I C A L V M N I A S V B L A T A
s . c .9 5 I t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t ha t p r o s ec u t i o n s u n d e r R o m a n c r i m
i n a l l a w d e p e n d e d h e a v i l y o n s u c h i n f o r m e r s in the a b s e n c e of a
r e g u l a r p o l i c e - f o r c e .
D i o C a s s i u s 6 8 , 1,2 r e fe r s to the senatus consultum u n d e r N e r v a t h a t
p r o h i b i t e d a c c u s a t i o n s for f o l l o w i n g "a J e w i s h way of life ('IooSaiKoq
pioq)." But wi th t h i s was c l e a r l y b r a c k e t e d a l s o a c c u s a t i o n of daepeioc .
I m p i e t y t o w a r d s t h e E m p e r o r a n d t h e g o d s is not n o r m a l l y to b e
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t a x e v a s i o n , b u t c l e a r l y i t had b e e n in s o m e c a s e s .
T h e s e , as K e r e s z t e s a r g u e s , c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n J e w s b y r a c e w h o
w e r e e n t i d e d to p r a c t i c e t h e i r a n c e s t r a l r e l ig i o n w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a
t i o n i n an y p a g a n c u l t i n c l u d i n g t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e y m u s t h a v e
t h e r e f o r e h a v e b e e n g e n t il e s l e a d i n g a 'IO U 8(X IK 6<; pioq.
D i o C a s s i u s 6 7 , 1 4 , 1 - 2 m e n t i o n s t h e f a m o u s D o m i t i a n i c c a s e of
F l a v i u s C l e m e n s a n d F l a v i a D o m i t i l l a w h o w e r e a c c u s e d of dGeoxrjq
b e c a u s e t h e y h a d s t r a y e d i n t o xd xcov 'IouSocicov r\Qr\: in c o n s e q u e n c e
F l a v i u s w a s e x e c u t e d a n d F l a v i a b a n i s h e d to P a n d a t e r i a . I n c l u d e d
w i t h t h e m as v i c t i m s of D o m i t i a n ' s t e r r o r w e r e m a n y o th e r s w h o
a r e d e s c r i b e d as " t u r n i n g a w a y to J e w i s h c u s t o m s ( e q xd xcov 'IcuSaicov
T]0r| e^oiceAAovxeq)." I t was c o n v e r s i o n t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s t h e r e f o r e
a t t a c k i n g .
W e n e e d n o t h e r e r e - o p e n the h o a r y d e b a t e o n the spec i f ic ques t ion
as to w h e t h e r F l a v i u s a n d F l a v ia w e r e C h r i s t i a n s r a t h e r t h a n J e w s .
T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s g r o u p in A s i a M i n o r w e r e C h r i s t i a n s , b u t in a
so c i e ty in w h i c h t h e y w o u l d b e r e a d i l y i d e n ti f ie d p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y
w i t h l e a d i n g a 'IouSocncoq ptoq. U n d e r D o m i t i a n G e n t i le s c o n v e r t i n g
to su ch a l i f e w e r e c l e a r l y c o n s i d e r e d s o c i a l l y d e v i a n t , w i t h t h e r e s u l t
t h a t i n i t i a l c l a i m s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e p u n i s h e d for n o n - p a y m e n t of
t h e fiscus Judaicus w a s t h e n f o l l o w e d b y c h a r g e s of d a e P e i a a n d o f
b e i n g d G eo i. I n d e e d it c o u l d w e l l b e a r g u e d t h a t , as g o o d d e u t e r o -
P a u l i n i s t s , s u c h u n c i r c u m c i s e d a e p o j ie v o i w e r e u n l i s t e d on the ro l l s
o f J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s a n d u n r e c o g n i s e d b y t h o s e f o l l o w i n g t h e bira-
choth kaminim. T h u s t h e y c o u l d n o t h a v e p a i d t h e fiscus Juda icus e v e n
t h o u g h t h e y h a d w i s h e d to d o so. Ye t now , a c c u s e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n ' s
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1 3 0 C H A P T E R T H R E E
p o l i cy fo r n o t h av in g p a id t h e t ax wh i l s t t h ey fo l l o wed a ' I O \ ) 8 O C I K 6 < ;
p io q , t h e y w e re i n a c le ft st ick . T h e f ac t o f t h e i r co n v e r s i o n co u l d
b e h e l d a g a i n s t t h e m a n d t h e c h a r g e o f acefieia a c c o r d i n g l y f o l l o w .
T h u s t h e s c e n e a t E p h e s u s i n Acts 1 6 ,2 0 -2 1 f i n d s r e f l ec t i o n i n
t h e s e D o m i t i a n i c e v e n t s a s T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i rc l e e x p e r i e n c e d
t h e m . T h e a e P o u e vo i o f A s ia M i n o r w e r e R o m a n c i ti ze n s w h o , d e s p it e
t h e i r c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y , w e r e r e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g n o le g a l r i g h t
t o t h e L u k a n r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m t h a t e n c a p s u l a t e d t h e i r i m p e r i a li s t
a s p i r a t i o n s t o b e g o o d c i t i z e n s a s w e l l a s g o o d C h r i s t i a n s . I n t h e l a s t
a n a l y s i s Luke w ill a d m i t t h a t h e le a v e s u n a n s w e r e d w h a t t h e l e g a c y
o f Pau l was t o d o fo r t h em in t h e i r o wn d ay a s i t h ad in t h e d ay s
o f t h e E p h e s i a n m a g i c i a n s . A s a J e w P a u l h a d p e r s u a d e d t h e m t o
b e c o m e ae |3 6 |x evo i, " c o n t r a ry t o t h e l aw to w o r sh ip G o d (rcccpa xo v
v o u o v a e ( 3 e a 6 a i xov 0 e 6 v ) , " a n d t h u s t o a c c e p t " e 9 r| u n p e r m i t t e d t o
R o m a n s ( a O U K e^ eax iv fij iiv rcapaSexeoGai. . . Tc ojialo iq o u a i v ) ." I n
D o m i t i a n ' s tim e it w a s t h u s a l so u n - p e r m i t t e d e 9 r| t h a t l e a d t o c h a r g e s
o f d a e p E i c c f o r a t e m p l e t a x w h i c h w a s n o t o n l y u n p a i d b u t f o r w h i c h
n a m e s h a d b e e n a b s e n t f r o m s y n a g o g a l r e g i s te r s t h a t w o u l d h a v e
o t h e r w i s e h a v e i m p l i e d o b li g a t io n to m a k e s u c h p a y m e n t .
L e t u s n o w s u m m a r i s e t h e p o i n t t o w h i c h th i s c h a p t e r h a s l e a d u s .
P A R T D . C H U R C H O R D E R A N D I M PE R IA L S O C I ET Y
W e h a v e t h u s a r g u e d t h a t Luke-Acts r e p r e s e n t s i d e o l o g y b u t n o t i nt h e s e n s e o f t h e a p o l o g y o f a n i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p t o a h o s ti le R o m a n
m a g i s t r a t e . W e a g r e e t h u s f ar w i t h E s l e r t h a t t h is w o r k r e p r e s e n t s
i n - h o u s e l e g i t i m a t i o n a n d n o t a p o l o g y .9 6
B u t t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f l e g i t i m a t i o n is t o b e s h a r p e n e d s p e ci fi c
a ll y i n t e r m s o f a s o c io l o g ic a l t h e o r y o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e . T h e g r o u p
l e g i t i m a t e s i ts e lf b y c o n s t r u c t i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e
w i th a r e l a t e d a l t e rn a t iv e s ca l e o f v a lu es t h a t j u s t i f i ed b o th i t s s ig n i f i c a n c e a n d i n d e e d it s v e r y e x i s t e n c e . B u t t h a t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is
p a r a s i t i c n e v e r t h e l e s s o n t h e s o c i al c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y o f t h e h o s t
c u l t u r e , w h i c h p r o v i d e s th e r a w m a t e r i a l o u t o f w h i c h to c o n s t r u c t
t h e r e v e r s a l o f i m a g e s . T h o s e i m a g e s w e h a v e s e e n to b e t h e c o m
p l e x o f i d e a s o f a u g u r y , o f census a n d o f lustrum, o f pax deorum, o f
9 6 E s l e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 3 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 131
saeculum aureum, o f victoria a n d concordia w h i c h c l u s t e r a r o u n d t h e d e v e l
o p i n g i d e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
T h e p a r t i c u l a r a l t e r n a t i v e C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l it y c o u l d
s u s t a in its p l a u s ib i li t y t o a m a x i m u m e x t e n t o n l y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d
i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h e a c c e ss i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . T h e
p a r a l l e l t o t h e r e f o r m e d , p a g a n I m p e r i a l C u l t , a c h i e v i n g t h e pax deo
ru m w h e r e its r e p u b l i c a n p r e d e c e s s o r h a d f a il ed , w a s C h r i s t i a n i t y a s
r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m , fu lfillin g t h e p r o m i s e s o f t h e D i v i n e C h i l d a n d
t h e saeculum aureum p r o m i s e d t o t h e J e w i s h p a t r i a r c h s . D o m i t i a n w a s
t o e m p h a s i s e t h r o u g h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h e r e s p o n s i b i li t y o f t h e J e w s
t o p a y t h e T e m p l e T a x a s t h e so c ia ll y a c c e p t a b l e p r o x y fo r p a r t i c i
p a t i o n i n t h e c u l t. B u t t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s a t t h i s t i m e t h r o u g h t h e
biracoth ham inim w e r e f inally t o e x c l u d e e v e n J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y , p r a c
t i ce d b y t h e s u r v i v o rs o f t h e t r a d i t i o n o f J a m e s t h e L o r d ' s b r o t h e r ,
f r om c o n s t i t u t i n g a v a l i d f o r m o f J u d a i s m .
T h u s fr o m n o w o n a n y a d h e r e n t o f a n y o t h e r fo r m o f J u d a i s m
t h a n w h a t T h e o p h i l u s ' g r o u p w o u l d r e g a r d as u n r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m
w o u l d s t a n d e x p o s e d b y t h e i r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
I t w o u l d n o t b e s o e a s y t o a v o i d i n v i t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r
t h e i r r e fu s al t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s fo r o b t a i n i n g
t h e pax deorum i m p l i e d u p s e t t i n g t h a t pax t h r o u g h a x d a i q f o m e n t e d
b y o t h e r scelera s u c h as m a g i c a n d w i t c h c r a f t. ' A a e p e i a w a s t h e c h a r g e
t h a t f o l l o w e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y h a d f o l l o w e d , b y t h e i r o w n
c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c l a i m , a r e f o r m e d ' I O \ ) 8 G U K 6 < ; p(o<; th a t w as th e re ve rse d
i m a g e o f A u g u s t u s ' r e f o r m o f t h e r e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t e r i a l auguria t o
p r o d u c e t h e pax deorum. T h e y h a d n o r i g h t t o d e p a r t f r o m a n c e s t r a l
e 0 T | , s o t h a t t h e y m u s t b e p u n i s h e d fo r t h is a s m u c h a s n o n - p a y m e n t
o f t h e fiscus Judaicus. T h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y h a d f a i l e d i n i t s
i n it ia l , L u c a n f o r m t o r e i n t e g r a t e t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e h o s t
c u l t u r e .
I t is h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t p a r t o f t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t r e v e a l s i ts e lf a s m o r e t h a n l e g i t i m a t i o n is t o b e s e e n
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n i d e o lo g y o f C h u r c h O r d e r . Luke f o u n d s t h e
c h u r c h o n t h e T w e l v e a p o s t l e s , w h o c o n t i n u e w i t h J e s u s in h i s t r i
a l s , t o w h o m h e e n t r u s t s t h e k i n g d o m d e l i v e r e d b y h i s F a t h e r , a n d
w h o a r e a p p o i n t e d t o e a t a t h i s t a b l e i n h i s k i n g d o m a n d t o s i t " o n
t h r o n e s j u d g i n g t h e t w e l v e t r i b e s o f I s r a e l . " (Lk. 2 2 , 3 0 ) A l t h o u g h t h is
say ing i s found a l so in Matthew ( 1 9 ,2 8 ) a n d c o m e s t h e r e f o r e f ro m Q ,
Luke m a k e s t h e p r o m i s e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e T w e l v e a l o n e i n t h e s p e c i f i c
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1 32 C H A P T E R T H R E E
c o n t e x t o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r ( 3 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 ) .9 7
T h e r e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
say ing to the k ingdom, no t g iven to a l l d i sc ip les , bu t "wi l led" o r "g iven
a s t h e r i g h t o f i n h e r i t a n c e t o (Kdyco 8 i a x { 0 e u m u u i v KCCGGX; 8ie9ex6 uo i
6 7caxf |p UOD p a a i ^ e i a v ) " t h e T w e l v e a l o n e is t h e r e f o r e i n d i c a t i v e o f
Luke's o w n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e of t h e c o m m u n i t y .
L e t u s e x a m i n e b ri e fl y h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y i n t h e C h r i s t i a n
c o m m u n i t y .
3 D 1 . The introduction of the apo stolic college
Luke's s o u r c e s a r e i n d i c a t i v e of a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e T w e l v e d i dn o t c o n s t i t u t e a n e x c l u s i v e , a u t h o r i t y g r o u p i n t h e e a r l i e s t c o m m u
n i t i e s , n o r w e r e t h e y a l o n e a l l o w e d t h e t i d e o f " a p o s d e . " Acts 1 3 , 1 - 3
d e s c r i b e s t h e m i n i s t e r s a t A n t i o c h a s " p r o p h e t s a n d t e a c h e r s . . . w h o
l ay h a n d s o n B a r n a b a s a n d S a u l . " A p p a r e n d y i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f
t h e i r b e i n g t h u s " s e n t o u t " a s t r a v e l l i n g m i s s i o n a r i e s , t h e y a r e b o t h
cal led drcooxoAoi in Acts 1 4 , 4 a n d 1 4 . P e r h a p s , a l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e y a r e
c a l le d s u c h b e c a u s e i n 1 1 , 2 8 - 3 0 , w h e n t h e p r o p h e t A g a b u s p r o p h es i ed a f am in e , t h e b re th ren a t An t io ch s en d re l i e f (d rco ax e iXav x eq )
" fo r th e b r e t h r e n i n J u d a e a . . . t o t h e e l d e r s t h r o u g h t h e h a n d o f
B a r n a b a s a n d S a u l . " (v . 3 0 ) Su ch a co n cep t o f ap o s to l i c i t y i s su p
p o r t e d i n Didache 1 1 , 3 - 6 w h e r e t h e t r a v e l l i n g m i s s i o n a r y i s a s s o c i
a t e d c lo se ly w i t h t h e p r o p h e t i c offic e h e l d a d d i t i o n a l l y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
in 1 Cor. 1 5 ,6 a n d 7 t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e " t o J a m e s a n d a ll
t h e ap o sd es " is q u i t e d i f f e ren t f ro m , an d s ev e ra l s t ag es l a t e r (P e t e r / t h eT w e l v e / f i v e h u n d r e d b r o t h e r s / J a m e s ) t h a n , t h e a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e
T w e l v e .9 8
T h u s Acts 1,15-26 i s c lear ly Luke's o w n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h e n i t
m a k e s th e T w e l v e a n d t h e fa c t o f t h e i r b e i n g e y e w i t n e ss e s u n i q u e l y
97
Mat. 1 9 , 2 3 - 3 0 p l a c e s th is s t a t e m e n t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e R i c h Y o u n g M a n( 1 6 - 2 1 ) a n d is a p r o m i s e n o t o n l y t o Pe t e r b u t t o a l l w h o f o l l o w J e s u s (o i dicoAx)\)9r|-
a a v x e q | i o i ) " i n t h e reb i r t h " (ev xr \ 7caA.iyyevea{a) .9 8 Cf. a lso Rom. 1 6, 7 w h e r e A n d r o n i c u s a n d j u n i a a r e d e s c r i b e d a s ejuoT|uoi xoi<;
arcoaxotanq, a n d i n 2 Cor. 8 ,2 3 (a8eta po i f |U iov drco oxotan e iacXrio icbv) an d 11 ,5 a n d
13 a n d 1 2 , 1 1 . In th e l a t ter cas e th e vrcepAiav drcooxoAxn ap pe ar s to refer n ot to
t h o s e w h o h a v e p a s s e d t h e t e st a s w i t n e s s e s t o t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n , b u t t o t h e c h a r i s
m a t i c a n d p r o p h e t i c t e st o f p e r f o m i n g x a a r | (x e ia i o i ) d r c o ox o ta n ). F u r t h e r m o r e i n
Mat. 1 0 , 2 ; M k. 3 , 1 4 ; 6 , 3 0 ; Lk. 6 , 1 3 ; 9 , 1 0 ; 1 1 , 4 9 t h e r e f e r e n c e i s t o t h o s e w h o t ra v
e l l ed e i t h e r w i t h J e s u s o r w h o w e r e s e n t o u t b y h i m a s m i s s i o n a r i e s , a n d n o t a s
w i t n e s s e s t o a r e s u r r e c t i o n t h a t h a d n o t a s y e t o c c u r r e d . S e e a l s o C a m p e n h a u s e n( 1 9 4 7 ) , p p . 9 6 - 1 3 0 ; K . L a k e , T h e T w e l v e a n d t h e A p o s t l e s , i n F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d
L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1 ,5 p p . 3 7 - 5 9 .
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IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH ORDER 133
9 9
A. Brent, Diogenes Laertius and the Apostolic Succession, in JEH 44,3 (1993),
p p . 375-386; Idem. Hippolytus and the R oman Church in the Third Century:
Communities in Tension before the Emergence of a Monarch-Bishop, in SupplVCh
31 (Leiden: E.J. Brill 1995), pp. 476-501.100
Acts 6,6 ovq eaxrjaav evamiov xcov arcoaxoXtov, m l 7cpoae\)^d|xevoi £7ie6T|Kav
avxoiq xd<; xzipaq. The subject of eaxrjaav is clearly the Hellenists themselves who
lay hands on the seven like the prophets and teachers of Antioch on Barnabas and
Saul (Acts 13,3). Foakes Jackson and Lake (1933) 1,4 p. 65, and 1,5 note 11 p. 137.101
Acts 15, 2,4,6,22-23; 16,4.
central to the authority structure of the communi ty , (v. 22) conjoin
ing incidentally with them the "Lord's Brothers" (v. 14). The addi
tion of Matthias in replacement of Ju da s is also clearly the author ' s
own construction. In Acts 12,2 J a m e s the apostle is martyred by
Herod Agrippa, but the apostolic body does no t meet again in order
to replace the deceased office-bearer.
However , the author 's purpose in constructing a putat ive Order
for the primit ive Church is clearly not that of later Hegessipus or
Irenaeus, or of the Clement ine Homilies." T h e aposdes do not ini
tiate an episcopal succession list. They do however ordain the seven
deacons bu t only according to the Western text of Acts 6,1-6 . T h e
ms. tradition otherwise implies that the co mm un it y itself ordai ns with
apostolic approval.1 0 0
Both Paul a n d Barnabas (Acts 14,21), whilst
travelling through Lystra, Iconium, a n d Antioch in Pisidia, "ordain
presbyters in every church (xeipoxovrioxcvxeq 8e amoiq m x ' e K K ^ n a i a v
rcpeop'uxepoix;)," by vi rt ue presumably of the apostolicity of the trav
elling missionary and not the apostolicity of the eyewitness to the
resurrection.
Yet there is no clearly articulated theory of ministerial Order sys
tematically imposed upon the text since there are mentioned elders
(Acts 11,30), but not apostles (nor deacons), over t he c hu rc h in
Je rusa lem w ho receive the relief-gift as a result of Agabus ' proph
esying, but of whose ordination, unlike that of the deacons, we have
no mention. Furthermore, presbyters are regularly associated with
the aposdes throughout Acts, but no account of the origin of their
office, unlike that of aposdes a n d deacons, is ever given.1 0 1
Yet the
supposed ordinations of presbyters by Paul a n d Barnabas , and the
summoning of the Ephesian presbyters by Paul himself in Acts 20,17,
was clearly important to the a u tho r as an apostolic function. In
v. 28 Paul addresses these same presbyters as £ 7 U G K O 7CO I , though, as
in Clement Romans 44,1-5 , there is a plurality of such ministers a n d
the terms are evidentiy interchangeable.
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1 3 4 C H A P T E R T H R E E
T h e r e is n o p r i m a r y h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e fo r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a p r e s -
b y t e r a t e i n t h e o r i g i n a l P a u l i n e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h u s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
t h e i n s t it u t i o n h e r e is a c l e a r c o n t r i v a n c e o f t h e d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t
a u t h o r w h i c h h e n e v e r t h e le s s s h a r e s w i t h t h e p s e u d o n y m o u s P a s t o r a l
E p i sd e s w r i t t e n c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y w i t h h i m . 1 0 2 T h e c o n n e c t i o n of
t h e P a u l i n e c o n g r e g a t i o n t h r o u g h o r d i n a t i o n o f o f f ic e - b e a re r s is i n
t e n d e d t o e m p h a s i s e t h e u n i t y o f t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m , w h i c h
b e g in s i n J e r u s a l e m a n d p r o c e e d s t o S a m a r i a a n d t h e n t o R o m e
w i t h e a c h m o v e m e n t l e a d i n g b a c k t o J e r u s a l e m itself.
P a u l o r d a i n s p r e s b y t e r s j u s t a s P e t e r a n d t h e o r i g i n a l a p o s t l e s h a d
o r d a i n e d t h e d e a c o n s (Acts 6 , 1 - 6 ) e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e t h e a c c o u n t i s
a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d t h e d e a c o n s w e r e o r i g in a l l y t h e s e l f -s t a n d in g
o ffic e b e a r e r s of a c u l t u r a l l y s e p a r a t e c o n g r e g a t i o n .1 0 3
T h e m i n i s t r i e s
o f P e t e r a n d P a u l m u s t b e s e e n t o b e n o t o n l y s y m m e t r i c a l w i t h
e a c h o t h e r b u t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e C o u n c i l o f
J e r u s a l e m i n Acts 1 5 , 1 - 3 5 . T h e l a t t e r e v e n t h a s b e e n n o t o r i o u s l y
i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w i t h t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f Gal.
1 -2 . F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n t h e p r o p h e t s a n d t e a c h e r s o f A n t i o c h c a n
n o t b e a l l o w e d to c o m e in t o e x i s te n c e i n d e p e n d e n d y , b u t m u s t b e
s h o w n t o h a v e m i g r a t e d t h e r e o r i g i n a l l y , w i t h A g a b u s , f r o m J e r u s a l e m
(Acts 1 1 ,2 7 ). P e t e r m u s t r e p o r t b a c k t o t h e a p o s d e s in J e r u s a l e m a ll
t h a t h a s h a p p e n e d i n h is m i s s i o n a r y a c t iv i ty (Acts 11 ,1 ) .
I f t h e a u t h o r ' s p u r p o s e is c l e a r l y n o t t o l e g i t i m a t e l a t e r , c a t h o l i c
102
Philip. 1 , 2 m e n t i o n s ejuoKorcoi a n d 8K X K O V O I a s o f f i c e - h o l d e r s . T h e d e u t e r o -
Pa u l i n e 1 7 7m . 5 ,1 7 d i s t i n g u i s h es rcpeap'uxepoi f r o m e l d e r m e n b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y
a re rcp oeax cb xeq a n d t h e re f o re u n a m b i g u o u s l y o f f i c er - h o l d ers , a n d Tit. 1 , 5 c o n t a i n s
a n i n j u n c t i o n t o o rd a i n t h em i n a p h ra s e rem i n i s cen t o f Acts 14,2 1 (w ot . . . raxaaxr|crr |<;
(xeipoxovf iaavxeq 8e oruxoiq) raxa 7c6A.iv (rax ' eKKAjja iav) Ttpeop'oxepo'ix;). A K X K O V O I a r e
o t h e r w i s e m e n t i o n e d i n 1 Tim. 3 , 8 a n d 1 2 , a l t h o u g h a c e r t a i n a m b i v a l e n c e is m a i n
t a i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t " T i m o t h y " h i m s e l f i s c a l l e d a 8KXKOVO<; in 4 , 6 . eTUGKOTtoi
a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e g e n e r i c s i n g u l a r i n 1 Tim. 3 , 2 a n d Tit. 1 , 7 b u t n o - w h e r e a su n a m b i g u o u s l y d i s t i n c t f ro m t h e rcpeap'oxepoi. I n t h e Pa s t o ra l s , a s i n Luke-Acts, w e
w o u l d s e e m t h e r e f o r e t o b e in a t i m e c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d
t h e r e f o r e a r o u n d 9 5 A . D . T o t h a t e x t e n t I w o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e a s s e ss
m e n t o f S . N e w , T h e N a m e , B a p t i s m , a n d t h e L a y i n g o n o f H a n d s , i n F o a k e s
J a c k s o n a n d L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1, 5 N o t e 11 p p . 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 t h a t h e r e w e r e l a i d t h e f o u n
d a t i o n s o f l a t e r c a t h o l i c p r a c t i c e . I c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t e i t h e r C a m p e n h a u s e n
( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 1 5 6 - 1 6 5 ff. t h a t w o u l d d a t e t h e P a s t o r a l s l a t e r o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y
p r e s u p p o s e s i n g l e - b i s h o p s , n o r R . B r o w n , Priest and Bishop: Biblical Reflections, ( N e w
Y o r k : P a u l i s t P r e s s 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 0 ff. w h o w a s p r e p a r e d t o d e f e n d t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f a p r e s b y t e r a t e i n t h e o r i g in a l P a u l i n e c o m m u n i t i e s .1 0 3 H . J . C a d b u r y , T h e H e l l e n i s t s , i n F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1 ,5 N o t e 7
p p . 5 9 - 7 4 .
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 1 3 5
C h u r c h o r d e r t h r o u g h h i s n o t a l w a y s n e a d y c o n s t r u c t e d e d if ic e , w h a t
r o l e d o e s t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a y ? W e a r e n o w , i n t h e l ig h t o f o u r
acco u n t so f a r , i n a p o s i t i o n t o g iv e a f r e sh an swer t o an o ld p ro b lem .
3 D 2 . The centrality of the Temple to reformed Judaism
I t is n e ce s sa ry firsd y, a n d p e r h a p s l ea s t co n t ro v e r s i a l l y , t o p o r t r a y
C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l t . T h e w o r l d - w i d e c u l t o f J u d a i s m
w a s u n i t e d a r o u n d t h e T e m p l e , a n d a p r a c t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t
u n i t y w a s i n t h e fiscus Judaicus. L i k e w i s e Luke's r e f o r m e d c u l t u s m u s t
b e l o c a t e d a n d c e n t r e d o n t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e , w h e r e t h e d is c ip le sg a t h e r w i t h t h e a p o s t l e s f o r w o r s h i p w h i l s t c o n t i n u i n g a t h o m e i n
t h e a p o s t l e s ' d o c t r i n e , i n s y n a g o g a l p r a y e r , a n d i n t h e b r e a k i n g o f
b r e a d t h a t c o n t i n u e s t h e L a s t S u p p e r . H e r e m i s s i o n a r i e s r e t u r n f o r
d i r e c t i o n a n d r e - a s s u r a n c e , a n d t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e C h u r c h t a k e s
p l a c e a r o u n d t h i s h u b , a s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d . H e r e is s e n t a c o l le c
t ion for poor-relief. T h e a u t h o r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n , h i s
t o r y i n t h i s r e g a r d w a s n o d o u b t c o n s i d e r a b l y a s s i s t e d b y a h i s t o r i c a lc o l l e c t io n , r e s o n a n t o f s u b m i s s i o n t o a n a u t h o r i t y a m b i v a l e n d y i n t e r
p r e t e d o n b o t h s id e s , d e s c r i b e d in 2 Cor. 8 - 1 0 . I n Gal. 2 ,6 a n d 1 0
P a u l a g r e e d t o r e m e m b e r t h e p o o r , w h i c h h e p r o f e s s e s e a g e r n e s s
a l w a y s t o d o . T h u s P a u l m a y h a v e r e g a r d e d t h e c o l l e c ti o n p u r e l y
a s p o o r - r e l i e f a n d C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y , b u t J a m e s t h e L o r d ' s b r o t h e r ,
a n d P e t e r a n d J o h n , p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e J e r u s a l e m C h u r c h , m a y
h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d i t a s a g r u d g i n g a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f t h e a u t h o r i t yo f t h e o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t y . I n t h e i r e y e s t h e " p i l l a r s " o f t h e C h u r c h a s
t h e N e w I s r a e l h a d t h e s a m e ri g h t t o s u p p o r t a s h a d t h e T e m p l e o f
t h e O l d I s r a e l.
B u t w e a r e n o w a b l e , i n t h e li g h t o f o u r a r g u m e n t , t o g o f u r t h e r
i n o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f C h u r c h O r d e r in Luke-
Acts. W e h a v e f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e p o r t r a y a l o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a
r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m i s a c o n s c i o u s r e fl e ct io n o f A u g u s t u s ' r e f o r m a t i o no f t h e o l d , p a g a n c u l t u s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i m p e
r i a l u n i t y o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ( 3B 1 - 3 ). W e c a n
n o w n o t e A u g u s t u s ' r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o ll e g e o f t h e Fratres Arvales,
a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h Acts 1,12—26.
3 D 3 . F r a t r e s A r v a l e s : apostolic college as contra culture
T h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m h a d b e e n f o u n d e d o n t h e T w e l v e a p o s
d es w h o se j u d g e m e n t o f t h e twe lv e t r i b es o f I s r ae l w as s e l f- co n sc io u s ly
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IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY A N D T H E O R I G IN S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 137
Carmen Arvale, 2 I F o n e m i e l e F o r m e , c o n u n e x c u r s u s e d i n d i c i , ( R o m e : B a r d i
1 9 3 4 ) .1 0 6 S h e r w i n W h i t e ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 cf. D e S t e C r o i x ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 1 a n d
S h e r w i n W h i t e ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 4 2 6 .
T h e Fratres Arvales b e c a m e c lo s el y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l
Cu l t , o f fe r in g vota f or t h e i m p e r i a l h o u s e h o l d : t h e y m a d e s a cr if ic e s
o n i m p e r i a l b i r t h d a y s , a n d o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f a c c e s s i o n s t o t h e
t h r o n e . A n y v a c a n c y i n t h e n u m b e r o f t w e l v e w a s filled b y t h e c o l
l eg e itself, j u s t l i k e t h e twe lv e ap o s t l e s , t h o u g h in t h e l a t t e r ca se we
h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d th e i n c o n g r u i t y of t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f M a t t h i a s
w i t h t h e f a i lu r e t o r e p l a c e J a m e s (Acts 1,24-26 cf. 1 2 , 1 - 5 ) . In CIL
6 , 2 0 8 0 l in e 2 2 ff. w e h a v e r e c o r d e d t h e e l e c t i o n o f P u b l i u s M a n l i u s
C a r b o " i n t h e p l a c e o f Q . B it ti u s P r o c u l u s " i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e
e m p e r o r H a d r i a n ' s l e tt e r c a s t i n g h i s v o t e fo r h i s collega. T h u s w e find
p a ra l l e l e d M a t t h i a s , ch o s en Xocpeiv x ov XOTCOV xfjc; 8KXKOV{(X<; xocuxriq iced
&7toaxoAfjq (Acts 1,25). T h e p a r a l l e l i s, I s u b m i t , n o t a c c i d e n t a l in t h e
l i g h t o f w h a t I h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t o b e t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f
Luke-Acts i n i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y .
PART E . I N C O N C L U S I O N : THEOPHILUS A N D H I S C I R C L E
T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r c le w e r e n o t i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o p e n c o n f li c t
w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s w a s t h e w r i t e r o f t h e Apocalypse. S t a n d i n g
a t t h e fo re f ro n t o f t h e su cc es so r s t o t h e G re e k c it y s t a t e s i n c o m
m u n i t i e s s u c h a s E p h e s u s , P e r g a m o n , A n t i o c h i n P i s i d i a , e t c . , t h e y
w e l l k n e w t h a t t h e r e w a s a s y e t n o l e g a l c o m p u l s i o n o n t h e m t o
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . B e f o r e D e c i u s T r a j a n ( A . D . 2 5 1 )
s u c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s v o l u n t a r y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e r e l a c k e d a n yl e ga l c o m p u l s i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e . B u t s oc i al p r e s s u r e , a s T e r t u l l i a n ' s
l a t e r De Corona w a s t o i n d i c a t e , c o u l d h a v e t h e s a m e p r a c t i c a l c o n
c l u s io n s o f d r a w i n g h o st il e a t t e n t i o n t o n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d t h e d r a w
i n g u p o f c h a r g e s o f scelera o r o f contumacia a g a i n s t t h e m .1 0 6
Y e t t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n r e l ig i ou s c u l t u r e t h a t h a d f o r m e d t h e i r
p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e w o r l d w a s o n e to w h i c h t h a t c u lt u s w a s b e c o m
i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i ti c a l. T h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n h a d p r o d u c e d t h epax deorum, a n d r e o r d e r e d t h e c o s m i c a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s lo c a t io n
o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r w i t n e s s e d in a c e n t u r y o f c iv il w a r s w i t h w h i c h
c o u n t l e s s p r o d i g i o u s n a t u r a l d is a s t e rs w e r e a s s o c i a t e d . T h e r e w a s a
s t r o n g l y fe lt m o r a l a n d p a t r i o t i c c o m p u l s i o n t o c o n t i n u e w h a t h a d
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138 CHAPTER THREE
be en celebr ate d in the decrees of the Koi non of Asia an d elsewhere.
But they had been catechetized and received into the post-Pauline
communities in Asia Minor, and were now Christians.
How could their new faith enable their reintegration into the impe
rial order from which they now felt alienated? How could this per
ceived, social-psychological ne ed for the celebrati on of social or de r
after bloody social strife, fulfilled in the Imperial Cultus that had
secured the pax deorum, now experience new fulfilment by the new
religion? The way the writer chose was to deconstruct early Christian
eschatology to re move all ju dg em en t a nd tribul ation, so as to assim
ilate Chri stia n eschatology to that of Augustus' saeculum aureum. T hus
we have answered the first question with which we began and ex
plained the reason for Luke's recasting of early Chr isti an eschatology.
In answer to the second question concerning Luke's modification
of Paulinism, we have seen that the saeculum aureum was initiated
through an act of augury, Augustus' special augurium pads which had
succeeded in achieving the pax deorumwhere republican religion had
failed. The answer to the second question was to be found in the
Chri stia n co un te rp ar t to Augu stus ' Cul t, whic h could alone achie ve
the refashioned Christian saeculum aureum. The author now had to
identify the religion into which Theophilus has been catechetized as
a refo rmed Jew is h cult. He was thus pr ep ar ed to deconst ruct Paul' s
radical disjunction between the Law and Christ (Gal. 3,10-14), even
in the softened form in Rom. 9 - 1 1 . 1 0 7
Luke now offered a positive
reason for non- part icipat ion , namely, the pu rpos e of the Imp eri al
Cult: the pax deorum and the sacramental means for the continuance
of the saeculum aureum is far be tt er achieved th rou gh the eiprivn of
Bet hle hem, the Tr iu mp hal Entr y, and t he vucr| a nd acoinpia tha t fol
low from the birth of Child from the Virgin, and his death and res
urrection. Thus Theophilus can know "the security (TTJV dacpd^eiav)
reg ar di ng the discourses of his cateches is (rcepi (bv Kaxrixri&nq taSycov)."
(Lk. 1,4)
Such an ideology thus opened the prospect for Theophilus and
his group to overcome their alienation and to reintegrate themselves
into the social fabric of their societies by means of a new religion
that would achieve the perce ive d objective of thos e societies. But as
an ideology for integrating Christianity into the imperial ideal it was
1 0 7
Brown and Meier (1983) chapt. 2.
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I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 139
t o p r o v e a b o r t i v e a t th i s p o i n t i n t i m e , t h o u g h l a t e r to b e p a r t i a l l y
r e a l i z e d i n t h e t i m e o f E u s e b i u s a n d P r u d e n t i u s .1 0 8
T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h o w Luke-Acts c o n
s t r u c ts C h u r c h O r d e r a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e r e f le c t in g
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e sh a ll e s t a b li s h t h e c o n t i n u e d c o n n e c t i o n o f
e c c le s ia s ti c al a n d i m p e r i a l o r d e r a s i n p r o g r e s s o f t i m e d e v e l o p m e n t s
i n t h e l a t t e r find d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e f o r m e r . W e w il l
find i n C l e m e n t o f R o m e a p a r a l l e l w i t h Luke-Acts i n t h e t r a n s fo r
m a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l a p o c a l y p t i c u n d e r s i m i l a r i m p e r i a l - i d e o l o g i c a l
i n f l u e n c e s . S u c h a p a r a l l e l w i ll p r o v e a ll t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e in t h a t
t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e o n e w o r k o n t h e o t h e r .
W e s ha l l s ee t h a t t h e D o m i t i a n i c c h a n g e s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a r e
r e f l e c te d i n h o w I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , f o l lo w i n g c e r t a i n t h e m e s f r o m
t h e Apocalypse, c o n s t r u c t s h is t h e o l o g y o f t h e th r e e f o l d O r d e r . W e
s h a l l s e e l a t e r i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h C y p r i a n c h a n g e s i n t h e i d e o l o g y
o f C h u r c h O r d e r t h a t r e fl ec t t h e e a r l i e r c h a n g e s b y t h e S e v e r a n s t o
t h e i d e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r .
T h u s w e a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e s u b je c t m a t t e r of o u r n e x t C h a p t e r ,
a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e s oc ia l a n d p ol it ic a l c o n t e x t o f C l e m e n t ' s , Corinthians,
t h e Apocalypse, a n d t h e le t t e r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h .
1 0 8 B o v o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) c o l . 4 0 4 : " F i ir L u k a s w a r e d i e W e l t d i m e n s i o n d e r M i s s i o n u n d
d a d u r c h d e r K i r c h e e i n r e l i g i o s e s G e g e n s t i i c k z u m p o l i t i s c h e n U n i v e r s a l i s m u s R o m s .
L u k a s w a r e d a n n e in V o r l a u f e r v o n E u s e b u n d P r u d e n z . "
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C H A P T E R F O U R
C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T I A N ' S E M P I R E
The fulfilment of the imperial peace in Clement's comm unity
C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians h a s b e e n c o n v i n c i n g l y d a t e d a s c o n t e m p o r a r y
w i t h D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n ( A . D . 8 1 - 9 6 ) , a n d m o r e sp e ci fi ca ll y b e t w e e n
A . D . 9 4 a n d 9 7 d u r i n g w h i c h t h e " s u d d e n a n d r e p e a t e d m i s f o r t u n e s
(xaq ai(pvi8{orj<; KOCI znaXXr\Xox><; yevouivaq f |(xtv c r uuxpopdq) a n d c a l a m i
t ies ( K a l T c e p i T t T c o a e i q ) " o c c u r r e d t h a t h a d d e l a y e d t h e s e n d i n g o f t h e
l e t t e r (Cor. I,I).1
C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s f r o m H e g e s i p p u s a n d M e l i t o o f
S a r d i s o n w a r d s c l a i m e d t h a t D o m i t i a n p e r s e c u t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , s o
t h a t it w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t C l e m e n t ' s w o r d s h e r e
r e f e r t o t h a t r e i g n a n d s u c h a p e r s e c u t i o n . 2 F u r t h e r m o r e , a s I r e n a e u s
(Adv. Haer. V , 3 0 , 3 ) c o n n e c t s t h e Apocalypse w i t h t h e r e i g n o f D o m i t i a n ,
i t w o u l d f o ll o w t h a t th i s w o r k is a r e a c t i o n t o t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n . A s
t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s p a r t o f t h e p l a n o f D o m i t i a n , a s
t h e n e w A u g u s t u s , t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e d e v e l o p i n g
t h e o l o g y o f t h e s e t w o c h r o n o l o g ic a l l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r k s c a n b e
r e l a t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p i n g t h e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
S i n c e h o w e v e r it h a s b e e n d e n i e d t h a t D o m i t i a n p e r s e c u t e d C h r i s
t i a n i t y a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t itself, we wi l l
b e g i n b y d i s c u s s in g t h e q u e s t i o n o f D o m i t i a n ' s p e r s e c u t i o n ( s ec ti o n
A ) a s a b a c k g r o u n d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y o f
O r d e r as it a p p e a r s i n C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians ( s ec t i o n B). W e sh a l l
r e s e r v e f or C h a p t e r 5 o u r f u r t h e r d i s c u s si o n o f D o m i t i a n ' s r e f o r m
o f t h e cu l t a n d th e r e f l ec t i o n o f t h a t r e fo rm in t h e Apocalypse. I n C h a p -
1
L . W . B a r n a r d , C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d t h e P e r s e c u t io n o f D o m i t i a n , i n NTS 1 0
( 1 9 6 3 - 6 4 ) , p p . 2 5 1 - 2 6 0 ; Idem. S t. C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d t h e P e r s e c u t io n o f D o m i t i a n ,
in Studies in the Apostolic Fathers and their Backg round, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 6 ) , p p .
5 - 1 8 . S e e a l s o P . K e r e s z t e s , T h e J e w s , t h e C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h e E m p e r o r D o m i t i a n ,
in VChr 2 7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 - 2 8 .2
H e g e s i p p u s ( E u s e b i u s H.E. 1 1 1, 20 ); M e l i t o o f S a r d i s , Apology ( E u s e b i u s H.E.
I V , 2 6 ) ; T e r t u l l i a n , Apol. 5 ; De Pall. 2 ; L a c t a n t i u s , De Mort. Pers. 3 ; E u s e b i u s , Chronicon.II, p . 1 6 0 ; J e r o m e , Ep. 1 0 8 , 7 ; Chronicon A n n . A b r . 2 1 1 2 , D o m i t . 1 6 ; T h e o d o r e t , Graec.
Affect. Cur. 9 ; J o a n n e s M a l a l a s , Chronograph. 1 0 e t c .
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CLEMENT OF RO ME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 141
ter 6 we shall arg ue tha t the subs eque nt dev elopmen t of Ch ur ch
Ord e r a genera ti on later in Igna tius of Ant ioch was historically in
fluenced by both Domitian's cultic reforms and by the Apocalypse itself.
P A R T A. D O M I T I A N AND THE W R I T I N G OF C L E M E N T ' S CORINTHIANS
Attempts to deny Domitian's persecution—that would break the links
between both Clement 's Corinthians and the Apocalypse, and the cul
tic reforms upo n which my ar gu me nt relies—rest up on thre e pre
misses, namely:
1. The absence of any mention in pagan sources that Domitian per
secuted the Christians,
2. The ambiguity of archaeological evidence for Eusebius' indentification
of Flavius Clemens, Flavia Domitilla, and Acilius Glabrio as Christian
and not Jewish martyrs, and
3. The absence of pagan evidence for persecution under Domitian and
thus for martyrdom of Christians with these names.
Let us now, in our first section, examine each of these assumptions
in turn.
4A 1. Pagan evidence: Dio Cassius 67, 14,1-3
Suetonius (Domitian. 15,17) and Quintillian (Inst. Orat. 4, proem.) ha d
me nt io ne d the na me s of Flavia Domiti lla, Flavius Cl em en s, an d
Acilius Glabrio, but not the charges against them. However, Dio Cassius
(LXVII,14, 1-2) claims that Flavius Clemens the consul (imaxeuovxoc),
and his wife the emperor's kinswoman (auyyevfi ) Flavia Domitilla were
ch ar ge d bot h with dcBeoxriq and with "t urn ing awa y to Je wi sh cus
toms (iq xd xcov ' Io\)8a{ cov rfir) e^oiceMovxeq)." In consequence Flavius
was executed and Domitilla was exiled to Pandateria. Acilius Glabrio,
who had held consular office along with the young Trajan (xov j i exd
xou Tpai'ctvou dp^avxa) , was also c ondemned. But Dio also mentions
(14,3) that this was mor e th an a trial of the indiv idual s me nt io ne d
an d that on the sa me charge s " m a n y . . . othe rs (aXkoi... noXXoi)
were condemned (KaxeSiKdaOnaav) , some who died (mi oi p.ev drceGavov)
an d others who were deprived of thei r pr oper ty (oi 8e xcov yofiv o ua ico v
eaxep r i&n oav) ." There was therefore a quite general movement against
id xcov 'Ioi)8oc(cov TlGt|.
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1 4 2 C H A P T E R F O U R
W e a p p e a r prima facie t o h a v e a c o n f li c t t h e r e f o r e b e t w e e n D i o o n
t h e o n e h a n d a n d E u s e b i u s o n t h e o t h e r , w h o c l a i m s o n t h e a u t h o r
i ty o f B r e t t i u s t h a t F l a v i u s a n d D o m i t i l l a w e r e C h r i s t i a n s (Chronicon
I I a n n . A b r . 2 1 1 0 D o m t . 14 a n d H.E. 111 ,18) . T h a t D io fa il s to d e
s c r i b e t h e m a s C h r i s t i a n s is a r g u a b l y u n r e m a r k a b l e s in c e h e n e v e r
m e n t i o n s C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h o u t h is w o r k e v e n t h o u g h h e m u s t h a v e
k n o w n o f i ts e x i s t e n c e . T a c i t u s a n d P l i n y b e f o r e h i m h a d c l e a r l y
k n o w n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of C h r i s t i a n i t y . D i o ' s s e c o n d c o n s u l s h i p w a s
i n A . D . 2 2 9 , i n t h e r e i g n o f S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , w h o s e m o t h e r J u l i a
M a m a e a h a d s o u g h t f r om O r i g e n a n a c c o u n t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f ai th
( E u s e b i u s H.E. V I , 2 1 , 3 - 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , i f S H A , Sev. Alex. 2 9 , 2 - 3 i s
t o b e r e l i e d o n , A l e x a n d e r ' s lararium p o s s e s s e d a s t a t u e o f C h r i s t . A s
w e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d , T h e o p h i l u s a n d hi s c i rc l e i n A s i a M i n o r
c o n c e i v e d C h r i s t i a n i t y i ts elf t o b e a r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m , w i t h t h e r e s u lt
t h a t , v i e w e d e x t e r n a l l y , C h r i s t i a n i t y m a y h a v e a p p e a r e d t o D i o a s a
f o r m o f J u d a i s m s o t h a t n o d is t in c t io n n e e d e d t o b e m a d e b e t w e e n
t h e m ( 3 C 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 ) .
4 A 2 . C i m i t e r i u m D o m i t i l l a e and Eusebius' claim
T h e d i s c o v e r y o f c e r t a i n a r t e fa c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n a m e s o f F la v i u s
C l e m e n s a n d A c i l i u s G l a b r i o , t h a t i n i t i a l l y a p p e a r e d t o c o r r o b o r a t e
t h e i r C h r i s t i a n i t y , h a s b e d e v i l l e d t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . I t m a y b e t h a t D e
R o s s i w a s o r i g in a l l y m i s t a k e n b e c a u s e t h e C h r i s t i a n p a r t o f t h e cimi
terium Domitillae a n d o f A c i li us G l a b r i o m a y b e l a t e s e c o n d - c e n t u r ya n d t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s ' c o n v e r s i o n t o a C h r i s t i a n i t y i n
w h i c h t h e i r a n c e s t o r s h a d n o t b e l i e v e d .3
B u t , h a v i n g f a i l e d t o p r o v e
t o o m u c h , i t is a c o n t r a r y e r r o r t o h o l d t h a t t o o l it tl e is p r o v e d .
E v e n if D i o h a s r e c o r d e d a c c u r a t e l y t h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r
b e l ie f a n d h a s b e e n a b l e t o d i s t in g u i s h t h a t f r o m C h r i s t i a n i t y p r o p e r ,
t h e c a s e d o e s n o t h i n g e o n th e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a l o n e . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t
" m a n y o t h e r s " w e r e a l s o d e p r i v e d , a n d it w o u l d b e r ec k le s s t o a l l o wt o o m u c h t o re s t o n D i o ' s a b il it y t o d i s t in g u i s h J u d a i s m f r o m C h r i s
t i a n i t y w h e n w r i t i n g d u r i n g a p e r i o d fr ee f r o m a g e n e r a l p o l i c y o f
p e r s e c u t i o n s u c h a s i n S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ' s r e i g n . B o t h T e r t u l l i a n
(Apol. 5 ) a n d M e l i t o ( E u s e b i u s H.E. 4 , 2 6 ) m e n t i o n D o m i t i a n a s a
' J . B . L i g h t f o o t , The Apostolic Fathers, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 8 8 5 ) , 1,1 p p . 3 5 - 3 9
a n d 8 2 c f . B . W . J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 2 ), p . 1 1 5 . S e e
a l s o B a r n a r d ( 1 9 6 4 - 5 ) , p . 2 6 0 a n d ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 1 5 a n d W . C . H . F r e n d , Martyrdom and
Persecution in the Early Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l ls 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 2 1 2 - 2 1 7 .
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CLEMENT OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 143
second Nero, without any reference to Flavius Clemens and Flavia
Domitilla.
It is furthe r quit e false to claim tha t ther e is no pagan evidenc e
for a persec ution of Christianity un de r Dom iti an.
4A 3. Evidence from Pliny Ep . X, 96,1
Pliny states in his letter to Trajan: "I have never been present at
judicial exam inat ions of Christ ians (cognitionibus de Christianis interfui
numquam)" (Ep. X , 96,1) whi ch coul d indicate tha t such exa min at ion s
had been held though not in recent memory. Furthermore he recordsof those ex am in ed tha t (a) "the y ha d ceased to be Chri st ian s two or
more years previously, and some of them twenty years ago (non nemo
ante viginti)" and (b) aposta tes we re pr ep ar ed to ma ke "offerings of
wine and incense (ture ac vino)" to Tra jan 's imperial s tatue.
The significance of non nemo ante viginti (a) poin ts, in A. D. 11 2- 11 3,
to Domitian's reign in A.D. 93 and to a persecution under pressure
of wh ic h such apostasies took pla ce . Pliny ma y himself have devisedthe loyalty test men ti on ed in (b). But if it we re an al ready established
practic e, it wou ld poi nt to form er times wh en Chr ist ians ha d been
persecuted, and in which they had been subject to cognitio* Clement 's
letter itself, it must be emphasised, though a Christian source, is itself
good evidence for a Domitianic persecution. His account does not
rest upon any particular characterisation of the religious beliefs of a
Flavius, a Domiti lla , or an Acilius, sanctified by lat er hagiog ra ph ic
fable, whom he never mentions. But he does compare Peter and Paul,
and those who suffer martyrdom with them, as "those who contended
in the days nearest to us (zobq eyyioToc yevouivoix; aQXy\xaq), the noble
ex am pl es of ou r ow n ge ne ra ti on (xf\q y e v e a q r\\i(bv i d y e v v a i a i)7co8e{y-
UOCTCX)" (Cor. 5,1) with his contemporary situation in which he claims
that "we are in the same arena (aicd|Li|LiaTi) and the same contest (dycov)
weighs upon us." (Cor. 7,1) Clearly the expressions eyyiaxa and TTI<;
yeveaq r\\i&v imply a time recent and yet distinct. With no martyrological
axe to grind, Clement therefore bears witness to the contention of
both Melito and Tertullian that Domitian was the second Nero.
But the requirement of our argument to place the oci<pvi8io'u<; rai
inaXk^kovq... avuxpopdu; (Cor. 1,1) in the co nt ex t of pe rs ecut ion by
Do mi ti an is nevertheless not a requi re ment to reg ard tha t pe rsecu tion
4
Keresztes ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 20-21 cf. Jones ( 1 9 9 3 ) , pp. 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 .
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1 4 4 C H A P T E R F O U R
a s f o l lo w i n g f r o m a g e n e r a l d e c r e e . T h a t E u s e b i u s in s i s te d i n s e e i n g
s u c h a p e r s e c u t i o n a s g e n e r a l w a s a p r o d u c t o f h is h i s t o r i o g r a p h y
t h a t h a d n o c o n c e p t o f d e v e l o p m e n t so t h a t t h e C h u r c h o f t h e f irst
c e n t u r y h a d t o b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e f o u r t h . I n c o n s e q u e n c e ,
s i n c e p e r s e c u t i o n s s i n c e D e c i u s T r a j a n ( 25 1 ) w e r e s e e n b y E u s e b i u s
t o h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l , s o m u s t p e r s e c u t i o n s h a v e b e e n s o b e f o r e .
W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n r e s u l te d n o t f r o m g e n e r a l i m p e
r i a l d ec rees b u t f ro m th e so c i a l i so l a t i o n t h a t r e su l t ed i n i t i a l l y f ro m
n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d f r o m s u s p i c io n l e a d i n g
t o a c c u s a t i o n o f superstitio ( 3 C 2 . 3 ). T h i s w a s t h e r e a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h
t h e ocicpviSunx; icai knaXkx\kox)q . . . ouuxpopa*; w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d , a s w a s
t h e s i t u a t i o n i n A s i a M i n o r f a c e d b y T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r c l e .
D o m i t i a n i n s t i g a t e d c e r t a i n c h a n g e s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i t s e l f s o
t h a t h e e m e r g e s i n t h e l i te r a t u r e a s a n e w A u g u s t u s w o r s h i p p e d a s
a dominus et deus praesens. T h e Apocalypse t o o we sh a l l a rg u e i s o n e
g r o u p ' s h i g h l y i l l u m i n a t i n g r e a c t i o n t o t h o s e c h a n g e s , b u t a r e a c t i o n
q u i t e d i f f e r e n t e i t h e r t o T h e o p h i l u s ' g r o u p i n Luke-Acts o r t o C l e m e n t ' s
ref lected in Corinthians. J o n e s a n d S c h o w a l t e r h a v e d e n i e d m o s t r e c e n d y
a D o m i d a n i c d a t e .5
A di s cu s s io n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r D o m i t i a n ,
a n d t h e Apocalypse a s e v i d e n c e fo r a D o m i t i a n i c p e r s e c u t i o n , m u s t ,
h o w e v e r , a w a i t o u r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e Apocalypse i n C h a p t e r 5 .
L e t u s n o w t u r n t o C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians. W e s h a ll t r a c e h e r e e v i
d e n c e fo r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a C h u r c h O r d e r t h a t p a r a l le l s t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t h w h i c h i t c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l
a n a l o g i e s .
P A R T B . C L E M E N T : C H U R C H O R D E R A N D IM P ER IA L P E A C E
T h e T w e l v e , a s f o u n d e r s o f t h e a p o s t o l i c c o l le g e t h a t o r d e r s t h e
r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l t u s a c h i e v i n g t h e t r u e pax dei, d id n o t i n Luke-
Acts p r o v i d e a n y m e a n s o f a p p o i n t i n g b i s h o p s as t h e i r c o l le g i al s u c c e ss o rs . H o w e v e r , C l e m e n t i n Corinthians, w r i t i n g s o m e t e n y e a r s l a t e r
i n t h e r e i g n o f D o m i t i a n , w a s t o s u p p l y t h i s l a c k . L i k e Luke-Acts,
C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians is c o n c e r n e d , n o t s i m p l y w i t h r e s t o r a t i o n o f
p r o p e r c h u r c h O r d e r a t C o r i n t h , b u t w i t h t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e r n o f t h e
l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s . H i s s tr e ss o n t h e O r d e r o f t h e
' S e e f o o t n o t e 3 a b o v e .
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CLEMENT OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 145
Christian community reflects the imperial, metaphysical background
of the fear of axdoiq as reflecting an upsetting of the pax deorum.
Ixdaiq is dvooioq. T h e Corinthi an community, previous to such oxdoiq,
ha d cond uc te d themselves, not with the doepeioc tha t Clement' s pag an
fellow-citizens would have associated with failure to conform socially
if no t legally wi th the festivities of the Im pe ri al Cul t, but with a
euaePeia that was both ococppcov and eTtieucfiq (Clement, Cor. 1,1-2).
Let us now analyse in detail how the theme of imperi al pe ac e finds
expression in Cl em en t' s social construct ion of ecclesial reality tha t
will reveal some interesting parallels with what we have observed in
our treatment of Luke-Acts.
4B 1. Metaphysics of ecclesial peace: society reflects nature
We hav e seen wh at shud der ing ho rr or the pro spec t of upsett ing the
pax deorum caused in Rome's collective memory, shaped and fostered
by historians and poets such as Livy, Vergil, and Lucan after a cen
tury of social up he av al and civil strife, wh ic h was the founda tion ofAugustus ' augurium salutis inaugurating the Imperial Cult (2A 5-6).
So too for Cl ement "all insurr ec ti on (rc&oa oxdai<;) and all division
( m l nav oxiouxx) is to be a bominated by you (p8eta)Kxov uu iv). " (2,6)
B8eA,uKx6<; is an expression evocat ive of sacri legious def il ement that
destroys the efficacious operation of cultic ritual, as in the p8eta)yua
epnpxbaecoq (Mk. 13, 14). T h e o rd er of the co mm un i ty is to reflect
the order of creation that is characterised by the pax dei. In 20,1-3we read:
The heavens (oi ovpavoi) though agitated by his governance (xji Sioucncei
a\)Toi) aaA,e\)6 ievoi) are subject to him in peace (ev eipr|vr| imoxdoaov-
xai auxq)). . . Sun and moon (iiAioq xe m i aeAr|vr|) and choirs of stars
(daxepcov xe xopoi) according to his decree (mxd xr|v Siaxaynv auxov)
encircle in harmony free from all deviation (ev o iovoiot 8(xa Tcdariq rcapeK-
pdaeco<; E^EXXGOOVGI) their appointed bounds (xoix; eTcixexayjievotx; rxuxoic;bpiG\iovq).
T h e metap hys ica l pe ace (eipfivn) of the na tu ra l or de r is represe nted
therefore by a 8iaxayr| th at is specifically reflected in imperial soci
ety. As Clement says later:
Let us march (axpaxe\)acb^e9a) therefore, men and brothers, with all
eagerness (^iexd ndar\q eKxeveiaq) in his (God's) blameless orders (ev xoi<;
d^(b|ioi(; rcpoaxaYliaaiv): let us take cognisance (Kaxavof|aco|iev) of those
who enlist as soldiers (xoix; oxpccxe\)ouivo\)<;) under our [temporal] rulers
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146 CHAPTER FOUR
(xoiq f|yo\)|i£voi<;), how orderly (euxdicxax;), how yieldingly (eiKxuccoq), how
submissively (urcoxexayiAEvax;) they execute (e7ciT£^ot>aiv) what they have
been commanded (xdSiaxotaao^eva). All are not eparchs (ercapxoi) or
chiliarchs (xi^cxpxoi) or centurions (eicaxovxapxoi) or pentacontarchs(TcevxrjKovxapxoi) or people like that: but each in his own rank (ev xcp
i8{cp xdyjicm) perform what is ordered by the Emperor and his rulers
(xd eTTixaaaojieva imo xov paai^eax; Kai xcov f |yo\ ) | ievcov). . . Let us take as
an example our body: the head without the feet is nothing, so neither
the feet without the head: the least members of our body are neces
sary and useful for the whole body: but all members conspire (aXka
rcdvxa ovvnvei) and employ one subjection (KCXI urcoxayfl (iia xpfjxou) for
the preservation of the whole body (eiq xo O"co£eo0ai oA,ov xo acojia).
Corinthians 37
W e have alr eady indic ate d ho w a Stoic hy lo morp hi sm justified this
parallelism between nature and society, and how, through a justification
of divinat ion, it was to give a rational justi ficat ion for the religion
of the Imperial Cult that secured the pax deorum. We see therefore
in Cl em en t a clear reflection of such theme s in his examin at ion of
the Or der of the Chri stia n co mm un it y an d the dis turbanc e of tha t
Or d e r in the events that ha d lead to the depos ition of the EKIOKOKOI-
7 c p e a p \ ) x e p o i (2A 4-5).
A general philos ophy of imper ial Or d e r ha d lead th ro ugh the cul
tus to a definite under st an di ng of the sacr ame nta l role of em pe ro r
as high-pries t of the Impe rial Cul t and the deity vene ra te d by tha t
cult sometimes in his lifetime but usually post mortem. Clement derives
from this gener al, pa ga n philosophical ba ck gr ou nd a parallel theo ry
of Ch ur ch Or de r. In conse que nce he was to pr od uc e a theo ry of
the Chr ist ian cult and its minis ters themselves. Let us no w tu rn to
this dimens ion of his claims for a valid and efficacious C hurch Order .
4B 1.1. Order is secured through cultic authority
Clement understands the Old Testament cultus as type, and Church
O r de r as an ti ty pe , in such te rm s as xd^iq, xdyuoc, imoxayn, euxa^{a
and Ttpooxdyuxx etc. which are concepts derived from the order of
the imperial army and Roman society. But nature reflects society,
and vice-versa. The descriptions eTtixexotyuivoi opiouoi, Sioncriaiq, and
ouovouc bixa rcdariq rcapeicPdaeGx; of the natural order find thei r reflec
tions in such te rms of pol itical re la tions as 8iccxocyr| and ev eipf|vn
i)7coxdaaea0ai. As Clement now continues:
. . . We ought to do all things in order (rcdvxa xd^ei rcoieiv 6(pe(A,ojiev)
that the master has commanded to celebrate (oaa 6 SeaTtoxrn; ejiixeXeiv
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148 C HA PT E R FOU R
fi
E u s eb i u s H.E. V,6; I V , 2 2 , 1-3; I ren a eu s Adv. Haer. 111,3, 3.
2,4) made it quite clear to Cotta that consuls had been deposed
from their office, their Xeixoupym, for not performing the auspicia
correcdy. Natural and political disorders and their axaciq formed a
conceptual continuum with cultic disorder and the shuddering horror
of sacrilege. And we have ar gu ed tha t the political trans for mat ion
from republic to empire involved the Imperial Cult as the sacra
mental expression of this nexus of ideas.
It is in such a culdc context that we shou ld now interpret Clemen t' s
famous account of the apostolic appo in tment of £7c{aK07ioi and Sidicovoi.
4B 1.2. The apostolic succession as the foundation of the cult
Indeed, although Clement seems not to know Luke-Acts, such an inter
pretation will not seem strange in view of the clearly cultic founda
tions that we claimed for the latter in the author's construction of
Christia nity as reforme d Ju da is m. T h e twelve tribal aposdes, as reg
ulators of the cult (doctrine, break ing of br ea d, prayers), mi rr or ed
the Twelve Arval Brethren and their role in the Imperial Cult (3D).
Yet both Clement and the author of Luke-Acts are reflecting the gen
eral social constr uct ion of imperi al reality of which they are p ro
ducing thei r distinctive reversed, con tra-c ul tur al reflections.
Clement gives us no succession list such as Hegesippus was later
to compose and Irenaeus to follow.6
His emphasis once again is on
order reflected in O.T typology. The apostles came from Christ, and
Christ from God so that each were euxdicxcoc; EK QeXr\iiaxoq Geoft. T h e
£ 7i{aK07coi and 8KXKOVOI were appointed by the aposdes as their first
fruits (drcocpxdq) after they had examined th em through th e Spiri t
(8oKi|idaavT£<; xa> T w e u u x m ) . T hus Is. 60,17, on a loose reading, was
fulfilled (42, 4 -5 ) . Cl em en t later con tin ues this them e:
Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be
strife over the name of the bishop's office (ejci xov 6vo\iaxoq xfi<; eTnaKOTcfj ).
For this reason, having obtained perfect foreknowledge, they ordained(Kaieornaav) the previously mentioned, and meanwhile made them per
manent in order that, if they should fall asleep, other duly examined
men (exspoi 5e5oKi|iao|ievoi dvSpeq) should succeed to their liturgy
(8ia8e£covxai... xf|v A,eixoi)pyiav avx&v). Those therefore ordained by
them (xovq ovv mxaaxaGevxac; im' EKEWC OV) or afterwards by other ap
proved men (r\ \iexa£,v (xp d exepcov eXXoy(|io)v dvSpcbv), with the consent
of the whole Church, and who have performed their liturgy blame-
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CLEMENT OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 151
In consequence Bammel will claim for Clement the apologetic sta
tus that others have claimed for Luke-Acts, and which we have argued
to the contrary requires some modification. Let us now examine the
critical passage for such an apologeti c int erp ret ati on.
4B 1.2.2. Clement Cor . 60,4-61,3: the prayer for imperial pax
The strife within the Christian community at Corinth regarding the
deposition of the blameless presbyter-bishops was not, in the light of
such a policy of certif ication of ne w cults, of pu re ly int er na l con
cern. The situation would have unwelcome external repercussions if
it be ca me too public and exposed the co mm un it y to pro sec utio n asa kind of Bacchanal ian cult. Th is passage has therefore b ee n seen
as rea ssu ring the autho rit ies of Chr is ti an loyalty to the emp ir e by
sugg est ing the par all el of priv ileged Je wi sh st atus to th at of the
Chr ist ian cult. Chri stia ns, like Je ws , could, so the enc od ed messa ge
runs, show their loyalty by praying for the emperor without partic
ipating in the Imperial Cult.
But, unlike later apologies or even Luke-Acts, the re is he re not eventhe initial, prima facie, ap pe ar an ce of an address to the pa ga n, R o m a n
authorities. The epistle addresses the Christian community at Corinth
itself (xrj eKicA,r|oia x o u Oeou xr\ T c a p o i K o u o n KopivGov). Fur the rmore an
even partial address to such an audience seems in this instance
counter-productive to the making of an apologetic case since it draws
to the att en tion of the author iti es beh av io ur that wo ul d falsify claims
tha t the cult is inn ocu ous . Co ns eq ue nd y the following passage , wh ich
prays for the emperor, sounds to modern ears quite inconsistent with
an address for calm within the Christian community itself:
Grant (86q) concord and peace to us (o^iovoiav Kai eiprjvrjv f||iiv) and
to all who dwell upon the earth (Kai 7tdaiv xoiq KaxoiKovaiv xf|v yfjv). . . .
becoming submissive (imriKooix; yivouevoix;) to your omnipotent and gra
cious name (xcp rcavxoKpdxopi Kai rcavapexco ovojiaxi GOV) , as well as to
our rulers and leaders (xoiq xe dp%o\>aiv Kai f|yo\)nivoi<; fjpxbv) upon earth(en\xr\qyr\q). You, O Lord, (GV, Searcoxa) have given to them the author
ity of the empire (e'8coKa<; xf|v e^coaCav xf)<; PaaiXeia^ avxoiq) through
your glorious and unfathomable might (8id xov |Lieyata)7tpe7coi)<; Kai
dveK8iriyr|xo\) Kpdxouq), to the end that (eiq xo) we, knowing (yivcocKovxaq
fniaq) the glory and honour given to them by you (xf|v vnb G O V avxoiq
8e8o |xevr|v 8 6 £ av Kai xi|if|v), may be subject to them (urcoxdoaeaBai
avxoiq), making no opposition to your will (|ir|8ev evavxtou^ievoix; xcp
9eX ,r|jiaxi G O V ) ; grant to them O Lord (oi<; boq) health (i)y(eiav), peace
(eipr|vr|v), concord (ojiovotav), and stability (ei)axd6eiav), to the end that
they may administer (eiq xo Sierceiv ai)xo\x;) the government given them
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152 CHAPTER FOUR
by you (xf|v vnb G O V 8e8ouevr|v avxoiq f|y£|nov[av) untiringly (drcpooKOTtax;).
For you (G V yap), O heavenly Master (Searcoxa eTroupdvie), king of the
ages (Paaitav xcov aicbvcov), grant to the sons of men (8{8co<; xolq violq
xcov dvGpamcov) glory (86^av) and honour (mi xiufjv) and authority (mlzZpvGiav) over the things that exist on earth (xcov eVi xr\q yfjq imapxovxtov);
direct thou O Lord ( G V , Kupie, bievQvvov) their counsel (xf|v poaAf|V auxcov)
according to what is good and pleasing in your sight (mxd xo K O L X O V
K al eudpeoxov evamiov G O V ) , that administering (OTCCOC; 8i£7iovxe<;) in peace
and civility piously (ev eipt|vr| K a l Tipavxrixi evaepcbc;) the authority given
them by you (xf)v vnb G O V avxoic, SeSoueviw e£o\)cuav), they may obtain
your mercy (Y^ecb G O V x^yxdvcoow).
Corinthians 60,4-61,2
The apologetic thesis would require us to interpret these words as
a su dde n cha ng e of tack in or de r to ap peal to a qui te different audi
ence. But it is important to observe the absolute coherence of the
passage with Clement's theme so far, that leaves us without warrant
for interpreting his words as such a change. This prayer for the
R o m a n E mp ir e is only pa rt of a longe r pr ay er with whi ch, from
59,3 onwards, the author seeks to conclude and summarise his hope
for an end to the axdoic; within the C hu r ch at Corinth . Th at prayer
begins with an exhortation to the worshipper who, amongst other
things, is called to hope on (eAju^eiv eni) Go d ". . . who scrutinised
human works (... xov 8K67cxr|v dv0pco7uvcov epycov)." In IGRR 4,309 we
have the description: "Emperor Caesar ([A \>xoKpdx ]op[a Kjouaapa),
the son of God ( [0 ] e ou uiov 0e6v), Sebastos (IePaax6[v]), who scruti
nises land and sea ([rcdariq] yrj[q K ] C C ! 0[oc]A,door|(; [ £ ]7c[o7c]x[r |v]) ." 1 3
T h e civil and imperial dimension is bu t par t of the cosmic dimension.
T h e G od wh o is invoked has made manifest, n ot the oxdciq but the
ovoxaoiq th rou gh the cr ea tion th at h e ha s energi sed (8id xcov evep-
yorjuxvcov).14
Thus the Christian theologian addresses God in terms
o f the same Stoic theology that he had earlier employed in chap
ters 20 and 32. Clement may hesitate as ye t to call Christ A,6yo<; and
to identify him with the Xoyoq ev8id0exoc; and the Xoyoq rcpocpopiKo*;.
But the idea of mani fes ting the structure of crea tio n (ouaxocoiv . . .
e c p a v e p o 7 io i r ] a a ( ; ) is clearly an alternative expression for the same set
of concepts. For the Stoics it was the breath of God, the fiery Xoyoq
permeat ing all things th at was the gr ou nd for fatalistic de te rmin ism.
1 5
A. D e i s s m a n n , Light from the Ancient East, t r a n s . L.R.M. S t r a c h a n , ( L o n d o n :
Hoddcr and Stoughton 1 9 2 7 ) , pp. 342 ff.1 4
Clement Cor. 60,1: GV xf|v devaov xov K o a u o i ) crucrcaaiv 5ia xcov evepyouuevcov
e(pavepo7co{naa<;.
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C L E M E N T OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 153
Clement, true to such a background, has spoken of God's "breath
(rcvori) in us . . . and when he wills he w it hd ra ws i t ."1 5
Metaphysics in antiquity never serviced a disinterested pursuit of
knowledge of the natural world for its own sake, as it has perhaps
for us since the seventeenth century, though the sociology of knowl
edge has qualified even that assumption. Rather metaphysics serv
iced ethics, and with Stoicism, as we have seen, political philosophy.
W e hav e alrea dy seen ho w Stoicism gave ration al justification to
augury, and thus legitmised the republican political conventions that
re qu ir ed such a religious pra cti ce (2A 2). W e hav e also ar gu ed that
Augustus' reorganisation of the religious cultus served the political
end of imperial unity but also the felt religious need for the pax deo
rum (2A 3). T h e republ ican cult of abs tra ct virtues came to express
representations of a socially constructed, collective personality of the
emperor at the centre of the Imperial Cult.
We see in Clement's prayer, along with its Stoic metaphysics in
which the natural order is reflected in social order, the very deified
abstract qualities that the emperor's cultic acts were to secure as
guarantee of the pax deorum. In 6 1 , 1 we rea d of heal th (uyieia),
peace (eipr|vr|), concord (oudvoia), stability (euoxdGeia), which were
the virtues of the Augustan saeculum aureum and the product of his
augurium salutis (2A 5 and 2B 3). These are to be given "t o ou r rule rs
and leader s (xoiq xe ap^ouoiv Kai T]youuivoi<; fmcov)" as well as "to all
who dwel l upon the e arth (Kai m o w xoi<; KaxoiKouaiv xfjv yfjv)." (60,4)
It would be wrong, however, to interpret such lines as an apol
ogy for the Corinthian community to Roman magistrates dressed up
in terms that they would find palatable.
4B 2. Clement's concept of Order: legitimation not apologetic
Clement has admitted the charge of cxaciq within the Corinthian
community that would immediately destroy any such apologetic case.Rat he r his wor ds repre sen t the use of a ref ormul ated imperialist ide
ology tha t ord ers social relations withi n the co mm un it y. T h e R o m a n
magistrate would find little assurance that such virtues as oudvoia or
eiprjvn we re besto wed u po n Ro me ' s rulers by a Go d wh o m they
Ibid. 21,9: ep£\)vr|xf|<; yap ea xi v evvoicbv m i ev6\)(ir)aecpv • oi) f| 7tvof| ai)xo\ ) ev f|(i ive a x i v , K a i oxav 0eA,ri, aveA,ei a\)i r|v. Cf. 21 ,2 : A.eyei yap no\) [Prov. 20 ,2 7] • 7ive\)|ia
K\)p(o\) Xx>xvo$ epeuvtov xa xajiieia xr\q yaGXpoq.
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1 5 4 C H A P T E R F O U R
f o u n d a l i e n , r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e d e a d a n d d e i f i e d A u g u s t u s , a n d h i s
d e a d a n d d e i f i e d s u c c e s s o r s . H e w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e i m p r e s s e d
t h a t t h e p r a y e r s a n d a c t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t t h a t w a s t o s e c u r e
t h e s e q u a l i t i e s a n d th i s a u t h o r i t y fo r t h e e m p i r e w e r e t h r o u g h a
Pontifex Maximus o r d p xi ep e uq w h o w a s o t h e r t h a n t h e e m p e r o r . 1 6
W e s a w i n Luke-Acts t h a t e a r l y C h r i s t i a n a p o c a l y p t i c h a d u n d e r
g o n e r a d i c a l r e f o r m u l a t i o n i n t h e l i gh t o f t h e A u g u s t a n i m p e r i a l i s t
i d e o l o g y . S u c h a r e f o r m u l a t i o n w a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s l e g i t im a t i o n
r a t h e r t h a n a p o l o g y . C l e m e n t ' s g r o u p a t R o m e , lik e T h e o p h i l u s ' in
A s i a M i n o r , b e l i e v e d i n t h e n e e d f o r s u p e r n a t u r a l a c t i v i t y t o a s s u a g e
a d i s t u r b e d n a t u r e r e f l e c t e d i n a d i s t u r b e d s o c i e t y . T h a t belief, as
w e h a v e s h o w n , w a s r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a c e n t u r y o f
l a t e - R e p u b l i c a n c iv il w a r s a s c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f
s u c h w r i t e r s a s L i v y, T a c i t u s , a n d L u c a n . T h e t h o u g h t o f t h e s h a t
t e r i n g o f t h e pax deorum e l ic i ted fears o f K W S D V O C ; a n d dGeuixoq opyn
th a t w er e t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f o ud vo io c a n d e ip f| v r| (1 4 ,2 ; 5 3 , 2 ; 5 9 ,1 ) .
K(vS\)vo<; in 4 1 , 3 - 4 i s t r e a t e d in th e co n te x t o f v io la t i on o f r i tu a l .
V i o l a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e d e c r e e s r e g a r d i n g h o w t h e H i g h P r i e s t is t o
e x a m i n e t h e sa c ri fi c e i n t h e d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d p l a c e is d e s e r v i n g o f
d e a th (oi ouv rcapd T O KaGfJKov Tfj<; pouAiiaecoq O C U T O U rcoiouvTeq T I 6 d v a -
T O V Ttpoax iuov exa uai v ) . I t is n o t the re fo re p r i m a r i ly th e fear o f th e
d a n g e r o f i n t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e se c u l a r a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t is h e r e i n p o i n t
r a t h e r t h a n t h e h o l y f e a r o f otaoiq as a s ac r i l eg e i n t e rm s o f t h e
m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r o f n a t u r e r e f l e c te d i n c iv il s o c i e t y . C l e m e n t , l ik e
t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts, w a s n o t s a t i s f y i n g t h e p e r c e i v e d n e e d s o f t h e
e x t e r n a l , p a g a n a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t t h e p e r c e i v e d n e e d s o f h i m s e l f a n d
h is g r o u p i n a G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d b y
a C h r i s t i a n p e r s p e c t i v e .
B a m m e l w a s t h e r e f o r e w r o n g t o c l a i m t h a t C l e m e n t ' s m o t i v e w a s
p r i m a r i l y a p o l o g e t i c , a n d t h a t t o m a k e a l e g a l c l a i m f o r r e c o g n i t i o n
w a s n o t to m a k e a t h e o l o g i c a l c l a i m . C l e m e n t ' s c l a i m w a s n o t t h a t
o f H e g e s i p p u s o r I r e n a e u s i n t h e i r a r t i c u l a t i o n s o f t h e l a t e r e p i s c o
p a l su cce s s io n li st s. B u t i t w as t h eo lo g ica l i n t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f
R o m a n l a w w a s a t h e o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t n o t t o t a k e p a r t i n c u l
t i c ac t i v i t y t h a t wo u ld u p se t t h e pax deorum a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e o r d e r
o f b o t h n a t u r e a n d c iv il s o c i e ty . C l e m e n t a n d h i s g r o u p , j u s t a s i n
t h e c a s e o f T h e o p h i l u s t o w h o m L u k e w r o t e , w a s a n a r t i c u l a t o r o f
H)
Ibid. 61 ,3 : . . . a o i e^o( ioA,OYo{ )(ie6a 8 i a xo\) dpxiepecoq K O U rcpoaxdxcru xcov i|/\>xa>v
T I U C O V ' Ir |aot> X p ia xo v . . .
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CLEMENT OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 155
a legal argument with the metaphysical basis for which his hearers
had every sympathy. Both Clement and Theophilus shared the cul
tural and philosophi c ba ck gr ou nd of imperial society an d wer e b ot h
as anxious as each other about the metaphysical catastrophe that
had been the civil wars of the republic, and which the Imperial Cult
was believed to have averted. They disagreed with the assumptions
of their cultural background only in so far as in Christianity they
believed they had found the true means of averting the ira dei.
Christian doctrine and Church Order as they had received it were
in consequence transformed in the matrix of their imperialist phil
osophical and cultural, religious heritage. But with the encultural-
ization of the gospel, it is ever an d inesca pab ly so. C le me nt and
Theophilus were not insulated from the social construction of impe
rial reality by which their consciousness had been formed and devel
oped. In consequence, they are not to be accused of the apologetic
ma nip ul at io n of an imperialist ideology ab ou t whos e founda tions
they had no real convictions.
It is fascinating to observe parallels with Luke-Acts in Clement
Corinthians, which we will now examine, where there are no direct
quotations and no direct borrowing.
4B 2.1. Parallels between Luke-Acts and Clement Corinthians
Both see the apostles as the foundations of the Christian cult, though
both account for this cultic significance differently. Luke-Acts, we have
argued (3D), sees the Twelve by analogy with the Arval college in
its Au gus tan transf orma tio n, wh er ea s Cl em en t regar ds it as a ma t
ter of the requirements of an orderly succession as in the case of
official acceptance of a Dionysiac cult. Both will reconstruct the impe
rialist ideology in a contra-cultural fashion with a transparent rever
sion of values.
Clement quotes (in 59,3) 1 Sam. 2,7 and Is. 10,33 where God is
addressed as xov rcoiouvxa xarceivoix; Eiq vyoq Kai xoix; \)\|/r|Aoi)<; xarcei-
vouvxa, xov rctanm^ovxa Kai rcxcoxi^ovxa, just as in the Magnificat (Lk.
1,52~53) we read: . . . u\j/coaev xarceivotx;. .. Kai rctaruxouvxaq e^arceaxeitav
Kevotx;. Furthermore in Lk. 4,18 the eviauxov Kupiou 8eKx6v, which
we argued to be the contra-cultural counterpart to the inauguration
of Augustus' saeculum aureum, commenced with, the glad tidings for
the poor (euayveAioaaOai nxcoxoiq) by contrast with the imperial birth
day-banquets of the city states of Asia Minor.
Luke-Acts had reconstructed traditional apocalyptic with the ideology
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156 CHAPTER FOUR
of the Augustan saeculum aureum so that themes of cataclysmic apoc
alyptic ju dg eme nt we re absent an d replac ed by a reign of pe ac e an d
fulfilment longed for hopes (3A 1-3). C lement in his pr ay er (60,3)
asks:
that we may be supported (eiq T O GK£7iao"0fivai rjuaq) by the strength of
your mighty hand (ip xeip( G O V zf\ KpcxTaia) and delivered (Kal pi)a0f|vai)
from all sin (anb K 6 L G T [ < ; duapTiaq) by your high-stretched arm (TCO ppa/iovi
G O V T C O i)V|/r|A,cp): and that you deliver us (Kal pvaai r|ua<;) from those who
hate us unjustly (anb TCOV UIGOVVTCOV f|ud<; dSiKcoq).
Like the KpaToq ev
Ppaxioviamov Lk. 1,51, or the acoTripia . . . E K
XEipoq TcdvTcov TCOV jiiao\)VTCov fijiaq of Lk. 1,71, these expressions occur
in the cont ext of wh at has pr od uc ed the Au gus tan saeculum aureum
of ocoTTipia, oudvoia and eipf|vr| (61,1). Clement in 61,2 then prays
for direction of the counsel of the imperial rulers (ox>, Kt>pie, 8iei>0\)vov
TTJV p o u ^ v auTCOv) just as in the Lucan contra-cultural saeculum aureum
Zachariah's prayer was TOt> KOCTe\)0wai xovq nodaq f|p.cov eiq 686v eipr|vr|<;
{Lk. 1,79).
1 7
As in Luke-Acts tradi tiona l apocaly ptic is overlaid by the peac e an d
security of a golden age long promised, so too in Clement the escha-
ton does not break into the present in any disruptive way that would
destroy the pax dei or deorum. This point can be well established in
his general eschatological references, and to the resurrection of the
body (23-27), as we shall now see.
4B 2.2. Apocalyptic cataclysm replaced by imperial peace
Clement exhorts the community to order (21-22), and places this
desire for order in an eschatological context. The Lord will come
suddenly to his temple as expected, and not delay, in accordance
with Is. 13,22 and Mai. 3,1 (23,5). But Clement has a sense of the
delay of the parousia, and so, like ps eu do ny mo us 2 Pet. 3,4, quoted
from possibly Eldad and Modad, also feels the force of the criticismof those who claim: "these things we have heard (TOCUTCX f jKOuaauev)
even from our fathers' time (Kal EKI TCOV rcocTepcov fijicov) and behold,
we have kept watch (Kal i8o\) yeyr | pdKa ( iev), and no ne of these things
has happened to us (KOCI ouSev fijiiv TO\>TCOV o \ ) v p e p r | K £ v ) . "1 8
Clement 's
reply firstly is to appeal to the well-used apocalyptic image of a plant
1 7 Cf. a l s o Ps. 40,3 q u o t e d in 60,2: mxevjGov xd 8iapf| | iaxa f|(icov ev 6ai6xr|xi Kal5iKaioa\)vf\.
, B
Cf. 2 Pet. 2,4: nox> eoxiv r\ inayyeXia xfjq napovGiaq avxov; d(p' r\c, oi rcaxepeq
£ K o i f i r | 9 r | G a v , rcdvxa omcoq Siaiievei arc' dp%fi<; xf)<; K x i a e t o q .
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C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T I A N ' S E M P I R E 157
Cor. 2 3 , 4 - 5 c f . Mk. 1 3 , 2 8 3 1 ; Mat. 2 4 , 3 2 3 5 ; Lk. 2 1 , 2 9 - 3 3 .
b e a r i n g f r u i t q u i c k l y b u t i n d u e s e a s o n .1 9
B u t h e n o w e x t e n d s t h e
i m a g e so a s t o e x c l u d e a n y n o t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c c a t a c l y s m o r d i s
o r d e r fr o m h is a c c o u n t o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y .
B eg in n in g wi th t h e a s so c i a ti o n o f Ch r i s t ' s r e su r rec t i o n a s t h e Pa u l in e
d rcap x r i w i th t h e t r ee g ro win g to f ru i t i o n , h e can n o w m ak e th e r e s
u r re c t i o n o f t h e b o d y a lm o s t in to an ev e n t o f o rd e r ly n a t u r a l ful fi lm en t.
A s h e n o w c o n t i n u e s :
Let us observe, brothers, (i'Scouev, dyaTcriToi) that the resurrect ion takes
place in due season (xr|v m i d Koupov yivouevriv dv dc ia ai v) . Da y an d
night reveal the resurrection to us. The night goes to sleep, the day
arises . The day departs , n ight comes on.
Corinthians 2 4 , 2
T h e r e t h e n f o l l o w s t h e f a m o u s c h a p t e r o n t h e P h o e n i x ( 2 5 ) . T h e
E g y p t i a n p r i e s ts c a n m e a s u r e a c c u r a t e l y its f i v e - h u n d r e d y e a r l ife
c y c l e . T h e s e n a t u r a l e v e n t s r e v e a l t h e a b i li t y o f t h e c r e a t o r t o b r i n g
a b o u t g r a d u a l l y a n d o r d e r l y , a s p a r t o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s ,
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y . T h u s C l e m e n t ' s u s e o f Eldad and Modadd o e s n o t l e a d h i m , a s i t d o e s t h e a u t h o r o f 2 Pet. 3 , 1 0 , t o c l a i m t h a t
t h e u n i v e r s e w i ll b e d i ss o l v e d i n a s u d d e n c a t a c l y s m . F o r h i m t h e
r e s u r r e c t i o n o n t h e L a s t D a y r e m a i n s p a r t o f a u n i v e r s e o f S t o i c
o u d v o i a , a n d it s d o c t r i n a l r e f le c t io n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y w il l l e a d n o t t o
c a t a c l y s m i c s tr if e b u t t o t h e e ip r |v r| o f t h e C h r i s t i a n , c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l
pax dei a s o p p o s e d t o t h e i m p e r i a l pax deorum.
C l e m e n t t h e r e f o r e h a s h i s o w n d i s ti n c ti v e v a r i a t i o n o n t h e L u k a nt h e m e o f t h e s u p e r s e s s i o n of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m b y a r e f a s h i o n e d a n d
C h r i s t i a n i z e d i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y . I t w i l l b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o a s k t h e
p r e c is e c h a r a c t e r of t h e g r o u p o p p o s e d b y C l e m e n t w h o s e e m t o
h a v e a f f ir m e d s u c h a n a p o c a l y p t i c i s m .
4 B 3 . The character of the group responsible for the cidoiq
T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s a t a n t a l i s i n g o n e o f w h a t p a r t i c u l a r s et o f d o c
t ri n e s m i g h t h a v e r e i n f o rc e d t h o s e i n t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y w h o
h a d a p p a r e n t l y u r g e d t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e " b l a m e l e s s " p r e s b y t e r -
b i s h o p s . W o u l d t h e r e b e a n y j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n s e e i n g t h e m a s t h e k i n d
o f g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e Didache in which any wi th the g i f t o f a
p r o p h e t c o u l d p r e s i d e a n d t e a c h , a l t h o u g h b y t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g o f
t h a t d o c u m e n t th e a b u s e s o f s u c h a C h u r c h O r d e r w e r e b e c o m i n g
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1 6 0 C H A P T E R F O U R
t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e s e l a t e f i r s t c e n t u r y e v e n t s a t C o r i n t h , t h e s e c
u l a r i s t i n v a s io n in th i s ca se wa s t h a t o f a r e l i g io u s saeculum. C l e m e n t
h a s r e f a s h i o n e d t h e S t o i c , m e t a p h y s i c a l j u s t if i c a t io n o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r
in t e rm s o f t h e pax deorum i n t o t h e pax Christi. T h e C h r i s t i a n c o m
m u n i t y is t o b e a m i r r o r i m a g e o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r , a lb e i t w i t h m a n y
i m a g e s r e v e r s e d o r t r a n s f o r m e d , a s is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a p r o c e s s o f
c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c r e a t i o n .
'AGeuixoc; opyn a n d £r|A,o<; a r e o p p o s e d to t h e im p e ri a l id ea ls of
eip riv r] a n d o u d v o i a ( 6 3 , 2 - 3 ) , s e c u r e d s a c r a m e n t a l l y b y A u g u s t u s ' c u l
t ic augurium salutis t h a t u s h e r e d i n V e r g i l ' s saeculum aureum (2A 5) .
T h o s e c o n c e p t s , n o w t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e pax Christi, p r o v i d e u s w i t h
t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l l e g i t i m a t i o n o f a g r o u p e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e w i d e r
c o m m u n i t y b u t w h i c h n o w c r e a t e s its o w n v a l u e s a n d s t a t u s - h i e r a r
c h y b y a n a l o g y w i t h i ts h o s t c u l t u r e . T h o s e w h o i n h a b i t t h e s o ci a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y t h u s c r e a t e d w i ll s e e t h a t t h e y c a n c o n c e i v e
th e i r s t a tu s a s p o s se s s in g a r caiSeia ( " ed u c a t i o n " , " d i s c ip l i n e" ) b y a n a l
o g y w i t h t h a t o f R o m a n c i v il i sa t io n ( 6 2 , 3 a n d 5 6 ) . Z e n o ' s e t h i c a l
i d e a l , d e v e l o p e d b y C l e a n t h e s , h a d b e e n t h a t £fjv m x ' d p ex f|v w a s
t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f xfj ipuoei 6uoA,oyo\)uevco<; £fjv, w h i c h i n t u r n w a s
e q u iv a le n t to Ka x ' opGov Aoyov f^v.2 2
T h a t e t h i c a l i d e a l , r e a l i s e d i n i m p e r i a l o r d e r a n d g i v e n r e l i g i o u s
e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w a s c l e a r ly c o n t r a r y t o t h e a p o c a
l y p ti c v i si o n o f c a t a c l y s m i c j u d g e m e n t d e s c e n d i n g o n t h e s oc i al o r d e r
w i t h its c a t a c l y s m i c c o u n t e r p a r t in t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r . T h e e g a l i ta r
i a n c h a r i s m a t a o f t h e e n d - t i m e w e r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n
r io t a s a s y m p t o m o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t m a r k e d t h e
h i s t o r y o f t h e final c e n t u r y o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e l a t e r R o m a n
R e p u b l i c . S u c h e v e n t s w e r e n o t p o r t e n t s o f salus b u t o f d i s a s t e r , o f
w h a t C l e m e n t ca lls: £f|ta)<;, ipGovoc;, epic;, oxd oic;, 8icoyu6<;, d ic a x a a x a tf ia ,
7i6A,euo<;, a n d a i x u a t a o a i a ( 2 ,6 ) , a n d w h i c h R o m a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y
c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h i n g s b e f o r e A u g u s t u s ' augurium
pacis, b e f o r e , i n t h e w o r d s o f t h e p r o c o n s u l a r d e c r e e s o f A s i a (9 B . C . ) ,
t h e 8uxi> %r|ua o f A u g u s t u s ' b i r t h t h a t " h a d s e t r i g h t t h e s c h e m e o f
th in g s th a t h a d p a ss ed in to ca la m it y (eiq dxu%e<; uexapePrjKOc; a x f | u a
dvco pG coaev)." ( 2 B 4 ) C l e m e n t ' s C h r i s t i a n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i m p e
r ia l is t s o c ia l r e a l i t y o f h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l b a c k g r o u n d c o u l d n e v e r s e e
2 2 J . v o n A r n i m ( E d . ) , Stoicorum veterum fragment, ( L ei pz ig : T e u b n e r 1 9 0 2 - 1 9 0 3 ) , 1,
179 . C f. J . M . R i s t , Stoic Philosophy, ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 2 - 3 .
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C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T IA N ' S E M P I R E 161
d i s o r d e r a n d c h a o s a s a s ig n o f t h e c o m i n g o f C h r i s t ' s k i n g d o m .
T h e S t o i c s o c i a l e t h i c i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i m p e r i a l pax deorum
b e c a m e a n e t h i c o f i m p e r i a l c i ti z e n s h i p . T o " l i v e " i n a m o r a l s e n s e
b e c a m e t o " a c t a s a c i t i z e n (TtotaxeueaOai)." I t is p rec i s e ly t h is c o n ce p t
t h a t C l e m e n t n o w u se s i n a C h r i s t i a n i s e d s e n s e i n o r d e r t o r e j e c t
t h e a p o c a l y p t i c i s m o f h is c h a r i s m a t i c o p p o n e n t s . T h e C o r i n t h i a n s ,
b e f o r e t h e oxdoic;, o r so h e c l a i m s , w e r e " a d o r n e d w i t h a s a c r e d life
(oePccauicp noXmia KeKoaurjuevoi)."23
( 2,8 ) T h i s , h e p o i n t e d l y a s s e r t s
a g a i n s t h i s o p p o n e n t s , w a s b e c a u s e " t h e r e h a d b e e n a full o u t p o u r
ing o f the Holy Sp i r i t upon a l l ( rcA,f|pr|<; rcveuuaxoc; d y i o u EK^UGK; E K I
rcdvxaq eyivexo)." ( 2,2 ) H e a c c u s e s t h e m , i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i r
o x d o i q , o f " n o t c o n d u c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s (ur |8e TioAaxeueoGai) a c c o r d in g
t o w h a t is b e c o m i n g t o C h r i s t ( m x d xo KccOfJKov xcp X piox cp) ." ( 3,4 ) To
KocGfJKov w a s a t e c h n i c a l t e r m i n S t o i c e t h i c s f or " a n a p p r o p r i a t e
a c t i o n . "2 4
T h o s e w h o h a v e p e r s e c u t e d t h e r ig h t e o u s , a s h a v e t h o s e
w h o h a v e d e p o s e d t h e p r e s b y t e r - b i s h o p s , a r e c a ll e d d v o u o i , d v o a i o i
a n d T c c c p d v o u o i ( 4 5 ,3 ) , b e c a u s e t h e i r b e h a v i o u r o f fe n d s t h e n o r m s o f
C h r i s t i a n c i t i z e n s h i p b y a n a l o g y w i t h t h e i d e a l o f i m p e r i a l c iv il a n d
c u l ti c m o r a l u n i t y .
L e t u s n o w i n c o n c l u s i o n s u m m a r i s e t h e s i g n if i c a n c e o f o u r d is
c u s si o n o f C l e m e n t fo r o u r g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f C h u r c h O r d e r f ollo w s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d
its u n d e r l y i n g i d e o l o g y t h r o u g h a d y n a m i c so c i al i n t e r a c t i o n c h a r
a c t e r i s e d i n t e r m s o f s o c io l o g ic a l t h e o r y o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e .
P A R T C . C L E M E N T 'S C O N S T R U C T I O N O F C O N T R A - C U L T U R E
W e h a v e t r a c e d n o t a m e r e l y i n c i d e n t a l b u t a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a l l e l
b e t w e e n C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians, a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y o f T h e o p h i l u s
a d d r e s s e d i n Luke-Acts. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l p e r sp e c t iv e s o f b o t h r e p r e s e n t
a r e f a s h i o n i n g o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y . C l e m e n t h a s r e f a s h i o n e dt h e m e t a p h y s i c s o f s o ci al o r d e r d e r i v e d fr o m t h e c o n c e p t u a l w e b t h a t
e m b r a c e d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s o f o b t a i n i n g
t h e pax deorum. W e sa w h o w e v e r t h a t t h is f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a l l e l , w i t h
i n c i d e n t a l o n e s b e s i d e s , w a s b a s e d u p o n n o d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s u c h
a s w o u l d b e e v i d e n c e d b y d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n s o f o n e b y t h e o t h e r . B u t
'n Cor. 2 , 8 c f . 5 1 , 2 : o i iizxa (p6|5o\) K a i ayartric; 7co^ iTe\)6(iev oi. . .2 4
R i s t ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 9 8 - 9 9 .
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1 62 C H A P T E R F O U R
h o w a r e t h e s e p a r a l l e l s t o b e e x p l a i n e d i f t h e r e is n o d i r e c t r e l a t i o n
s h i p ? T h e tertium quid is t h e i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y f o c u s e d o n t h e
e m p e r o r c u l t a n d t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e s p o n s e b o t h i n T h e o p h i l u s '
c o m m u n i t y a n d t h a t o f C l e m e n t , b o t h o f w h o m t h u s e x e m p li fy a
g e n e r a l s oc io lo g ic al p h e n o m e n o n .
T h e g e n e r a l p h e n o m e n o n o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e in v ol ve s t h e r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i al r e a l i t y b y a n a l i e n a t e d s u b - c u l t u r e t h a t se e k s t o
l e g i t i m a t e it s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e v a l u e s y s t e m o f t h e d o m
i n a n t c u l t u r e . T h e s u b - c u l t u r e r e f a s h i o n s fo r its o w n g r o u p t h e v a l u e
s y s t e m o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e s o a s t o c r e a t e a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e
i n t e r m s o f w h i c h it s m e m b e r s c a n a c h i e v e t h e s t a t u s t h a t t h e v a l u e
s y s te m o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e d e n i e s t h e m . T h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e
r e m a i n s u n i m p r e s s e d , a n d d o e s n o t i ts elf t h e r e f o r e e n t e r in t o t h e
s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l it y t h u s c r e a t e d . T h e c r e a t i o n o f a c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t f u n c t i o n a p o l o g e t i c a l l y so a s t o g a i n r e c o g
n i t i o n a n d s t a t u s f or t h e s u b - c u l t u r e f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e . B u t
t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e is n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e s e r v e d b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e
c o n t r a - c u l t u r e . T h e l a t t e r s e rv e s t h e e n d o f r e - i n t e g r a t i n g d i s c o r d a n t
e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e s o c ia l w h o l e i n a f o r m t h a t , t h o u g h d i s c o r d a n t ,
is n e v e r t h e l e s s i n n o c u o u s i n t h a t i t c a n n o t r a d i c a l l y d a m a g e t h e e x i s t
i n g s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e ; i ts r e l a t i o n w i t h t h a t s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s o n e o f
s y m b i o s i s .
H e n c e , a s w e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1, c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y s u c h a s
j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n t h is s e n s e .
A c t i v it y t h a t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e r e v o l u t i o n a r y is r e n d e r e d m a r g i n
a l l y h a rm fu l t o t h e so c i a l f ab r i c wh en s to l en v eh ic l e s d r iv en a t h ig h
s p e e d b e c o m e c o n s t r u c t e d a s s h o w i n g t h e m o r a l q u a l i ty o f " h e a r t " ,
g i v i n g p r e s t i g e t o t h e p e r s o n w h o s o a c t s b y a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l v a l u e
s y s t e m t h a t h a s t h u s r e v e r s e d t h e s o c ia l n o r m s o f " c a u t i o n " a n d
" s a f e ty , " t h e a v o i d a n c e o f " r e c k l e s s n e s s , " t h e " r e s p e c t " f or o t h e r p e o
p l e ' s p r o p e r t y e tc . S o t o o C l e m e n t ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p a g a n s o c i al
r ea l i t y , a s t h a t o f t h e au th o r o f Luke-Acts, can b e r ead in su ch a so c i a l -
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e acorn,p{oc a n d e ip f|v ri o f C h r i s t c o m e n o t
t h r o u g h a p o c a l y p t i c c a t a c l y s m i n w h i c h n a t u r e is u p r o o t e d a n d o r d e r
w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y a b o l i s h e d . T h e s e o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h
t h e o r d e r a n d h a r m o n y b r e a t h e d b y G o d i n t o n a t u r e b e i n g re a li s ed
in t h e o r d e r of t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f
Tdyuxx in w h i c h o n e m e m b e r su b je c ts t h e m s e l v e s t o a n o t h e r t h r o u g h
a 7tai5e [a that i s a lso a urcoTocyri.
T h u s m e m b e r s o f C l e m e n t ' s g r o u p , a s w e sa w w a s th e c a s e w i th
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C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T I A N 'S E M P I R E 1 6 3
t h a t o f T h e o p h i l u s , m a d e l e g i t im a t e in t h e i r o w n e y es t h e i r p o s i t i o n
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e . T h a t p o s i t i o n f or t h e m t h u s
b e c a m e e n d o w e d w i t h t h e s t a t u s a n d d i g n i t y t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t c u l
t u r e d e n i e d t h e m . T h e y c l a i m e d t o sa tisfy b y m e a n s o f t h e pax Christi
t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l ig i o u s y e a r n i n g s o f t h o s e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e
pax o f A u g u s t u s , a n d t h e c u l ti c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t p e a c e in e m p e r o r
w o r s h i p . I n d o i n g s o t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t th e y h a d d o n e t h e i r d u t y b y
th e i r f e l l o w, p ag an c i t i zen s . Bu t t h e f i n a l p eace wi th t h o se c i t i zen s
t h e m s e l v e s c o u l d o n l y c o m e a b o u t , n o t b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f ad
hominem a p o l o g e t i c , b u t b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f a t r a n s f o r m i n g s y n t he s i s
b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d i m p e r i a l t h e o l o g y i n w h i c h b o t h s id e s f o u n d
t h e i r r e l i g io u s a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s a d e q u a t e l y f ulf ille d. C h u r c h
O r d e r w o u l d n e e d still m o r e t o t r a n s f o r m i m p e r i a l i s t O r d e r , b u t i n
t u r n t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d i ts el f b y t h a t e n c o u n t e r , a s t h e c e n t u r i e s
m o v e d t o w a r d s C o n s t a n t i n e a n d J u l i a n .
I n c o n t r a s t t o e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t w e w i l l a r g u e t h a t t h e Apocalypse
r e v e a ls t o h a v e b e e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , C l e m e n t ' s
p r a y e r f or th e ru l e r s o f t h e e m p i r e a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e G o d a n d F a t h e r o f
C h r i s t a l o n e s u c h e p i t h e t s a s 6 udvoc; Suvaxoc;, SearcoTric;, a n d fiaoikeix;
t o w h o m a lo n e h e a t t r i b u t e s t h e f in al 8 6 ^ a , u ey aXco au v ri , a n d K p d -
xoq ( 6 1 , 2 - 3 ) . I n o u r n e x t c h a p t e r w e s h a ll find t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s i n
t h e Apocalypse se t i n t h e co n t ex t o f a q u i t e d i f f e ren t c o n ce p t io n o f
t h e R o m a n e m p i r e a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y
w i th i t. T o a d i s cu s s io n o f t h e Apocalypse w e s h a ll n o w t u r n .
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C H A P T E R F I V E
T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y
The Lam b's victory in sacrifice and the festal community
W e a r g u e d i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r (4 A ) t h e g e n e r a l h i s to r i c a l r e l i a b il i ty
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n o f D o m i t i a n a s a s e c o n d N e r o in p e r s e c u t i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y . D i o C a s s i u s Hist. 6 7 , 1 4 w a s h a r d l y c o n t r a r y e v i
d e n c e s in ce b y th e p h r a s e i d xcov 'Iou8a{cov f]0T| t h is a u t h o r p r o b a b l y
h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o f i d e n t if y i n g J u d a i s m a s d i s t in c t f r o m C h r i s t i a n
i ty ( 4 A 1). I n d e e d h e w o u l d n o t h a v e r e g i s t e r e d a n y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e
d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n e i t h e r f a it h a t a s u p e r f ic i a l, p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
l ev e l. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c l a im t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s a p e r s e c u t o r d i d
n o t r e s t u p o n t h e C h r i s t i a n i t y o f F l a v iu s C l e m e n s a n d F l a v ia D o m i t i l laa l o n e ( 4 A 2 a n d 4 A 3 ) .
B u t i n o n e r e s p e c t t h e E u s e b i a n t r a d i t i o n h a d b e e n d e c e p t i v e i n
t h a t it p r e s u p p o s e d a g e n e r a l e d i c t o f p e r s e c u t i o n i m p o s s i b l e b e f o r e
A . D . 2 5 1 . O u r h y p o t h e s i s w a s t h a t n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t , w h i ls t n o t i n i ts e lf i ll e ga l , e x p o s e d t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t t o o t h e r
a c c u s a t i o n s o f p r a c t i c i n g a superstitio t h e p u r p o s e o f w h i c h w a s t o
c a u s e s o c i a l d i s o r d e r t h r o u g h c r e a t i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s o r d e r t h a t d i s r u p t e d t h e c o s m i c h a r m o n y o f t h e pax deorum (3C 2 .3 ) . Bu t i f th i s
w e r e t h e c a s e , t h e n i t w o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r c h a n g e s in t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t it se lf t h a t w o u l d c a u s e p e r s e c u t i o n , s i n c e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o u l d
a t t r a c t p a r t i c u l a r n o t i c e .
L e t u s n o w c o n s i d e r t h o s e c h a n g e s , a n d h o w t h e y a r e re f le c t ed i n
t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Apocalypse.
P A R T A . D O M I T I A N 'S C U L T A N D T H E D A T E O F T H E APOCALYPSE
T h e Apocalypse p r e s u p p o s e s t h e r e a l it y o f a p a r t i c u l a r a n d d a n g e r o u s
c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n D o m i t i a n a n d th e C h u r c h . I f n o s u c h n o v e l
a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y v i c i o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h a t r e i g n , t h e n
t h is w o u l d b e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t a D o m i t i a n i c d a t e fo r t h e Apocalypse,
a n d h e n c e i ts a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n s p r e s u p p o s e d in t u r n b y
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T H E APOCALYPSEAND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 165
1 B . W . J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 2 ) , p. 116.
Clement Corinthians and reflected in the immediately succeeding gen
eration of Ignatius of Antioch. Let us begin, therefore, with a considera
tion of the date of the Apocalypse, an d the confi rmat ion of tha t da te
in critical changes tha t occu rr ed in the cer emo nia l an d icono gra phy
of the Imper ial C ult un de r Dom it ia n th at also find reflections the re.
5A 1. The date of the Apocalypse
Rejecting the testimony of Irenaeus (Adversus Haer. V, 30,3; Eusebius
H.E. 111,18), Jones ar gues for a da te in Ne ro 's re ign. Hi s gr ou nd s
are his belief in the greater probability that the description in Apoc.17, 9-11 refers to that reign. The beast with seven heads is clearly
the Roman empire since they correspond to the seven hills on which
the harlot sits. But they are also seven kings (v. 9). "Five have fallen,
on e still is, and the o th er has no t yet c om e . . ." (v. 10). Jon es con
siders that all other solutions simply "avoid the obvious choice" that
Augustus is the first and the refore Ne ro mu st be the fifth.1
But I would suggest that the choice is only "obvious" to someonewho is in a position to know the specific details of the history of the
Princi pate. Th e aut hor of the Apocalypse, which was a semi-literate
work, was har dly such a pe rson . In his situa tion in Asia Mi no r, he
would get his inf orm at ion from non-l ite rar y artefacts like temple s of
the Imperial Cult such as those at Ephesus, Smyrna, or at Pergamon,
an d from pr om in en t and striking statues an d numi sma tic iconogra
ph y of par tic ula r empero rs to be found the re. He took over such a
kaleidoscope of non-l iter ary ima ger y and refashioned his fra gmen
tary images into new patterns. Though those patterns bear the influ
ence of his Ju da eo -C hr is ti an backg rou nd, they also retain the impress
of the ir origina l pa ga n mat ri x. T h e r e are five indi cat ions of a da te
in Domitian's reign in the text of the Apocalypse itself, from which
we can conclude that the Seer's imagery was drawn from the specific
background provided by his reign.
5A 1.1. Domitian's edict on the vineyards
Apoc. 6,6 ("a choinix of wheat for a de na ri us (%oivi^ o r c o u 8 r | v a p ( o u ) ,
and three choinikes of barley for a denarius (Kai xpeiq xoivuceq KpiGcov
8 r | v a p { o u ) , and do not damage the olive and the vine (Kai TO e tax iov
Kai xovo i v o v ufi d8iicr|CTTi<;)") appears quite clearly to refer to Domitian 's
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166 C H A P T E R FIVE
un im pl em en te d edict forbid ding further pl an tin g of vines in Italy,
and the reduction of acerage for vinyards in the provinces, if feasi
ble, by one half.2
It seems to have be en a res ponse to famine ai me d
at encouraging the growing of corn. 3 The instruction TO e'Amov KOCI
TOV oivov \ir\ dSucnGTiq seems therefore to be directed at a situation
where famine prices for wheat were threatening olive and vine-grow
ing. 4 O n the founda tions of this clear indi cati on of a Do mi ti an ic
date for the Apocalypse it is th en possible to po in t to ot he r Do mi ti an ic
allusions found generally in the Apocalypse as well as in the letters to
the seven churches.
5A 1.2. Domitian and Domitia: the divine child: Apoc. 12,1-6
Domiti a's child was bo rn in 7 3 and died in 83 . Do mi ti a was descr ibed
after this event as mother of gods on coins depicting her as Ceres,
De met er , an d Cybele. It is interesting to co mp ar e the ico nogr aph y
surrounding this event with Apoc. 1 2 , l - 6 .5
Here, essentially, there is
a heavenly sign ( K a l or |U£iov u e y a co(p9r| ev TCO o u p a v c p ) . There is "a
woman clothed with the sun (yvvx) rcepipePAriiievn TOV TIAAOV) and the
moon under her feet (Kal f | oeXi\vr\ i m o K a T c o TCOV rco8cov auTf jq) and
upon her head a crown of twelve stars ( K a l ini TT|<; KetpaX-fiq cx\)Tfj<;
O T e c p a v o q d a T e p c o v 8co8eKa)." (12,1) She is pu rs ue d by the seven-headed
dragon, whose tail sweeps away one third of the stars, and who
intends to devour her child, destined to rule the nations (2-4). Then
"she brought forth a male child (Kal eTeKev mov a p a e v ) , destined to
shepherd all the nations with a rod of iron (6q \ieXXei rcoiuaiveiv rcdvTa
T a eGvr| ev pdp8cp a i 8 r | p a ) . And the child was snatched away to God
( m i fip7cda9r| TO Teicvov a\)Tfjq rcpoq TOV Geov) and to his throne ( K a l npbq
TOV GpOVOV OLVTOX).)."
In a coin of A.D . 92 , after he r resto rat ion to favour, Dom it ia is
depicted draped and veiled, and seated on a throne extending her
hand to touch a small boy. He holds in his left hand the sceptre of
2 Suetonius, Dom. 7,2; Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 6,42; Vit. Soph. 1,21. See also
P. Southern, Domitian, Tragic Tyrant, (London and New York: Routledge 1997),
p . 58.3 Suetonius, Dom. 7,2; Statius, Sihae IV, 3 ,11-12.4
C J. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in their Local Setting,
in JSNT.S 11 (1986), p . 4, p p . 158-159 and p . 175.5 E. Stauffer, Christ and the Caesars: Historical Sketches, (Lon don: S.C .M. 195 5),
p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 3 , which however suffered greatly in argumentative force because of thea u t h o r ' s refusal to document with detailed citation the claims that he made. I have
s o u g h t to remedy this lack where I follow Stauffer in the following account.
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 167
w o r l d d o m i n i o n w h i l s t b l e s s i n g t h e w o r l d w i t h h i s r i g h t . T h e i n s c r i p
t io n r e a d s : D I V I C A E S A R [ I S ] M A T R I ( Pl ate 2 1) . T h e o b v e rs e si de
o f t h e c o i n d e p i c t s D o m i t i a d r a p e d w i t h h e r h a i r ti e d u p a t t h e b a c k
a n d r a i s e d i n a d o m e a t t h e f r o n t w i t h e l a b o r a t e c o i l s ( P l a t e 2 0 ) . 6
D o m i t i a ' s c h i l d t h u s s h o w s , w i t h h is s c e p t r e a n d g l o b e , c l o s e c o r r e
s p o n d e n c e w i t h oq uiAAei rcoiuxxiveiv rcdvxa xd eOvr] ev pdp8cp oiSripa.
F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c h il d h a s d i e d a n d b e c o m e o n e w i t h t h e i m p e
r ia l fami ly in de i f ica t ion , jus t l ike the ch i ld o f the Apoc. 1 2 ,5 : Ka i
fip7cda6r| xo xeicvov auxf|q npbq xov 9 e6 v . A fu r th e r ea r l i e r , g o ld co i n o f
A . D . 8 3 b e a r s t h e i n sc ri p ti o n : D I V U S C A E S A R I M P D O M I T I A N I
F [ I L I U S ] . H e r e t h e n a k e d i n f a n t , divus Caesar is d e p i c t e d a s b a b y
J u p i t e r s e a t e d o n a g l o b e w i t h s e v e n s t a r s a r o u n d h i m ( P l a t e 2 3 ) .
T h e ob v er se o f t h e c oin is i ns cr ib ed D O M I T I A A V G V S T A I M P [ E R A -
T O R I S ] D O M I T [ I A N I ] ( P la te 2 2) .7
T h u s i n t h e i m a g e of Apoc. 12 ,1
w e f ind t h e i n f a n t ' s c ir c l e o r c r o w n o f s e v e n s ta r s i n t e r c h a n g e d w i t h
t h o s e o f t h e w o m a n w h o h a s erci xx\q KecpaA^q amx\q axecpavoq daxepcov
8co8eKa.
T h e t h e m e o f t h e s e v e n s t a r s a s a n a t t r i b u t e o f d i v i n it y a p p e a r s
also in th e le t t er to E p he su s (2 ,1 : xd8 e Aiyei 6 Kpaxcov xoix; ercxd dox ep aq
ev xii S e ^ i a a u x o u ) . M a r t i a l ' s p o e m d e s c r i b e s t h e p r i n c e a s m o v i n g
t h r o u g h t h e a i r a n d p l a y i n g w i t h t h e s e v e n s t a r s , w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h e
s e v e n p l a n e t s .8
T h e t h e m e o f a d i v i n is e d e m p e r o r b e i n g s e n t t o t h e
s t a r s is t y p i c a l o f t h e F l a v i a n d y n a s t y , a s w e c a n s e e f r o m M a r t i a l
(Epig. 9 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 a n d 1 4 , 1 24 ) o r J u v e n a l (Sat. X I I I , 4 6 - 4 9 ) .9
R e g a r d i n g t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e w o m a n w i t h t h e s u n a n d t h e
m o o n i n Apoc. 1 2 , 1 , w e h a v e t h e i m a g e o f Aeternitas, s t a n d i n g h o l d
i n g t h e h e a d s o f t h e s u n a n d t h e m o o n i n h e r h a n d s , a s a s p e c i a l
m a r k o f F l a v i a n c o i n a g e , w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n A E T E R N I T A T I
A V G V S T . S .C . ( Pla te 2 5 ) .1 0
S il us A t t i c u s d e s c r i b e s D o m i t i a n w h e n
finally d iv in i s ed g iv in g fo r th ray s n e a r h i s s o n .1 1
A g a i n S t a t i u s (Silvae
6 BMC 2 , p . 4 1 3 n o . 5 0 1 a n d p l a t e 8 2 , 8 .7 BM C 2 , p . 3 1 1 n o . 6 2 a n d p l a t e 6 1 , 6 . C f. 6 3 - 6 5 p l a t e s 6 1 , 7 - 9 .8
A l s o D o m i t i a n ' s r es t o r a t io n o f c o i n s h o w i n g t h e h e a d o f D i v u s A u g u s t u s r a d i
a t e t o t h e le ft w i t h a s ta r a b o v e , a n d th e i n c ri p ti o n : D I W S A V G V S T V S P A T E R
w i t h V i c t o r i a o n t h e r e v e r s e s i d e . BMC 2 , p . 4 1 4 n o . 5 0 4 a n d 5 0 5 p l a t e 8 2 , 8 . S e e
a l s o I I p . 8 n o . 4 7 p i . 1 , 1 5 b u s t o f s o l r a d i a te V e s p a s i a n cf . BMC 1 , p . 10 0 no s
6 1 1 ff . a n d p . 1 4 2 n o . 1 5 5 , p l a t e 2 6 , 3 a n d 5 .9
S c o t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) p . 7 1 .10 BMC 2 , p . 3 6 4 n o . 3 0 3 , p l a t e 7 1 , 6 ; p . 3 7 2 n o . 3 4 6 p l a t e 7 3 , 4 ( P l a te 2 4 ) ; 3 7 4 ,
n o . 3 5 3 , c f. K . S c o t t , The Imperial Cult under the Flavians, ( N e w Y o r k : A r n o 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 9 5 .1 1
S i l v i u s S ta t i u s , Punica 3 , 6 2 9 : " s i d e r e i i u x t a r a d i a b u n t t e m p o r a n a t i . "
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1 6 8 C H A P T E R F I V E
4 , 1 , 3 - 4 ) d e s c r i b e s h i m o n h i s e n t r y t o h i s s e v e n t e e n t h c o n s u l s h i p
( A . D . 91) as : " A n d h e is r is ing (atque oritur) w i t h t h e n e w s u n (cum
sole novo), with the lo f ty s ta rs (cum grandibus astris), h i m s e l f s h i n i n g m o r e
b r i g h d y (clarius ipse nitens) a n d m o r e g r e a d y t h a n t h e m o r n i n g s t a r (e t
maior Eoo)." T h e " m o r n i n g st a r (xov cxaxepcc xov rcpcoivov) in Apoc. 2 , 2 8 ;
2 2 , 1 6 b e c o m e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f C h r i s t o r C h r i s t ' s g ift.
5 A 1.3. The topography of Ephesus
I n Apoc. 2 , 7 t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l a n a l o g u e o f t h e s a c r e d xe|xevoq o f t h e
te m p le o f A r t em is a t E p h es u s is th e 7 tocpd8eico<; xou 0eot> . T h e c ros s
t h a t is th e tr e e o f life (8cooco auxcp (payew £K xou ZfiXov xx\q £cofj<;) c o n
s t i tu t e s t h e c o n t r a - e i k o n o f t h e t r e e - s h r i n e d e p i c t i n g t h e b i r t h o f
A r t e m i s .1 2
F r o m l o n g a n t i q u i t y t h a t x ep xv oq h a d b e e n a p l a c e w h e r e
c r i m i n a l s h a d s o u g h t a n d o b t a i n e d a s y l u m . T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t
D o m i t i a n e x t e n d e d th i s a r e a a n d t h u s c o m p o u n d e d t h e a b u s e t o
w h i c h t w o le t te r s o f A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n n a , a ll e ge d ly c o n t e m p o r a r y
w i t h th i s r e i g n , a t t e s t ( 6 5 a n d 6 6 ) . S u c h e x t e n s i o n s w o u l d h a v e r e a c
t i v a t e d p u b l i c a l a r m a t t h e s c a n d a l o f t h e c r i m i n a l r e f u g e e s in t h e
a r e a a n d g i v e n p e r t i n e n c e t o t h i s r e f e r e n c e , s i n c e A u g u s t u s h a d t r i e d
t o l i m i t t h e a r e a a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e a b u s e .1 3
T h u s t h e c a s e f o r a D o m i
t ia n i c d a t e is s t r e n g t h e n e d . F u r t h e r m o r e w e h a v e a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d
t h e " u n i o n o f n e c o r a t e s " i n A s i a f o r m e d f r o m t h e a s si m i l a t io n o f
E p h e s u s a s vecoKopoq xfjq 'ApxeuiSoq (Acts 1 9 , 3 5 ) w i t h t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t f r o m D o m i t i a n ' s t i m e o n w a r d s ( 2 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 ) .
5A 1.4. Jewish-Christian relations
H e m e r f o u n d t h e s e c o n d firm D o m i t i a n i c r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e a l l u s io n s
t o t h e " s y n a g o g u e o f S a t a n " b o t h in S m y r n a (Apoc. 2 ,9 ) an d in
P h i l a d e l p h i a ( 3,9 ). A r o u n d A . D . 9 0 t h e Beracoth ha minim w e r e i n s e r t e d
i n t o t h e E i g h t e e n B e n e d i c t i o n s . I n c o n s e q u e n c e it w a s n o l o n g e r p o s
s ib l e f or J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s t o u s e t h e i r a n c e s t r y a s a m e a n s o f r e m o v
i n g t h e s o ci a l o p p r o b r i u m f or t h e i r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t . T h u s t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a s l eg a l c o n s e q u e n c e s t h e c h a r g e s
o f superstitio o r contumacia. I g n a t i u s (Philad. 6 ,1 ) im p l i e s t h a t ev en u n c i r -
1 2
H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 4 2 - 4 7 .13
Ibid. p p . 4 8 - 5 0 w h e r e H e m e r q u o t e s S t r a b o X I V , 1 ,2 3 ; T a c t i u s , Annal. 1 1 1 , 6 0 - 6 3 ;S u e to n i u s , Tib. 3 7 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i th e a r l ie r p r o b l e m s . F o r e v i d e n c e fo r th e D o m i t i a n i c
e x t e n s i o n s h e r e l i e s o n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n Syli\ 9 8 9 , BMInscr 5 2 0 .
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 6 9
14 Apoc. 2 , 9 a n d 3 , 9 , cf. H e m e r (1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 4 , 8 - 1 0 , 6 6 - 6 7 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 .
c u m c i s e d G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s t r i e d t h is e s c a p e r o u t e w i t h t h e r e s u l t
t h a t i o u Sa i ' o u d v was h ea rd r cap d a i cp o Pu o x o u .
T h i s j u d a i z e d f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n A s i a M i n o r m a y h a v e b e e n
h i g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m t h a t
f o r m e d t h e l e g i t im a t i o n o f t h e u n c i r c u m c i s e d T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s
c i r c l e (3 B). Bu t su c h g ro u p s i n t h e S ee r ' s ey es w er e c l ea r ly aau v ay co y n
xou l a x a v a . T h e y c l a i m e d t o b e J e w s (EK xcov Xeyovxcov 'Io\)8aiou<; E i v a i
feauxoix;) but they were not so (KOCI OUK E i a i v dAXd\ | /£u8ovxai ) .1 4
M o r e o v e r
t h e b i t t e r n e s s o f t h e l a n g u a g e r ef le c ts p e r s e c u t i o n t h a t J e w s c o u l d
e a si ly a c t i v a t e a g a i n s t t h e i r n o w e x c o m m u n i c a t e d c o - f r a t e r n i ty f or
w h o m t h e r e w a s n o w n o c u l ti c p r o x y . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i ss u e
o f J u d a i s m a n d t h e r e s p o n s i b il i ty t o p a y t h e t e m p l e t a x as a p r o x y
f or p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i ti c a l a t t h e
t i m e o f D o m i t i a n ( 3 C 2 . 3 . 3 .3 ) .
G i v e n th e r e f o r e t h e D o m i t i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e Apocalypse, w e
m u s t n o w as k w h a t s p ec if ic f e a t u r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r
D o m i t i a n c o u l d h a v e i n s p i r e d s u c h s t r o n g p o l e m i c f r o m t h e S e e r a s
Apoc. 1 7 , 1 - 6 w h e r e t h e " W h o r e o f B a b y l o n d r u n k w i t h t h e b l o o d o f
t h e s a i n t s a n d w i t h t h e b l o o d o f t h e m a r t y r s o f J e s u s " i s d e s c r i b e d
i n s u c h a l u r i d h u e . M o r e is c l e a r l y h e r e i m p l i e d t h a n s i m p l y a n
i n c r e a s e i n c u l t ic b u i l d i n g w o r k s s u c h a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e XEUEVO<;
o f D i a n a a t E p h e s u s a ss o c i a t e d w i t h a n i m p e r i a l t e m p l e . T o t h e
q u e s t i o n o f D o m i t i a n ' s r e c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n a n d r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e
c u l t w e n o w t u r n .
5 A 2 . The Imperial Cult under Domitian
T h e c l e a r d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f or a c h a n g e i n t h e c u l ti c p o s i t i o n
o f t h e e m p e r o r a t t h e t i m e o f D o m i t i a n c o n f i r m s t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
G a i u s ' a s s u m p t i o n o f d i v i n e h o n o u r s i n h is l if e ti m e h a d b e e n c o n
d e m n e d a t R o m e , t h o u g h o f c o u r s e t h e r e h a d n e v e r b e e n a n y p r o b
l e m i n t h e E a s t a b o u t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r u l e r w o r s h i p .N e v e r t h e l e s s S u e t o n i u s (Domit. 1 3 , 1 - 2 ) i n f o r m s u s t h a t " w h e n h e d i c
t a t e d a f o r m a l l e t t e r u n d e r t h e n a m e o f h is p r o c u r a t o r s h e b e g a n :
" Y o u r L o r d a n d G o d [dominus et deus) o r d e r s t h i s t o b e d o n e . I n c o n
s e q u e n c e i t b e c a m e t h e c u s t o m t h a t h e s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d i n n o
o t h e r w a y w h e t h e r i n w r i t i n g o r i n s p e e c h . " I n t h e s a m e p a s s a g e h e
r e c o r d s t h a t D o m i t i a n , w h e n t a k i n g b a c k hi s w if e a f te r t h e i r d i v o r c e ,
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1 7 0 C H A P T E R F I V E
b o a s t e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n s u m m o n e d b a c k t o " t h e d i v i n e c o u c h (in
pulvinar)."10
L e t u s f i r s d y c o n s i d e r l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e f o r D o m i t i a n ' s d i v i n e t i d e s ,
a n d t h e n e v i d e n c e f or a c h a n g e i n t h e r i tu a l a n d b y i m p l i c a t i o n
u n d e r l y i n g t h e o l o g y o f t h e c u l t .
5 A 2 . 1 . Domitian's divine titles: d o m i n u s , p r a e s e n s d e u s , t o n a n s
T h o u g h S t a t i u s a p p e a r s n o t t o u s e dominus as a d iv in e t i t l e , M ar t i a l
c l e a r ly d o e s . H e q u o t e s a n e d i c t r e g u l a t i n g s e a t i n g i n t h e t h e a t r e
th a t b eg in s edictum dom ini deique nostri (Epig. 5 ,5 ). R e g a r d i n g t h e e m p e r o r ' s
b r e a s t p l a t e , h e w r i t e s i n a d d r e s s i n g i t t h a t i t i s domini lorica, a n d t h a t
" y o u a r e h a p p y i n y o u r l o t (felix sorte tud) w h o s e d e s t i n y is t o c l o t h e
t h e s a c r e d b r e a s t (sacrum cui tangere pectus) an d to f ee l t h e g lo w o f t h e
h e a r t of o u r G o d (et nostri mente calere dei)" ( 7',2 ,2 a n d 5 - 6 ) M a r t i a l
p a r t i c u l a r l y m e n t i o n s h i m a s t h e deus w h o e r e c t e d t h e s h r i n e o f J u p i t e r
C a p i t o l i n u s ( 1 3 ,7 4 ) , w h o r e ce i v e s l i b a t io n s , a n d w h o g r a n t s t h e p r a y e r s
o f h i s w o r s h i p p e r s ( 6 , 8 7 ) .1 6
I t w o u l d , I b e l i e v e , b e q u i t e w r o n g t o d i s m i s s M a r t i a l ' s w o r d s a s
o f l i td e s ig n i f i c a n c e , a s m e r e f l a tt e r y . S t a t i u s t o o s p e a k s o f D o m i t i a n
i n s u c h t e r m s a s t h e forma dei praesens, o r t h e proximus ilk deus ( S t a t i u s ,
Silvae I , 1 ,62 ; V , 2 ,7 0 ) . N o r is t h e ev id en ce fo r su ch a ti t le i n co u r t
p o e t s a l o n e . D i o C h r y s o s t o m (Or. 4 5 , 1 ) r e c o r d s t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s
cal led icopioq K a i Geoq b y all G r e e k s a n d b a r b a r i a n s b u t t h a t h e h i m
se l f d i d no t " f la t te r in th i s w a y ( K a i T a u r a ou Gameucov)." T h i s im pl ie s
t h a t e v e n a t R o m e a n d n o t o n l y i n t h e E a s t w e r e s o m e p r e p a r e d
t o b e h a v e i n t h i s f a s h i o n .
T h e tide dominus i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h deus w a s a b l a t a n t a b r o g a t i o n
o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e p r i n c i p a t e t h a t n o d o u b t o f f e n d e d t h e s e n a
t o r i a l c la ss w h o h a d o t h e r r e a s o n s a s w e l l f or r e s e n t i n g D o m i t i a n ' s
t e r r o r . P l i n y c e r t a i n l y i n Panegyricus 2 , 2 - 3 c o n t r a s ts T r a j a n ' s r u l e w i t h
t h a t o f D o m i t i a n :
Allow therefore to make their exit and go their way (Quare abeant ac
recedant) those expressions which fear expressed (voces M ae quas metus
exprimebat). We do not have to speak as before, for we do not have to
suffer the things we suffered before. Public addresses regarding the
emperor shal l not be the same (nec eadem de principe palam quae prius
1 5 S c o tt ( 1 9 7 5 ), p p . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 .1 6 S e e a l s o M a r t i a l Epig. 5 ,5 ; 7 , 5 , 1 - 6 ; 3 4 , 8 - 9 ; 8 , 2 , 6 - 7 ; 8 2 , 1 - 5 ; 9 , 2 8 , 7 - 8 ; 6 6 , 3 - 4 .
T h e s e a n d o t h e r p a s s a g e s a re d i s c u s s e d in S c o t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 0 4 - 1 0 9 .
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I TI A N'S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 7 1
praedicemus) since what we used to say before in secret is now also
different (neque enim eadem secreto quae prius loquimur). The change o f the
times is revealed in our speeches (discernatur orationibus nostris diversitas
temporum). . . O n no occasion (nusquam) should we flatter him as a god,nowhere as a d iv ine presence (ut deo, nusquam ut numini blandiamur); fo r
we are speaking not of a tyrant but of a ci t izen, not of a master but
of a father (non enim de tyranno sed de cive, non de domino sed de parente).
H e r e t h e n w e f ind r e l a t e d t h e i d e a s o f w o r s h i p o f a n e m p e r o r d u r
i n g h i s l if e ti m e ( as o p p o s e d t o p o s t h u m o u s l y ) , a n d t h e i d e a o f b e i n g
a dominus a n d tyrannus r a t h e r t h a n princeps or first civis, w i t h D o m i t i a n
b y c o n t r a s t w i t h T r a j a n h a v i n g b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f or b o t h .A s i t h a s b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g o f a c o m m o n p l a c e t h a t t h e r e w a s n o
t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n if i c a n c e t o s u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t w e r e b u t e x p r e s s i o n s
o f fla ttere rs, w e m u s t n o w co n s id e r ev id e n c e t o t h e co n t ra ry .
5 A 2 . 2 . Theological significance of Domitian's changes
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s c o g e n t
e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o d i s m i s s w i t h s c e p t i c i s m t h e c l a i m t h a tD o m i t i a n b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o b e d i v i n e a n d a c c e p t e d d i v i n e h o n o u r s .
A s p a r t o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s t h a t m a d e t h e a u t o c r a c y t h a t
w a s t h e p r i n c i p a t e a c c e p t a b l e w a s t h e re f us a l o f m o n a r c h i c a l t i d e s
s u c h a s dominus o r rex. A u g u s t u s v e i l e d h is a u t o c r a c y b e h i n d q u i t e
e m p t y r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s . B u t i n r e a l i t y h e a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s k n e w
t h e y p o s se s s ed m o n a r c h i c a l p o w e r . L i ke w i se A u g u s t u s w a s c i r c u m
s p e c t i n a c c e p t i n g c u l t f r o m t h e E a s t e r n G r e e k c i ty s t a t e s . B u t a sw e h a v e s een (2 B 2 ), t h e Lares Compitales, a m o n g s t w h o m A u g u s t u s
w a s d e p i c t e d , b e l i e d a n y n o t i o n t h a t h i s r e fu s a l o f p r e s e n t d i v i n i t y
w a s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a s s o c i a t io n o f v a r i o u s c u lt s o f
d i v i n i s e d a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s o r v i r t u e s w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i v e p e r s o n o f
t h e e m p e r o r a ls o w a s i n d i c a t i v e o f a c e r t a i n i n s i n c e r i t y in r e j e c t i n g
divine t i t les (2B 3) .
I n d i c a t i o n s th e r e f o r e t h a t D o m i t i a n o n l y e a r l i e r i n h i s r e i g n r e f u se d
th e t i d e o f dominus, b u t c h a n g e d hi s m i n d l a t e r m u s t b e i n t e r p r e t e d
w i t h c a u t i o n .1 7
I n d e e d , it m a y b e a s k e d w h y if, a s is u n i v e r s a l l y
a d m i t t e d , e m p e r o r s w e r e i n s i n c e r e a b o u t r e f u s i n g p o l i t i c a l t i t l e s t h a t
1 7
S c o t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 p r o p o s e d s u c h a t h e s is i n o r d e r t o ta k e s e ri o u s l y
D o m i t i a n ' s a l l e g e d l y l a t e r c l a i m a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e d b y h is e a r l i e r o n e . B u t S c o t t
a d m i t s t h a t S t a t i u s Silvae I , 6 , 8 3 - 8 4 o n w h i c h h i s t h e s i s r e st s is u n d a t e d a n d c a n
o n l y t h e r e f o r e b e d a t e d e a r l i e r ex hypothesi.
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17 2 C H A P T E R F I V E
i d e n t i f i e d t h e m w i t h a u t o c r a t i c p o w e r , t h e y s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s
p e r f e c d y s i n c e r e i n r e j e c t i n g w o r s h i p u n t i l t h e y w e r e d e a d . T h e r e
w a s a s s t u d i o u s a n a m b i g u i t y a b o u t r e li g i o u s t it le s a s t h e r e w a s
a b o u t p o l i ti c a l o n e s . T h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e p r i n c i p a t e w a s d e s i g n e d t o
m a k e i m p o s s i b l e a n e i t h e r - o r c h a l l e n g e t o its c l a i m s o f e i t h e r t h e f o r m
" a r e y o u d i v i n e o r h u m a n " o r o f " a r e y o u a dominus o r a princeps?" 18
W e h a v e w i t n e s s e d t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e c u l t o f V i r t u e s t o t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t a s f o r m i n g a k i n d o f c o l le c t iv e p e r s o n a l i t y w o r n b y
t h e d e c e a s e d e m p e r o r s a s e m b o d y i n g th e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e R o m a n
e m p i r e . E v e n i n l a t e r e p u b l i c a n t i m e s w h a t w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d i v i n e
q u a l i t ie s o f t h e R o m a n p e o p l e b e c a m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sp ec if ic p e r
s o n s s u c h a s P o m p e y o r S u l l a , a n d w e r e c o n c e i v e d a s o n l y g r a n t e d
t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n o f t h e s e r u l e r s ( 2 B 3 ). S u c h t h e o l o g i c a l d e v e l
o p m e n t s e n a b l e d a s y n t h e t i c s o l u t i o n t o t h e l o g i c a l p r o b l e m o f h o w
A u g u s t u s a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s , a s Pontifex Maximus o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,
co u l d a l so b e t h e o b j ec t o f i ts w o r sh ip (2 A 5 ) .
I t is t h e r e f o r e q u e s t i o n a b l e t o e n d e a v o u r t o d o w n - p l a y t h e r o le o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n C h u r c h - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e
m a i n c h a r g e a g a i n s t t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s w a s t h a t t h e y r e f u s e d t o
w o r s h i p t h e g o d s o f t h e st a t e r a t h e r t h a n t h e e m p e r o r , t h a t t h e
e m p e r o r w a s m e r e l y divus a s o p p o s e d t o deus, a n d t h a t s w e a r i n g b y
t h e g e n i u s o f C a e s a r w a s s o m e h o w t o b e a s o ft er a l t e r n a t i v e a s a
m a r k o f l o y a l ty t o t h e s t a t e a s o p p o s e d to fu ll p a r t i c ip a t io n in it s
p o l y t h e i s m .1 9
S u c h w o u l d i m p l y t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l iv i n g
e m p e r o r a s divus, a n d o f t h e ac t o f i n cen se - s ac r i f i ce t o h i s EIKCOV,
b e l o n g e d t o a s e p a r a t e , p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e f r o m t h a t o f r e l i g i o u s w o r
s h i p o f t h e g o d s . B u t b o t h k i n d s o f d i s c o u r s e e x h i b i t e d a g r o w i n g
c o n f l u e n c e a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
t h e c a s e o f t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e c u l t o f V i r t u e s w i t h t h e e m p e r o r ' s
1 8
T h u s I fin d q u i t e f a c i le J o n e s ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 w h e r e h e d e s c r i b e s t h e c l a i m
t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s s o a d d r e s s e d a s " a l l b u t i n c r e d i b l e . T h e b e s t t h a t a n e m p e r o r
c o u l d e x p e c t a f te r d e a t h w a s t o b e d e c l a r e d a d i v u s a n d n e v e r a d e u s . . . a l i v i n g
o n e h a d to do w i th e v en le s s . . . t er m s used b y f la tterers su ch as M ar t ia l , S tat ius ,
J u v e n t i u s , C e l s u s ( o r P l i n y ) t o s e c u r e a f a v o u r f r o m a n a u t o c r a t h a r d l y c o n s t i t u t e
p r o o f t h a t t h e y w e r e i n s t r u c t e d o r r e q u i r e d t o u s e t h e m . . . D o m i t i a n w a s b o t h
i n t e l l i g e n t a n d c o m m i t t e d t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . H e o b v i o u s l y k n e w t h a t h e
w a s n o t a G o d , a n d w h i l s t h e d i d n o t a s k o r d e m a n d t o b e a d d r e s s e d a s o n e , h e
d i d n o t a c t i v e l y d i s c o u r a g e th e f e w fla tte re rs w h o d i d . "1 9
G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x , W h y w e r e t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n s p e r s e c u t e d ? in Past and
Present, 2 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 ; S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in
Asia Minor, ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 2 2 1 - 2 2 2 .
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 7 3
c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y . W e sh a ll a r g u e t h a t c e r t a i n tr a d i t i o n a l s a c e r
d o t a l f u n c t i o n s a d o p t e d b y D o m i t i a n a s s u m e a n e w s ig n i fi c an c e
a g a i n s t t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e c o n c e p t u a l b a c k c l o t h o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t a t t h e c e n t r e o f w h i c h w a s t h e t i d e dominus et deus.
D o m i t i a n m a d e a s e r i o u s c l a i m f o r h i m s e l f a s a l i v i n g , r e i g n i n g
e m p e r o r t o b e deus a n d n o t s i m p l y divus. Pl in y ' s i n s i s t en ce o f a p a r t i c u
l a r e m p h a s i s b y D o m i t i a n o n h i s s t a t u s a s a deus praesens i s i n d i ca t i v e
o f a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t c e n t r e d o n a l iv i n g r e i g n i n g e m
p e r o r t h a t w a s , a p a r t f r o m G a i u s , a l m o s t u n i q u e t o t h a t r e i g n . C e r
t a i n l y b o t h M a r t i a l a n d S t a t i u s m o v e b e y o n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n
o f t h e e m p e r o r w i t h J u p i t e r t o c l a i m i n g id e n t i ty b e t w e e n t h e t w o .
5 A 2 . 2 . 1 . Jovian ideology and Do mitian's changes in the cult
V i r g i l Aeneid 1,257-296 a n d 6 , 7 9 1 - 8 0 7 h a d d e s c r i b e d A u g u s t u s a s
c h o s e n b y J u p i t e r f or R o m e ' s imperium sine fine a n d t h e saeculum aureum.
H o r a c e ' s d e s c r i p t io n o f A u g u s t u s a s soter delapsus ex caelo n e v e r t h e l e s s
p r e s e r v e s t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e e l e c t e m p e r o r a n d t h e s u p r e m e
g o d h i m s e l f (Odes I , 2 , 2 9 - 3 0 ; 4 1 - 5 2 ) . Ode 3 , 5 d e s c r i b e s A u g u s t u s l i k eD o m i t i a n a s s o o n t o b e a praesens divus o n e a r t h i n t a n d e m w i t h caelo
tonantem . . . Iovem w h o t h e r e f o r e b y c o n t r a s t r e i g n s i n h e a v e n . N e v e r
t h e l e ss t h e r e is e v e n in s u c h a c l o se c o m p a r i s o n n o r e a l e q u i v a l e n c e .
S i m i l a r l y O v i d , i n Metamorphoses 1 5 , 8 5 8 - 8 7 0 , c o n t r a s t s t h e h e a v e n l y
J u p i t e r w i t h t h e terra sub Augusto, w i t h b o t h d e s c r i b e d a s pater et rec
tor. B u t e v e n i n Tristia 5 , 2 , 4 7 - 4 8 , w h e r e A u g u s t u s is e q u a t e d w i t h
J u p i t e r , t h e r e is n e v e r t h e l e s s th e q u a l i f ic a t i o n o f J u p i t e r o n e a r t h .2 0
B u t i n t h e c a s e o f D o m i t i a n t h e r e is c l e a r l y a f a i lu r e t o p r e s e r v e
t h e n i c e t y o f t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h P l i n y (Panegyr. 80) i s to re as se r t
i n t h e c a se o f T r a j a n . M a r t i a l (Epig. 4 , 8 , 1 2 ; 9 , 8 6 , 7 - 8 ) e q u a t e s
D o m i t i a n w i t h J u p i t e r . I n S t a t iu s Silvae. I V , 3 , 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 D o m i t i a n
s t a n d s a s J u p i t e r ' s v i c e g e r e n t o n e a r t h . B u t t h a t D o m i t i a n c h o s e
a p p a r e n t l y t o c e l e b r a t e u n i q u e l y th i s s t a tu s i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y o n c o i n s
t h a t d e p i c t h i m a s J u p i t e r h o l d i n g a t h u n d e r b o l t a n d c r o w n e d b yv i c t o r y s u g g e s ts t h a t M a r t i a l ' s e q u a t i o n s w e n t b e y o n d flattery a n d
r e p r e s e n t e d a c r i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y .2 1
Praeses22
2 0
F e a r s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 9 .21 BMC 2 p . 7 7 n o . 3 8 1 c f. F e a r s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 .2 2
M a r t i a l , Epig. 5 , 3 , 3 (praeses mundi); 7 , 4 (praeses Romae); 6 , 2 , 5 ; 8 , 8 0 , 5 ; 9 , 1 8 , 1
(te praeside); S t a t i u s , Sib). I , 2 , 1 7 5 (praeses Ausonius); I I I, 3 , 1 8 3 1 8 4 (numina magni prae-
sidis); 5 , 2 , 1 7 6 (magnus praeses).
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 17 5
26 CIL 2 , 1 7 2 a n d 1 9 6 3 cf. F . B o m e r , D e r E i d b e i m G e n i u s d e s K a i s e r s , i n Athen4 4 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 2 3 1 2 4 .
I n d e e d , a s B o m e r p o i n t e d o u t , i t is w i t h D o m i t i a n t h a t w e find
i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o a t h b y t h e " g e n i u s o f C a e s a r " t h a t ,
i n its c o n t i n u a n c e u n d e r T r a j a n , b e l ie s P l i n y 's h o p e s t h a t s u c h v e n
e r a t i o n h a s e n d e d . U n d e r A u g u s t u s t h e f o r m u l a fo r a n o a t h f r o m
P a p h la g o n ia w a s to Zet><;, r f j "Kkxoq, 0 eo i T c d v i e q K a i rcaoai K a i auxoq
6 l e P a a x o q . I n C a l i g u l a ' s t i m e w e find f r o m A r i t i u m i n S p a i n a n d
A s s o s i n T r o a s b o t h L a t i n a n d G r e e k v e r s i o n s o f a n o a t h i n t h e
n a m e o f divus Augustus et ceteri omnes di immortales/ 'Zeuq Icoxrip, 6e6<;
K a i o a p l e p a a x o q K a i x\ ftdxpioq ayvri I lapGevoq. B u t w i t h D o m i t i a n w e
find per lovem et divom Augustum et divom Claudium et divom Vespasianum
Augustum et divom Titum A ugustum et G enium imperatoris Dom itiani A ugusti
deosque Penates.2** H e r e w e a p p e a r t o w i t n e s s a t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f a m e r e
c o n t i n g e n t a s s o c i a t i o n o f d i v i n e b e i n g s b y m e a n s o f a c o a l e s c i n g o f
D o m i t i a n ' s p e r s o n a l genius wi th t h e co l l ec t i v e genius o f m e m b e r s o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d t h e numen b o t h o f J u p i t e r a n d t h e dei Penates.
I t is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s t h a t w e h a v e s o m e
i n d i c a t i o n o f r i t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y t h a t t h e s e
i n s c r i p t i o n s i l l u m i n a t e . S u e t o n i u s r e c o u n t s t h e s c e n e a c c o m p a n y i n g
the ins t i tu t ion o f qu inquenn ia l con tes t s fo r th i s cu l t , cons i s t ing o f mus ic ,
h o r s e - r i d i n g , a n d g y m n a s t i c s :
He pres ided at the contes t (certamini praesedit) in half-boots (crepidatus)
clothed in a Grecian toga of purple (amictus toga Graecanica), sport ing
on his head (capite gestans) a golden crow n with an ima ge of Ju pi t er ,
J u n o a n d M i n e r v a (coronam auream cum effigie Iovis ac Iunonis Minervaeque),
assisted b y a priest of Ju p it er (adsidentibus Diali sacerdote) and the col
lege of the Flaviales (e t collegio Flavialium) similarly dressed (pari habitu),
except that his image was also on their crowns (nisi quod illorum coronis
inerat et ipsius imago).
Domitian 4 ,4
W e see i n t h e corona aurea with i t s effigies a c l a i m t o r e p r e s e n t e s p e
c ia lly a n d s a c r a m e n t a l l y J u p i t e r , J u n o , a n d M i n e r v a o n t h e p a r t o f
t h e h i g h p r i e s t o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s . I t m a y b e s a i d t h e r e f o r e
t h a t p r o p i t i a t i o n i s per lovem et Iunonem et Minervam, as wel l as per
genium Domitiani w i t h w h o m a n d t h r o u g h w h o m , a s it w e r e , D o m i t i a n ,
dominus et deus, is p r o p i t i o u s . S u c h a r c h i e r a t i c coronae w e r e c u s t o m a r y
i n t h e E a s t . B u t I s u b m i t t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s
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1 7 6 C H A P T E R F I V E
i m a g e o n t o t h e coronae o f o th e r p r i e s t s im p l i e s a n ew s t ag e o f d ev e l
o p m e n t o f t h e c o ll ec t iv i st i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y . T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g
collegium Flavialium w e r e pari habitu w i t h D o m i t i a n , b u t t h e a d d i t i o n
o f h i s i m a g e t o t h e i r coronae s i n g l e d h i m o u t (nisi qu od illorum coron is
inerat et ipsius imago) a n d a w a r d e d h i m a n e w s t a tu s . S u e t o n i u s w a s
su f f lc i en d y i m p r es se d wi th t h e n o v e l ty o f t h i s ev en t a s t o g iv e i t s p e
c i a l e m p h a s i s .
In o rd e r t o r e in fo rce t h e n o t io n th a t t h e s ac r i f i c i a l ac t s o f o th e r
pontifices a r e b o t h s u b j e c t a n d d e p e n d e n t o n h is o w n , a n d t h a t h e is
t h e e q u a l s o u r c e o f t h e p r o p i t i a t i o n e f f e ct e d b y t h e i r a c t s , t h e y w e a r
o n t h e i r c r o w n s b o t h D o m i t i a n ' s i m a g e a n d t h e i m a g e of t h e s e d e it ie s
a s w e l l w i t h w h o m D o m i t i a n i s t h u s d e c l a r e d t o b e e q u a l . T h u s s u c h
a c o l le c t iv e c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e d ei fi ed C a e s a r s i n t h e p e r s o n o f
t h e Genius o f D o m i t i a n t h a t w e s a w i n t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e o a t h u n d e r
D o m i t i a n is a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e corona aurea.21
I t m u s t
b e e m p h a s i s e d t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h n o i d i o s y n c r a s y o f
D o m i t i a n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c u lt o f J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s a t R o m e
a l o n e . E v e n i n t h e W e s t , a s T e r t u l l i a n b e a r s w i t n e s s (De Idol 18 ,1 ) ,
a l o n g w i t h p a g a n , A f r i c a n a n d D a c i a n i n s c ri p t io n s (CIL 3 , 1 4 3 3 a n d
8 , 1 7 8 9 6 ) , p r o v i n c i a l p r ie s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w o r e t h e corona aurea
b e a r i n g t h e i m a g e o f t h e e m p e r o r . In t h e E a s t it h a d b e e n c o m m o n
in H e l l en i s t i c ru l e r cu l t s , fo r e x am p le , i n t h e ca se o f t h e p r i e s t e s s o f
L a o d i c e a , a s w e l e a r n f r o m a n e d i c t o f A n t i o c h u s I I I ( 2 0 4 B . C . )
w h e r e a g o l d e n c r o w n b e a r i n g t h e l ik e n e ss o f t h e q u e e n w a s w o r n .2 8
W e h a v e f r a g m e n t s o f c r o w n s t h e m s e l v e s , a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o n
c o in s w h i c h r e v e a l a n u m b e r o f d e p i c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s .2 9
T h e r e i s
t h e r e f o r e a r g u a b l y u n d e r D o m i t i a n t o b e d e t e c t e d a t h e o l o g y o f r e p
r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t p o s t u l a t e d t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e genius o f C a e s a r w i t h
t h e numen o f d iv in i ty .
A t a ll e v e n t s i n t h e E a s t , i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f A s i a M i n o r , r u l e r
w o r s h i p p r o g r e s s e d w i t h its o r d i n a r y n o r m a l i t y . A t E p h e s u s D o m i t i a n
e r e c t e d a t e m p l e i n t h e c e n t r e o f a l a r g e p r e c i n c t s e t o n o n e s id e
o f t h e m a i n s q u a r e . O n t h e a d j a c e n t s i d e o f t h a t s q u a r e s t o o d a
2 7
A . A l f b l d i , Die Mona rchische R epresentation im rbmischen Kaiserreiche, ( D a r m s t a d t :
W i s s e n s c h a f l i c h e B u c h g e s e l l s c h a f t 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 7 4 a n d f o o t n o t e 1, w h e r e h e c r i t i ci z e s
M o m m s e n ' s " A u f f a s s u n g v o n d e r B e l a n g l o s i g k e i t d e s K a i s e r k u l t e s i m S t a a t s r e c h t d e r
f r u h e r e n K a i s e r z e i t . "
2 8 D . F i s h w i c k , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n t h e L a t i n W e s t : S t u d i e s i n t h e R u l e r C u l t o f
t h e W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , i n EPRO 1 0 8 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 2 ,1 p p . 4 7 7 - 4 7 8 .2<
> Ibid. p . 4 7 7 a n d P la te L X X X V b a n d L X X X V I a a n d b .
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 177
P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 3 9 f ig . 3 a n d 1 4 0 .
Ibid. p . 1 8 7 .
d o u b l e t e m p l e o f Roma a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r , a n d a t its c e n t r e a t e m
p le o f A u g u s tu s . A lo n g th a t ad j a ce n t s i d e r a n a l so t h e o x o d p aaiA ,n c r|
d e d i c a t e d t o A r t e m i s , A u g u s t u s a n d T i b e r i u s .3 0
T h e e r e c t i o n o f a t e m p l e to D o m i t i a n h e r e re f le c te d t h e r e f o r e b o t h
a r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h r o u g h t h is e m p e r o r w h o is
t h u s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h A u g u s t u s a n d A r t e m i s . D o m i t i a n ' s s t a t u e
is c o n s t r u c t e d i n p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s .3 1
I n d e e d w e c a n r e a d
i n t h e s e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t itself, f ir st w i th t h e a s so c i a t i o n o f t h e ab s t r a c t i o n o f Roma w i t h
J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d t h u s i ts f u r t h e r p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n i n t h e c o l l e c t iv e
p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e e m p e r o r . W e s e e a l so a n i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i
t i o n w o r s h i p o f A r t e m i s w i t h t h e p a t r i o t i c a n d i m p e r i a l e m o t i o n s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
G i v e n t h e r e f o r e c l e a r e x a m p l e s o f c h a n g e s in t h e id e o l o g y o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t a c c o m p l i s h e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n , l et u s e x a m i n e t h e w a y
i n w h i c h t h o s e c h a n g e s a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e Apocalypse.
P A R T B . T H E D O M I T I A N IC B A C K C L O T H T O T H E APOCALYPSE
W e d i s cu s sed ea r l i e r t h e im ag e r y d e r iv e d sp ec if ica ll y f ro m th e Im p e r i a l
C u l t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e D o m i t i a n i c d a t i n g o f t h e Apocalypse, in
p a r t i c u l a r b o t h t h e figure o f D o m i t i a , a n d sp e c if ic f e a t u r e s o f h o w
D o m i t i a n w a s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t (5 A 1). O u r d i s c u s
s io n h e re wi ll b e i n tw o p a r t s . W e wi ll su m m ar i s e (5 B 1) b as i ca l l yt h e p o s i t io n of R a m s a y a n d H e m e r , w h i c h w e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t , o n
th e r e f l ec t i o n s o f t h e Im p e r i a l C u l t sp ec if i cal ly i n t h e l e t t e r s t o t h e
C h u r c h e s (Apoc. 2 , 9 - 3 , 2 2 ) . W e w il l t h e n s h o w ( 5 B 2) t h a t s i m i l a r
t h e m e s c o n t i n u e i n t h e te x t o f t h e Apocalypse o u t s id e t h e l e t t e r s t o
t h e s e v e n c h u r c h e s , f r o m c h a p t e r 4 o n w a r d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s o n g s
o f t h e e l d e r s a n d li v in g c r e a t u r e s . H e r e t h e h e a v e n l y c u l t u s a r o u n d
t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d o f t h e L a m b re fl ec ts i m a g e s o f t h e I m p e r i a lC u l t i n a w a y t h a t c o m p l e m e n t s s i m i l a r i m a g e r y i n t h e l e t t e r s t o t h e
s e v e n c h u r c h e s .
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1 7 8 C H A P TER F I V E
5B 1. Letters to the Seven Church es of A sia
I t is f r o m R a m s a y a n d H e m e r ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e le t t e r s t h a t m y t h e s i s
r e g a r d i n g t h e a p p l i c a b i li t y of t h e s o c io l o g ic a l c o n c e p t o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r et o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f O r d e r i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s finds
its s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t . I n d e e d , it w i ll b e m y a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e i r t h e
sis s h o u l d b e e x t e n d e d t o c o v e r t h e t h e m e s o f t h e Apocalypse i tself
o u t s i d e of t h e l e t t e r s . T h e r e is a s t r o n g p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c
u l a r p a g a n cu l tu s t h a t ex i s t ed i n t h e l o ca l s e t t i n g o f t h e le t t e r s i n
t h e c o n t e x t o f p a r t i c u l a r c it ie s , a n d t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o m i s e s t h a t
a r e m a d e t o t h e b e l i e v e r t h a t r e s i s t s t h a t c u l t u s . H e m e r ' s a c c o u n tw ill t h e r e f o r e b e s h o w n t o s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h o s e c o m m u n i
t ie s w e r e f o r m i n g a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n w h i c h t h e s ta t u s d e n i e d b y
t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f t h e h o s t - c u l t u r e a s s u m e s t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f a h i g h l y
o r g a n i s e d c o m p l e x o f r e v e r s e d i m a g e s .
L e t u s n o w , t h e re fo re l is t t h e f ea tu re s o f t h e l o ca l s e t t i n g o f t h e
l e t te r s , a n d t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l o r d e r a t t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l e v el
o f so c i a l r ea l i t y , t o wh ich th ey g iv e r i s e .
5 B 1 .1 . A p o c . 2,6 7iapd8eioo<; and the tfiXov xfjc; £cofi<;
T h e o v e r c o m e r ( x a > VIKCOVII) is to eat (cpayeiv) of the tree of life (eic
TOU £uta) u xfjq ^cofjq) w h ic h is in th e p a r a d is e of G o d (o eax iv ev T£>
rcapaSeiacp xou 0e ou ).
T h ese ex p res s io n s a re ch a rac t e r i s t i c o f Gen. 2 ,9 an d d e r iv ed l i t e ra tu re .
H o w e v e r i n t h a t p a s s a g e t h e m o r e u s u a l t e r m 8 e v 8 po v is u s e d . £,x>Xovc a n h a v e t h a t s e n s e , t h o u g h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t it is t h e c r o ss
o f C h r i s t t o w h i c h t h e t e r m u s u a l l y re f e r s (Acts 5 , 3 0 ; 1 0 , 3 9 ; 1 3 , 2 9 ;
Gal. 3 , 1 3 ; 1 Pet. 2 ,2 4 ) . M o reo v e r t h i s ex p res s io n fo r t h e c ro s s i s a l so
t o b e f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e Apocalypse a p a r t f ro m th i s l e t t e r : t h e
c ro s s a s t h e t r ee o f lif e is t o b e f o u n d b e a r i n g h e a l in g a n d s alvi fi c
fru i t (22 ,2 ; 14; 19) .
U n d o u b t e d l y b o t h o f t h es e t e r m s h a v e a n O l d T e s t a m e n t a n de a r l y C h r i s t i a n b a c k g r o u n d b u t t h e i r m e a n i n g s a r e t ot al ly u n r e l a t e d
t o e a c h o t h e r . W h y s h o u l d t h e g i b b e t o f t h e c r o s s b e l ik e n e d t o t h e
t r e e in p a r a d i s e ? H e m e r ' s a r g u m e n t is t h a t it is t h e p a r t i c u l a r l o c al
g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a t E p h e s u s t h a t b r i n g s
t h e s e t w o d i s t i n c t i m a g e s i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p .
T h e T e m p l e o f A r t e m i s a n d i ts c u l t u s a t E p h e s u s g r e w o u t o f
wh a t was o r ig in a l ly a t r ee sh r in e , a s can b e e s t ab l i sh ed b y th e l i t e r a r y a l lu s i o n s o f C a l l i m a c h u s a n d P e r i e g e t e s , a n d th e e x c a v a t i o n s
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1 8 0 C H A P T E R F I V E
t h a t it w a s u n d e r D o m i t i a n t h a t t h e s ig n if ic a ti o n o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y
o f t h a t c u l t u s w a s m o r e s h a r p l y d e f i n e d w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f i n t e
g r a t i n g f u r t h e r d i s p a r a t e e l e m e n t s o f t h e p a g a n c u l t u s i n t o a g e n e r a l
w e b a t t h e c e n t r e o f w h i c h w a s th e e m p e r o r a n d h is w o r s h i p . W e
s a w t h a t t h e a r c h i e r a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t s fo r t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s a n d
th e coronae w a s a n i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e of s u c h i n t e g r a t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s
( 5A 2 . 2. 2 ). T h e r e w a s m o r e o v e r a t S m y r n a a t e m p l e o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t t h a t h a d b e e n d e d i c a t e d t o T i b e r i u s , L i v ia a n d t h e S e n a t e , a n d
i n w h i c h a c u l t - s t a t u e d e p i c t s T i b e r i u s i n a t o g a a n d v e i l e d f or
s ac r i f i ce . In h i s h an d h e h o ld s a patera o v e r t h e a l t a r .3 6
W e s h a ll
a r g u e i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h i s s y m b o l i s m a n d t h e
angels wi th the i r ip id tax i (Apoc. 5 , 8 ; 1 5 , 7 ; 1 6 , 1 - 1 7 ; 1 7 , 1 ; a n d 2 1 , 9 ) .
5 B 1 .3 . A p o c . 2,13; 17: Gpovoq xou locxava , udvva KeKpuujj ivov,
yfjcpoq Xeuicri
P e r g a m o n h a d a p o s i t i o n o f p r e - e m i n e n c e i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
a l t h o u g h i ts p r e c i s e s ta t u s i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h a t o f E p h e s u s h a s
p r o v e n d if fic ult t o d e t e r m i n e . T i b e r i u s d e f e n d e d h i m s e l f b e f o r e t h e
S e n a t e f o r a l l o w i n g h i s c u l t i n P e r g a m o n o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t A u g u s t u s
h a d a ll o w e d t h e r e a T e m p l e t o h i m s e l f a n d R o m a .3 7
F u r t h e r m o r e ,
t h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f a n a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t h t h a t
o f A s k l e p i u s , p o r t r a y e d w i t h a s e r p e n t e v o c a t i v e o f t h e S a t a n i c i n
th e ey es o f t h e See r (Apoc. 20,2: 6 ocpiq 6 dp%ocio<;, oq eoxiv Aid(}oAo<;).38
I n a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m C o s , A s k l e p i u s is d e s c r i b e d a s t h e Pergameus
deus an d o co x r ip .3 9
5 B 1.3 .1. Gpovoq xou Iccxocva
W e h a v e a J u l i o - C l a u d i a n i n s cr ip t io n f ro m P e r g a m o n w h i c h h o n
o u r s D e m e t r i o s M i l a t u s .4 0
T h i s t ex t is h ig h ly i n s t ru c t iv e fo r t h e w ay
i n w h i c h i m a g e s a n d r i t u a l o f A s c l e p i u s a n d o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
3 f i P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 5 a n d T a c i t u s , Annal. X V , 5 5 - 5 6 .
*7 T a c i t u s Annal. I V , 3 7 : " . . . H i s p a n i a u l t e r i o r m i s s i s a d s e n a t u m l e g a t i s o r a v i t ,
u t e x e m p l o A s i a e d e l u b r u m T i b e r i o m a t r i q u e e i u s e x s t r u e r e t . . . C a e s a r . . . r e s p o n
d e n d u m r a tu s i is . . . h u i u s c e m o d i o r a t i o n e m c o e p i t : . . . A s i a e c i v i t a t ib u s n u p e r
i d e m i s tu d p e t e n t i b u s n o n s i m a d v e r s a t u s . . . c u m d i v u s A u g u s t u s s i b i a t q u e u r b i
R o m a e t e m p l u m a p u d P e r g a m u m s is ti n o n p r o h i b u is s e t. " ; cf. D i o C a s s i u s 5 1 , 2 0 , 7 .3 8 C . H a b i c h t , Altertiimer von Pergamon, V I I I , 3 : D i e I n s c h r i f t en d e s A s k l e p i e i o n s ,
( B e r l in : D e G r u y t e r 1 9 6 9 ) , n o . 7 1 : 'AOKA.TI7UO> Icoxfjpi K A I ' Y y i a x o v 5 e £ i o \ > u e v o v
S p m c o v x a ; T a f . 3 2 , 1 6 0 b .m
IGRR 4 , 1 0 5 3 a n d M a r t i a l , Epig. 9 , 1 6 ; P h i l o s t r a t u s , Vit. Apol. 4 , 3 4 ; S t a t i u s ,
Silvae I II , 4 , 2 3 - 2 4 cf. H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 8 5 - 8 6 .4 0
H a b i c h t ( 1 9 6 9 ) n o . 3 6 .
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THE APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 181
were not only in spatial approximation but in a high state of syn
thesis. Demetrios is "high priest for life of the Pietas Augustorum (iepe[a]
ifj^xcbv I[e- ] [paa]xcov Eu aje jp da c; 8 ia pi[ou]) , who has fo un de d a fes
tival of Sebastoi Savi ours within the temple of the Savio ur Asc lepios
([lcJaBeupovTa rcavfiyupiv e[v] [TCO] xou Icoipipjoq 'AGKXrpt[iou] [xejuivei
lepaaxcov Icoi[r|-] [pco]v)."41
T h e cult of the em pe ro r an d the cult of
Asklepios are not simply associated spatially within the same tem
ple. T h e s am e divine titles (acoirip and acoifipeq) are ap pl ie d to b oth
of them. The reference to the Gpovoq TOU l a x a v a fits well therefore
with the context of the pre-eminence of the Imperial Cult in Pergamon.
T h e choir of Asia was c om m an d ed to gat her at Pe rg am on to per
form on the birthday of "Sebastos Tiberius Caesar god" and to per
form sacrifices.4 2
Furthermore, the reference (Apoc. 2,13) to "An ti pa s my faithful
mar tyr ('Avxucaq 6 uxxpxix; uo\) 6 moxoq uoi)) who was slain am o ng you
(oq d7C£Kxdv&ri nap ' uuiv) wh er e Sa ta n dwells (pnov 6 locxocvaq KOCXOIKEI)"
is indicative of pe rse cut ion specifically in co nnec tion wi th tha t cult.
T h e contra st bet ween Chri st's comin g an d his pro mis e: "I will ma ke
wa r with th em with the swor d of my m o u t h " suggests a c ont ra -
cultural parallel with the ius gladii of the pro-consul of Asia.4 3
As one
of the leading centres of the Impe ria l Cult in Asia Mi no r, Pe rg am on
wou ld have be en the mos t likely place wh er e non-p art ici pat ion in
the cult would have exposed Christians to the Dionysiac charges,
an d wh er e offence to the ideology of the Co m m u n e of Asia coul d
be most sensitively felt.
In this pagan, cultic context the "teaching of Balaam" (2,14) can
now be considered, which, it is claimed, involves the eating of idol
atrous food ((payeiv eiScoAoGuxa) an d committing fornication (rcopveuaou).
T h e latter char ge is characteristic of Ol d Te st am en t polemi c against
idolatry bu t the former is a distinctive characteristi c of New Te st am en t
gentile or mixed Christian communities, as Acts 15,20 and 1 Cor. 8,1-6
makes clear.
Note however how at Pergamon collegia and their festivities were
rel ated to the Imp er ia l Cul t. It is in co mp ar is on wi th such festivities
that both the udvvcc K £ K p \ ) j L i p e v o v and the \|/fj(po<; XEVKI] are, I will argue,
to be unde rst ood.
41
Ibid. p. 81 taf. 13, l i n e s 4-9.42 IGRR 4, 1 6 0 8 c and P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) , p. 105.4 3
H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 82 84.
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THE APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 183
suffered. Those addressed will be acquitted finally by Christ at his
coming, or given a place in his kingdom denied by their present rulers.
But xj/ficpoq can also, I believe, have the meaning of tessera as a
certificate of admissi on to a nd the custom of hospitality be twee n
me mb er s of pa ga n mystery cults. It is im po rt an t to be ar in m in d
that an inscribed v|/f|(po<; ca n have the mea ni ng of certificate of admis
sion. But here if it is to have this sense we must also explain why if
the \ | /f | (pO(; X,euicr| is a certificate of admission, it has to have written
on it the person's name which strangely only the bearer knows (Apoc.
2,17: enx xf]v yiicpov 6vo|Lia KOUVOV yeypa^jaevov o ou8ei<; oiSev ei uri 6
A,a|!pdvcov).
We hav e an inscription rec or ding the articles of associati on of the
GUGTTIUXX or auve8piov of the rcpeopuxepoi or yepouoia that admi ni s
tered the gymnas ium at Pe rg am on in the time of Ha dr ia n.4 6
A priv
ilege of membership was a reducted entrance fee for their sons.4 7
T h e e nt ra nc e fee is called an eiorjMoiov whic h implies a tessera or
vjffjcpoq issued for the fee.
In an inscription relating to the imperial mysteries at Pergamon,
we find th at the con du cto r of the choir is to char ge an entry fee
for the imperial sacrifices and mystery play.4 8
Further corroborat ion
of an eioriMoiov in connect ion with Dionysiac mysteries at Sm yr na ,
at the temple of Dionysus Brisaeus, is to be found in CIG 3173
(= IGRR 4, 1393), dated A.D. 80 in Domitian's reign. In line 15 a
list of persons are introduced as: oi7te7tAr|pcoK6xe<;xa ianMaia. Amongst
the na me s listed ar e Ar tem idorus an d Apollonius bot h of wh om are
called 7iaxpo|Lit>oxr|<;. O n side b of the column we find a let ter of
Marcus Aurel iu s wr it te n (A.D. 158): ouvoSco xcov 7 i e p i xov Bpeioea
Aiovuoov xaipeiv.4 9
In IGRR 4, 1400 (= CIG 3176 b) line 9 - 1 0 we
ha ve a le tter of Antoninus Pius ouv68cp xcov ev I|nt>pvTi xe/veixcov Kai
|L iu axcov xaipeiv. T hus the eiorjMotov specifically in connec tion with
entry into the liturgy of a mystery celebration also implies a tessera
or xj/ricpoq.
4 6
H. H e p d i n g , Die A r b e i t e n zu P e r g a m o n , 1 9 0 4 - 1 9 0 5 , in Ath. Mitt. 32 ( 1 9 0 7 ) ,
pp . 2 9 3 4 - 2 9 6 , no. 18. See a l s o M.N. Tod, N o t e s on s o m e i n s c r ip t i o n s f r o m A s i a
M i n o r , in CR 29,1 ( 1 9 1 5 ) , pp. 1-2.4 7
o u o i c x ; 5e eiaepxeo~9ai x o ix ; v i o i x ; xcov uexexovxcov, 8oKiuao9evxa<; U E V Kai C M J X O V X ; ,
5i86vxa<; 8e e i a r i M a i o v .48
IGRR 4, 353 d l ine 14: 'IOT IAAKJIO-U rcape^ei 6 Ka x a o x a Ge i q i)uvcp86<; ei<; B v a l a q
xov lePaoxoi) Kai xi\q Tcburiq . . .49
IGRR 4, 1399 (= CIG 3176 a) l ine 5-6.
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184 C H A P T E R F I V E
But how are we to explain why on this entry ticket is not a price
bu t a 6vo|ia mivov un de rs to od only by its bearer? We possess a num
ber of inscript ions in which \|/il(po<; means &pi0uo<; and is use d in a
magical or mystery context involving secret wisdom. There is clearly
an association between a counter as the physical representation of
a number, and a ticket bearing an entrance price. But magical inscrip
tions show us how it is possib le t hat a v|/f](poq on wh ich a numbe r is
writte n can be re gar de d as a cryp to gram for a per son 's na me . O n e
graffito from Pompei commemorates a loved one known to the writer
alone bu t in which the deceased is simply repr ese nted by a n um
ber .5 0
In another graffito "Amerimnos ('Apipiuvoq) has remembered
Ha rmon ia (euvr|G0r| 'Apuoviac;) his own (dear) lady (xfjq ei8ia<; leupiocq),
for her benefit (ETC' ayocGq)), th e n um be r of whos e beauti ful na m e
is 45 (r\q 6 &pi0uo<; \iz xov KOLXOV ovojuaxoq)."51
Clearly "Obtainable
('Auipiuvoq)" and "Compliance (f
Apuov(oc)" are real names the alle
gorical ch ar ac te r of wh ic h the graffitist seeks to veil in nu me ri ca l
mystery.
That however such graffitti are more than lovers' games is shown
by the evidence of two epitaphs, wh er e the na me of the deceas ed
is given as a num er ica l cry ptogr am. O n e epi tap h is from Ph er ae in
Thessaly in the second or third century. In IG 5,1 1368 we read:
"If you seek my number (Znxcov \iox> ir\v \|/fj(pov), o wayfarer (rcap-
oSeixa), you will know who I a m who lies here (yvcoafl xov K e i j i e v o v
e v 0 a 8 e | i e ) , I lie here ( K e i j i a i 8 ' ) in the earth which nourished me (ev
ya(p xfi jie dvaOpexj/aiLievTi), (number) 1354 (ATNA)." Here knowledge
is clearly associat ed with solution to a mys tery. Final ly we hav e a
second-century, epitaph from Bithynia on a plinth in the form of an
altar supporting a sarcophagus. To unravel the name requires the
wayfarer to be a companion of the Muses and a partaker of wis
dom (yvcoaxoq ear] Mouaa iq K a i aocpiriq uexoxoq).52
We thus have evidence for payments (ior\ki>Gia) for entrance into
mystery rites associated both with Dionysus and with sacrifices for
M
CIL 4 s u p p l . II ( 1 9 0 9 ) no. 4861 ( P o m p e i ) : <piAio f|<; dpiGuoq <pfie\ ("I am in l o v e
w i t h her w h o s e n u m b e r is 5 4 5 " ) . See a l s o 432 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 1142; L. R o b e r t , Bulletin
Epigraphique 5 ( 1 9 6 4 ) no. 618; 9 ( 1 9 7 9 ) no. 556; F. Dornseiff., Das A l p h a b e t in
M y s t i k und M a g i e , in I T O I X E I A VII ( L e i p z i g and B e r l i n : T e u b n e r 1 9 2 2 ) , p. 112.:)l
CIL 4 s u p p l . II no. 4 8 3 9 . See a l s o G. M a n g a n a r o , Graff i t i e i s cr i z i o n i fu n e r -
arie del la Sici l ia O r i e n t a l e , in Helikon 2 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 4 8 5 - 5 0 1 .> 2
W. P e e k , Griechische Vers-Inschriften, Bd. 1: Grab-Epigramme, (Ber l in : A k a d e m i e
V e r l a g 1955) no. 1324.
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T H E APOCALYPSE AND DOMITIAN'S ICONOGRAPHY 185
the Imperial Cult. We have evidence for numbers as cryptograms
for names associated w i t h the search for oocpioc in magical rites. We
can therefore reasonably hypothesise that the Apoc. 2,17 : erci rfw \jrn(pov
ovojLicx raivov yeypauuevov o ouSeiq oi8ev ei \ir\ 6 A,au|}dvcov is a refer
ence by analogy to admission to mysteries at Pe rg am on requir ing
an en t rance i|/fj(po<; for pa yme n t of an eio ri Ma io v on wh ic h th e
bearer's name was in the form of a numerical cryptogram. IGRR
4,353 d line 14, as we have seen, records an eicmAuoiov specifically
related to the Imperial Mysteries.5 3
We have an inscription from
Hadrian 's t ime in which a meal of br ead an d wine ac com pa ni ed
w i t h incense and the wearing of garlands (axecpavoi) are associated
w i t h the emperor as their saviour and founder. We shall consider
this inscription in further detail in connection w i t h the Seer's gen
eral vision in the rest of the Apocalypse (5B 3.2-2).
The selection of such a cultic interpretation of vj/fjcpoc; seems to
l in k this term to admission to Imperial Cultic meals implied by the
references to ipccyeiv eiScoAoGuxa and the 9p6vo<; xou locxocva. Jus t as
the cont ra-cul tural cou nter pa rt to the former is the eschatological
udvva KeKpuuuevov whose foretaste is the Eucharist, so too the yfjcpcx;
XEVKX] is the tessera of admi ssion to the Chr is ti an cultic me al , n amely
bap tis m. It is not withou t relevance to ou r int erp ret ati on here tha t
Tertullian was later to use contesseratio hospitalitatis between apostolic
churches in this sense.5 4
Nor shou ld we rule ou t a significance for
the Church of the author's present in these words on the grounds
t h a t the ir promis e is eschatological. We shall argue late r that the
eschatological order of the heavenly Church is a reflection of the
Order of the writer's ow n communi ty w i t h its liturgical imagery pro
jected into the realm of the heavenly now entering the earthly in
eschatological fulfilment.
T h us the cultic paral lelism is also de te rm in ed by the promise to
the overcomers of "a new name (ovoua K a i v o v ) written upon the
pebble (en! XT V xjriitpov.... yeypauuevov) which n o - o n e knows except he
w h o receives it (o ouSeic; oiSev ei UTI 6 Xaupdvcov)." Im ag er y of C hurch
membership and sacraments is clearly being refashioned in the direc
t i o n of a pagan cultic fellowship w i t h its mysteries and secret in i t i
ation rites. Thus it is such pagan rites t h a t remain primary within
™ See footnote 48.5 4
T e r t u l l i a n , De Praesc. Haer. 20, 7-9 cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 505-507 ff.
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1 8 6 C H A P T E R F I V E
t h e n e v e r t h e l e s s C h r i s t i a n c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i c o n o g r a p h y d e v e l o p e d b y
m e a n s o f s u c h c o n t r a r y r e fl e ct io n s . T h e c u l ti c c h a r a c t e r o f t h o s e c o n
t r a r y r e f l e c t i o n s t h u s d e t e r m i n e t h e p a g a n c u l t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e
o r i g i n a l p r i m a r y d a t a a g a i n s t o t h e r p o s s ib l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . 3 5
5 B 1 .4. A p o c . 2,20,26-28: J e z e b e l a n d t h e d o x r |p npmvoq
T h e fi gu r e o f " J e z e b e l " a t T h y a t e i r a is c l e a r ly a n O l d T e s t a m e n t
c r y p t o g r a m t h a t c o n c e a l s t h e o r i g i n a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r s o n w h o s e
o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y is t h e r e b y lo s t. B u t h e r t e a c h i n g is c l e a r l y a v a r i a n t
o f w h a t wa s a l so be in g ta u g h t in P e r g a m o n . Oocyeiv eiScotaSGuxa (Apoc.
2 ,1 4 cf. 2 ,2 0 ) is o n ce m o r e t h e ac tu a l ex p r es s io n o f sp i r i t u a l fo rn i c a
t i o n (r co pv eu ao u) . H e n c e th e sp i r it o f O l d T e s t a m e n t i d o l a t ry is s een
t o f in d e x p r e s s i o n i n t e a c h e r s i n b o t h c it ie s a d v o c a t i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n m e a l s o f p a g a n m y s t e r y c u l t s , w i t h w h i c h , a s w e s h a ll s h o r t l y s e e ,
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t o a c h i e v e a n e w a s s o c i a t i o n ( 5 B 2 . 2 ) .
T h e r e f e re n c e t o t h e m o r n in g s t a r (d o x f |p rcp co 'ivo q) is t o t h e p l an e t
V en u s , s een a s a sy m b o l o f au th o r i t y fro m B ab y lo n ia n tim es. Bu t t h e re
is, I b e l i e v e , a ls o a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c l a i m s o f A u g u s t u s ' t o b e filius
deorum d u e to t h e m y th i c a l i n i ti a t i o n o f t h e gens Julia b y V e n u s . F u r t h e r
m o r e , w e h a v e A u g u s t a n c o i n s , r e s t o r e d b y T i t u s , i n w h i c h o v e r t h e
h e a d o f A u g u s t u s r a d i a t e t h e r e is d e p i c t e d a s t a r ( P l a te s 1 6 a n d 1 8 ) .5 6
I n v i e w o f t h e c le a r e m e r g e n c e o f p a g a n a n d im p e r i a l i c o n o g r a p h y
b o t h i n t h e l e t t e r s , a n d , a s I w i ll s h o w , i n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e
Apocalypse itself, I c a n n o t fo llo w H e m e r ' s h e s i t a n c y i n t h is r e g a r d .5 7
W e h a v e a l r e a d y s h o w n t h a t t h e a ll u s io n t o Ps. 2 , 7 - 9 (Apoc. 2 , 2 6 - 2 7 )
a n d Num. 2 4 , 1 7 (Apoc. 2 , 2 8 ) d o n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n
a p a g a n c u l ti c c o n t e x t . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t i m a g e r y is u s e d t o r e c o n
s t r u c t t h e p a g a n c u l ts s o a s t o p r o d u c e a s y s t e m o f C h r i s t i a n c o u n t e r -
i m a g e s .
5 B 1 .5 . A p o c . 3,4-5 iudxicc XEVKOL and x \ pipAxx; xfjq £cofi<;
S a r d i s u n d e r A u g u s t u s h a d b e e n a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t c i t i e s o f A s i a
M i n o r t o b e g r a n t e d a c u l t a n d t e m p l e . T h e c it y w a s t o d e d i c a t e a
s t a t u e o n t h e c o m i n g o f a g e o f G a i u s C a e s a r i n t h a t t e m p l e .5 8
It is
h e r e , m o r e o v e r , t h a t w e h a v e a l l u s i o n s t o t h e D o m i t i a n i c c h a n g e s
H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 9 6 - 1 0 4 d i s c u s s e s a l s o g l a d i a t o r i a l a n d m a g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s .%
BMC 2 , p p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 3 n o s . 2 6 6 , 2 6 7 , a n d 2 7 1 a n d p la t e 5 4 , 3 .5 7 H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 .5 8 P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 6 6 .
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THE APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I TI A N'S I C O N O G R A P H Y 187
in t h e fiscus judaicus ( 3 C 2 . 3 .3 . 3 ) . I f C h r i s t i a n s w e r e u n p r e p a r e d t o
p u t t h e i r n a m e s o n s y n a g o g u e ro ll s a n d t h u s j o i n w h a t i n S m y r n a
w a s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e " s y n a g o g u e o f S a t a n , " (Apoc. 2 ,9 ) o r i f r a th e r
t h e y w e r e e x c o m m u n i c a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e Biracoth ha Minim, t h e n
t h e i r n a m e s c o u l d b e s a i d t o b e " b l o t t e d o u t " o f t h e r e g i s t e r t h a t
g a v e t h e m p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s u sp i c io n s a r o u s e d b y n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t h o u t t h e e x e m p t i o n t h u s a f f o r d e d w o u l d l e a d
t o t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e i n v o l v e d in D i o n y s i a c rites t h a t
t h r e a t e n e d b o t h t h e s o c i a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l pax.
I t is p rec i s e ly t h i s s i t u a t i o n th a t is r e f l ec t ed i n t h e r ev e r se d im ag e
o f t h e r e t u r n i n g C h r i s t w h o p r o m i s e s t o t h e o v e r c o m e r in S a r d i s
tha t : " I wi l l no t b lo t ou t (ou \ix\ e^ccXeiyco) hi s n a m e (xo ovouoc ocuxou)
f ro m t h e b o o k o f life (eic xfjq pi p ta ro xfjq £cof\<;)." (Apoc. 3 ,5 ) T h e c l e a r
p a t t e r n t h a t is t h e r e f o r e e m e r g i n g f r o m a n a n a l y s is o f t h e s o c i al c o n
t e x t o f t h e l e t te r s is t h e c l a s h w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e s h o u l d
c l e a r ly r e a d in s u c h a c o n t e x t t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g p r o m i s e t o
t h e o v e r c o m e r t h a t : " h e w il l b e c l o t h e d ( r c e p i p a ta i x a i ) i n w h i t e g a r
m e n t s (ev i u ax io iq A,e\)Koi<;)," t h u s r e f l e c t in g t h e w e a r i n g o f w h i t e t h a t
w a s t r a d i t i o n a l fo r p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a ll p a g a n p r o c e s s i o n s .
W e h a v e a l r e a d y d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e Lex Nar-
bonensis a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w o r e fe st al w h i t e fo l
l o w i n g t h e supplicatio w i t h m y r t l e w r e a t h e s o n t h e i r h e a d s a n d m y r t l e
b r a n c h e s i n t h e i r h a n d s .5 9
W e h a v e m o r e o v e r s ev e ra l E a s t e r n e x a m
p l e s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e . W e h a v e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n adventus c e r e m o n y
i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e cu l t o f A t t a l u s I I I ( 1 3 8 - 1 3 3 B . C . ) a t P e r g a m o n
(OGIS 3 3 2 ) . T h e stephanophoroi o f t h e t w e l v e d e i ti e s , a s t h e y m e e t h i m
on h is a r r iva l , a re to wear the i r gar lands ( [oxe](pavr |<popf |oou ; / . 27-29) .
T h e p ri es ts ar e to offer i n ce n se (e7ci6uuovxaq XiPavcoxov; /. 29) as
A t t a l u s is m e t in p r o c e s s i o n b y t h e p e o p l e " g a r l a n d e d a n d in w h i t e
ra im e n t (ev ea0[f j ]o iv ^ a u r c p a iq eaxecpavcouevouq . . . ] ; / . 3 7 - 3 8 ) . "6 0
A s a c o n t r a i m a g e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e o v e r c o m e r s h e r e a r e
d e s c r i b e d a s c l o t h e d i n w h i t e i n a n a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t g i v e s t h e m t h e
s t a t u s o f p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s d e n i e d t o t h e m i n t h e i r
i s o la t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r p r e s e n t c u l t u r e .
59
CIL 1 2 , 6 0 3 8 , s ee a l s o 2 B 4 a n d 3 C 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 .< ) 0 S e e a l s o Syli" 6 9 5 , 3 5 ; 1 1 5 7 , 3 5 ; H e r o d i a n 1 1, 2,9 ( o f P e r t i n a x in ): o i o x p a x i c o x c u . . .
Ie(3cxax6v rcpoaeutov... . o u oc av xe q m i 9\>oavxe<; , 8acpvr| (popoi )vxe< ; . . .
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188 C H A P T E R F I V E
5B 1.6. Ap oc. 3,12: TO ovouoc.. .ifjq 7i6A,eco<; xov Geou \iov
Strabo XII, 8,18 described Philadelphia as full of earthquakes (oeiGpcov
7tA,f|pri<;), and Hemer claims in consequence that the earthquake of
A . D . 17 affected the collective psychology of the inhabitants of that
city. Cer ta inl y Philade lphia ap pe ar s am on gs t the cities of Asia which
expressed their gratitude to Tiberius for the aid that he gave fol
lowing this disaster.6 1
Suc h grat itude took the form of assu ming the
imperial cognomen and honouring Germanicus with a posthumous cult.
Coins of Philadelphia show the name of the city changed to Neo-
caesarea, with a magi strat e an d priest of the Impe ri al Cult vene rat
ing Germanicus.6 2
After Claudius, the city reverted to its original
name, but under Vespasian it used the epithet Flavia to ho no ur the
imperial house.6 3
Domitian's edict (A.D. 92) required acreage for vinyards to be
reduced, arguably to alleviate famine by encouraging more corn to
be grown. Hemer perceptively associates this edict with the situation
in Philadelphia.6 4
We have already argued the relationship between
this edict and Apoc. 6,6 as establishing a Domitianic date for the
Apocalypse (5A 1). T o a city such as Ph ila del phi a, whose pri ncipal
deity was Dionysius, god of the vintage festival, such an edict was
arg uab ly an affront. T h us He m e r is able to see in the pr omis e to
the overcomers a reflection of the disillusionment of a loyal city
whose faithfulness has been mocked by a cynical emperor.
Those who have not denied Christ 's name (v. 8) will "hold fast
( K p d x e i ) to what you have (8 e%eiq)." They will be shaken neither by
physical no r by mo ra l ea rt hq ua ke nei ther such as that afforded by
Domitian's decree nor his new claims for his own cult, but will be
made "a pillar (GTUA,OV) in the temple of my God (ev TCD vocco)."
(v. 12) T h e "n ew na me (TO ovopd jiou TO KCCIVOV)" will not be "Neo-
cae sar ea" but "the na me of my Go d (TO ovouoc TOU QEOV UOD) and of
the city of my God (Kai xr\q KOXEQM; XOV QEOV pou), of the new Jerusalem
(xr\<; Kaivfjq 'Iepo\)GaA ,r ||Li)-" (v. 12) Once again, therefore, we see a
parall elism between the religio-political structu res of the present and
61
CIL 10, 1624: H i e r o c a e s a r e a cf. T a c i t u s , ArmaL, II, 4 7 , 3 - 4 and H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) ,
p. 156.62
Catalogue of Coins in the British Museum, Lydia, P h i l a d e l p h i a no. 55 (C a l i g u l a ) , no.
5 6 (C l a u d i u s ) and H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 157.e s
Ibid. nos. 51-52 (C a l i g u l a ) .M
H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 1 5 8 - 1 6 0 .
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 8 9
t h e i m a g e s o f t h e p e r s e c u t e d c o m m u n i t y in h o p e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
v i n d i c a t i o n .
5 B 1 .7 . A p o c . 3,21: KaGioai uex ' euou ev xcp Gpovcp uou
P a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s h e r e to o u r c o n c e r n s w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t
a r e s p a r s e , e v e n t h o u g h H e m e r d e t e c t e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d e a r l y d i s
c u s s io n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t is r e c o r d e d b y a n c i e n t w r i t
e r s a n d in s c r i p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g L a o d i c e a a n d th i s l e t t e r .6 5
T h e w e a l t h
a n d s el f- suf fi c ien cy o f t h e c i t y m e a n t t h a t it w a s in a p o s i t i o n to
d e c l i n e to a sk f or i m p e r i a l a i d f o ll o w i n g t h e e a r t h q u a k e a l r e a d y m e n
t i o n e d ( 5 A 3 . 1 . 6 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o m i s e h e r e to t h e o v e r c o m e r s is
"to s i t w i th m e o n m y t h r o n e (icaG ioai ue x' euo u ev xcp Gpovcp uou)
e v e n a s I h a v e b e e n v i c t o r i o u s (coq Kocycb ev i ic r | aa ) a n d s it w i th m y
f a t h e r o n h i s t h r o n e (Kai eicdGiaa uexd xou rcaxpoq uo u ev xcp Gpovcp u o u ;
v. 2 1 ) . "
T h e r e w a s h o w e v e r a n i m p e r i a l t e m p l e e r e c t e d in h o n o u r o f
D o m i t i a n at L a o d i c e a in c o m m e m o r a t io n o f h i s o f t en fictitio us, m i l
i t a r y , v i c t o r i e s . T h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e o n c o i n s r e p r e s e n t s
D o m i t i a n in a r m o u r w i t h a s p e a r a n d w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n : e m v e u a o c ; .6 6
F u r t h e r m o r e , a s H e m e r n o t e s , R a m s a y r e s t o re d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m
L a o d i c e a in w h i c h a f r e e d m a n o f t h e e m p e r o r , T i b e r i u s C l a u d i u s
T r y p h o n , d e d i c a t e s a t r i p l e g a t e a n d t o w e r s : "to J u p i t e r (A[u]) t h e
g rea t e s t Sav io u r (u ey io [x co ] I [ co]xfjpi) a n d e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n ( K a i
AuxoKpdxopi [Aou ix iavcp ]) , C a e sa r A u g u s tu s ( K a i o a p i I e |3 ao xcp ), pon
tifex maximus (dp%iepei ueyioxco)." 6 7 W e h a v e s h o w n t h e c l e a r e m p h a
sis in t h e o t h e r l e t t e r s o n a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n
e s c h a t o l o g y in t e r m s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to ask ,
t h e r e f o r e , w h e t h e r t h e a d d r e s s o f t h e L o r d C h r i s t ( " B e h o l d I s t a n d
at t h e d o o r a n d k n o c k " v. 2 0 ), h o w e v e r a l l u s o r y , is n o t a p a r a l l e l
w i t h t h e g a t e b e a r i n g t h e e m p e r o r ' s n a m e a n d b y w h o s e w ill p e o
p l e c o m e in a n d c o m e o u t . T h e s u p p e r is c l e a r l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l (Apoc.
3 ,20 cf. 19 ,9 a n d 17) b u t a f o r e t a s t e is t h e E u c h a r i s t o f t h e p r e s e n t
w h i c h h a s a l r e a d y in p r e v i o u s l e t t e r s b e e n p a r a l l e l e d w i t h t h e c u l t i c
fes t iv i t ies of the gui lds at P e r g a m o n ( 5 B 1 . 3 ) a n d T h y a t e i r a ( 5 B 1 . 4 ) .
L e t us n o w e x a m i n e h o w t h e i m a g e s o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l p a r a l le l i sm
6 5
H e m e r ( 1 9 86 ) c h a p . 9 .6 6
B M C Phrygia p . 3 0 7 n o s . 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 ; p . 3 0 8 n o . 1 8 8 ; P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 3
a n d p . 2 6 4 C a t . 8 7 .1)7 CIG 3 9 4 9 = IGRR 4 , 8 4 7 = MAMA 6 , 2 = EpAnat 2 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 3 1 - 4 0 cf.
H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 1 9 5 .
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192 C H A P T E R F I V E
i m p e r i a l h o u s e h o l d p l a y e d a p i v o t a l r o l e . I m a g e s of th e i m p e r i a l f a m
ily w e r e i n c l u d e d w i t h b u s t s of A r t e m i s for c a r r y i n g f r o m the l a t
t e r ' s t e m p l e f r o m w h e r e t h e y w e r e k e p t to the t h e a t r e . T h e y h a d
s p e c i a l b a s e s t h e r e on w h i c h t h e y c o u l d be set up. T h e r e s a c r i f i c e s
t o o k p l a c e a t m e e t i n g s of the a s s e m b l y a n d fes t iva l s such as the
Sebasta, the Soteria, and the f o u r - y e a r l y G r e a t Ephesia.74
A t A t h e n s it was the c o u n c i l of e l d e r s w h i c h was r e s p o n s i b l e for
m a k i n g t h e s e s p e c i a l i m a g e s q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m the p e r m a n e n t l y
s t a n d i n g s t a t u e s . Old and d a m a g e d im a g e s w e r e the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of
t h e c o u n c i l of e l d e r s a t E p h e s u s .7 5
F u r t h e r m o r e y o u t h s at A t h e n s a n d
T a n a g r a s e r v e d as offic ia ls cal led sebastophoroi. 76 F u r t h e r m o r e , i m p e r i a l
m y s t e r i e s w e r e c e l e b r a t e d w i t h a special off ic ia l , the a e p a a x o c p d v i r i q .7 7
I t was S t a u f f e r w h o , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e i n s i g h t , p o s i t e d the c o n
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h f e a t u r e s of the I m p e r i a l C u l t and the s c e n e s
o f the Apocalypse 78
T h e s c e n e w h i c h f o l l o w s the seven le t te rs , f i l l ed
t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a l l u s i o n s to the I m p e r i a l C u l t as we h a v e s h o w n f o l
l o w i n g H e m e r a n d R a m s a y , is a s c e n e r e s p l e n d e n t w i t h i m a g e r y
f r o m the g a m e s , the chora l fes t iv i t i es , the h o r s e r a c e s , the i m p e r i a l
m y s t e r i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c a r r y i n g of the eiicoveq, the p r e s b y t e r s
o f the c i t i e s o r g a n i s i n g a n d f u n d i n g the I m p e r i a l C u l t m a n y of w h o m
h a d c u l ti c f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h the off ices they he ld in the s a c r e d c o l
l e g e s s u p e r i n t e n d i n g the i m p e r i a l m y s t e r i e s , etc . T h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e
wil l of c o u r s e r e v e r s e the i m a g e s of the h o s t c u l t u r e , in p r o c e s s of
t a k i n g on its v a l u e s a n d r e f a s h i o n i n g t h e m .
L e t us now see in d e t a i l how the t h e m e s of eiKoveq in the i m p e
r ia l mys ter ies , the b u r n i n g of i n c e n s e , the p o u r i n g of l i b a t i o n s , the
f e s t i v a l t h a t c o m b i n e d h y m n o d y w i t h g y m n a s i a , g a m e s a n d t h e a t r e ,
a re r e f l ec t ed in the v i s io n of the Apocalypse.
74
Ibid. p. 104.75
/. Eph. II, 23.7 6
P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 189.7 7
H.W. P l e k e t , An a s p e c t of the i m p e r i a l c u l t : i m p e r i a l m y s t e r i e s , in HThR 58,4
( 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 337 m e n t i o n s the B i t h y n i a n i n s c r i p t i o n (Ath. Mitt. 24 ( 1 8 9 9 ) ) in w h i c h
xcov uuoxripicov iepocpdvxriq and aePaoxocpdvxr|<; are u s e d as e q u i v a l e n t s . A n o t h e r
A s i a n e x a m p l e , f r o m D o r y l a e u m in P h r y g i a (IGRR 4 , 5 2 2 (= OGIS 4 7 9 ) ) , w o u l d be
a n H a d r i a n i c i n s c r i p t i o n e r e c t e d by A s k l e p i a d e s son of S t r a t o n i k o s O e o i q lePaoxoiq
K a i 0ea i< ; leftaaxau; mi ' O u o v o i a l e p a a x f j K a i 9ea T c b u p . His tit le is o e p a a x o c p d v -
X T |< ; 8 i a p(o\) K a i iepeix;.7 H
See f o o t n o t e 5.
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 9 3
5 B 2 . 1 . The angels and cpidAxxi: A p o c . 16: festival
T o t h e f es tiv e c r o w d a t E p h e s u s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t
o p e n i n g a n e w s e ri es o f g a m e s b y t h r o w i n g d o w n a m a p p a o r p u r
p l e s ig n a l -c lo th , o r em p ty in g a s ac r i f i c i a l b o wl , was a f e s t i v e s cen e
o f r e j o i c i n g .7 9
B u t t o t h e S e e r i t is a n a n g e l w h o p o u r e d o u t h i s
" l i ba t io n bo w l o f th e w r a t h o f G o d (cpidAriv xov Guuou xou G eo u). . .
u p o n t h o s e w h o h a v e t h e m a r k o f t h e b e a s t (ETC! xouq dv0pam o\)<; xoix;
EXOvxaq xo xdpayuxx xov O n p u y o ) a n d w h o w o r s h i p h i s i m a g e (Ka i xoix;
rcpoaicuvouvxaq xf\ EIKOVI a \>xo\))." (Apoc. 1 6 ,2 ) T h u s t h e s e v e n a n g e l s
w i t h t h e i r s e v e n cpidtaxi c o m m e n c e t h e g a m e s t h a t a r e t h e f i n a l c o n
t e st (dycov) b e t w e e n B a b y l o n a n d t h e C h u r c h , a n d it is i n t h a t a r e n a
t h a t A r m a g e d d o n a n d t h e t r i b u l a t i o n w o e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a p o c a l y p
t i c a re t o t ak e p l ace (1 6 , 3 -2 1 ) .
I f i n c en se a s we l l a s t h e s ac r if i ce o f a b u l l w as ch a ra c t e r i s t i c o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , so t o w a s t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e e m p e r o r , v e i l e d
as a p r i e s t fo r s ac r i f i ce , p o u r in g a d r in k o f fe r in g f ro m a patera ((pidA,r|).
T h e t e m p l e a t S m y r n a s h o w e d T i b e r i u s w i t h h is h e a d v e i l e d .8 0
F u r
t h e r m o r e t h i s s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n a s s u g g e s t i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
a h u m a n - p r i e s t e m p e r o r a n d full w o r s h i p o f t h e g o d s s i n c e , a s P r i c e
p o i n t s o u t , g o d s a r e o f t e n d e p i c t e d a s p r i e s t s o f t h e i r o w n e p o n y
m o u s c u l t s .8 1
T h e v i s i o n o f t h e a n g e l s w i t h t h e i r (p id A m m a y w e l l
a ls o h a v e b e e n i n f o r m e d b y s u c h p a g a n a n d i m p e r i a l i m a g e r y , s u c h
a s t h a t o f t h e p r i e s t e s s a t P o m p e i i w i t h stole a n d patera (Plate 14) .
I n s t e a d o f t h e e m p e r o r b r i n g i n g b l e s s in g a n d s a lv a t i o n b y m e a n s o f
h is l i b a t io n , t h e s e a n g e l s b r i n g t h e w r a t h a n d j u d g e m e n t o f G o d
u p o n t h o s e w h o w o r s h i p h i s EIKCOV i n t h e cu l t .
5 B 2 . 2 . 7cp£apt>x£poi a n d EIKOVE^: theatre and mysteries
W e h a v e a l r e a d y d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s ig n i fi c a nc e o f m y s t e r y col
legia i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l e t t e r t o P e r g a m o n ( 5 B 1 . 3 ) . I t i s n o w
t i m e f o r u s t o a s s e s s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n e p i g r a p h i c
e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h collegia a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e 7tp£aPt>x£poi , their choirs
a n d t h e i r ax £< pa vo i, a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n l y s a c r if ic ia l a l t a r o f t h e L a m b .
7 9
S ta u f f e r (1 9 5 5 ) , p . 1 8 6 .8 0 BMC I o n i a p . 2 6 8 n o s . 2 6 6 - 2 6 8 a n d P r i c e c a t . 4 5 a n d P l a te l b m i s c i t e d a s
3 b i n P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 5 .8 1
P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 5 : " B u t t h e g o d s o f t e n h e l d t h e i r o w n e p o n y m o u s p r i e st
h o o d s a n d a r e o f t e n s h o w n m a k i n g s a cr i fi c ia l o f f e ri n g s . . . " c i t e s ( f o o t n o t e s 7 6 a n d
7 7 . ) L . R o b e r t , S u r d e s i n s c r i p t i o n s d ' E p h e s e , 6 . L e t t r e s i m p e r i a l e s a E p h e s e , RPhil
4 1 , 3 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 4 4 - 6 4 ; a l s o RPhil ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 2 0 0 2 0 4 ; cf. D i o 5 9 , 2 8 , 5 o n G a i u s .
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1 9 4 C H A P T E R F I V E
IGRR 4 , 353 is a l a r g e s t o n e a l t a r t a k e n f r o m t h e t e m p l e of R o m a
a n d A u g u s t u s in P e r g a m o n a n d i n s c r i b e d o n four s ides . At the f ro n t
is a d e d i c a t i o n ( l i n e s a . 4 - 5 a ) t o H a d r i a n " s a v i o u r a n d f o u n d e r
( o c o x T i p i K ai [ K T { ] O T T I ) . " B u t t h o s e w h o m a k e th e d e d i c a t i o n a re an
e x i s t i n g c h o i r of the I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e "hymn-s ingers ( i )uvcp8o i ) of
d i v i n e A u g u s t u s (G eou l e p a o x o u ) a n d o f the g o d d e s s R o m a ( K a i Qeaq
Tcouriq)." (a. /. 5b) T h i r t y f i v e n a m e s s t o o d t h e r e o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h
t w o h a v e b e e n e r a s e d (a. /. 1 7 - 1 8 ) . I t was c e r t a i n of the h i g h - r a n k i n g
m e m b e r s of t h i s s e l e c t g r o u p , of the f am i ly of A. C a s t r i c i u s P a u l u s ,
w h o d e d i c a t e d th e a l t a r f r o m t h e i r p r i v a t e m e a n s (a. /. 3 0 - 3 1 : dv
[aOevxcov] x[6]v Pcouov £K xcov i8icov Kaoxpudcov).
O n e of his f a m i l y w h o s e n a m e s u r v i v e s in th e m u t i l a t e d l i n e s 3 1 -
3 2 is C a p i t o w h o s e o f f i c e is t h a t of GeoAoyoq. This w as a t i d e t h a t
C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n was to a w a r d to th e S e e r of the Apocalypse.82 B u t
o r i g i n a l l y it was t h e t i t le of a f u n c t i o n a r y in the I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l u u o r n p i a in w h i c h h e p r o n o u n c e d th e
e u l o g y u p o n t h e e m p e r o r a n d p e r h a p s t o o k p a r t in c h o r e o g r a p h y in
w h i c h h e p l a y e d t h e e m p e r o r ' s r o l e in th e d r a m a of the c u l t .8 3 T h e
S e e r n e v e r t h e l e s s a c t e d in a f a s h i o n r e m i n i s c e n t of s u c h a c u l t w h e n
h e d e s c r i b e d t h e e u l o g i s t i c h y m n s of the p r e s b y t e r s t o G o d a n d t o
t h e L a m b , as w e sh a l l sh o r t l y see (5B 3).
P r o v i s i o n is n o w m a d e for th e c e l e b r a t i o n of the d e a d A u g u s t u s '
b i r t h d a y on the first d a y o f the m o n t h t h a t b e a r s his n a m e (b . /. 5 :
u u vo q K a i o a p o q l e P a o x i i , y ev ea ic o l e p a o x o u ) . Bu t the c o n t e x t for the
c e l e b r a t i o n is th e i m p e r i a l m y s t e r i e s to w h i c h a l l u s i o n is n o w m a d e
8 2 SEG 4,517 = /. Eph. Ia, 45 A, 1-8, translated in P.R. Coleman-Norton, Roman
State and Christian Church, (London: S.P.C.K. 1 9 6 6 ) , III, no. 577;J. Schmid, Studien
zur Geschichte des griechischen Apocalypse-Textes, 1. Der Apocalypse-Kommentar
des Andreas von Kaisareia, in Munchener Theologische Studien, (Miinchen: Karl Zink
1 9 5 5 ) , p. 7; /. Eph. VII,2 4 1 3 3 , 9 ; /. Eph. VII,2 4311(a): Graffito on the farthest
west of the two pillars the Church of St. John in Ephesus: (cpoPo 7tpoceA.6e nx>h\vxov GeoAoyoi)); VII,2 4314: Another pillar on the North row has a petition in prayer
(GeoAxSye) VII,2 4318 (a): Running well in North Corridor of the nave of St. John
of Ephesus, graffito on marble cladding (ic(\>pi)e K(t>pi)e dyne 6eoA,6ye, (3OT|9TIGOV XO V
S O V X O G O V Teopynov); Eph. IV, 1279: Byzantian prayer inscribed on wall tile in white
marble (K(\>pi)e ' H o o v Xfpioxe K a i 'IcodvvTi(<;)] 6 GeoXoyoq [p\>oaxe r\\ia<; anb co-]).8 3
Pleket ( 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 3 3 7 - 3 3 8 ; see also /. Eph. Ia, 22, 1-8 ; /. Eph. Ia, 2 7 , 2 9 2 - 2 9 7 ;
I. Eph. Ill 6 4 5 , 3 - 7 : [x]6 7tpoa<piAi[ox]axov x[f\] dyicoxaxp [6]ea> ' A p x e u i 5 i a\)ve8piov
[x]cov -buvcpScov [K]ai6eo^6ycov [K]ai0ea|icp8tov. See also /. Eph. Ia 4 7 , 7 3 (M.Ko(A,(ioq)
'HXi68copo<;0£otaSYO<;); IV, 1 0 2 3 , 4 (A.D. 104) Titus Flavius Dionysius Sabinus BeoAxSyoq;VII, 1 3 0 7 4 (GeoXoyoq); /. Eph. VII, 1 3 0 1 5 , 2 .
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T H E APOCALYPSE AND DOMITIAN'S ICONOGRAPHY 195
i n the inscription on the right hand side of the altar. Ind ee d t he
bi rt hday is bu t on e of five festivals tha t are to be com mem ora ted .
The second is the festival of new year presents (dies strenarum = 1st
Ja nu ar y) , the third is the Rosalia (poSicuoq) (24th May) for the com
me mo ra ti on of the dep ar te d an d the fourth is for the mysteries of
the 25 th J u n e (unvoq Acoou y p u oxn p ioK; ) , and the fifth for Livia's
bi rt hday (21st Se pt embe r; b. /. 3-11). Associated with each festival
is the annual provision (oca xcp evia\)xcp rcapexei xr\q dpxnq) by the
choir's president or "conductor (6 eu Koou oq ) ." (b. /. 2)
The conductor is to provide (nape^e i bk 6 evKoafioq) both for Augustus'birthday (xr\ xov Xepaaxou EVUTIVCO yeveaico) and for the rest of the birth
days of the dead and deified emperors (Kai xai<; Xoinalc, yevealoiq xcov
avxoKpaxopcov) and they shall crown with garlands the hymn-singers
and the mysteries (oxeyavovq xoiq \)uvcp8oi<; m i xoi<; |JA)oxrip{oi<; axeqxxv-
cociv) in the choir hall (ev xcp vuvcoSeicp). . .
b . /. 12-19
T h e co nduc to r is fur the rmo re to provide br ea d an d wine for these
mysteries, along with "sacrificial cake (rcorcavov), incense (Aapavov)
and lamps ( K a i Xv%vov<;) for Au gustus (xcp LePaoxcp)." W h e n we turn
to the inscriptions on the back of the altar we find the context of
these art icles xcp lePaaxco. H ere t he priest (6 iepeix;) ap pointed for th e
year has, in add iti on to br ea d an d wine , to pro vid e a cove ring
(axpcooiv) for the images of the Augusti (eiq e i K o v a q xcov ZePaaxcov)."
(c . /. 4 -7 ) T h e ca nt or is to ma ke similar prov ision of wine and a
covering. We then learn that "those who are co-opted as hymn-
singers from other cities shall give 50 denaria (c. /. 1 0 - 1 1 : 8coao\)aiv
8e oi KaGiaxdpevoi e^coxiKoi uuvcpSoi... Srivapia' v') for the images of
the Augusti (eiq ekovaq xcov ZePaaxcov)." (c. /. 10-11)
Clearly the Xvyyox, the axpcoaiq, the o i v o q , the a p x o q , the Xipavoq
and th e rcorcavov to ge th er wi th the uuvoi of the uuvcoSoi all ha ve ref
erence to mystery-rites involving the e i K o v e q of the dead and deified
emperors (xcov Zepaaxcov). T h e inscript ion on the left side of the altar,
whilst specifying the financial contributions towards these articles nec
essary for the performance of the rite for guild officials such as the
secretary (6 ypappaxetjq), also men tions (d. /. 10) th at these are for
the mysteries ([ivaxr\pioiq) on the 23r d J u n e whi ch was the first day
of the month of Ka ioa p (urivoq Acoou lePaaxfi ). Fu r th er mo re, as the
inscription on the right side has already reminded us, the souls ofdeparted members are also included in the incense rite, and the
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196 C H A P T E R F I V E
ar ch on is to pro vid e the cost for a de ad m e m b e r wh ich he ca n
recoup from the person who replaces him.8 4
W e can now beg in to dr aw a nu m b er of paral lels with the text
of the Apocalypse itself.
5B 2 . 2 . 1 . Apoc. 13-14: e iKoav xou Oripiou
IGRR 4,35 3 c. /. 10 -1 1 and c. /. 4 - 7 m en ti on ed t he impe rial mys
teries with e i K o v e q and A,u%voi, as we have seen, in the context of
the imperial mysteries, with a GeoXoyoq to both compose and inter
pr et the ritual of the mystery play. T h e figure th at the Seer observes
"in t he midst of the l amps (ev ueocp xSv A,u%vicov)" has, like th e image
of Aug us tus , a h u m a n form (ojioiov uiov dvGpcoTcou)." (Apoc. 1,12-13)
The lamps that celebrate and illuminate in their cult are the seven
churches (Apoc. 1,20). T h e wri ter behaves like the aepaaxo(pdvxr|<; who
uncovers the e i K c o v , or like the OeoXoyoq who unravells the imperial
mysteries: he is to write TO jxuoxripiov xcov ercxd d a x e p c o v and of the
ercxd AA)%V{OC<; (1,20). Christ is not called the e iKobv xou Geou as in other
early Christian literature (Col. 1,15) since the horror of th e euccbv xouOripiou pr ov ed too resistant to cont ra- cult ura l tran sfor mat ion. T h e
division between believers and non-believers remains characterised
in this respect in negative terms. The latter are those who worship
the beast and his image (Apoc. 14,9 ,15- 16, 19-2 0), an d the for mer
those who do not (Apoc. 13,15; 20,4). But the description of the
chu rch es who thr ou gh their cultus illuminate the Son of M a n an d
their situation is swa the d in the enig mat ic lan gua ge of the myster ies, as we saw particularly to be in point with regard to Pergamon
(5B 1.3).
In this light Price is surely correct to interpret the scene of the
image of the beast coming to life (Apoc. 13,14-15) in the context of
the ritual associated with the imperial e i K o v e q .8 5 Here in the ani
ma te d d r am a of the ritual is the descript ion of the priestly mag ici an
of w h o m it coul d be said: "and t her e was gr an te d to hi m (Kai e 8 6 0 T |
auxa>) to give a spirit (8ouvai rcveujLia) to the i mage of the beast (xii
e i K o v i xou 0T|p{ou) in o rde r tha t the imag e of the beas t could speak
( i v a Kai taxfoioTi fi ekow xou Oripiou) and shoul d ca use to be slain all
those who would not worship the image (Kai rcoirjori i va oaoi edv uri
8 4
b. /. 20: xotq Se dva7ca \ )ouevo i< ; eiq A,{|3avov rcpoxpriaei 6 dpxcov 8r |vdpi<x ie',
arco>.T|\|/£T(xi T c a p d xou ei<; xov XOTCOV a\>xoi) e i a i o v x o q .8 5
Pr i ce ( 1 9 8 4 ) , pp. 1 5 6 - 1 5 8 .
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THE APOCALYPSE AND DOMITIAN'S ICONOGRAPHY 197
rcpoaKDvr|ocoGiv T T I eiKovixoa)9T |p[o \ )d7COKTav0coaiv) ." (Apoc. 13,15) This
woul d have argua bly been very m uc h ho w the panegyric s of the cult
arranged by the GeoAoyoq, and the drama performed by its oePaaiocpdv-
xr|<;, wo ul d hav e ap peared to the See r.
T h e souls of the de pa rt ed were repr esent ed in the Imper ial Cul t
along wit h those of the de ad and deified empe ro rs , and this fea ture
of those mysteries is represented in the Apocalypse too.
5B 2.2.2. Apo c. 6 and 8: xaq \|n)%d<; xcov eotpaypivcov
As we noted in connection with the mysteries (puornpioiq) for the
first of th e m on th of Loos , name ly 23 rd J u n e (jinvoq Acoou lePaaxfi) ,incens e was offered bo th to the de pa rt ed m e m be rs of the guild
(b . /. 20: xoiq 8e dvarcocuouivoiq eiq X(Pavov) as well as for the dead
and deified emperors.
In the Apocalypse, likewise, ince nse is associated with the heave nly
alt ar, and for the souls wh ic h lie under it. In 6,9 and 11 , at the
opening of the fifth seal, we find:
. . . under the altar (i)7coKcxTco icri) GDaiaoTrjpioi)) the souls of those who
have been slain (xotq vj/Dxdq TCOV sacpayuivcov) for the Word of God (8id
xov AxSyov TOV Geov)... to each of whom was given (e869t| amoiq emoTcp)
a white robe (GTOAJI tauicf)), and they were told (Kai eppe&n amoic;) to
repose for a short time (iva d v a r c a w o v T a i ETI xpovov uiKpov) until their
fellow servants should find their fulfilment (ecoq rctaipcoGcooiv Kai oi
G V V S O V X O I avTcov) along with their brethren (Kai oi dSetapoi amcov) who
were about to be slaughtered like themselves (oi [leXXovxeq drcoKTevveaGai
cb<; Kai avxoi).
T h e t he me of the souls of the faithful d ep ar te d is of cou rse famil
iar from the Wisdom literature (Wis. 3,1-9). But the direct associa
tion with their cultus in the ir association with an altar is not made .
Although Charles was committed to deriving the vision almost wholly
from Je wi sh sources, his quo ta ti on from 1 Enoch 6,11 will not sup
po rt such a claim here since there is no reference to the rep ose oftheir souls. In Apoc. 6, 11, to the cont rar y, the identical ter m for th e
repose of departed members of the college of the imperial choir is
used for Christian martyrs (Apoc. 6,11 d v a T t a u a o v i a i cf. IGRR 353 b.
/. 20: d v a 7 t a \ ) o u i v o i < ; ei<; AiPavov). Incense (AaPavoq) too follows the
op en in g of the seals in 8, 3- 4 whe re "t he angel stood at the alt ar
(eaxdOri eni xov G \ )a iaaTr |p{o\ ) ) with a golden incense-charger (e%cov
AiPavcoxov xpuaouv)" and whe re he pr oc ee ds to offer th e incense(6upid |LiaTa), not in propitiation to the divinized souls of the departed,
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1 9 8 C H A P T E R F I V E
b u t as p r a y e r s o f t h e w h o l e p e o p l e o f G o d w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e m (Ka i
dvePr] 6 Kanvbq xcov Gujiia udxcov xai<; rcpoaeuxaiq xcov dyico v).
T h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i m a g i n a t i o n m a y c h o o s e t h e J e w i s h t e r m s G u oi-
ao x r ip io v an d Gu u iau o t fo r t h e h eav en ly cu l t , s i n ce a cu l t i n t h a t l o ca
t i o n c o u l d n o t c o n c e i v a b l y b e d e s c r i b e d i n p a g a n t e r m s o f pcouoq
(IGRR 4 ,3 5 3 a . / . 3 1 : dv[a6e vxcov ] x[6]v pcouov) o r Aapavcoxoq. B u t th e
c o n c e r n fo r s o u ls o f d e p a r t e d m e m b e r s i n t e r m s o f t h e d v a r c a u o u i v o i
r e v e a l s t h a t t h e c o n t r a - i m a g e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is r e s p o n s i b l e f or
t h e r e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h e a v e n l y s c e n e in s u c h s a n i t i s e d J e w i s h t e r m s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , d e p a r t e d m e m b e r s o f t h e c o ll eg e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n
c u l t a r e d e s c r i b e d a s xaq \\f\>xaq xcov eocpayuivcov 8 i a xov Xoyov xou Geou.
W e h a v e p o i n t e d o u t a l r e a d y t h a t o n e o f t h e office s o f t h e P e r g a m o n
im pe ri al co l lege w as th a t of GeoXoyoq (IGRR 4 ,353 a . / . 31 : [Ka7i(]xcovo<;
G eotaSyou). F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Apocalypse d o e s
n o t u se t h i s t e rm o f himself, GeoAoyoq b e c a m e th e c l a s s ic d e sc r ip t i o n
o f h i s o ffic e a s it w a s c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d b y h i s n e a r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .
W e h av e a l r ea d y m e n t i o n e d t h e ro l e o f t h e of fice o f t h e GeoAoyoq in
w r i t i n g t h e d i s c o u r s e o r Xoyoq o f t h e c u lt ic d r a m a i n w h i c h t h e i m p e
r i a l eiKoveq w e r e i n v o l v e d . T h e Xoyoq o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t , f o r w h i c h
t h e m a r t y r s w e r e s l a u g h t e r e d , is a r g u a b l y h e r e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h a t
o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . C e r t a i n l y , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , t h e
l e t t e r s t o t h e c h u r c h e s h a v e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e u t t e r a n c e o f a m y s t -
a g o g u e s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e X u% via a n d r e v e a l i n g t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e
figure ouo iov uio v dvGpcbrcou in th e ir m id st in t e r m s of su ch ve i le d
i m a g e r y a s w h i t e s t o n e s a n d h i d d e n m a n n a (5 B 1.3).
IGRR 4 , 3 5 3 a ls o m e n t i o n e d a 3 5 m e m b e r c h o i r o f t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t , t h e " h y m n - s in g e r s (uuv cp Soi) o f d iv in e Au g u s tu s (Geou l e p ao x o u )
a n d o f t h e g o d d e s s R o m a (Kai Qeaq Tcouriq ). " (a . /. 5b ) . W e t u r n n o w
to pa ra l le l s w i t h su ch uuvcp8oi in the so ng s o f th e rcpeopuxepoi a r o u n d
t h e h e a v e n l y a l t a r i n t h e Apocalypse.
5 B 2 . 2 . 3 . A p o c . 4,4; 7,14: angels, uuvco8oi and rcpeapuxepoiW e sh a ll d i sc u s s f u r t h e r t h e q u e s t i o n of a n y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e Tcpeapuxepoi a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n l y a l t a r i n t h e Apocalypse a n d
C h u r c h O r d e r o f t h e S e e r ' s c o m m u n i t y w h e n w e d e a l w i t h t h e
I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( 6 A 1.1.1). B u t f o r t h e m o m e n t w e s h a l l
c o n s i d e r t h e s c e n e s a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n l y a l t a r a s r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d t h e p r a y e r s s a i d b y t h e p r e s b y t e r s , t h e a n g e l s ,
t h e " g r e a t c r o w d " o r t h e h y m n s u n g a n d t h e 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 a s r e f le c t io n sof w h a t w a s sa id by rcpeopeiq o r rcpeopuxepoi o r s u n g b y uuvco8o{ at
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T H E APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 199
imperial celebrations, whether in connection or not with imperial
mysteries.
Pleket concluded that, as part of the mysteries at Pergamon, a
aepaaxocpdvxriq exposing "the imperial image under glaring lamp
l igh t ,"8 6
would have been accompanied at least on occasions by
uuvco8oi and GeoAoyoi singing the divine emperors' praises. Though
there is no reference to a aepaoxocpdvxr|<; in IGRR 4, 353 , we find
allusions to such a cultic role elsewhere (IGRR 4,522 (= OGIS 479);
643).8 7
T h e r e a re also ot he r allusions to uuvqxSoi of the Im pe ri al Cu lt
at Pergamon, for example Asia (Hypaepa).8 8
It is to be emp hasi se d th at th e uuvcp86<; is appo in ted for a sacrificial
function (6 K a x a a x a G e i q uuvcp86<; ei<; Guoiaq xou lePaoxou) and that his
hymn (rcapapoouiov) is co nn ecte d wi th an al tar .8 9
The hymn in the
Apocalypse to which we can draw a parallel with the Imperial Cult,
sung by the 144,000 (14 ,2-3), alludes to such imper ial mys tery rites
in a musical context:
. . . the voice which I heared (r\ (pcovfj r\v TiKouaa) was as of harpists playing on their harps (ox; K i 0 a p c p 8 c b v KiGapi^ovxcov ev xaiq KiGdpaic; auxcov),
and they sang a new song (Kai a5oi)oiv ax; qxSfjv Kawf|v ) before the throne
and before the four animals and elders (evomiov xou Gpovou Kai evamiov
xcov xeoadpcov £a>cov Kai xcov TtpeoPuxepcov) and no-one was able to learn
the song (Kai ou8ei<; e8uvaxo paGeiv XTJV a)8f|v) except the 144,000.
Prior to this hymn, we have three prayers said (Xeyoviaq):
(i) T h e first is by the twent y four elders rcpeaPuxepoi, the prec ise
n u mb er of whi ch indicates their collegial ch ar ac te r (4,10),
(ii) the second (7,9) by "a great crowd (6%Ao<; noXvq)... from every
nation and tribes (he navibq eGvouq KaicpuAxov.) . . . standing befo re the
throne and before the Lamb (eoxcoxeq evamiov xou Gpovou Kai evamiov
xou dpviou) ," an d
(iii) the th ird (7,11) by ange ls wh o "s tood in the circle of the thr on e
and of the elders and of the four living animals ( e i o x f | K e i a a v KUK^CO
8 6
P l e k e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 .8 7
See a l s o f o o t n o t e 90.8 8
IGRR 4,1608 ( C l a u d i u s ) : a. /. 10: oi i)uvco8oi a v e 6 r | K a v K a x a T O y e v 6 | i e [ v o v ]
\ j / r | (p ioua ev nepydnq) hub xfjq i e p a q [ a \ ) v o ] 8 o u e v y p d y a v i e q Baa S i m i a [Kai
[(p iA,dv]9pamd eoxiv avxdiq 8 e 8 o ^ i e [ v a \>JC* a\>xoi)] and b. /. 5 . . . [xii iep]a i)uvco8(ov
[ O D V O S C O %aipe iv] . . .
89
IGRR 4,353 d. /. 14-15 cf. c. /. 10; T a c i t u s Hist. 2,55: "At R o m a e . . . . pop-
u l u s cum l a u r u et flo rib us G a l b a e i m a g i n e s c ir c a t e m p l a tu l i t ." See a l s o P l e k e t
( 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 341; A l f o l d i ( 1 9 7 0 ) , pp. 71-72 ff.
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200 C H A P T E R F I V E
xov Bpovcru Kai xcov 7cpeap \ )T8pcov Kai TCOV Teoadpcov £cbcov) ." T h e first
three prayers however do not appear to allude to the imperial mys
teries as such, since they are open, cultic prayers. But undoubtedly
the prayers of the presbyters, the great crowd, and the angels enjoy
the same cultic context as the hymn of the 144,000.
As Alfbldi pointed out , from Republican times acclamations for
great m e n from the crowds often took a rhythmic form. According to
Suetonius, the crowds "greeted Augustus returning from the province
not only with every prayer for his blessing (faustis omnibus) b u t with
rhythmic songs (modulatis carminibus).90
At the games accompanying
the Imperial Cult we have descriptions of the crowds chanting as
"so many thousands of men ( T O o a u T a i p/upid8e<; avOpcorccov). . . even
as some choir accurately taught (coarcep xiq aKpiPcoq x°P°S 8e8i8ay-
pevoq)."9 1
These are the concrete events reflected in the rhythmic
chants of the elders and the angels, or the sung hymn of the 144,000.
The scenic background both of the prayers and of this hymn to
which we have made reference is therefore undoubtedly cultic. T h e
Gpovoq before which the presbyters pray in adorat ion is the same as
that of the lamb before whom the great standing crowd say their
prayer (kox&xeq evamiov xov Gpovou Kai evcorciov TOU apviov). In Apoc.
8,3 it is clear that the golden altar stands before this throne (TO
6 i) G i aoT r |p iov TO xpuoouv TO evamiov TOU Gpovou). T h e L a m b is not
found on the altar but on the throne, yet nevertheless he stands as
once slain but now alive a n d therefore standing a n d later sharing
God's throne.9 2
T h e blood of the Lamb still decorates those for wh o m
he died and who in turn have laid down their lives (6,14).
Fur thermore , in the dress of the 6%Xoq noXvq, a n d what they carry,
we find a very close parallel with the Imperial Cult . In 7,9 we find
them "clothed in white robes (rcepiPepAriuivoix; oxoXaq Xevycaq) a n d
palm branches in their hands (Kai c p o i v i K e c ; ev xaiq %epaiv a v Tc o v ) . " W e
read in the decree of Tiberius' reign from Gytheion (Laconia) that
" there was to be a procession (KOILK^V GxeXXexa* CK TOU iepou TOU
'AaK^riTciou K a i xr\q Tyieiaq) with the ephebes and the young and the
other citizens processing (rcouTieuovTcov TCOV xe ecpriPcov K a i vecov K a i TCOV
9 0
S u e t o n i u s , Aug. 57,2: " R e v e r t e n t e m ex p r o v i n c i a non s o l u m f a u s t i s o m i n i b u s
sed et m o d u l a t i s c a r m i n i b u s p r o s e q u e b a n t u r . "9 1
Dio 7 8 , 2 0 , 1 cf. A l fo l d i ( 1 9 7 0 ) , pp. 7 9 - 8 8 .92 Apoc. 5,6: d p v ( o v £GTT|K6< ; coq e a c p a y u e v o v cf. 7,9: e a x w x e q e v a m i o v xov G p o v o u K a i
e v a m i o v x o f i a p v i o u ; 22,1 and 3.
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T H E APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 201
aXXcov rcoXeixSv), wreathed with c rowns of laure l (eoxeixuivcov Sdcpvrjq
oxecpdvoiq), and clothed in white ( K a i A,euKa dujiexouevcov)."93
Further
more, Herodian (VIII, 7,2) informs us that, on the accession of
Maximus in A.D. 235, the Italian cities "sent embassies (rcpeoPeiaq
erceiircov)" whose members "were clothed in white (Xeu%eiuovouvxe<;)
carrying laurel branches (8acpvr|(p6poi)" with "images (dydA .|Liaxa)" and
"gol den c rowns (oxecpavoi xpuoou)." Mo re ov er the ar my jo in ed the
processi on "in peaceful appe a ranc e (ev eipr|viKcp axr|uaxi), ca rr ying
laurel branches (8acpvr|<p6po<;)."94
At the temp le of the em pe ro rs ( Kaiadp iov) the scene is of the
unbloody sacrifice of thure et vinum and of a bull sacrificed by th e
Ephors "for the salvation of our rulers and gods (urcep xr\q xcov fjyeudvcov
K ai Gecov acoxupiaq) an d t he e te rn al con t inu anc e of thei r rul e (Kai
di'8{ou xfjq fyyeuoviaq auxcov 8iauovf)<;)."95
In Apoc. 7,14 the sacrifice at
the heavenly altar is of the Lamb in whose blood the byXoq TcoXuq
ha ve "washe d the ir robes (ercXuvav xdq cxoXaq) and whitene d th em
(Kai e ^ e u K a v a v auxdq ev xcp ai ua xi xou dpviou)." Fu r th erm or e , imme
diat ely previous ly (7,10), thei r h ymn is also of fj acoxr)pia but di rect ed
"to our G o d (xcp Gecp fiuxov) w ho sits on the th rone (xcp KaGrjuivco E K I
xcp Gpovcp) and to t he L a m b (Kai xcp dpv(cp)."
T h e first pr ay er (4,11) is said by the twen ty four presbyte rs who
we ar axecpavoi upon thei r he ad s an d wh o are also clo the d in whi te
garments (4,4). Bot h officials called rcpeopuxepoi and th e wearing of
garlands (oxecpavoi) in seats of honour (7cpoe8piai) were features of
the Impe ri al Cul t in many of the city states of Asia Mi no r. W e shall
now see the significance of these features from the pagan cultic back
ground in Asia minor.
5 B . 2.2.4. Apoc. 4,4 rcpeoPuxepoi KaGujievoi and ;cpoe8piai
The rcpeopuxepoi KaGnuevoi have their counterpart in the Imperial
Cu lt . T h e r e is no dis tinct office of rcpeoPuxepoi clearly d is tinguishable
in the Im pe ri al Cul t. T h e rcpeopuxepoi of the Seer 's vision clearly ar e
Jewish or Christian Elders playing their part in the liturgy of the
synagogue or church. But, as we have argued, such Jewish-Christian
93
SEG 11, 922, /. 25 ff. = E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s 102 a.9 4 F i s h w i c k ( 1 9 8 7 ) 2,1 p. 478; W e i n s t o c k ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 207 and 397. Cf. Dio C a s s i u s
6 3 , 4 , 2 .95 Ibid. I. 2 8 - 2 9 : o x a v 8e erci xo K aia dp r | ov TI JCOUJCTI 7capayevr|xai, 6 ex co o a v oi ecpopoi
t a f i p o v i)7iepxr\q xcov fiyeuovcov Kai Gecov a c o x i i p i a q Kai a i 8 { o \ ) xr\q f i y eu o v i a q a\>xcov 5ia-
u o v i i q . . .
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2 0 2 C H A P T E R F I V E
co nc ep ts , a s in the case of the Je w is h te rm s 0DGiaaxr |p iov a n d G uu iau a ,
i n p l a c e o f t h e p a g a n pcouoq a n d Aipavcoxoq, a r e th e r e be c a us e the y
a r e i n t e n t i o n a l l y p l a c e d t h e r e b y t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i m a g i n a t i o n .
C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n rcpeoPuxepoi w e r e t h o s e
o ff ic ia ls w h o oc c u p i e d se a t s o f h o n o u r in th e c u l t . A 7ipoe8p{a w a s
a f ron t sea t , g iv en as a pr iv i leg e to off ice ho ld er s su ch as pr ie s t s a n d
a m b a s s a d o r s (Tcpeapeiq), w h o o c c u p i e d s u c h se a t s. M . G a v i u s S q u i l l a ,
the " l i fe long pr ies t o f Victoria Augusta ( i eped 8id p i ou le^acxr\<; Neucnq),"
w a s " h o n o u r e d . . . w i th f ir st s e a t s (xex£iur| | ievov . . . 7ipoe8p{ai<;)" b y
t h e c i ty - s t a te s o f P a m p h y l i a , L y c i a a n d A s i a (IGRR 4 , 778 / . 1 a nd
1 5 ( A t t a l e a ) ) . A t N a r b o , t h e rcpoe8pia (subsellio primo spectandi) w a s
spec i f ica l ly g iven to the pr ies t (flameri) o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .9 6
W e sh a ll p u r s u e f u r t h e r t h e s e l e xi c al c o n n e c t i o n s w h e n w e c o n s i d e r
t h e I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , a n d w h e r e t h e t h e m e s o f n p o K a O r i p e v o q
a r e e c c le s i a s t i c a lly fu r th e r de ve lo pe d f ro m Ka0r|pevo< ; e t c . a n d th e
c o n c o m i t a n t i m a g e r y t h a t w e a r e f i n d i n g h e r e . F o r t h e m o m e n t , l e t
u s n o t e t h a t , w h e n t h e C o u n c i l a t A t t a l e a r e c o r d e d its h o n o u r p a i d
t o D i o n y s i u s s o n o f G l y k o n , o n e o f h i s e x i s t i n g h o n o u r s w a s t h a t h e
"enjoyed the office also of f irst seat ( i iexexovxa Kai xfjq rcpoeSpiaq; IGRR
4 , 1 1 6 7 /. 4 ) . " T e o s s p ec if ic a ll y a w a r d e d t o c e r t a i n a m b a s s a d o r s t o
R o m e b o th a rcpoeSpia a n d a xpu ao uq axecpavoq.9 7
W e t u r n n o w t o
th e c h a ra c te r of the oxecpdvoi of Apoc. 4 , 4 .
5B 2. 2 .5 . axecpavoi %puao{, rcpeaPuxepoi and axecpavr|(p6poi
Xxecpavoi w e r e a w a rd e d to a th le t e s a n d o th e r s a s a m a rk o f h i gh h on o u r , a n d so w o u l d p r e f i g u r e i n t h e g a m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i m p e r i a l
p r o c e s s i o n s a n d b i r t h d a y s . P r i e s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , p a s t o r p r e
s e n t , w o u l d a l so w e a r s u c h c r o w n s , a s i n d e e d D o m i t i a n d i d w h e n
p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s ( 5 A 2 . 2 . 2 ) . T h u s t h e t i d e a x e -
(pavricpopoq i s a s so c ia ted w i th t he I m p er ia l C u l t .
T h e S a c r e d G e r o u s i a (i ep d y e p o u a i a ) a t E p h e s u s e n j o y e d s a c e r d o
t a l f unc t io ns in r e l a t io n to th e c u l t o f A r te m is im p l i c i t in th e a d je c t iv e i e p d . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , i t b e c a m e c lo s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t w h e n t h e l a t t e r b e c a m e a s s i m i l a t e d w i t h t h e f o r m e r .
% L e x N a r b o n e n s i s , CIL 1 2 , 6 0 3 8 : [ d e h o n o r i b u s e i u s q u i fla men e r i t ] r e s t o r e d
l i n e 5 : [i n te r d e c u r i o n e s s ] e n a t o r e s v e s u b s e l l io p r i m o s p e c t a n [ d i l u d o s p u b l i c o s e i u s
p r o v i n c i a e i u s e s t o ] .
97
IGRR 4 , 1 5 5 8 /. 2 7 - 3 0 ( T e o s) = OGIS 2 ,567: . . . e'5o£ev xr \ p ou X fl . . . e7iaw[eaai
xo]i)<; TtpoyeYpauiievoix; a v 8 p a < ; m i KaXeia6ai eiq 7tpo[e5p(av KOCT'] eviavxov Aiovoaicov
xcp dyfcovi] ecoq a]v £cociv, K a l [axe(pavo\jo]9ai xpuoxo oxecpdvw . ..
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 2 0 3
A s O l i v e r sa i d , " T h e w o rd rcpeopuxepoi is a ll ov e r A s i a sy no ny m ou s
w i th y e p o u o i a . "9 8
F u r t h e r m o re t he ye p ouo i a is de s c r i b e d a s (p iA ooe Pa a-
xoq , a n d a t Hy e t tu s t he loca l ins t i tu t i on de sc r ib ed i tse l f a s f| i ep d yep
ouaia xou Icoxfjpoq 'AoKAr |7 t tou .9 9
H e r e i n d e e d , u n u s u a l l y a n d e x c e p t i o n a l l y , t h e t i d e o f a f u n c t i o n a r y
c a l l e d a rcpeaPuxepoq d i d a p p e a r i n c o n j u nc t i on w i t h t he Im pe r i a l
C u l t . A m o n g s t s u c h rcpeoPuxepoi w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h o s e h o n o u r e d
w i th a oxecpavoq a n d in c o n s eq u en c e d es c r ib ed as oxecpavr jcpopoi.10 0
W e h a v e a n A s i a n in s c r i p t io n ( L a m p s a c u s ) i n h o n o u r o f A u g u s t u s '
w if e L i v i a , i n w h i c h t he G e ro us i a o rd e r t he e r e c t i on o f h e r s t a t ue w i t h
s t ep s d e d i c a t e d t o " J u l i a S e b a s t a H e s t i a ('Iou^iav I e p a a x f | v ' E a x i a v ) ,
t h e n e w D e m e t e r ( v e a v Af |u r | xpa) ." P a r t o f t h e e x pe ns e is " fo r t he
h o n o u r i n g w ith w r e a th s (urcep xfjq ei<; xoix; oxecpdvouc; eu ae Pe iaq ) of th e
pr ies t o f the Sebastoi (xou iepecoq xcov lePaaxcov)."1 0 1
I n a n i n s c r i p t i o n
f rom Cy z i c u s (c . A .D . 37 ) t h e c i t i z e n bo dy is i n s t ru c t e d , w h e n w e l
c o m in g ce r ta in roy a l v i s i to rs , t o g re e t t h e m pxxd xcov dpxovxcov K a i
xcov axecpavr|cp6pcov, in th e co n te x t of th e I m p e r ia l C u l t .1 0 2
T h e r e is a l so i n IGRR 4 , 3 5 3 b. 1. 1 5 -1 6 , a s w e saw (5B 2 .2) , t he
c o n d u c t o r (6 m x a o x a G e i q uuvcoSoq) w h o p r o v i d e d o n i m p e r i a l b i r t h -
9 8 J . H . O l i v e r , T h e S a c r e d G e r u s i a , i n Am eriacn Excavations in the Athenian Agora,
Hesp. S u p p l . 6 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 2 6 a n d 4 1 , c o n t r a r y t o T o d ( 1 9 1 5 ) , p p . 2 - 3 , w h o s a id :
" E x a m p l e s f ro m A s i a M i n o r a re ra re , p a r t l y p e rh a p s b ec a u s e o f t h e u s e o f t h e t e rm
rcp eaPtJT Ep oq i n co n n ec t i o n w i t h t h e g y m n a s i a a n d w i t h m a n y o f t h e g u i l d s a n d
s o c i e t i e s o f t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d , a n d a b o v e a ll i n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f t h e
C h r i s t i a n C h u r ch m a d e it l e s s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a f a t h er
f r o m h i s s o n w h o b o r e t h e n a m e . " N e v e r t h e l e s s h e c i t e s t w o i n s c r i p t o n s f r o m A d a d a
in Pis id ia re fer rin g to Bidvcop 'Avxioxcru 7tpea(3i>xepo<; w h o i s a l s o dpxiepeix; xcov
l ep a o x co v ( p . 3 ) .9 9
Ol i v er ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p . 3 9 .100
I.G. 1 2 , 2 , 5 8 = OGIS 4 5 6 = IGRR 4 , 39 (M i ty l e ne 11 B .C . ) a. /. 10 : xou dp x-
lepecoq Kai xov axecpavricpopou.101
CIG 3 6 4 2 = IGRR 4 , 1 8 0 .102
IGRR 4 ,145 refers to the c iv i c recept ion for k ings res tored by Cal igula a f terthe i r de po s i t i on b y T ib er ius . T h e de cr ee i s h ow ev er (xo 8e \j/r |cp iop .a e iv a i ) ab ou t
re l ig ious de vo t io n to th e E m p er or (rcepi x ' ev ae Pe iaq xf|< ; e iq xov l e p a a x o v ) an d the
honour for the k ings (Kai XTI<; eiq xoix; (JaaiAiaq x eiu fj q; /. 2 5 ) . T h e m o n a r ch s w ere
t o b e w e l c o m e d i n a p r o c e s s i o n a r o u n d t h e t e m p l e s . " . . . a t t h e ir a r r iv a l (i)7to8e xpv
ei oo 8o v avxcov) the pr i es t s a nd pr i es te sses (xoix; uev i epetq Kai xaq i epe iaq) , ha v in g
op e n ed the shr ine s (dvo i^ avx aq xa xejxevT |) an d a do rn ed the im ag es (Kai 7 ipooKoaur |a -
a v x a q x a £ 6 a v a xcov Gecov), a re t o p r a y f o r t h e e t ern a l co n t i n u a n ce o f G a i u s C a es a r
( d 5 £ a a 6 a i u e v i)7cep xiiq rai)o\) K ai oa p oq a icovCou 8 iauovf jq) an d for the i r sa fety (Kai
xfj<; xovxcov acoxrip iaq). Al l the C yz ic en es are to sh ow the i r go od - fe e l i ng for t h em
(K \ ) ^ I K T | V O \ X ; 8 e i cd v x a q ev S e i Kv o u ev o i x ; xr\v sic, a v x o i x ; e i S v o i a v ), a n d t o m e e t a n dg r e e t t h e m w i t h t h e a r c h o n s a n d stephanephoroi. . . (i)7iavxr|aavxa<; uexd xcov dpxovxcov
Kai xcov axecpavTicpopcov d a r c d a a a G a i . . .). •• (/ . 1 9 -2 4 ) .
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204 C H A P T E R F I V E
days crowns for the i)uvcp8oi (axe9avou(;xoi<;\)jLivcp8oi<;Kaixoi(;|a \)aTr|pioi(;
axecpdvcoaiv). Whether the rcpeaPuxepoi oi Apoc. 4,4-11 are to be viewed
as singing as opposed to rcpeaPeiq making prayerful panegyric is a
mute point, a n d perhaps the Seer did not always carefully distin
guish the images of various figures of the Imper ial Cult t ransfor med
contra-culturally into the heavenly scene. T h e rcpeapuxepoi as i)uvcp8o{
would clearly have worn such crowns. But that the crowns are golden
implies further a n d perhaps other images than that of the choir.
T h e 7Up£oPt>x£poi in Apoc. 4 are moreover crowned with golden
cro wns (oxetpdvoix; xpuaovq). T h e fact that their garlands are of gold
is significant because the general gathering of white-robed citizens
wore ordinary garlands. From the decree of Gytheum we see that
the general population "were wreathed with crowns of laurel (eaxeu-
uivcov 8dtpvri<; oxecpdvoiq)."1 03
T h e crowns worn by the ax£(pavr|(p6poi
were therefore special crowns. Benefactors were awarded them such
as Perigenes of Alexandria , son of Leontiskus who "for his piety
(euaepeiocv)" towards Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe, was "to be garlanded
with a go lden cr ow n (axetpavcoaai xpuafi axecpdvcp)."10 4
As we saw in
the last paragraph, sometimes a axecpavncpopoq could be a priest,
though whilst sacrificing the priest specifically of the Imperial Cult
would wear the corona aurea with its effigies (see also 5A 2.2.2). Poly-
cleides was a stephanephorus (axecpavricpopouvxoq IIOAA)KA£{8OI)) "on account
of his erecting an image of Ar tem is L eucophryene (urcep xfjq Ka6i8pt>-
aecoq xou ^odvou xfjq 'Apxepi8o<; xf|<; Ae'OKoepp'ovfiq)." He in consequence
joins the priestesses a n d other axe<pavr|<p6poi in both processing a n d
sacrificing.1 0 5
In the first prayer (Apoc. 4,11), the rcpeaPuxepoi "cast their crowns
(PaAouaiv xoix; oxeyavoxx; auxcov) before the throne (evawiiov xou Gpovou)."
This directly parallels the Imperial Cult in that it was a customary
practice to present the divine ruler with a gold crown, and to wor
ship before his empty chair. In Dio Cassius 59,24, 3-4 the senators
in a body did obeisance in the Capitol to the chair of Gaius .1 0 6
1 0 3
E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) 1 0 2 , 2 5 = SEG 1 1 , 9 2 2 - 9 2 3 .104
OGIS 2 , 7 3 0 .105
SylP 695 /. 3 3 - 3 4 : xaq 8e y i v o u e v a q i e p e i a q xx\q ' A p i e u i S o q , u e x a axe9avTi96pov
noAA)ictai8riv K a i xoix ; axecpavricpopoix; ev xcpKa9' e a u x o i x ; e v i a u x c p O v c i a v K a i 7cou7triv
a u v x e X e i v . See a l s o IGRR 4 , 1 3 0 4 /. 5; 1349 /. 16; 1558 /. 2 7 - 3 1 .1 0 6 D.G. A u n e , The I n f l u e n c e of the R o m a n I m p e r i a l C o u r t C e r e m o n i a l on the
A p o c a l y p s e of J o h n , in Papers of the Chicago Society for Biblical Research, 28 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,
p p . 13-14 c i te s a l so Dio C a s s i u s 4 5 , 6 , 5 ; 5 3 , 3 0 , 6 1 . Cf. L. R o s s T a y l o r , The D i v i n i t y
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 2 0 5
M a x i m i n u s in A . D . 2 3 5 is m e t b y d e l e g a t i o n s (r cp ea Pe ia q) o f p r o m i
n e n t c i t i z e n s d r e s s e d i n w h i t e a n d w e a r i n g l a u r e l w r e a t h s , w h o b r o u g h t
wi th t h em s t atu es o f t h e i r g o d s an d g o ld en c ro w n s (He ro d ian V H I ,7 ,2 ) .1 0 7
T h e l a t t e r p r a c t i c e to o is s u p p o r t e d f r o m e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e . F r o m
M y t i l e n e (c . 2 7 B . C .) a g o l d e n c r o w n w a s t o b e s e n t t o A u g u s t u s
a n d O c t a v i a a n d p r e s e n t e d b y t h e a m b a s s a d o r s ( r c p e o p e i c ; ) .1 0 8
I n Apoc. 4 ,1 0 th e r cp eo pux ep oi p r a y p r ay e r s w h i ch a re a lm o s t i d e n
t ic a l i n c o n t e n t w i t h t h o s e o f t h e g r e a t c r o w d a n d t h e a n g e l s . L e t
u s l o o k a t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e s e p r a y e r s in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e w o r
s h ip f u l p a n e g y r i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e npeofieiq, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e a r e a s i g n o r a n t o f t h e w o r d s o f t h e h y m n s
o f t h e uu v co 8 oi a n d Geo Ao yo i, w h e th e r i n t h e m y s t e r i e s o r i n o p e n
c u l t ic c e l e b r a t i o n a s w e a r e o f t h e w o r d s o f t h e s o n g o f t h e 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 .
A s A u n e p o i n t e d o u t , t h is w o u l d a l so b e t r u e o f t h e s p o k e n p r a y e r s
o f t h e o ff ic ia ls o f t h e Im p er i a l C u l t .1 0 9
B u t t h e w o r d s o f s u c h o ff ic ia l p r a y e r s w o u l d n o d o u b t b e r e f l e c t e d
in w h a t w as s e t t o m u s i c . W h e t h e r t h e p r ay e r s o f t h e rcpeo pu xep oi
w e r e s p o k e n o r s u n g , w e find i n t h e m r e f l e c t io n s o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h i s l a n g u a g e m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t w e h a v e h e r e i n
th e p ra y e r s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n rcp eo Pux ep oi m o d e l s o f w h a t w as o r ig i
n a l ly s u n g b y t h e p a g a n c h o i r s . W e n o w t u r n t o t h e c o n t e n t s o f
t h e s e p r a y e r s t h a t w e b e l i e v e w e c a n a s s o c i a t e m o r e d i r e c t l y a n d
e x a c t l y w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a n t h e a t t e m p t e d
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f A u n e .1 1 0
5 B 3 . Imperial ideology in A p o c . 4,10 and 7,10
E a c h o f t h e t h re e p r ay e r s is ad d r es se d b e fo re t h e t h ro n e (evcbiciov
x ou 0 p 6 v o u ) , l ik e t h o se o f t h e S en a t o r s a t t h e C ap i to l i n t h e r e ig n o f
G a i u s , t o h is v a c a n t c h a i r , w h e t h e r b y p r e s b y t e r s , a n g e l s , o r t h e g r e a t
c r o w d .1 1 1
T h e r e a r e c o m m o n c o n c e p t s r e p e a t e d . T h e s e a r e : 8 6 £ a ,
e u x a p i a x i a , xi|xf|, a n d S uv a ji iq , (4 ,1 1 ) t o w h i c h t h e a n g e l s a n d " e v e r y
o f t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r , i n American Philological Association, Philological Monographs, 1
( 1 9 3 1 ) , ( C o n n e c t i c u t 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 8 7 n o t e 1 5 a n d D J . W e i n s t o c k , Divus Julius, ( O x f o r d :
C l a r e n d o n 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 2 8 3 .1 0 7
A u n e ( 1 9 8 3 ) p . 1 2 .108
IGRR 4 ,39 b . / . 3 0 - 3 1 : TteuxpOfjvai 8e Kai oxecpavov anb x pv ac o v 8 i a x ^ ic o v
ov
K a i d v a S o O f jv a i i>nb xcov upeapecov.1 0 9
A u n e ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 5 - 2 0 .1 1 0
A u n e (1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 7 ff .1 1 1
S e e f o o t n o t e s 9 8 a n d 9 9 .
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206 C H A P T E R F I V E
creature" adds ei)Xoyia, Kpdxoq and nXomoq (5,13), to whi ch 7, 10 -1 2
adds ia%t><;, aoqnct and ocoxripia. We can now tra ce m ost of these con
cepts, with the exception of oocpia, in the inscriptions.
5B 3.1 . 86^a, euxapio xia, Kpdxoq
In the Myti lenia n dec ree (c. 27 B.C.), to wh ich reference ha s a lr eady
been made , thanksgiv ing (euxapiaxia) is given for the benefits bes towed
by the imperial family in the mutilated beginning (b. /. 6: .. euepyeoicov
vouaa[ . . . £\>xa]piGx{av) . The inscription continues:
[Such benefits] are to be concluded from a natural generosity becauseit is never possible for the more humbling experiences in fate or in
nature to be applied to those who have achieved heaven's glory (86£ a)
and the superiority of the gods and their strength (Kpaioq) .1 1 2
In /. 24 and 34 we read that the ambassadors (npecfieiq) who, as we
ha ve seen, ar e to pr es en t t he crcicpavoq xpuaouq, ar e "to praise (eu%api-
o x f} o a i ) " the imperial family.
Similarly, in IGRR 4,1 45 /. 5 (Cyzicus), ho no ur in g Calig ula for
the restorat ion of ce rt ai n kings in Asia, th e decr ee is for h im "for
the praise of such a god (eiq £x>%apiGxiav xr|A,iKot>xou Oeou)."
We find the theme of Kpdxoq too in the Ephesian graffito: " R o me ,
queen of all, (Tcbpa r\ na\i$aGiXe\a) your strength will never perish
(xo aov Kpdxoq o\)7cox' 6A,£ixai)."11 3
5B 3.2. ocoxripia
It is at first sight qu it e in co ng ru ou s that a pr aye r shoul d be offered
(Apoc. 7,10) to the Ju da eo -C hr is ti an G o d offering hi m salvation or
safety (ocoxripia). Ye t in the co nt ex t of th e god-Emperor such a pa ra
dox is ap pr op ri at e. Fr om Ad ra ae in Ar ab ia we hav e two inscr iptions
in A.D. 262-3 commemorating walls and gates "on behalf of the
salvation and victory of our Lord (vnep ocoxn.p{a<; ice viicriq xot> Kupiou
f^pcov)" the form er of wh ich preserves the wo rd s "E mper o r Gal lienus
Sebastos ( a u x o K p a x o p o q T a ^ i r | v o \ ) I e | i . ) "1 1 4
112
IGRR 4 , 3 9 (Mytilene) b. /. 6 - 1 1 : £7uXoy{aao6ai 8e xfj[<;] OIKECOK ; jieyaAjOcppoawriq
ox[ i ] xoiq o v p a v i o i ) xexe[\)]x6ai 56[£TI<; Kai Gecov \)7iepoxfvv Kai K p a x o q exovaiv oi>8e7ioxe
8 i )vaxa i a\)ve^iaco9fjvai x a K a i xr\ xt>xii xarcewoxepa K a i xr\ [cpvaei.113 /. Eph. II, 599 .114
IGRR 3, 12 8 7 / . 4 and 12 8 8 /. 5.
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T H E APOCALYPSE AND DOMITIAN'S ICONOGRAPHY 207
5B 3.3. 8uvaua<; and ioxuq
T he re is not a grea t deal of evidence for 8uvaui<; in the inscrip tions
for the Impe ri al Cult , and no ne that I ca n find for ioxuq perhap s
because, at all events, it is synonymous with Kpdxoq.
If we go for an earl ier desc rip tion of the Hellenisti c ruler -cul t
before Aug ust us, th er e is the de cr ee from Pri ene in h o n o u r of
Lysimachus in 306 B.C. (OGIS 12). Her e the re are all the trappin gs
of the later Imp eri al Cul t that we have observed. T h e people are
to erect a bronze statue (oxr|aei 8e 6 8fjuo<; xou PaoiAiox; ayaAuxx xaAxouv;
/. 15). T h e rcpeaPeuxai are to cr own him wi th a go lden crow n (oxe-
cpavcoaouoiv auxov oxecpdvcp xpuoco; /. 14). T he y ar e furthermore to
rejoice to ge th er with the king (ouvr|a6r|oovxai xcp paaiAei ) th at he
himself is st rong (oxi ccuxoq xe eppcoxai) and his power (Kai f| Suvauxq)...
(/. 10).
For the time of the Imperi al Cu lt itself, we have an Egyptian
inscripti on in which Tib eri us Jul iu s Alexa nde r is the au th or of a
decree addressing various complaints and petitions to Galba in 68
A . D . (OGIS 669) . He writes of necessity (rcpoeypa\|/a dvayKaicoq) "con
ce rn ing each par ti cu la r th ing sought (rcepi em ox ou xcov eTu^rjxoupivcov),
many of whi ch I can judge a nd do (ba a e^eaxi uoi K p e i v e i v K a i icoieiv)
but other s which are too grea t an d requir e the powe r of the em pe ro r
(xd 8e jiei^ova K a i Seojieva xr\q xou a u x o K p d x o p o q 8uvd|ieco<;....(/. 8-9))."
5B 3.4. nXomoq
Neither nXomoq nor euAoyia are direcdy attested in the inscriptions
with particular reference to the Imperial Cult. However, cognate
terms are found on coinage associated with the iconography of the
Imperial Cult. Fortuna is found as the deified personi fica tion along
with Abundantia, Annona, Felicitas, or Moneta expressing the wealth
(rc^ouxoq) associated with the imperial divinities.
Re ga rd in g rcXouxoq, we have a nu mber of coins from Do mi ti an 's
tenth consulate (A.D. 84) bearing the radiate head of the emperor
with Annona on the reverse, seated and holding corn ears, in one
case with a small figure and a ship in the distance, inscribed A N N O N A
A V G [ V S T A ] .1 1 5
As we noted with the cult of virtues (2B 3), here a
deified abst rac tion is be in g associa ted with the collective per sona lity
1 , 5 BMC 2, p. 360 no. *, see also p. 365 no. 304 plate 71,5, and p. 373 no. 347
p l a t e 73,6.
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2 0 8 C H A P T E R F I V E
o f t h e E m p e r o r b y m e a n s o f t h e q u a li fy i ng a n d a p p r o p r i a t i n g a d d i
t i o n o f augusta. L i k e w i s e w i t h Moneta, t h e g o d d e s s p e r s o n i f y i n g t h e
M i n t , D o m i t i a n ' s c o i n s s h o w h e r d r a p e d a n d h o l d i n g s c a l e s a n d a
cornucopia w i t h i n sc ri p ti o n M O N E T A A V G V S T [ A ] . 1 1 6
Simi la r ly in co ins f rom Ti tus ' s re ign (A.D. 81-82) Felicitas i s inscr ibed
as F E L I C I T [ A S ] A V G V S T f A ] , d e p ic t e d h o l d i n g cornucopiae.ul T h e r e
a r e a ls o e x a m p l e s o f i n s c ri p ti o n s o f t h e f o r m : F E L I C I T A S P V B L I C A
S . C . , i n w h i c h Felicitas h o l d s cadeus a n d cornucopiae a n d th u s is a sy m
b o l o f 7 t A x r i ) T O < ; .1 1 8
PART C . I N C O N C L U S I O N : APOCALYPSE A N D T H E IMPERIAL C U L T
W e h a v e th u s s u r v e y e d t h e i m a g e r y a n d b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e Apocalypse,
a n d l o c a t e d th i s f i rm l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a
M i n o r in D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n . W e h a v e a r g u e d in t e r m s o f c o n t r a - c u l
t u r a l t h e o r y t h a t t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e Apocalypse is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d
a s a J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e v a lu e s o f p a g a n c u l t u r ei n w h i c h t h e i m p r e s s o f t h a t c u l t u r e is r e - e x p r e s s e d i n a r e v e r s e d
f o r m . T h e p i c t u r e o f C h r i s t a n d t h e S o n o f M a n i n t h e m i d s t o f
th e l a m p s t an d s o f t h e s ev en ch u r ch es , t h e l an g u ag e o f t h e GeotaSyoq
o f t h e m y s t e r i e s t h e r e u s e d , t h e g o l d e n l a u r e a t e p r e s b y t e r s a r o u n d
t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e o f i n c e n s e , t h e w h i t e r o b b e d t h r o n g o f m a r t y r s ,
t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e h y m n s s u n g o r p r a y e r s s a id a r o u n d t h e h e a v
e n l y a l t a r , t h e i m a g e r y o f m o t h e r a n d c h i l d , o f a n g e l s w i t h v i a ls e t ca ll r e f l ec t ed t h e im a g e ry o f t h a t c u l t .
F u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e f le c t io n w a s a r e v e r s e r e f le c t io n . T h e c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e t a k e s o n t h e v a l u e s o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e i n a r e v e r s e d t r a n s
f o r m a t i o n . I t c r e a t e s i ts o w n f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e t h a t is a k i n d o f
m i r r o r i m a g e o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , w i t h w h i c h t h o s e w h o i n h a b i t i ts
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i a l r e a l i ty f in d t h e s t a t u s a n d s e l f- e s te e m t h a t
t h e h o s t c u l t u r e d e n i e s t h e m . T h e q n a A m o f p l e n t y r e p r e s e n t e d o nt h e i m p e r i a l c o i n a g e a s d i s p o s e d b y Abundantia, Annona, Felicitas, Fortuna,
o r b y D o m i t i a a s t h e m o t h e r o f a d i v i n e c h i l d h a v e b e c o m e t r a n s
f o r m e d i n t h e v i s io n o f t h e S e e r i n t o t h e (p id A m o f G o d ' s w r a t h . T h e
s a c ri fi ce s o n t h e a l t a r b e c o m e , n o t t h e b u l ls , b u t t h e m a r t y r s w h o
1 , 6
BMC 2 , p . 3 6 7 n o . 3 1 4 ( A . D . 8 5 ) , p . 3 7 5 , a n d p . 3 7 8 n o . 3 6 5 p l a t e 7 4 , 8 .117
BMC 2 , p . 2 5 5 n o . 1 5 6 , s e e a l s o p . 2 8 0 .1 , 8
BMC 2 , p . 2 1 2 n o . 8 5 6 p l a te 4 1 , 9 .
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T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 2 0 9
h a v e w a s h e d t h e i r f es ta l r o b e s w h i t e in t h e b l o o d o f t h e L a m b .
D o m i t i a a n d h e r ch i l d b e c o m e M a r y a n d J e s u s , p u r s u e d b y S a t a n .
T h e f ea s ts a n d b a n q u e t s o f t h e i m p e r i a l f e st iv a l, a n d o f t h e i m p e r
ia l m y s t e r i e s , b e c o m e t h e m a r r i a g e s u p p e r of t h e L a m b .
B u t g i v e n t h a t t h e c h u r c h i n h e a v e n is r e f l e c te d i n t h e c h u r c h o n
e a r t h , w h a t if a n y t h i n g d o e s t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e f o r m e r i n t h e Apocalypse
t el l u s a b o u t t h e s t a t e o f C h u r c h O r d e r a t t h i s t i m e ? C a n w e s e e
i n t h e p r e s b y t e r s o f t h e Apocalypse o r t h e a n g e l s o f t h e C h u r c h e s a n y
r e fl ec ti on o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y C h u r c h O r d e r ? I a m g o i n g n o w to su g
g e s t t h a t t h e r e is a r e s o l u t i o n t o th i s a n c i e n t p r o b l e m i n t h e l e t t e r s
o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t h a t r e fl e ct in v a r i o u s a n d d i s c r e t e w a y s t h e
i m a g e r y o f t h e Apocalypse w h i c h r e a p p e a r i n w h a t is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y
a d e s c r i p t i o n o f h o w h e r e g a r d s t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e C h u r c h g a t h
e r e d f or w o r s h i p o n e a r t h . I t is t o t h e I g n a t i a n d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t
w e n o w t u r n .
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C H A P T E R S I X
I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E
M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N
Imp erial am bassado rs, representation, and confron tation
T h e r e a r e , c o n t r a r y t o K o e s t e r , s uf fi cie nt c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e
I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d t h e Apocalypse t o s u g g e s t a r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h u r c h e s of A s i a a d d r e s s e d in b o t h w o r k s .1
I t w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e w r o n g t o s u p p o s e t h a t w i t h i n t h o s e c i ti e s t h e r e
w e r e s e p a r a t e c h a r i s m a t i c g r o u p s to w h i c h t h e l a t te r w e r e a d d r e s s e d ,
a n d s e p a r a t e e p i s c o p a l g r o u p s t o w h i c h t h e f o r m e r w e r e a d d r e s s e d ,
w i t h n o r e l a t io n t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e c h u r c h e s in E p h e s u s , P e r g a m o n ,
a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a , a d d r e s s e d b y t h e S e e r , w e r e t h e s a m e g r o u p s s o m e
fifteen t o t w e n t y y e a r s l a t e r a d d r e s s e d b y I g n a t i u s , a n d n o t r i v a l
g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e s a m e c it y w i t h n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r .
In c o n se q u en ce , i t w i l l b e p o s s ib l e for m e to a r g u e in t h e first
h a l f o f t h i s c h a p t e r (6 A ) t h a t w e c a n u s e t h e I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n
d e n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e h e a v e n l y a n g e l s a n d p r e s b y t e r s o f t h e
Apocalypse b e c a m e I g n a t i u s ' r e a l - l i v e b i s h o p s a n d p r e s b y t e r s s o m e
fifteen ye ar s l a t e r , i f in d e e d thes e o f f icers w er e n o t ye t p re se n t int h e c h u r c h e s a d d r e s s e d b y t h e S e e r . T h e s e h e a v e n l y b e i n g s r e f le c t ed
f e a t u r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d i ts r i t u a l . S u b s e q u e n t l y , w h e n t h e y
b e c o m e g r o u n d e d i n a n e a r t h l y i n s t i tu t i o n a t t h e I g n a t i a n , f u r t h e r
s t ag e o f d e v e l o p m e n t so m e fifteen y e a r s l a t t e r , t h ey wil l a l so r e f lec t
s o m e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p a g a n i n s t i t u t io n s o f w h i c h t h e y a r e t h e c o n t r a -
c u l t u r a l m o d e l s . W e s ha l l s h o w m o r e o v e r a t y p o l o g y o f r e p r e s e n t a
t i o n i n I g n a t i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e th r e e f o l d O r d e r w h i c h re f le c ts t h et h e o l o g y of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i m p l i e d in D o m i t i a n ' s c h a n g e s , a s h i g h
p r i e s t o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s in t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e coronae. S u c h
a t y p o l o g y w e s h a l l s e e t o b o t h i n c l u d e a n d t o g o b e y o n d t h e e p i s
c o p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n g e l ic c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f c o m m u n i
t ies in the Apocalypse.
1 H . K o e s t e r , T N Q M A I A I AO O P O I: T h e O r i g i n a n d N a t u r e o f D i v e r s i f i c a t io n i nt h e H i s t o r y o f E a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , i n J . M . R o b i n s o n a n d H . K o e s t e r , Trajectories
through Early Christianity, ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t re s s P r e s s 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 5 7 .
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I G N A T IU S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S IO N 2 1 1
2
F o r a n e a r l i e r v e r s i o n , s e e A . B r e n t , I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,in VCh 5 2 , 1 (1 9 9 8 ) , p p . 3 0 - 5 8 .
3
T h e L i g h t f o o t - Z a h n c o n s e n s u s o n t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e M i d d l e R e c e n s i o n h a s
r e c e n t l y b e e n a s s a i l ed b y , a m o n g s t o t h e r s , R . J o l y , Le Dossier d'Ignace d'Antioche,
( U n i v e r s i t e L i b r e d e B r u x e l l e s : F a c u l t e d e P h i l o s o p h i c e t L e t t r e s : L X I X 1 9 7 8 ) ;
J . R i u s - C a m p s , The Four Letters of Ignatius the Martyr, ( R o m e : P o n t i f i c iu m I n s t i tu t u m
O r i e n t a l i u m S t u d i o r u m 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e i r g r o u n d s a r e u n s a t is f a c to r y s e e , e . g . W . S c h o e d e l ,
A r e t h e L e t t e r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h A u t h e n t i c ? i n RelStRev 6 ( 1 9 8 0) , p p . 2 6 1 - 2 9 7 ;
C P . H a m m o n d B a m m e l , in JThS 3 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 6 2 - 9 7 ; A . B r e n t , T h e I g n a t i a n
E p i s t l e s a n d t h e T h r e e f o l d E c c l e s i a s t i c a l O r d e r , i n JRH 1 7 ,1 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 8 - 3 2 ;
Idem. T h e R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e Didascalia Apostolorum, in
SecCent 8 , 3 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 . F o r f u ll e r b i b l i o g r a h y s e e a l s o B r e n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) .4
S e e f o o t n o t e 1 a b o v e .
F u r t h e r m o r e , w e s ha ll s h o w (6B ) t h a t I g n a t i u s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
h i s m a r t y r d o m i s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a n i m p e r i a l c u l ti c p r o c e s s i o n , w i t h
t h e r o l e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c l e ri c s w h o a c c o m p a n y h i m d e s c r i b e d b y
a m b a s s a d o r i a l t i d e s . T h e s e t i d e s w i ll b e s h o w n t o h a v e e q u i v a l e n t s
i n i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s m a d e b y t h e c i t y s t a te s o f A s i a M i n o r
t o a p p o i n t v a r i o u s o ffic er s fo r t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n a n d c e l e b r a t i o n o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .2
PART A . I G N A T I A N T Y P O L O G Y A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y
T h e c la s si c al , t h r e e f o l d O r d e r o f l a t e r C h r i s t e n d o m a p p e a r s f or t h e
f irs t t i m e u n a m b i g u o u s l y i n t h e le t t e r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , w h o
w r i t e s i n t h e re i g n o f T r a j a n a r o u n d A . D . 1 0 9 .3
T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse is a n i n t e r e s t i n g o n e .
S e v e r a l o f t h e d e s t i n a t i o n s o f I g n a t i u s ' l e tt e r s ( E p h e s u s , S m y r n a , P h i l a
d e l p h i a ) a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f t h e le t t e r s a d d r e s s e d t o
t h e m b y t h e S e e r i n A . D . 9 5 . I f t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d ,it is a n i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n w h a t k i n d o f C h u r c h O r d e r e x i s te d i n
t h e s e c h u r c h e s a t t h e tim e o f t h e S e e r , a n d h o w it d e v e l o p e d b y t h e
t i m e o f I g n a t i u s .
K o e s t e r a r g u e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s m a y b e a d d r e s s e d
e v e n w i t h i n t h e s a m e c i t i e s b y I g n a t i u s a n d t h e S e e r .4
B u t a l t e r n a
t iv el y t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h h a d a c h i e v e d , c o m -
m e n d a b l y i n I g n a t i u s ' o p i n i o n , t h e t h r e e f o ld O r d e r , a n d o t h e r s w h i c hl a c k e d t h is O r d e r ( T h y a t e i r a , L a o d i c a e a , P e r g a m o n , a n d S a rd is ) a n d
t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t w a r r a n t a n e p i s c o p a l l e t t e r . T h e a b s e n c e o f l e t t e r s
t o t h e s e i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e s , l e t a l o n e t o T a r s u s o r A n t i o c h i n P i s i d i a ,
d o e s n o t t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r il y s u p p o r t t h e c l a i m s o f t h e o p p o n e n t s
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2 1 2 C H A P T E R S I X
o f t h e M i d d l e R e c e n s i o n . T h a t n o n e o f t h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y suffi-
c i e n d y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m a r t y r ' s h i g h w a y o n w h i c h I g n a t i u s t r a v e l l e d
to R o m e to s e n d c l e r i ca l v i s i t o r s , if i n d ee d th e y h a d c l e r ic s t o s e n d ,
is full y co n s i s t e n t w i th t h e l ack o f a u n iv e r s a l t h ree fo ld O r d e r a t t h i s
t i m e . B i s h o p I g n a t i u s d i d n o t r e c o g n i s e s u c h c e n t r e s a s c o n t a i n i n g
t r u ly C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s .
D e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t d i ff e re n c e b e t w e e n t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c u l t u r a l
a m b i e n c e of t h e Apocalypse a n d t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l O r d e r o f I g n a t i u s ,
t h e r e a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e i n t r i g u i n g l in k s b e t w e e n t h e t w o w o r k s .
T h e s e l in k s w i ll s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t h r e e c h u r c h e s t o w h i c h b o t h t h e
S e e r a n d I g n a t i u s a d d r e s s l e t t e r s ( P e r g a m o n , E p h e s u s a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a )
w e r e t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t i e s , h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t i n u o u s a n d n o t s e p a
r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r . B r o w n a n d M e i e r c l a i m e d t h a t t h e c h a r i s
m a t i c g r o u p s i n A n t i o c h i n S y r i a , i d e n t i f i e d i n St. Matthew b y t h e i r
r e d a c t i o n c r i t ic i s m o f t h a t g o s p e l , w e r e p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f I g n a t i u s '
o w n c o m m u n i t y , a n d f ro m w h i c h his e p i sc o p a l C h u r c h O r d e r h a d
d e v e l o p e d ( 3 A 2 ) .5
T r e v e t t c e r t a i n l y s a w a s u p e r s e s s i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c p e r s o n s in t h e
s i l e n c e o f t h e b i s h o p o f P h i l a d e l p h i a (Philad. 1,1).6 I myself, f u r t h e r
m o r e , a r g u e d t h a t c h a r i s m a w a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n t i t h e t i c a l t o e p i s
c o p a l O r d e r , a s is o f te n a s s u m e d f r o m t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c h a r i s m a t i c
e x p e r i e n c e .7
I f c h a r i s m a a n d e p i s c o p a l O r d e r d o n o t n e c e s s a r i ly
r e q u i r e di f fe r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s fo r t h e i r o p e r a t i o n in t h e c a s e o f
A n t i o c h i n S y r i a , t h e n t h e s a m e c a n b e e q u a l l y t r u e f o r E p h e s u s ,
P h i l a d e l p h i a , a n d S m y r n a . J o h n t h e S e e r d o e s n o t n e c es s ar i l y t h e r e
fo re ad d res s d i f f e ren t g ro u p s i n t h e s am e c i t i e s t o t h o se l a t e r t o b e
a d d r e s s e d b y I g n a t i u s .
L e t u s t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e t h e l in k s i n i m a g e r y u s e d b y t h e S e e r
a n d I g n a t i u s i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n
a t l e a s t s o m e c h u r c h e s a d d r e s s e d b y t h e S e e r a n d b y I g n a t i u s o f
A n t i o c h .
5 R . E . B r o w n a n d J . - P . M e i e r , Antioch and Rom e: New Testament Cradles of Catholic
Christianity, ( N e w Y o r k : P a u l i s t P r e ss 1 9 8 3 ) , c h a p t e r s 3 - 4 .6 C . T r e v e t t , P r o p h e c y a n d A n t i - E p i s c o p a l A c ti v it y : A T h i r d E r r o r C o m b a t t e d
b y I g n a t i u s ? i n JE H 3 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 7 1 , cf. H . C h a d w i c k , T h e S i l e n c e o f
B i s h o p s i n I g n a t i u s , i n HThR 4 3 (1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 1 6 9 - 7 2 a n d L . F . P i z z o l a t o , S i l e n z i o
d e l v e s c o v o e p a r o l a d e g l i e r e t i c i i n I g n a z i o d ' A n t i o c h e i a , i n Aevum 4 4 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p p .
2 0 5 - 2 1 8 .7 A . B r e n t , P s e u d o n y m i t y a n d C h a r i s m a in t h e M i n i s t r y o f t h e E a r l y C h u r c h , in
Aug 2 7 , 3 ( 1 9 8 7) , p p . 3 4 7 - 3 7 6 .
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I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 1 3
6A 1 . Common Imagery in Ignatius and the A p o c a l y p s e
A c o m m u n i t y s u c h a s t h a t a t E p h e s u s ( I g n a t i u s , Eph. 9 ,1 ) can be
d e s c r i b e d a s " t e m p l e s t o n e s (XiQoi vocou) m a d e r e a d y i n a n t i c i p a t i o nfo r G o d th e Fa th e r ' s b u i ld in g (r cpo u x oiu ocau iv o i e iq OIKOSOUTW Geou
rcaxpoq)." In Apoc. 2 1 , 1 4 a n d 19 t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m h a s w a l ls w i t h
f o u n d a t i o n s b e a r i n g t h e n a m e s o f t h e t w e l v e a p o s d e s , a n d w h i c h a r e
" a d o r n e d w i th ev e ry p re c i o u s s to n e (o i Geu e tao i x ou xeixou< ; xfjq noXeax;
rcocvxi XiGco xipicp K e K o a u r i j i e v o i ) . ' '
T h e c r o s s is r e p r e s e n t e d a s a t r e e b e a r i n g t h e fr u it o f i m m o r t a l
i t y i n b o t h w o r k s . I n Trallians 1 1 , 1 - 2 t h e h e r e t i c s a r e n o t " t h e p l a n t ing o f the Fa ther (cpuxeia T t a x p o q ) ; f o r if t h e y w e r e , t h e y w o u l d h a v e
a p p e a r e d a s b r a n c h e s o f t h e cr o ss (K^CX8OI xou oxocupou) a n d th e ir
fru it i m m o r t a l (6 Kocprcoq auxcov oupGapxoq)." I n Apoc. 2 2 , 2 w e r e a d o f
th e " t r e e of l ife (2;uA,ov £cof|<;) p r o d u c i n g tw e lv e fru its . . . a n d th e
le av es o f th e t r e e (xa cpuA,A,a xou £t>A,ou) a r e for th e h e a l i n g o f t h e
n a t io n s (eiq Gepocrceiccv xcov eGvcbv)." £uAov g e n e ra ll y in e a r ly C h r i s t i a n
l i t e r a t u r e m e a n s t h e C r o s s , a n d t o t h e o v e r c o m e r it is g r a n t e d " t oe a t o f t h e t r e e / c r o s s o f life (cpayeiv eic xou £uA,ou xfjq £cofj<;) w h i c h is in
th e g a r d e n of G o d (o eo xw ev rcocpaSeiocp xou Geou)." (Apoc. 2,7)
B u t t h e r e a r e t w o f u r t h e r k i n d s o f l in k t h a t c o n n e c t t h e Apocalypse
w i t h I g n a t i u s i n a f ar m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d f u n d a m e n t a l w a y .
T h e s e li nk s f u r t h e r m o r e c o n n e c t I g n a t i u s n o t o n l y w i t h t h e Apocalypse
b u t w i t h w h a t w e h a v e s e e n t h e l a t t e r w o r k t o r e fl e ct o f t h e l i t u r g y
a n d th e o lo g y o f t h e Im p er i a l C u l t (5 B 1.1).
6A 1 .1 . Heavenly Church and corresponding earthly typology
T h e f ir st s e t o f l i n k s c an b e s een in t h e t e n d e n cy o f b o th w o r k s t o
s ee r e fl ec ti on s of a t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d h e a v e n l y C h u r c h O r d e r e n t e r
i n g t h e w o r l d o f t h e p r e s e n t C h u r c h . T h e s e c o n d se t s h o w s a s i m
i l a r i t y b e tween th e way in wh ich an g e l i c b e in g s r ep re sen t t h e co rp o ra t e
p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f d i s t i n c t c h u r c h e s i n t h e Apocalypse, a n d t h e w a y i nw h i c h , i n I g n a t i u s , t h e s a m e c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
c o m m u n i t y is r e p r e s e n t e d m y s t i c a ll y b y t h e b i s h o p , a n d o t h e r c l e r
i ca l p e r s o n a g e s t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e th r e e f o l d h i e r a r c h y .
6 A 1 .1 .1 . Ignatius and A p o c a l y p s e : The heavenly liturgy
T h e r e i s a g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f s o m e re f le c t io n , a l b e i t g e n e r a l a n d
i l l- f o r m e d , o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h e a v
e n l y w o r s h i p o f t h e Apocalypse. T h e p r e s b y t e r a l c ir c le , i n w h i c h t h e
f o u r l iv i n g c r e a t u r e s p a r t i c i p a t e a r o u n d t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d t h e
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2 1 4 C H A P T E R S I X
L a m b , is ev o ca t i v e o f s cen es in t h e l i t u rg y o f t h e Apostolic Tradition
i n w h i c h t h e b i s h o p w h o p r e s i d e s sits s u r r o u n d e d b y a c i rc l e o f s e a t e d
p r e s b y t e r s w i t h s t a n d i n g d e a c o n s g i v i n g l i t u r g i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e
p e o p l e , a n d r e c e i v i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s g ifts o f b r e a d a n d w i n e f o r c o n
s e c r a t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l c o m m u n i o n . 8 T o d i s e n t a n g l e t h e i m a g e r y o f
t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y C h u r c h r e f l e c t e d i n t h e h e a v e n l y C h u r c h i s d i f f i c u l t ,
g i v e n th e w a y in w h i c h w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e p a g a n
I m p e r i a l C u l t u s w i t h its a l t a r , v i al s , i n c e n s e , a n d w h i t e r o b b e d w o r
s h i p e r s is b l e n d e d w i t h a n y s u c h p u t a t i v e e c c le s i a st ic a l i m a g e r y .
H o w e v e r , w e h a v e s o m e c o n t r o l o v e r a c o r r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e Apocalypse
i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e k i n d o f s o c i al e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h it w a s
w r i t t e n , g i v e n t h e i d e n t i t y o f c o m m u n i t i e s a d d r e s s e d b y b o t h w r i t
e r s ( 6 A 1). W e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d a s i m i l a r i t y o f g e n e r a l i m a g e r y
t h a t r e v e a l s f a r m o r e i n c o m m o n t h a n s i m p l y i n s o m e c a s e s a n i d e n
t it y o f c it ie s o f A s i a M i n o r i n t h e C h u r c h t h a t is a d d r e s s e d .
P r i g e n t a r g u e d t h a t t h e t w e n t y f o u r e l d e r s o f Apoc. 4 - 5 , s e a t e d
c r o w n e d a n d u p o n th r o n e s a r o u n d t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d t h e L a m b ,
r e p r e s e n t e d O l d T e s t a m e n t E l d e r s a n d t h e i r l it u r g ic a l r e f ra i n w a s
o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f a J e w i s h l i t u r g y .9
B u t g r a n t e d t h i s o r i g i n a l locus o f
t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s , t h e n a t u r a l tr a n s i t i o n i n t o C h r i s t i a n
u s a g e w a s h a r d l y d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e Apocalypse. T h e
m o s t n a t u r a l , i m m e d i a t e locus b e f o r e a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e v i s i o n o f t h e
S e e r w o u l d h a v e b e e n via a C h r i s t i a n li t u rg y s h a p e d b y w h a t w e
h a v e a r g u e d t o b e its p a g a n , c u lt ic b a c k g r o u n d .1 0
S u c h a l i t u r g y ,
c o n c e p t u a l i z e d o r ig i n al ly in J e w i s h t e r m s , w o u l d , w e h a v e a r g u e d ,
b e e n r e f a s h i o n e d i n p r o c e s s o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e f o r m u l a t i o n , i n its
C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t , a s a s p ec if ic r e s p o n s e t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
W i t h i n a g e n e r a t i o n a f t er t h e v i s i o n o f t h e S e e r , I g n a t i u s w a s t o
b e a r w i tn e s s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n O r d e r o f p r e s b y t e r s in t h e c h u r c h e s
o f E p h e s u s , S m y r n a , a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a . H e t h e r e f o r e c la i m s t h a t t h o s e
c h u r c h e s p o s se s se d a n O r d e r , h o w e v e r n a s c e n t a n d c o n t r o v e r t e d ,
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f h is o w n A n t i o c h in S y r i a . C o n t e m p o r a r y r e d a c
t i o n c ri t i c is m o f t h e g o s p e l o f t h a t C h u r c h , Matthew, r e v e a l s p r e s
b y t e r s w i t h i n t h a t c o m m u n i t y l i vi n g i n t e n s i o n w i t h m o r e c h a r i s m a t i c ,
p r o p h e t i c g r o u p s .1 1
F u r t h e r m o r e , H e r m a s b e a r s w i tn e ss i n m i d - s e c o n d
8 P s e u d o H i p p o l y t u s , Ap. Trad. 4 ; Didasc. Apost. I I, 5 7 , 4 - 5 .9 P . P r i g e n t , A p o c a l y p s e e t L i t u r g i e , i n CTh 5 2 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 4 8 - 5 5 , p . 6 8 .
1 0 S u c h w a s t h e a r g u m e n t o f J . P . A u d e t , La Didache: Instructions des Apotres, (Par is:
Libr a ire Leco f fre 19 58) , p . 37 7 c f. Pr igen t (19 64 ) , p . 50 .1 1 B r o w n a n d J . P . M e i e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 .
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 215
1 2
H e r m a s Vis. Ill, 9,7: vfiv ox>v i)uiv A-eyco xoiq 7tpoTry(n)|Lievoi<; xr\c, E K K X T I G I O K ; Kai
xoi<; 7tpcoxoKa6e8pixou<;. . . cf. Vis. II, 4 , 3 : . . . uexa xcov rcpeap'uxepcov xcov Ttpo'ioxauevcov.
S e e a l s o Man. 11,12 w h e r e it is a \j/e\)5o7ipo<pr|XTi<; who is 6 mOriuevoq erci X T ^ V K < X 6 -
e 8 p a v . See a l s o B r e n t (1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 3 1 - 4 5 4 ff.1 3
See f o o t n o t e s 6 and 7.1 4
A. S a t a k e , Die G e m e i n d e o r d n u n g in der J o h a n n e s a p o k a l y p s e , in WMANT 2\
( 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 1 4 7 - 1 5 0 ff.: " A u c h die d r i t t e D e u tu n g , d a s s s i c h im H a n d e l n der 24
A l t e s t e n das des i r d i s c h e n P r e s b y t e r i u m s w i d e r s p i e g e l t , ist m e i n e r A n s i c h t n a c h
u n h a l t b a r , und z w a r vor a l l e m d e s w e g e n , w e i l die v i e r W e s e n , die n e b e n i h n e n
a u f t r e t e n , auf k e i n e n F a l l in der i r d is c h e n G e m e i n d e e in e E n t s p r e c h u n g h a b e n . "1 5
See a l s o Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p. 115 fig. 93 and p. 117 fig. 95.
century Rome to a prophetic Seer addressing a church that clearly
acknowledged his charisma whilst acknowledging presbyters whose
office was that of rcpcoxoicaGeSpixai occupying 7tpcoxoKa0e8p{ai.12
It
would be a mistake, therefore, to agree with Satake that the Church
Order of the Apocalypse had no office holders apart from prophets,
as if this work cou ld st an d ap ar t from its pl ace in kn ow n, late first-
century contexts. Trevett has moreover emphasised charismatic and
prophetic elements subsumed under Ignatius' episcopal behaviour,
which reveals different elements in tension rather than the presence
of a pro phet ic ord er pre clud ing a presbyteral on e .1 3
Satake concludes that the presbyters in the Apocalypse can only be
he ave nly beings on ac co un t of thei r cr own s a nd their hea ven ly
glorification.1 4
But it is by no me an s incong ruo us th at a descr iption
of a hea ven ly reflection in an ea rth ly liturgy should cr ow n an d glo
rify those who preside at that liturgy. Furthermore Satake's treat
ment ignores the variety of earthly images synthesised by the Seer
into the heaven ly scenes. ~.
The seated presbyters are associated with the slain lamb who sits
in the midst of them at an altar of sacrifice. It would have been
priests who presided at a sacrifice and not presbyters had the O.T.
symbolism been preserved here in an uncontaminated form. Instead
that symbolism has undergone radical reformulation. In the case of
the living crea tur es , as in that of the slain la mb, pa gan ele ments
join the synthesis. The images here are taken from the bucranium
of Au gu st an ar t, and the living crea tur es tha t often ad or n sacrifi
cial scenes in Augustan cultic frescoes.1 5
The elders (Apoc. 5,8) each
possess a harp ( e^ovxeq e K o t G x o q Ki0dpav) and incense bowls (Kai
ymXaq %p\)oa<; y e p o u a a c ; 9\)piapdxcov). Though incense was used by
priests an d not by elders in the Te mpl e, her e the ac co mp an yi ng
KiG&poc and an actual sacrificial victim places the scene outside an
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216 C H A P T E R SIX
1 6 A. B ren t , H i p p o l y t u s and the R o m a n C h u r c h in the T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e sin T e n s i o n b e f o r e the E m e r g e n c e of a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , in Suppi VCh. 31 ( L e i d e n :
E J . Bril l 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 1 9 2 - 1 9 7 ; pp. 4 5 8 - 4 6 2 ff.
un co nt am in at ed Jew ish c onte xt of the "ho ur of ince nse. " (3B 2) Th e
presbyte rs "fall before th e La m b (erceoav evamiov xou dpviou)." Fu r
th er mo re , we argued th at the very chara cte r of the hymns of praise
associated with the presbyt ers clearly reflect the cult of Vir tue s no w
an integral part of the ideology of the Imperial Cult (2B 3). They
represent Christian, ministerial office holders proclaiming a reversal
of pa ga n cultic express ions in the direc tion of the Chr ist ian a nd not
the imper ial G od .
Certainly Ignatius' descriptions of the liturgical scene in the churches
to whom he writes bear many idealised and visionary features rem
iniscent of the heavenly scenes in the Apocalypse. There we met with
angels and presbyters praying with incense around the heavenly altar
and singing their hymns. He says to the Ephesians:
Therefore it is right for you to run together with the mind of the
bishop, which indeed you do; for your worthily esteemed presbytery,
worthy of God, is attuned to the bishop (ouxco<;cuvr|p |iooTaiTcp e7ciaK07ccp),
like strings to a harp (& q x°p8«i K i G d p a ) ; therefore in your concord and
harmonious love (8id xouxo ev xrj o u o v o i a i)ua>v Kai ouuxpcbvcp dydTiri) Jesus
Christ is sung ('Irjaouq Xpiaxoq a8exai). And each of you should become
part of that choir (oi mx ' dv8pa 8e x°po$ y i v e o G e ) , that being in har
monious concord (iva a\>u<pcovoi o v x e q ev o u o v o i a ) , receiving God's vari
ation in unity (xp&pa 0eo\> ax(36vxe<;, ev e v o x i ) , you may sing with one
voice through Jesus Christ to the father (a8r|xe evcpcovfl uaa 8id 'Irjaoi)
X p i a x o i ) xcp rcaxpi). . .
Ephesians 4, 1-2
The xopoq, like that at the imperial festivals reflected in the Apocalypse
(5B 3) extols that divinized quality of imperial unity that is ouovoia,
and which we saw was a feature of the doxology of Clement Cor.
60-61 (4B 1.2.2). An altar (Guoidaxnpiov) moreover prefigures in
such liturgical scenes (Ephes. 5,2; Mag. 7,2; Philad. 4).
But how, more specifically, do both Ignatius and the Apocalypse
reflect wh at we know of the actual ar ra ng em en t of early Chri stia nworship?
Pseudo-Hippolytus ' Apostolic Tradition, if that ind eed was originally
the tide of the Egyptian Church Order, was a community product involv
ing mo re tha n one individual an d mo re tha n one confluent cor por ate
tradi t ion.1 6
Ap. Trad. 4 makes it clear that the presbyterate concele-
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I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 1 7
1 7
B r e n t ( 1 9 8 9 ), p p . 3 1 1 - 3 1 6 ; Idem, C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m , i n Studies
in Christian Mission 6 , ( L e i d e n : E J . B r ill 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 8 4 - 8 5 a n d f o o t n o t e s .
b r a t e w i t h t h e b i s h o p i n s o f a r a s w h e n a p r e s b y t e r " p l a c e s h i s h a n d s
o v e r t h e o f fe r in g (imponens manuam tuam super oblationem (rcpoocpopd))"
h e is j o i n e d i n w o r d s a n d p r e s u m a b l y a c t b y t h e p r e s b y t e r s (cum
praesbyteris dicat gratias agens). T h e a c t u a l l i t u r g i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s -
b y t e r a t e o n l y b e c o m e s c l e a r e r i n s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h is
C h u r c h O r d e r w h e r e t h e p o s i t io n in t h e l i t u rg y o f t h e p r e s b y t e r a t e
is sp e l l ed o u t a s t h e h a l f - c i r c l e o f s ea t s fo rm in g a h o r se - sh o e o n ea ch
s i d e o f t h e c e n t r a l l y s e a t e d b i s h o p (Apost. Const. (= Didasc. Apost.) I I ,
5 7 , 4 - 5 ) .
T h a t su c h a s e a t in g a r r a n g e m e n t w a s c u r r e n t w e ll b e f o r e th e t u r n
o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y is m a d e c l e a r b y I g n a t i u s in h is l e t t e r s . I g n a t i u s
e n v i s a g e s t h e M a g n e s i a n s ( 1 3, 1 ), w h o s e C h u r c h h e h a d n e v e r v is it e d ,
a s b e i n g i n u n i o n w i t h b o t h t h e " t e a c h i n g s o f t h e L o r d a n d o f t h e
a p o s d e s ( 8 6 y p a a i v TOV Kvpiov K a i TCOV drcooToAxov)" an d wi th t h e l i f e
o f t h e t r i u n e G o d (ev vx& K a i rcaipi K ai ev rcveupaxi). As th e s ig n o f
t h a t u n i t y , I g n a t i u s c a n a d d r e s s t h e m a s g a t h e r i n g , "w i t h y o u r b i s h o p ,
w o r t h y o f h o n o u r , (u e i d TOV d^iorcperceoTdTOD erciaKorcoi) uuxbv), w i t h
t h e g lo r i o u sl y w o v e n , s p i r i tu a l c r o w n o f y o u r p r e s b y t e r a t e (Kai d£ i07t -
XOKOU rcveupaxiKou axecpdvoi) TOV TCpeapircepioi) upcbv) , a n d w i th t h e
d e a c o n s a c c o r d i n g t o G o d (Ka i TCOV Kaxd 6e6v 8 iaKovcov) ." H e r e th e
d^ioK^OKoq nveupaxiKoq cxcecpavoq c l ea r ly r e fe r s t o t h e l i t u rg i ca l p re s -
b y t e r a l h o r s e s h o e a r o u n d t h e s e a t e d b i s h o p . I n d e e d , I h a v e a r g u e d
e l s e w h e r e t h a t rcpOKaOripivoq is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n it s p r i m a r y s e n s e
o f " s i t ti n g p r o m i n e n d y " i n t h e l it u r gi c a l a s s e m b l y w h i c h is t h e p r i m a r y
f oc u s o f t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f t h e t h r e e f o l d O r d e r in u n i t y r a t h e r t h a n
o f t h e b i s h o p a l o n e . 1 7 But we have a l so seen tha t the sea ted rcpeopwepoi
o f t h e Apocalypse h a v e a l s o oxecpavoi , a n d t h a t th i s i m a g e r y o f t h e i r
a u t h o r i t y w a s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h a t of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ( 5B 2 .2 . 5 ).
W e a sk , t h e r e f o r e , i n c o n c l u s i o n , w h e t h e r t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e
s c e n e a r o u n d t h e a l t a r i n h e a v e n is n o t t h e c h u r c h o n e a r t h , p r e s i d e d
o v e r b y a c i rc l e o f p r e s b y t e r s s u r r o u n d i n g a t h r o n e o c c u p i e d b y a
p r e s i d i n g b i s h o p ? T h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e is d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e t h r o n e
o f G o d a n d o f t h e L a m b (Gpovoq TOV Qeov K a i TOV d p v i o u ) . " (Apoc. 2 2 , 1
a n d 3 ). " T h e L a m b " is d e s c r i b e d a s " i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e t h r o n e
(dpvxov x o d v d p e a o v TOV Gpovoi)) ." (7 ,17) At f i rs t s ight th is appears a
v e r y o d d i m a g e . D o e s t h e r o y a l f i g u re h o l d t h e L a m b o n h is l a p o r
d o es t h e l a t t e r s i t b y h i s s i d e? I h av e a sk ed p rev io u s ly wh e th e r , i n
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218 C H A P T E R SIX
the light of what we rea d in Ignat ius, the refe rence is not to a pre
siding bishop or presbyter in the Seer's own church offering the
"pur e sacrifice of the gen ti le s. "1 8
Certainly, according to Ignatius, the bishop is "pre-eminent (rcpoKa-
Gnuivoq)"1 9
as a type of (eiq xurcov rcaxpcx;), or a ccording to so me tex
tual read ings , in the plac e (eiq xorcov) of G o d the F ather .2 0
Here the
throne in the midst of the presbyters is actually occupied by an eccle
siastical min ister on ea rt h. But wh et he r or not the re is, in the Seer 's
time, an actual bishop on an actual episcopal throne amid actual
presbyt ers , his heaven ly vision has certa inly influenced and effected
the earthly form of Ign ati an epis copa cy.2 1
At this point we may turn to Ignatius' theology of representation
and its earlier reflection in the Apocalypse.
6A 1.1.2. Typology of representation
Ignatius' description of the liturgical assembly ( e K K ^ua ia ) is highly
idealised and visionary. As I have argued in greater detail elsewhere,
as a transit prisoner Ignatius had little contact with, or knowledgeof, the actual churches to whom he wrote.
2 2
In place of any such
empirical experience, he gives rather a mystical vision prompted by
the persons of the clerical visitors in whom he sees mystically the
cor por ate qualities of their comm uni tie s. Th us idealised, perso nal
qualities of an almost Chri st ian perfection a re prais ed as he imag
ines the members of the communities gathered with their clerics in
an idealised Eucharist. Expressions such as ev otKivT|xcp Tu oxe i , evouovoia 0eou etc. ab ound .
2 3
Thus both the Apocalypse and Ignatius are united in a view of the
community as having a corporate personality. Clearly the angels of
the Ch ur ch es are the cor por at e personalities of their various c om
munities. They can in consequence be addressed by the Seer in the
1 8
B r e n t ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p. 361. For e a r l y i m a g e s of the E u c h a r i s t in s u c h t e r m s see Did.,
1 4 , 3 and J u s t i n M a r t y r , Dial. 41. See a l s o G. Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy, ( L o n d o n :
D a c r e 1 9 4 7 ) , p. 28 and p. 134.1 9
For my d e f e n c e of th i s t r a n s l a t i o n , see B r e n t , Cultural Episcopacy ( 1 9 9 2 ) , pp.
8 4 - 8 5 .20
Magnes. 6,1; Tral. 3,1.2 1
For my v i e w of I g n a t i u s as i n f l u e n c e d by a v i s i o n of the h e a v e n l y C h u r c h s i m
ilar to the S e e r ' s , and i m p o s i n g t h a t v i s i o n on the n a s c e n t O r d e r of the C h u r c h e s
th a t he had n e v e r v i s i t e d but d e s c r i b e s in an i d e a l i z e d , v i s i o n a r y fo r m , see B r e n t
( 1 9 9 2 ) , Ignatian Epistles, pp. 1 8 - 3 2 .2 2
B r e n t ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Ignatian Epistles, pp. 19 -27.23
Tral. 11,1; Magnes. 6,1; Smyr. 1,1; 7,2; Ephes. 1,3; 2,1, see B r e n t ( 1 9 9 2 ) Ignatian
Epistles, p. 20.
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IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH AND THE MARTYR'S PROCESSION 219
24
Apoc. 2,1; 2,8; 2,12; 2,18; 3,1; 3,7; 3,14.25
Ephes. 1,3; Brent (1990), pp. 268-269; Brent (1991), pp. 151-153; Brent (1992),Cultural Episcopacy, pp. 85-87.
26
Smyr. 8,2; Tral. 8,2 (ev6eov K \ T \ % O $ cf. W. Schoedel, Ignatius of Antioch: A Com
mentary, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1985), p. 112.2 7
Too little attention has been given in the discussion to this point made orig
inally by J. Colson, VEveque dans les Communautes Primitives, (Paris: Les Editions du
Cerf 1951), p. 97: "Et il ecrit aux Tralliens a propos de Polybe, leur eveque: "C'est
votre Eglise tout entiere que je contemple en sa personne." Tel est, selon saint
Ignace et dans la ligne de 1'Apocalypse, le role de Peveque, sa place dans l'Eglise."2 8
I follow Colson (1952) in Brent (1987), pp. 356-361 against Hemer (1986),
p p . 32-34. For the case in favour of angel-bishops see A. Lemaire, Les Ministeres
aux origines de l'Eglise: Naissance de la triple hierarchic eveques, presbyters, diacres, (Paris: Les
Editions du Cerf 1971), pp. 118-122 and M. Thurian, L'Organisation du ministere
dans l'Eglise Primitive selon Saint Ignace d'Antioche, in VC 2\ (1967), pp. 1 6 5 - 7 1 .
singular and described as having the distinctive features of those
communi t ies .2 4
Likewise Ignatius claims that, in the clerical repre
senta tives of the ch ur ch es from w h o m he receives visitors, he is
beho ldin g the corp orat e charac ter of their com muni ties .
In Polybius, the bishop of Tralles, Ignatius claims to see, not the
latter's individual personality, but the community's. With bishop
On es im us he has such "conve rse of mi nd (ouvf|0eia)" that he was
able to see their corporate personality, their noXvnXyfieia (Ephes. 1,3
and 5,1), in him as also in the case of bishop Polybius of Tralles.
Ignatius claims that their bishop has revealed to him "your un
wa ve ri ng and blameless mind (duo)uov 8idvoiccv Kai d8idicpixov). . . so
that I saw yo ur whole gat he re d mult it ude in hi m (coaxe jie xo nav
TcXfiBoq ev auxco Gecopiioai)." (Tral. 1,1) Thus Polybius becomes "an
exampl e of yo ur love (e£eu7iA,dpiov xfjq aycuv^q upxov)." (3,2) In Damas ,
bishop of Magnesia, likewise he claims to have seen "your whole
multitude (xo nav nXrfioq; Magnes. 6,1)." In the case of Onesimus,
bishop of Ephesus, he claims to have seen their 7ioA,urcA,r|6eia.25
nXriGoq
is the usual wo rd for the gath ered ch ur ch in Ig na ti us.2 6
The fact that angels such as Michael, in Dan. 10, 10-21 and 12,1,
are mystical representa tiv es of nat ions is often held to refute the
notion that the angels of the churches in Apoc. 2~3 are in fact h u ma n
figures and stand for chu rch officials. Ignati us make s it quite clear
that human bishops can nevertheless, like angels, stand for the cor
porate personalities of the communities which they oversee.2 7
Whether
the angel s of the churches should be eq ua te d with hu m a n officials
such as bishops, or left as myst erious heaven ly beings personifying
earthly communities, is a question that I will here leave open.2 8
T h e
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2 2 0 C H A P T E R S I X
p o i n t t h a t I h a v e m a d e is t h a t t h e r e is a t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y
b e t w e e n w h a t t h e S e e r s a ys a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f c u l ti c r e p r e s e n t a
t io n a r o u n d A . D . 9 1 a n d w h a t I g n a t i u s s ay s a r o u n d A . D . 1 1 2 . T h i s
p o i n t w il l h o l d e v e n i f a p u r e l y h e a v e n l y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f
t h e f o r m e r c o m e s o n l y t o b e g r o u n d e d i n t h e C h u r c h O r d e r i n s p a c e
a n d t im e in t h e ca se o f t h e l a t t e r .
B u t I g n a t i u s h a s i n j e c t e d a n e w t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t w h e n h e b e g i n s
t o s p e a k o f t h e i m a g e s o f t h e s e a t e d p r e s b y t e r s , f o u n d i n t h e Apocalypse
a s c o n t r a c u l t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e of fic ia ls o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,
su ch a s t h e npec^eiq w i t h t h e i r p a n e g y r i c s , a s rcpoKocOriuivoi eiq XUTCOV.
L e t u s n o w t r a c e t h is n e w c o n c e p t i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , w h i c h w e
s h a ll a r g u e t o b e f u r t h e r r e l a t e d t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d t o h a v e
g r o w n o u t o f t h e p a g a n s y m b o l i sm o f t h e c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d t h a t
h e a l so s h a r e d w i t h t h e S e e r , b u t b e y o n d w h o m h e n o w g o e s .
6 A 2 . Ignatian typology and the Imperial Cult
I n c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e a n t i t y p e s o f F a t h e r , S o n , a n d S p i ri t- f il le d a p o s t ol ic c o u n c i l a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e x tm o i o f b i s h o p , d e a c o n s , a n d
p r e s b y t e r s , I g n a t i u s a p p e a r s a t f i r s t s i g h t t o r u n c o n t r a r y t o t h e r e p
r e s e n t a t i v e i m a g e r y t h a t h e s h a r e d w i t h t h e Apocalypse a n d w h i c h w e
d i scu s sed in t h e l a s t s ec t i o n (6 A 1.1.2). I f t h e t h r e e f o l d t y p o l o g y r e p
r e s e n t s t h e s e d i v i n e p e r s o n s i n t h e E u c h a r i s t i c a s s e m b l y , h o w a t t h e
s a m e t i m e c a n th e y b e r e g a r d e d a s e m b o d y i n g t h e c o l le c t iv e p e r
s o n a l i ti e s o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s , a s d i d t h e a n g e l s o f t h e C h u r c h e s i nt h e Apocalypse, o r P o l y b i u s , b i s h o p o f E p h e s u s o r D a m a s , b i s h o p o f
T r a l l e s i n t h e I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ?
I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t I g n a t i u s d o e s r e s o lv e t h is d i c h o t o m y a n d w i t h
c o n s i d e r a b l e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .2 9
T h e c l e r i c a l i c o n s d o n o t a s i t w e r e
i n c a r n a t e t h e h e a v e n l y C h u r c h di r ec t ly f r o m t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t w o r l d
b e y o n d s p a c e a n d t i m e , b u t r a t h e r fr o m t h e s a v i n g a c t s t h a t b e g a n
i n h i s t o r y b u t c o n t i n u e in t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e c l e ri c a li c o n s r e p r e s e n t a c o m m u n i t y i n p r o c e s s o f r e d e m p t i o n , a n d t h e sa v
i n g a c t s o f F a t h e r , S o n , a n d S p i r i t a t w o r k i n s u c h a c o m m u n i t y .
S u c h sa v i n g a c t s , e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d e m b o d i e d i n
th e E u c h a r i s t i c l i t u rg y a n d in t h e c l e r ica l ro l e s p l a y e d , d i sp l ay C h r i s t ' s
F o r t h e c a s e a g a i n s t , s e e E . D a s s m a n n , Z u r E n t s t e h u n g d e s M o n e p i s k o p a t s , i n JbAC
17 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 7 5 - 7 6 a n d S a t a k e ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 5 ff.2 9
A . B r e n t , H i s t o r y a n d E s c h a t o l o g i c a l M y s t i c i s m i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , i n EThL
6 4 , 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 3 0 9 - 3 2 9 ; B r en t ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Cultural Episcopacy, p p . 8 0 - 8 1 , 8 7 - 8 8 .
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 221
victory to the demonic powers who are thereby shaken: "For when
ever you assemble frequendy (oxav yap TTUKVOK; em TO GCUTO yiveaGe),
the powers of Satan a re destroyed (KaGaipouvxai a i 8uvdpei<; xou
laxava), and his destruction is dissolved (Kal Xvezai 6 oXeQpoq amov)
by the h a r mo n y of your faith (ev xfi 6uovo(a upcov xfjq juoxecoq)."30
Ignatius therefore expresses the view that the threefold Order is
to be understood as representing, in a sacramental sense, the heav
enly Church, which is incarnated in the present community a n d rep
resented by the clerical icons of that community . T h e typology of
Magnes. 13,1 is followed by a c o m m a n d to obedience "to the bishop
and to each other (urcoxdynxe xcp EKIOK6K(O K al aXXi\Xoi<;), as Jesus
Christ to the Father (ax; 'Inaouq Xpiaxoq xcp rcaxpi), and the apostles
to Christ and to the Father ( K a l oi anooToXoi xcp Xpiaxcp K a l xcp rcaxpi),
in order that there may be both a physical and a spiritual union
( iva evcooiq f| a a p K i i c f | xe Kal rcveupaxiKn.)." (13,2)
T h u s to speak of the incarnat ion of a heavenly Church Order in
the present is well warranted by the expression evcooi<; f| a a p K i i c r i xe
Kal rcveupaxiKri, even though I have argued elsewhere t he qualifying
thesis that what was now timeless began in t ime in the Upper Room
and at the Resurrect ion. T h e commingl ing of flesh a n d spirit did
not simply begin o r begin afresh at every Eucharist, but was con
tinuous with the commingl ing (KpaGevxeq xfj a a p K i auxofi Kal xcp aiumi)
that took place when the risen Christ "came to those ar ou nd Pete r"
and "h e said to them: take, handle m e . . . a n d immediately they
touched h im . . . "3 1
There is therefore a n historical continuity between
the past and the present in so far as the timeless, entering time in
the present moment, has continuously done so at every Eucharist
from the Church's historical beginning.
Each ZX>KO<; in the threefold Order makes concrete or incarnates
in the Eucharistic action what it represents, namely the Father (bishop),
the Son (deacons) and the spirit-filled apostolic council (the presbyters).3 2
In Mag. 13,1 : "T h e bishop stands ou t (rcpOKa&npivou xou e r c i o K O T i o i ) )"
in this drama "as a type of God (eiq xtmov Geou) and the presbyters
(Kal xcov 7cpeaP\)xepcov) as a type of the apostolic council (eiq xtmov
auve8pio\) xcov drcoaxoAxov) and the deacons (Kalxcov 8iaKovcov). . . . as
30
Ephes. 13,1 cf. Smyr. 6,1.31
Smyr. 3,2 cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 1 6 - 3 2 0 .3 2
B r e n t (1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 0 9 - 3 2 9 ; Idem. ( 1 9 9 0 ) , pp. 2 6 2 - 2 6 6 , Idem. ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 3 9 - 1 4 3 ,
a nd Idem. ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Cultural Episcopacy, pp. 8 0 - 9 2 .
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2 2 2 C H A P T E R S I X
e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s C h r i s t (rceTuoxeuuivcov SKXKOVIOCV
' I u a o u X p i a x o u ) . " B u t t h e s e r e a l i t ie s a r e n o t s t a t ic b u t d y n a m i c .
T h e t h r e e O r d e r s e a c h p o r t r a y i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r a c t s t h e p a r
t i c u l a r r o l e t h a t is p l a y e d in t h e i r E u c h a r i s t i c r e - e n a c t m e n t o f t h e
d r a m a of r e d e m p t i o n . I n t h e U p p e r R o o m , a c c o r d i n g t o Jn. 2 0 , 1 9 - 2 2 ,
th e r e is t h e Sp i r i t -f i l led c o u n c i l o f h e ap o s d e s , a n d so t o o t h e se a r e
f o u n d r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e p r e s b y t e r a t e . A s t h e s e a t e d F a t h e r s e n d s
t h e S o n , s o t o o t h e b i s h o p s s e n d s t h e d e a c o n s t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e
p e o p l e o r t o r e c e i v e f r o m t h e m t h e i r o f f e r i n g f o r t h e b i s h o p t o c o n
s e c r a t e , o r t o g i v e t h e m l i t u r g i c a l d i r e c t i o n s .
T h e r e i s a l i t u r g i c a l p r o c e s s i o n o r % cbpr|oi<; b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e
O r d e r s l i k e t h e p r o c e s s i o n w i t h i n t h e g o d h e a d . Magnes. 7 , 1 - 2 g o e s
o n t o c o n n e c t t h e e c c l e s i a st i c a l t y p o l o g y w i t h t h a t o f t h e g o d h e a d .
T h e d e a c o n s a n d p r e s b y t e r s p r o c e e d f r o m t h e b i s h o p a n d r e t u r n t o
h im ju s t like th e d ia c o n a l So n p r o c e e d s f rom th e Fa th e r (rcpoeABovxoc)
a n d r e t u r n s t o h i m ( % c o p r | o a v x a ) . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e p r e s b y t e r a t e r e p
re se nt s th e ou ve 8p io v xcov dcrcooxotaov (Magnes. 6 ,1), w h o in t h e j o h a n n i n e
T r a d i t i o n (Jn. 2 0 , 2 2 ) , r e c e i v e t h e i n b r e a t h i n g of t h e S p i r i t a n d w h o
r e v e a l t h e S o n w h o c a m e f o r th fr o m a n d r e t u r n e d t o t h e F a t h e r .
T h e f o cu s t h e r e f o r e i n I g n a t i u s o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f i c o n o g r a p h i c a l
r e p r es en t a t i o n (xurcoi) is i n t h e c l e r i ca l fu n c t io n s i n t h e E u ch a r i s t i c
l i t u r g y .
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t Tral. 3 , 1 - 3 a n d r e l a t e d p a s s a g e s (Ephes.
5 , 1 a n d Magnes. 1 3,1 ) r e q u i r e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t y p o l o g y i n t h e
sen se o f c l e r i ca l p e r so n s s t an d i n g e iq x urcov , w i th o u t t h e r e l a t ed p as
sage s us in g the te r m xurcoc; as suc h . I t is fo r th i s re as o n t h a t I w o u ld
r e j e c t t h e a m e n d m e n t xonoq fo r zvnoq i n Magnes. 6 , 1 - 2 , a n d a c c e p t
t h e l a t t e r a s t h e o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g f o ll o w i n g S y r i a c , A r a b i c a n d A r m e
n i a n t e x t s . C e r t a i n l y Tral. 3 , 1 h a s t h i s r e a d i n g u n c o n t e s t a b l y i n ms.
s u p p o r t e d b y Ap. Const. 2 , 2 6 . I h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d e l s e w h e r e t h e
fa i lu re o f the Didascalia Apostolorum, t h e p r e d e c e s s o r o f t h e l a t t e r t e x t ,
t o u n d e r s t a n d I g n a t i a n t y p o l o g y . 3 3 T h i s l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i ts el f
w o u l d , I s u b m i t , e x p l a i n c o r r u p t e d r e a d i n g s , o f t en l e a d i n g t o a n
o m i s s i o n o f t h e t e r m , i n s o m e G r e e k mss.3* A t a l l e v e n t s , a r e a d i n g
for Mag. 6 ,1 - 2 in te rm s o f a b i s h o p b e in g d es cr ib e d as rcpoKa0r||jivo<;
e iq xorcov x ou Geou wo u ld a p p e a r b i za r r e a s i t w o u l d s ee m to im p ly
3 3
B r e n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 4 5 .3 4
L i g h t f o o t ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p p . 1 5 6 - 1 5 7 a n d p p . 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 , cf. S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p p .
1 1 2 - 1 1 5 a n d p p . 1 4 1 - 1 4 2 .
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 2 3
a p h y s i c a l " p l a c e " for G o d in th e a r c h i t e c t u r e of the E u c h a r i s t i c
A s s e m b l y .
T h u s I g n a t i u s m a y b e r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e
o l o g i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , s y n t h e s i s e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n
b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y c l e r i ca l i co n s of th e c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l
i ty of the c o m m u n i t y , a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n by the s a m e i c o n s of th e
d i v i n e a c t s of p e r s o n s of th e g o d h e a d . Bu t his ab i l i t y to s y n t h e s i s e
s h o u l d n o t c o n c e a l f r o m us the f a c t t h a t his use of h u m a n p e r
s o n s to be xvnoi of d i v i n e b e i n g s c o n s t i t u t e s a r a d i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t
o f t h e t y p o l o g y of O r d e r f ro m t h a t w h i c h he has i n h e r i t e d f r o m
t h e k i n d of c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d r e p r e s e n t e d by the S e e r . W e wil l
n o w s u g g e s t t h a t t h e o r i g i n of t h i s c o n c e p t w a s n o t J e w i s h , b u t
p a g a n , a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w h a t w e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d to be th e i d e o
lo g y of the I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e u s e by I g n a t i u s of t h i s n e w , n o n -
J o h a n n i n e i m a g e r y w ill t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t a new in f lux of i m p e r i a l
c u l t i c i m a g e r y in a d d i t i o n to t h a t u s e d a l r e a d y by the S e e r a g a i n s t
h is p a g a n b a c k c l o t h .
L e t us t h e r e f o r e n o w t u r n in g r e a t e r d e t a i l to the specif ic ep i -
g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e for th e m e a n i n g b o t h of TX>KO<; a n d TipoKaGruievoq
i n I g n a t i u s ' p a g a n r e l i g i o u s b a c k g r o u n d , in o r d e r t h a t w e m a y e s t a b
l i s h c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n t i a l l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e s e t e r m s a n d w h a t w e wil l
u n d e r s t a n d as the h u m a n , e p i s c o p a l e i K o v e q a n d piuripccxa of his
C h r i s t i a n dywv |JA)GXIK6<; (6B 2).
6 A 2 . 1 . xtrnoq as statue, and as eiKcbv
I t m u s t b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e w o r d xvnoq u s u a l l y m e a n s a " s m a l l
s t a t u e " o r a "relief." A t E p h e s u s w e h a v e t h i s w o r d u s e d of the u p
r i g h t f i g u re (TUTCOV opBiov) of A n t o n i n u s set i n t o t h e r e c e s s of a w a l l .3 5
W e h a v e a ls o t h e s t a t u e a t R o m e of M a r c i a n , p r o c o n s u l of A c h a i a ,
d e s c r i b e d in th e i n s c r i p t i o n t h a t it b e a r s as a x u r c o q . 3 6 W e h a v e f u r
t h e r e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e w h i c h r e v e a l s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c o g n a t e t e r m s .
W h e r e a s r e g u l a r l y xxmoq is u s e d to d e s c r i b e , in the s i x t h c e n t u r y ,
s t a t u e s c o m m e m o r a t i n g c h a r i o t e e r s in the H i p p o d r o m e ,3 7 t h e t e r m
35 /. Eph. II, 28 6 (= CIG 2 9 6 7 ) : T O V T O V ov e i a o p d a q , x i m o v o p G i o v ' A v i c o v e w o v
AcopoGeoq nxeAifl 0T|K<XTO K p u r c x o ^ e v o v . . . .3 6 ( M o r e t t i ) IGUR 1,67 (= SEG 31, 1 7 0 3 ) . M a p i a a v o v oxftpei T W K W ;
f E M d 8 o < ;
avG-oj iaxo io .3 7
R. A u b r e t o n and F. B u f f i e r e , Anthologie Grecque: Deuxiem e P artie: Anthologie dePlanude, Tom. X I I I , ( C U F r : A s s o c i a t i o n G u i l l a u m e B u d e : P ar is 1980) nos 350: 8: oov
5 e TUTCOV x e x v T l e£e<J£, I l o p ( p i ) p i e . ( " a n d , Po rp h y ry , an artist's ski l l has p o l i s h e d y o u r
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 225
alent of rcpoioxriua and its variants. T h e latter is the normal term for
"preside" found in the inscriptions.4 0
T h e rarity of TcporaOripevoq can
be illustrated by the one sole entry in SEG, where this term is used
of cities ra th er t ha n individuals. He re rcpomGe^opevoc; c an either refer
to the presidency of a city such as Tarsus over—or, as I would pre
fer, its pre-eminence in—Cil icia .4 1
Indeed Ignatius reveals his knowl
edge of the normal use of this term in connection with a city when
he too uses it of the C h u r ch of R o m e "who is pre-eminent ( l i x i q K a i
7 c p o K d 0 r | x a i ) in the place of the district of the R o man s (ev xorcco xcopiou
Tcopaicov) . . . p r e - emi n en t in Christian charity (rcpoKa0ripevr| xfjq
d y d 7 c r |< ; ) . " (Rom. insc.)
But the other subject of rcpoKaOripevoq is not a city but a god or
goddess, who can be called eniaKonoq.
We have a n inscription from Pergamon in A.D. 129 (Syll.3
6 9 5 ,
/. 50-54) which refers to "presenting the best sacrifice ( m p a o x a [ G f j ] v a i
8e K a i 0-oaiav o>[<; KaX,]^(axr |v ) to Demet e r a n d Kore (xf\ x e [Ar|]ur|xpi
K a i x f i K6p[fi), the goddesses who are pre-eminent over o u r city (xaiq
7 i ] p o K a 0 r | p e v a i < ; [ 0 e ] a i q xfjq noXevx; f i p [ S v ) , as well as t o R o m a and to
all the other gods a n d goddesses ( o p o j i c o q 8e K a i xf\ ['Pcbujfl K a i xoiq
aXXox[<; Geoijq rcaai K a i 7 c d a a i < ; ) . " In such a pagan context, I would
suggest that the description of Ignatius the EnicKonoq, as one who is
described as T i p o K a O r i p e v o q etc; XUTCOV Geou, can be identified as a quite
precise a n d intended parallel. T h e bishop "presides over" o r ra ther
"is pre-eminent in" the Church, just as the statues of R o m a and the
other gods a n d goddesses did in the city-states of Asia, but not as
a god himself bu t rather as the Christian version of a xvnoq 9eo\i.
In this connection too it is not without relevance that we have a n
4 0
See e.g. SEG 35, 8 2 6 , 9 - 1 0 w h i c h is a d e d i c a t i o n to a p r i e s t e s s (yevou£va xe
xaq Aduxxxpoq Kai K o p p a q iepeia xcov xe iepcov ica [Xcoq Kai] bomq upoeaxa); l i k e w i s e
1 1 3 , 4 (jcpjo'iaxdxcoaav) d e s c r i b e s t h o s e w ho p r e s i d e o v e r the Eleus in ian r i te s ofD e m e t e r and K o r e . T h i s t h e r e f o r e is the u s u a l t e r m for p r e s i d e n c y o v e r the rites
o f a c u l t , P a g a n or C h r i s t i a n (see J u s t i n M a r t y r , Apol. 1, 98 (rcpoeoxox;); cf. B r e n t
( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 ) . 7tpOKa9r|U £vo< ; is u s e d in a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t s e n s e , as c i t e d
i n f o o t n o t e 41. For g e n e r a l u s e s of 7tpo{oxT|Ui and its d e r i v a t i v e s see e.g. SEG 27,
7 5 8 , 3 ; 33, 6 9 4 , 4 ; and 34, 94; cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 .41
SEG 29, 1527 ( S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ) (= OGIS 578): T d p a o q fi Tcpcbxri K[ai
(leyiaxri] Kai KaXXioxi] ii[T\xp6no\i<;] xcov y ercapxeicov 7tpOKa6e£ou ivTi KiXiKiaq. F r o m
P e r g a m o n f r o m an i n s c r i p t i o n in h o n o u r of S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s we h a v e (= (M o r e t t i )
IGUR 1, 33): K a i a d p i a x\ u[r|xp6]7toA,i<; K[iXiK(a<; 'Iaa\)p(][aq A\)Ka]o[v(a<; 7cp]oKa-
6e£[ouevTi Cf (M o r e t t i ) IGUR 1,78 and 80. N o t e f u r t h e r m o r e t h a t the n o r m a lw o r d for " p r e s i d e " is u s e d w h e n th i s s e n s e is r e q u i r e d as in SEG 35, 1106: . . . fi
rcjpoeaxcooa xfj<; jcoXecoq fiucov Geoq "Apxe[ui<;. . .
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2 2 6 C H A P T E R S I X
i n s c r i p t io n f r o m A c m o n i a i n D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n ( A . D . 8 5 ) . I t r e a d s a s
t h e wi l l o f T i t u s P r a x i a s p r o v i d i n g h o n o u r s fo r h is m e m o r y . H e r e h e
m ak es " o v e r see r s an d wi tn es ses ( em [a ]K6 [ rco u ]< ; K a i u d p x u p a q ) [of h is
i n t e n t i o n s ] t h e d i v i n e Augusti (Geoix; I [ e p ] ao x o u q ) a n d th e an ce s t r a l
g o d s (KaiGefouqTcaTpioufq]; IGRR 4 ,6 61 /. 22—23). Ig na t iu s is a n ov er
s e e r (enioKonoc,) w h o i s n o t h i m s e l f d i v i n e b u t a xxtnoq o f t h e F a t h e r
w h o is m o r e o v e r a w i t n e s s (uxxpxuq), i n t h e C h r i s t i a n s e n s e o f o n e
w h o is to lay d o w n h is l ife , as a urur|xr|<; of d i v i ne suffe r ing.
T h e t h r e e O r d e r s a r e xurcoi o r eiKoveq t h a t r e p r e s e n t a c o m m u n i t y
i n p r o c e s s o f r e d e m p t i o n , a n d t h e s a v i n g a c t s o f F a t h e r , S o n , a n d
S p i r i t a t w o r k in s u c h a c o m m u n i t y . W e s h al l n o w e x a m i n e h o w
t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n I g n a t i u s ' C h r i s t i a n c u l t e x p l i c i t y m i r r o r s b o t h D o m i
t i a n ' s r e f o rm o f t h e Im p e r i a l Cu l t i n ritu al, a n d it s r e l i g io u s o b j ec
t i v e i n s ecu r in g th e pax deorum.
6 A 2 . 3 . Domitian's c o r o n a a u r e a and Ignatian xurcoi
W e h a v e a r g u e d p r e v i o u s l y ( 5A 2 .2 .2 ) t h a t S u e t o n i u s ' a c c o u n t o f
h o w D o m i t i a n r e f a s h i o n e d t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e t h e coronae aureae,
wo rn b y p r i e s t s an d h im se l f a s h ig h p r i e s t p re s id in g o v e r t h e Cap i to l i n e
g a m e s , i m p l i e d a p a g a n t h e o l o g y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . D o m i t i a n i n t r o
d u c e d a n e w , p a g a n i c o n o g r a p h i c t h e o lo g y i n t o t h e g e n e r a l w e a r i n g
o f s a c e r d o t a l c r o w n s in s c r i b e d w i t h d i v i n e im a g e s . H e w o r e a s p e
c i a l l y d e s i g n e d corona aurea i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h is a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e
ritual o f t h e c u l t o f J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s w h i c h h a d i m p l i c a t i o n s f or
t h e i d e o l o g y o f e m p e r o r w o r s h i p , i n w h i c h h e c l a i m e d t o b e b o t h
dominus et deus. T h e corona aurea t h a t h e w o r e a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f
q u i n q u e n n i a l c o n t e s t s f o r t h is c u l t w a s i m p r e s s e d w i t h " a n i m a g e o f
J u p i t e r , J u n o a n d M i n e r v a (coronam auream cum effigie Iovis ac Iuno nis
Minervaeque)." H o w e v e r , t h e p r i e s t o f J u p i t e r a n d t h e co l le g e o fFlaviales
a s s i s t i n g h i m i n t h e c e r e m o n i a l a l s o w o r e (pari habitu) c r o w n s w i t h
i m a g e s o f t h e s e t h r e e d e i ti e s , b u t i n c l u d e d , in a d d i t i o n , D o m i t i a n ' s
o w n i m a g e (nisi quod illorum coronis inerat et ipsius imago).* 2
W e see i n t h e corona aurea with i t s effigies o r imago a s a c r a m e n t a l r e p
r e s e n t a t i o n o f J u p i t e r , J u n o , a n d M i n e r v a o n t h e p a r t o f t h e Pontifex
Maximus. T h e s e d e i t i e s a r e m a d e s a c r a m e n t a l l y p r e s e n t b y t h e c u l t i c
a c t s o f D o m i t i a n a s Pontifex Maximus, j u s t a s t h e Fa th e r , So n , an d sp i r i t -
f i l l ed , apos to l ic c i rc le o r c rown (rcveuuaxiKoc; oxecpavoq) a r e m a d e sac ra-
4 2 S u e t o n i u s , Domit. 4 .
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I G N A T I U S OF ANTIOCH AND THE MARTYR'S PROCESSION 227
mentally present by the xurcoi (imago, effigies) of bishops, presbyters,
and deacons (Magn. 13,1). T h e bis hop repr esen ts G o d the Fat her ,
with whom the spirit-filled apostles are united in the presbyters and
the Son in the deacons. Likewise Domitian, dominus et deus, is made
sacramentally present in all the priests who wear his image on their
crowns, and unite their individual acts into his one cultic act.
We have already referred to the JJ.UGXIK6<; dycov at t he t em pl es of
Roma and Augustus at Pergamon in which the oepaaxocpdvxnq dis
play ed the imag e of the Em pe ro r as the climax of the mystery play
(5B 2.2). Here the EIKCOV as a statue or xurcoq (effigies) on a crown can
be said to ma ke the impe ri al genius or xuxr| sacrament al ly pre sent.
Likewise in Igna tius ' pic tu re of the Euchari sti c assembly , the saving
figures of Fa th er , Spirit filled Aposdes, and So n ar e m a de sac ra
mentally present by the liturgical drama enacted by bishop, pres
byters an d deac ons , of whi ch they are the xunoi. W e have mo re ov er
in He ro di an V, 5,6 -7 a n acco unt of the acc lamat ion of the Sen ate
and their act of sacrifice before Ela gabal us (A.D . 218), in wh ich the
emperor ' s CIKCOV is assoc iat ed with the xurcoq xou emxcopiou Geou:
Wishing the Senate and the Roman People to become used to the
sight of his appearance (pouAxSpevoq ev eGei yeveaGat xfjq xov axrjuaxoq
6\j/eco<;), and a test be made whilst he was absent (drcovxoq XE avxov
rceipav 5o6fjvai) as to how they would accept the sight of his appear
ance (n&q (pepouoi xr\v 6\jnv xov c>xr|paxo<;), having had painted a great,
full-sized representation of himself ( e k o v a iieyiaxnv ypdyac; navxbq eauxou),
in which he appeared reaching forward and performing sacrifice (oloqrcpoicbv xe Kai iepovpycov ecpaivexo), and having placed in the picture the
form of the god of the country (rcapaaxrioaq xe ev xfi ypacpfi xov xvnov
xov ercixcopiou Geou) with whom of course he was depicted as obtain
ing good omens (co 5f| raAAiepcov eyeyparcxo), and having sent it to Rome,
he ordered the image to be hung up in the exact centre of the sen
ate house and in the highest spot (eKe^euaev ev xcp n.eoaixaxcp xr\<; cruyKA,r|xau
XOTCCO i)\|rnA,oxdxcp xe xr\v eiKova dvaxeGiivai), over the head of the statue
of Victory ( V K E O KecpcxAijq xov dydA,uaxo<; xfjq Ndcnq), so that when theyassembled in council (cbq auvi6vxe<; e<; xo poiAeuxripiov) they each would
burn incense (Xipavcoxov xe GuptcoGiv eKaaxoq) and pour libations of wine
(Kai oivouq arcevSo-uoi).
Here clearly the EIKCOV of the emperor is associated with the xurcoq
of the Geoq eni%(opioq whi ch it med iat es from t he cen tre of the Sen at e
ga th er ed for its business as the ce nt re of its unity , ju st as Ign at iu s'
bishop stands at the centre of the Eucharistic assembly as the xvnoqnaxpoq.
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2 2 8 C H A P T E R SIX
A t t h i s p o i n t the i c o n o g r a p h y of e c c l e s i a l O r d e r m e r g e s i n t o b o t h
t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of m a r t y r d o m and of a c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n . Let us
n o w e x a m i n e the p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r of I g n a t i u s ' m a r t y r p r o c e s s i o n
as a c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n by a n a l o g y w i t h the I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e sh a l l
e x a m i n e too, in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the l a t t e r , the a m b a s s a d o r i a l t i d e s
g i v e n to v a r i o u s c l e r i c s w h o a c c o m p a n y I g n a t i u s ' p r o c e ss i o n in o r d e r
t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t s w i t h t h o s e o f f i c i a l s a p p o i n t e d by the
c i ty s ta tes of A s i a in o r d e r to s e c u r e i n a u g u r a t i o n a n d c e l e b r a t i o n
o f a new I m p e r i a l C u l t .
P A R T B. THE M A R T Y R P R O C E S S I O N AND C U L T I C A M B A S S A D O R S
S c h o e d e l d e s c r i b e d c l e a r l y the " s t a g e d " c h a r a c t e r of the j o u r n e y of
I g n a t i u s f r o m his n a t i v e A n t i o c h in S y r i a to p r o s p e c t i v e m a r t y r d o m
a t R o m e . T h e m a r t y r d o m is p r o c l a i m e d b e f o r e h a n d to the R o m a n
C h r i s t i a n s by C r o c u s the d e a c o n a n d o t h e r s f r o m E p h e s u s , " wh o
p r e c e d e d m e f r o m S y r i a to R o m e to the g l o r y of G o d (Rom. 1 0 , 1 - 2 ) . "
F u r t h e r m o r e , I g n a t i u s c o l l e c t s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o j o i n his p r o c e s s i o n as
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the c h u r c h e s of th e v a r io u s c i t i e s (E p h esu s , M ag n es i a ,
a n d T r a l l e s ) , w h o c o m e to him in S m y r n a s i n c e the r o u t e s e l e c t e d
b y his g u a r d s has a l l o w e d h im p r e v i o u s l y o n l y to v i s i t P h i l a d e l p h i a .
N o t o n l y did s o m e of t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s s t a y w i t h his e n t o u r a g e
a n d p r e c e d e him to R o m e (Rom. 10 ,2 ) , b u t s o m e w e r e e l e c t e d to
c o n g r a t u l a t e th e C h u r c h of A n t i o c h on its p e a c e (Philad. 10,1 ; Smyr.
1 1 , 2 - 3 ; Pol. 8,1). The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r of t h o s e w h o c o m e
f r om t h e i r C h u r c h e s to j o i n his p r o c e s s i o n is e m p h a s i s e d in Tral.
1 2 , 1 w h e r e he can say: "I g r e e t you f r o m S m y r n a , t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e C h u r c h e s of G od wh o are p r e s e n t w i t h m e (dj ia xaiq a\)U7tapot>aai<;
p o t eKKXnoiaiq xov 8 e o u ). " T h u s th e i r C h u r c h e s are c o n s i d e r e d v e r y
m u c h to be p r e s e n t in t h o s e s e n t to a c c o m p a n y h im. T h r o u g h t h e i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ,4 3
C h u r c h e s " w h i c h did not lie on my way (oci \ir\
4 3 I g n a t i u s c l a i m s to see the c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y of the C h u r c h e s w h i c h he has
n e v e r v i s i t ed as m y s t e r i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d in c l er i c al p e r s o n s . W i t h b i s h o p O n e s i m u s
he has " c o n v e r s e of m i n d (crovf|9eia)" so t h a t he was a b l e to see t h e i r c o r p o r a t e
p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e i r no\x>nXr\Qeia (Ephes. 1,3 and 5,1) as a l s o in the c a s e of b i s h o p
P o l y b i u s (Tral. 1,1) or b i s h o p D a m a s (Mag. 6,1: coerce u£ xo nav nXrfioq ev avxcp
Secopf iaa i ) . See f u r t h e r A. B r e n t , The R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a ti u s of A n t i o c h and
the Didascalia Apostolorum, in SecCent 8,3 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 5 1 - 1 5 3 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Cultural
Episcopacy, pp. 8 5 - 8 8 .
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I G N AT I US O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R 'S P R O C E S S I O N 2 2 9
7 ipoa f | K o \ ) oa{ uoi ) accord ing to the f lesh (T T J 68cp x f\ Kax d o d p K a) l ea d
th e way b e fo re m e c i t y b y c i t y (Kax d noXiv \ ie Tcpofjyov; Rom. 9 , 3 ;
Philad. 1 0 ,2 ) . "
B u t h o w d i d b o t h I g n a t i u s himself, a n d t h e C h u r c h e s w h i c h c o
o p e r a t e d in t h is " s t a g e m a n a g e m e n t " o f t h e m a r t y r ' s p r o c e s s i o n , v i e w
t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e j o u r n e y ? I n w h a t s oc ia l c o n t e x t a r e w e t o p l a c e
t h e " t h e a t r e " th u s st a g e d ? W e n e e d t o g o b e y o n d S c h o e d e l ' s i n d i
v i d u a l i s t i c a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n s u c h w o r d s
a s " g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n a n d s u p p o r t , " a n d " t o b r i n g t o e x p r e s s i o n
t h e i r d e e p e s t h o p e s a n d f e ar s a n d to c h a n n e l t h e m e f f e c ti v e l y ."4 4
I g n a t i u s d e s c r i b e s h is a p p e a r a n c e i n R o m e in l a n g u a g e t h a t c l e a rl y
i m p l i e s t h a t h is a c t c o n f r o n t s R o m a n p o w e r w i t h a s u p e r i o r , s p i r i tu a l
a l t e r n a t i v e . I g n a t i u s c l a i m s (Rom. 2 ,2 ) t h a t : " G o d j u d g e d t h e b i s h o p
o f Sy r i a t o b e fo u n d a t t h e su n ' s s e t t i n g (eic; Su a iv ) h a v in g s en t h im
from the (sun ' s ) r is ing (anb d v ax o Af jq ) . " Sch o ed e l co m m en t s t h a t : " t h e re
is a s e n s e o f m o v e m e n t i n t h e b i s h o p ' s m e n t a l g e o g r a p h y s tr ik i ng l y
d i ff e re n t f ro m t h e d e f e n d e r s o f R o m a n p o w e r w h o s p e a k s i m p l y o f
R o m e r u l i n g f r o m t h e r is i n g t o t h e s e t t in g s u n . "4 5
C e r t a i n l y Rom. 6 ,
1 r e p r e s e n t s a s e l f- c o n s c io u s r e v e r s a l o f i m p e r i a l v a l u e s o n t h e p a r t
o f a b i s h o p w h o is c o n t r a s t i n g h i s i n d i v i d u a l p u r p o s e w i t h t h a t o f
t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r .4 6
B u t S c h o e d e l r es is ts a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
I g n a t i u s ' a c t a s p a r t o f a c o n t r i v e d m a r t y r o l o g i c a l c u l t . T h e self-
s a c r if i c in g b i s h o p f r o m t h e e a s t is a p p a r e n d y s i m p l y a h e r o i c f i g u re
p r o c l a i m i n g t h e t r i u m p h o f C h r i s t i a n g r a c e o v e r t h e E m p e r o r ' s n a t
u r a l p o w e r .
I n w h a t f o ll ow s I w i ll a r g u e t h a t I g n a t i u s ' p r o c e s s i o n t o m a r t y r
d o m r e f l e c t s t h e C h r i s t i a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e a r e n a t o t h e i m p e r i a l
p r o c e s s i o n t h a t e n d s w i t h s a cr if ic e o n a p a g a n , i m p e r i a l a l t a r . H i s
C h r i s t i a n e n t o u r a g e a r e t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e p a g a n o ffic ia ls a n d
p r i e s t s . I w i ll i n t e r p r e t t h e i m a g e s w i t h w h i c h h e e x p r e s s e s h i s u n d e r
s t a n d in g o f w h a t is t ak in g p l ac e i n t h e li g h t o f t h e so c i a l a n d re l i
g i o u s c o n t e x t i n t h e c i ty s t a t e s o f A s i a M i n o r , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i r
a d h e r e n c e t o a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e d o w e ll to
4 4
S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p. 12 .45
Ibid. p p . 1 7 0 - 1 7 1 .46
Rom. 6 , 1 : " T h e furth es t en d s o f th e w or ld prof i t m e n ot h in g (ov)8ev ue cb(peA.f|oei
x a Ttepaxa xo v KOOUO'D) n o r d o t h e k i n g d o m s o f t h i s a g e (ovbk a i | 3aa iA,e ia i xov a i covoq
xo\)XO\)): i t i s be t ter for m e to d i e (m A,6v uo i arcoGaveiv ) for the sa ke o f J e s u s C h r i s t(8 ia ' Ir j oo u v X p i a x o v ) t h a n t o re i g n o v er ea r t h ' s fu r t h es t en d s (r\ P a a i X e v e i v xcov
T c e p a x c o v xfjq yfj<;)."
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230 C H A P T E R SIX
ask whether Ignatius and his martyrdom are not set over against
that cult, in the way in whi ch he reg ards his jou rne y to R o m e as
a procession securing those deified qualities of Victoria and Pax.47
I
will argue:
1. Ig na ti us sees his person al sacrifice (his dvx{\|n)%ov on the Gumao-
xr|piov exoiuov) at Ro m e as ce nt re d in a cultic pro cess ion, a nd the
compar ison be twe en his highway to victory an d that of Ro me 's pow er
is a cultic co mp ar is on with the deve lopi ng Imper ial Cult.
2 . The cult is a mystery cult that parallels the imperial mysteries,in which those who participate in the martyrological drama are
pip-nxou and cv \i\i\>Gxai. His picture of the xopoq gathered for the
Euchar ist, an d his lan gua ge abo ut its me mb er s an d their actions
(xpiaxocpopoi, vococpopoi, ocyiocpopoi), mirrors wha t epig raphi cal evidence
will inform us regarding the mysteries associated with the Imperial
Cul t (iepotcpopoi, pcopocpopoi).
3 . Ign at ius ' pa rt icular tide, "T heophor us (Geotpopoq)" and ther efore
"be ar er of G o d " is to be und er st ood in co mp ar ison with the be ar er
of th e im pe r ia l image (eiiccov) in th e ritua l of th e Impe r ia l Cu lt
(aePccoxocpopoq, GeoXoyoq (oepaaxoA,6yo<;) 0eo(pdvxr|<; (oepaaxo(pdvxr|<;)).
Certainly xvnoq is used equivalendy to EIKCOV as a "statue" or as a
"relief" in several insciptions, as we have seen (6A 2.1). Also related
with this title was the use of xurcoq in the description of the bishop's
office as KpoKaGripevoq eiq xxmov rcaxpoq (6A 2). This desc ript ion also
mirrored the theology implied by Domidan's changes in the icono
graphy on the priesdy coronae wo rn as pa rt of th e ritual associated
with the Capi tol ine ga me s (6A 2.3). W e shall no w be able to locat e
the particular focus of this set of images specifically in the proces
sion associated with the Imperial Cult and in some instances involv
ing impe rial mysteries.
4 7
Certainly Schoedel (1985) Introduction pp. 1 1 - 1 2 , and p. 213 saw Ignatius'
v i e w of his martyrdom in such terms ("All this makes sense if we recall how c a r e
fully planned Ignatius' whole journey appears to have been for calling out support
f r o m the churches on his route and how intimately such support figures in the
b i s h o p ' s reflections on the significance of his mission as a man set on u n i ty " ) .
S c h o e d e l however left ill-defined the particular social and religious context which
w o u l d give meaning to Ignatius' conceptualization of the various roles of those
i n v o l v e d in his procession.
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 231
6B 1. The &VT{\|/\)XOV at the 0 \ ) a i a a x f | p i o v eioipov
As they greet Ignatius in chains at Smyrna through Onesimus their
bishop a n d representative w h o meets h im there, the Ephesians aredescribed as "being imitators of God, inflamed by the blood of God
(Ephes. 1,1)." But these words cannot in this context be interpreted
simply as an indication of their general piety.4 8
H e claims that their
piety is focused upon his coming martyrdom. They are "inflamed
by the blood of God (&va£(D7Tupf|oavT£<; eva i u m i Geofi)" because they
were praying that he should attain his goal of fighting with the wild
beasts.The spectacle of "the blood of God" reflected in the p{pr|oi<; of
the martyr-bishop is thus the cause of their anxious haste to come
to see him (iaxopf|ocu e o 7 i o u 8 d o a T e ) . It is therefore the martyr bishop,
becoming the eiiccov or zvnoq of the suffering God, to which they are
drawn in a cult in which they will re-enact or "imitate (UIUTITOCI ovxeq
TOU Geou)" the saving event.4 9
It is to be emphasised therefore that such uiur|oi<; is clearly cul
t i c . In the arrival of the bishop from the East at the arena of the
empero r of the West we have the climax of the cultic procession
which began in Antioch a n d gathered its members from the churches
of Asia Minor to whom Ignatius wrote. As Perler pointed out, Ignatius
used the rare word avTVAjruxov as equivalent to the Pauline iXaaxripiov
or atoning sacrifice.5 0
Such was his sacrificial role in the cultic pro
cession in which he invited members of the Ephesian Church to
jo in . "I am your atoning sacrifice (dvTi\|ru%ov upcov eycb), and of those
wh o m you sent to Smyrna for the honour of God (Kai tbv e7cep\ | /axe
eiq 0eou xipfrv ei<; Ipvpvav) ." (Ephes. 21,1 cf. Smyr. 10,2; Pol. 2,3)
In this way Ignatius' sufferings become a kind of extension of his
action as bishop in the Eucharist , as his words "I am God 's wheat"
4 8
Cf. S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 4 1 - 4 2 .4 9
T h i s p o i n t was e s t a b l i s h e d at l e n g t h by H.W . B a r t s c h , G n o s t i s c h e s Gut und
G e m e i n d e t r a d i t i o n bei I g n a t i u s von A n t i o c h i e n , in Sammlung wissenschqftlicher Mono-
graphien, 2,44 ( G i i t er s l o h : E v a n g e l i s c h e r V e r l a g 1 9 4 0 ) , pp. 7 8 - 9 8 , and o n l y p a r t i a l l y
m o d i f i e d in K. B o m m e s , W e i z e n G o t t e s , U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zur T h e o l o g i e des
M a r t y r i u m s bei I g n a t i u s von A n t i o c h i e n , in Theoph 27 ( K o l n und B o n n : H a n s t e i n
1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 9 2 - 1 0 7 . See a l s o W.M. S w a r t l e y , The I m i ta t i o C h r i s t i in the I g n a t i a n
L e t t e r s , in VCh 27 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 8 1 - 1 0 3 and Th. Pre is s , La m y s t i q u e de l ' i m i ta t i o n
d e C h r i s t et de l ' u n i t e c h e z I g n a c e d ' A n t i o c h , in RHPhR 18 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , pp. 1 9 7 - 2 4 1 .5 0 O. P e r l e r , Das v i e r t e M a k k a b a e r b u c h , I g n a t i u s von A n t i o c h i e n , und die a l t e s t e n
M a r t y r e r b e r i c h t e , in RivAC 9 ( 1 9 4 9 ) , pp. 47 ff. cf W . H . C . F r e n d , Martyrdom and
Persecution in the Early Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 199 ff.
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232 C H A P T E R SIX
(Rom. 4,1) indicate .5 1
T h e 0 u o i a o x r | p i o v of the arena is an extension
of the 0 u a i a a x r | p i o v that prefigures in Ignatius' liturgical scenes (Ephes.
5,2; Magnes. 7,2; Philad. 4). Indeed, Ignatius anticipates his experience
in the arena as a kind of Eucharist in which instead of the pagan
crowds there will be the Roman Chris t ians as participants in a cult
in which he himself is sacrificed on an altar that is ready (0uoiaaxr|piov
exoiuov). (Rom. 2,2) His words are "to be poured out as a libation
to G o d (xou a 7 i o v 8 i o 9 f ] v a i 0ea>)," which m a y reflect Paul's words in
Eph. 5 ,1~2.5 2
But Ignatius is not simply commenting on Scripture in
a social vacuum. T h e 0 u o i a a x r | p i o v exoiuov has clear associations with
the Imperial Cult and its offerings of thus et vinum, as a sacrificial
term for which orcov8io0f|V (xi is also appropriate.5 3
In place of the church gathered for the Eucharist, as uiot a d p ^ . . .
ev 7coxr |p iov ei<; evcooiv xou aiVocxoq auxou- ev 0 u a i a a x f | p i o v . . . (Philad.
4), there is therefore the martyr pouring out his blood a n d giving
his body, which he prays may be found pure bread, as God's wheat
(Rom. 2,2 ; 4,1). In Rom. 8,3 he asks the Roman Chris t ians to behave
like the pagan spectators w h o express to the arena officials their wish
for death rather than life for a person for whom the mome n t to be
selected or otherwise has come. "If I should suffer (edv 7cd0co), you
had expressed your wish [for it] (f)0eA ,r|aaxe), if I should be rejected
(edv d7io8oKiuxxa0co), you had expressed your hatred (euiof|aaxe)."5 4
The church's prayer in the arena is not therefore that bread a n d
wine become Christ's body a n d blood, b u t that in Ignatius' body
5 1
For a d i s c u s s i o n on the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n E u c h a r i s t and m a r t y r d o m see,
G . P . W e t te r , A l t c h r i s t l i c h e L i tu r g i e n : Das c h r i s t l i c h e M y s t e r i u m : S t u d i e n zur Ge-
s c h i c h t e des A b e n d m a h l e s , in FRLANT 13 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , pp. 1 1 7 - 1 1 9 , 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 ; B a rt sc h
( 1 9 4 0 ) , pp. 1 0 2 - 1 0 6 ff., cf. B o m m e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 6 1 - 6 3 , 8 9 - 9 3 . See a l s o H. S c h l i e r ,
R e l i g i o n s g e s c h i c h d i c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zu den I g n a t i u s b r i e f e n , in B^NW 8 ( 1 9 2 9 ) ,
p p . 1 5 2 - 1 6 9 .5 2
Cf. S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 29-31 and p. 42.0 3
For the use of i n c e n s e on T r a ja n ' s a l ta r at P e r g a m o n , see SEG 11, 9 2 2 - 9 3 3
( G y t h e u m ) ; V. E h r e n b e r g and A . H . M . J o n e s , Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus
and Tiberius, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1955) no. 102 (a); IGRR 4, 353 b 20. See a l s o
S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, ( C a m b r i d g e :
U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 208. In the H e l l e n i s t i c r u l e r c u l t in P t o l e m a i c E g y p t the b u r n i n g of
i n c e n s e and l i b a t i o n s as o p p o s e d to a n i m a l s a c r i f i c e s was a l re a d y c o m m o n b e fo r e
i t s a d a p ta t i o n to e m p e r o r w o r s h i p , see D. F i s h w i c k , The I m p e r i a l C u l t in the L a t i n
W e s t : S t u d i e s in the R u l e r C u l t of the W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e of the R o m a n E m p i r e ,
in EPRO 108 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 2,1, p. 513.
5 4 The force of the two aor is ts (rfieXr\cax£, e u i o f | a a x e ) is b e s t b r o u g h t out as a
o n c e for all e x p r e s s i o n (by the c r o w d s in the a r e n a ) of the a c t i o n of the v e r b and
t r a n s l a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y .
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I G N A TI U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 3 3
5 5 F o r t h e v i s i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r o f h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h e h a s n o tv i s i t ed a t t h e i r E u c h a r i s t i c w o r s h i p s e e A . B r e n t , T h e I g n a t i a n E p i s d e s a n d t h e
T h r e e f o l d E c c l e s i a s t ic a l O r d e r , i n JR H 17 ,1 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 8 - 3 2 .
t h o s e r e a l i t i e s m a y b e d i s p l a y e d . H e e x h o r t s t h e m r e g a r d i n g t h e w i l d
b e a s t s i n t h e a r e n a : " I n t e r c e d e t o t h e L o r d f o r m e ( t a x a v e u o a x e xov
Kupiov urcep euou) th a t t h r o u g h the se i n s t ru m e n ts ( i v a 8 id xcov opydvcov
xouxcov) I m ig h t b e f o un d G o d 's sacri f ice (Geou G uo ia eupeGco)." (Rom.
4 ,2 ) H i s v i si o n o f t h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y h a s n o b i s h o p , p r i e s t , o r
d e a c o n a t t h is p o i n t , a s h a d h i s v i s io n s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s t o w h i c h
h e a d d r e s s e s h i s o t h e r l e t t e r s ,5 5
b u t o n l y t h e R o m a n o ff ic ia ls a n d
t h e i r f u n c ti o n s i n t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e . W h a t t h e R o m a n C h r i s t i a n s c a n
d o is t o " c o a x " t h e w i l d b e a s t s t o d e v o u r h i m q u i c k l y a n d n o t t r y
t o k e e p t h e m a w a y (Rom. 4 ,2 ) .
G i v e n t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e v ic t o r i o u s j o u r n e y o f t h e b i s h o p o f S y r i a
f r o m t h e E a s t c o n f r o n t i n g t h e e m p e r o r o f t h e W e s t is a c o n f r o n t a
t i o n b e t w e e n r i v a l c u l t s , c a n w e n o w i n t h e l ig h t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s
o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t d e l i n e a t e f u r th e r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f I g n a t i u s r e v e r s e
i m a g e s ? W h a t , a c c o r d i n g to I g n a t i u s , a r e t h e f e a t u re s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n
l it u rg i ca l c o m m u n i t y t h a t m i r r o r t h o s e o f p a g a n e m p e r o r w o r s h i p ?
6 B 2 . The %opo<; and the dyo)v uuaxucoq
T h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y is r e g a r d e d a s a xop oq g a t h e r e d a r o u n d a
p a g a n G u o ia a x ri pi o v e x oiu o v. T h e m y s t e r y - d r a m a i n w h i c h t h e b i s h o p
is a xujcoq is n o w a n a r e n a sc en e in w h ic h h e is a UIUT|XT|<; o f t h e
su ffe rin g g o d (xou rcdGouq xou Geou uou) . (Rom. 6 ,3 ) Ig n a t iu s i n v i t e s t h e
R o m a n C h r i s t i a n s , g a t h e r e d i n h is i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e a r e n a , t h a t :
. . . in love be com ing a choir ( iva ev aycxTrn xopo<; yevojievoi), yo u m a y
sing to the F ath er in Je su s Ch rist (aonxe xcp rcaxpi ev 'Incou Xpiaxcp) that
God has deemed the b ishop of Syria worthy to be found at the sun ' s
sett ing, having despatched him from the sun's ris ing.
Rom. 2,2
T h e y a r e t o s in g as a ch o ir a t th e sacri f ice (%opo<; yevopxv oi) , as h e
e n v i s a g e d t h e E p h e s i a n s ( 4 , 1 - 2 ) f o r m e d l ik e a c h o i r a t E u c h a r i s t ( 6 A
1.1.1), o r a s t h e S e e r d e s c r i b e d t h e " g r e a t m u l t i t u d e " (Apoc. 7,9) or
t h e 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 ( 1 4 , 2 - 3 ) .
I g n a t i u s t h u s a l s o s a w h i s c o m m u n i t i e s g a t h e r e d fo r t h e S u n d a y
E u c h a r i s t o r h i s o w n m a r t y r o l o g i c a l E u c h a r i s t a s s i n g i n g t h e v i c t o r y i n
m a r t y r d o m o f t h e C h r i s t i a n b i s h o p ri si n g f r om t h e E a s t a n d t r i u m p h i n g
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234 C H A P T E R SIX
i n the arena over the Emperor . In this respect they paralleled the
way in which the choir at Pergamon sung the emperor 's praises. Just
a s we saw was the case (5B 2.2-2.2.3) with the imperial 0eoA,6yoi or
uuvcoSoi of Pergamon or of Hypaepa (mG -uuvouvxeq xov l e P a o x o v OIKOV)
i n the Imperial Cult (IGRR 4, 3 5 3 , b . /. 12-19), there is the xopoq
of the Christian cult. That xopoq extols that divinized quality of impe
rial unity that is ouovoicc (Ephes. 4,2), and which was also a feature
of the doxology of Clemen t Cor. 6 0 - 6 1 . Ignatius' martyrological cult
was also to celebrate the peace experienced by the Church of Antioch
i n Syria. Thus o p o v o i a , like the pax deorum, was a particular objective
of the Imperial Cul t which w as achieved by Ignat ius ' Chris t ian
Cult . T h e hymn singers were moreover garlanded (IGRR 4, 35 3, b.
/. 18-19: oxecpdvoix; xoiq uuvcp8oi<; Kai xolq puaxripioiq oxecpdvcoaiv) just
a s Ignatius ' presbyterate are described as a "spiritual crown (Magnes.
13,1: d^iorcXoKou TrveupaxiKou a x e c p d v o u ) . "
Moreover , we followed (5B 2.2.3) Pleket's account of the role of th e
aePaaxo(pdvxr|<; in exposing the e i K o v e q .5 6 There were also other allu
sions to i)uvcp8o( of the Imperial Cult at Pergamon, for example Asia
(Hypaepa) .5 7
In order to locate further the function of these e i K o v e q
i n the ritual of the cult, we need to refer to SEG 6,59 (= IGRR 3 ,
209) , which is the "decree of the international association of the
craftsmen of Dionysus (\|/f|(pioua xcov anb ix\q o i K o u p e v n c ; rcepi xov Aiovuaov
xexve(xcov)" (/. 1-5) from Ankyra. T h e occassion is the incorporation
of the cult of the emperor Hadrian into that of Dionysus and Hadrian's
n ame is added to the association's title as the "new Dionysus" (Kai
AuxoKpdxopa Tpatavov 'ASpiavov lepaaxov K a t a a p a v e o v Aiovuaov). Here
we find t h a t it is the honoured benefaction of Ulpius Aelius Pompeianus
t o "exhibit the mystery-spectacle (dycovoGexfjoai xov dyfiva xov puaxucov)."
Pompeianus summoned (xoix; dycovioxdq d v e K a A i o a x o ) the contestants
"already on their highway with anxious speed (xcp xe xd%ei xfj<; G7io\)8fj<;
68euovxa<;)," and "h e provided (ercf |pKeoev) for every part in the mys
tery (rcavxi pepei xou puaxriplou)." Ignatius too f o u n d the Ephesians
anxious for the spectacle of his mar ty rdom (1,5: i o x o p f i o a i e o 7 c o \ )8d-
a a x e ) , just as he regards all of them through their representatives as
5 6
P l e k e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) pp. 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 , w h e r e he c o m p a r e s IGRR 4, 353, c. /. 4-7 w i t h
IGRR 4, 522 = OGIS 479; 643. See a l so my d i s cu s s i o n in 5B 2.2.57
IGRR 4, 1608 (C l a u d i u s ) : a. /. 10: oi i )u v o )8 o i a v e 9 r | K a v raxa xo y e v 6 | i e [ v o v ]\ | / r | (p i o | ! a ev n e p y d u c o i)7co xfjq i e p a q [ a v v 6 ] 8 o \ ) e y y pd \ j/ a vx e < ; ooa 5 i K a i a [ K a i
[<p iXdv]9po)7td eax iv auxoiq 8e8o( i . e [va im ' auxof i ] . and b. /. 5 . . .[xf\ i ep ]a i )uvco8(ov
[ a u v 6 8 ( p x a i p e i v ] . . .
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 235
5 8
P l u t a r c h , De Is. et Osir. 361 D, 27 w h e r e I s i s is d e s c r i b e d as " h a v i n g i n t e r
m i x e d w i t h the m o s t h o l y r i t e s (xaiq dyicoxdxaK; dvaui^aaa xeXexctiq), i m a g e s and
s u g g e s t i o n s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of her su f fer ings at th a t t i m e ( e i K o v a ^ K a i vnovoiaq
m i u i u f |u ax a xcov xoxe 7ca0r |udxcov) . . ." Cf. the m y s t e r i e s of A tt i s in L u c i a n , De DeaSyria 15: 'Pep 8e x e p v o v x o u m i " A x x e a u i u i o v x a i , and E l e u s i n i a n M y s t e r i e s , El. Lysias
c. Andoc. 30: The Hierophant says : e8 i )< ; xr\v cxoXryv uiuot>uevo<; xd i epd e jc iSe iKvoe
xolq duA)r|xoi<; m i e u te xfj (pccvi) xd dic6ppr |xa (cf. H i p p o l y t u s EL V, 8 , 3 9 ) . For the
e q u a t i o n of I si s w i t h D i o n y s i a c m y s t e r i e s , see P l u t a r c h , De Is. et Osir. 364 E, 35:
o x i pev o\)v 6 avxoc, eoxi Aiovuoitp xiva u<xA,Ax)v rj ae yvyvcooKeiv, d) KXea.5 9
For the P l a t o n i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n for th i s see S. C a l d e r o n e , T e o l o g i a , P o l i ti c a,
S u c c e s s i o n e D i n a s d c a e C o n s e c r a t i o in Eta C o n s t a n t i n a , in Culte des Souverains, dans
I'Empire Romain, in Entretiens 19 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 and f o o t n o t e s ; A. H e i t m a n n ,
I m i t a t i o Dei. Die e t h i s c h e N a c h a h m u n g G o t t e s n a c h der V a t e r l e h r e der z w e i e r s t e n
J a h r h u n d e r t e n , in StAns 10 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . See a l s o W e t t e r ( 1 9 2 1 ) , pp. 6 6 - 6 7 , pp. 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ;
S c h l i e r ( 1 9 2 9 ) , pp. 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 , 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 ff.; S. A n g u s , The Mystery Religions: A Study in
the Religious Background of Early Christianity, (New Y o r k : D o v e r 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 1 0 9 - 1 1 2 ,
p p . 132 133, pp. 137 138, pp. 3 0 7 - 3 0 8 .
"companions on the way (ouvoSoi rcdvxeq)." His martyr-cult , in which
he shares with Paul, is a mystery cult in which the Ephesians part i
cipate as fellow initiates (ouu^uoxai) who are on an highway (rcdpo8o<;).
(Ephes. 12,2) Let us now explore further the general background of
|iiur|oi<; in parallel with Ignatius' use of the term.
6B 2 . 1 . uiur|GK; in the Isis mysteries and imperial extensions
T h e wo rd uiur|xr|<; in Ignatius Rom. 6,3 has a parallel in the mystery
cults of Isis5 8
which were assimilated to those of Dionysus which
were, as Hadrian's example shows, assimilated in turn to the Imperial
Cult. Here piur|xf|<; is used, with its cognates, uiuoujievoq xd iepd a n d
uiur|| iaxa xcov xoxe 7ia6r|udxcov, in the sense of actor in that participants
acting out their role in the divine drama become mystically identified
and absorbed into the realities which they act.5 9
Certainly Ignatius sees his role as bishop at one point as a mys-
tagogue. In Tral. 5,2 he claims: "I am able to know (8uvaum voeiv)
the heavenly things (xd ercoupdvia), both the angelic locations (Kai
xdq xorcoGeaiaq xdq d yyetaKaq ) and the ranks of the archons ( K a i xdq
auaxdaeu; d p x o v x i K a q ) . " In Ephes. 19,1 he speaks of Mary's virginity,
and Christ 's conception a n d passion as xpia nuaxripia. In Philad. 7,2
he speaks of the Spirit that moves him as: "he exposes hidden things
(xd Kpu7cxd eAiyxei)." Like the high-priest of the Imperial Cult, he is
"entrusted ( r c e T t i a x e u u e v o q ) with the holy of holies (xd dyia xcov dyicov). . .
with the secrets of God (xd Kpurcxd x o u Geou; Philad. 9,1)."
W e can now ask what was the character of the ritual performed by
those to whom were assigned the various parts in the dycbv uuoxiKoq, and
how they were paralleled in Ignatius' description of the martyr-cult .
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236 C H A P T E R SIX
6B 2.2. Image bearers in the Imperial Mysteries
We have already noted the use of eiKoveq of the em pe ro r an d thei r
expo sure in the d r a ma by th e 6eo<pdvxr|<; of Dionysus . T h e la tt er
bec ame the aePaaxocpdvxriq when the two cults be gan to be assimi
lated as we saw takin g place und er Ha dr ia n. But othe r symbolic
objects were deployed in the ritual and persons assigned to carry
them. T h e ge nera l te rm iepocpopoq is used of those who car ry sac red
objects in a pagan cultus,6 0
but we find this term particularly applied
in the context of the mystery play. Regarding the Isis mysteries,
Plut arch informs us tha t: "Isis . . . is wise . . ., and discloses the divine
mys ter ies (8eiKvt>oi)aav xd Geia) to those who t ruly a nd jusdy ha ve
the name of 'bearers of the sacred vessels' and 'wearers of the sacred
robes ' (xoiq d^rjGSq Kal 8tm{co<; iepacpopoiq Kai iepoaxotanq rcpooayo-
peuopevoiq; De hide et Osiride 352 B, 3)."
But there were also more particular roles assigned in the ritual of the
mysteries, some of which Robert lists as pcouotpopoq, Kioxacpopoq, jropcpo-
poq, A,iKva(popoq, Kavqcpopoq, GaMxxp6po<;, cpaMxxpopoq, a nd Geocpopoq.61
W e find the lat ter ter m be co ming oePaoxocpopoc; when for exam pl e
the Dionysiac mysteries are assimilated with Hadrian's Imperial Cult.6 2
Kioxacpopoq occurs in Syll.3
736 (Andania 92 B.C.) where the law for
cel ebrati ng the myster ies is inscr ibed. H er e "the sacred virgins (a!
TcapGevoi a i iepai ) as t hey are selected (raGo*; dv A,d%covxai) draw the
chariots ( d y o \ ) o a i xd appa xa ) laiden with chests cont aining the objects
for the sacred mysteries (erciKeipevafq] Kicxaq e x o u a a q iepd p/uaxim;
V I , 1, 30 -3 1) ."
Among the objects car ri ed in the ritual of the sacred mysteries,
in addition to the EIKCOV of the emper or expo sed by the oePaoxotydv-
xrjq, were small models or pictures of an altar. Apollonius son of
Apol lonius is given the tide pcopocpopoq in P e rgamon.6 3
W e find an
explanation of this tide in Apuleius' description of the Isis mysteries:
The foremost high priests (antistites sacrorum proceres). . . carried beforethem the distinctive attributes of the most powerful gods (potentissimo-
6 0
IG 12, 5, 291.6 1
L. R o b e r t , Recherches E p i g r a p h i q u e s , VI Inscriptions d'Athenes, in Opera Min.
Set. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 839 note 6 (= REA 62 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 323 note 6). See also Idem. Le
S e r p e n t Glycon d'Abonouteichos a Athenes et Artemis d'Ephese a R o m e , in Opera
Min. Set. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 747-769 (= CRAI ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 1 9 - 5 3 5 ) .6 2 L. R o b e r t , H e l l e n i c a , II, Inscription E p h e b i q u e , in Opera Min. Set. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ,
p p . 1277-1278 (= RPhil 13 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) .< , : i
M.P. N i l s s o n , Zwei Altare aus P e r g a m o n , in Eranos 54 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 172; I. Perg. 336.
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 237
rum deum proferebant insignes exuvias) . . . the second . . . (secundus) carried
with both hands an altar (manibus ambabus gerebat altarid), that is, "a
source of help," (id est auxilid) whose special name was derived from
the helping providence of the supreme goddess (quibus nomen dedit pro-prium deae summatis auxiliaris providentid).
Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 11,10
As Apuleius makes clear, the foremost priests take precedence w h o
carry insignes exuviae of the gods themselves. Furthermore, what these
priests carry are not merely the portable accompanyments of ritual.
They carry the clothing or attributes (exuviae) of the gods themselves.
T he y are thus to be distinguished from the second group w h o carry
the altaria. Thus though the second group in the Isis mystery pro
cession may be describable as iepoupopoi,64
the first group may be
described as Oeocpopoi. Indeed the term occurs generally in the mys
tery cults.
In the inscription of Agrippinilla found in Torre Nova south of
R ome , we have a l i s t of functionaries of the Dionysiac c u l t c. 150
A . D . Agrippinilla heads the list as priestess a n d head of the associ
ation, b u t two of the functionaries, Gallicanus a n d Dionysius, are
called 0eo<p6poi.65
T h e Geotpopoq inevitably, following the assimilation
of such mysteries w i t h the Imperial Cult , comes to be r e na me d
o e p o t G T X x p o p o q , as in the Ephebic inscription from Athens.6 6
These
carried the imperial images in the mystery rite. Th os e divine images
were cared for by the sacristan or £dicopo<; xcov Geicov e i i c o v c o v ,6 7 pro
visions for w h i c h we have already seen to have been made in o u r
discussion of IGRR 4,353 c. /. 1 0 - 1 1 (5B 2.2). W e m e t there w i t h
a special official, the O£|3aoxo<pavxri( ; , by w h o m imperial mysteries
were celebrated.
We t h u s see how in Ignatius' Martyr Cult, in direct parallel w i t h
the imperial mysteries, those w h o j o i n the procession either in per
son or through clerical representatives are assigned roles analogous
to the i e p o ^ o p o i , a n d the bish op at the cen tre of the c u l t is described
as the 0£O(p6po<; w h o bears a spiritual image, the x u r c o q of their Father
God.
6 4
R o b e r t Opera Min. Sel. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , pp. 1 2 7 7 - 1 2 7 8 (= RPhil 13 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) .6 5
M.P. N i l s s o n , The D i o n y s i a c M y s t e r i e s of the H e l l e n i s t i c and R o m a n Age, in
Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae, 8,5 ( L u n d : G l e e r u p 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 46 and 5 6 - 5 7 .66
Ath. Mitt. 59 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 7 7 - 8 8 ; R o b e r t ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 . See also Pr ice
( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 189.6 7
P l e k e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 345; cf. R o b e r t Opera Min. Sel. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , pp. 8 3 2 - 8 3 5 (= REA
6 2 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , pp. 3 1 6 - 3 1 9 ) .
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238 C H A P T E R SIX
As their fellow-citizens in the city states of Asia Minor, in partic
ular centres of the Imperial Cult such as Ephesus, Smyrna, or Tralles,
responded to the supplicatio by joining the sacrificial procession, so
figuratively the Chri st ian Ephesi ans jo in Ignat ius' marty r-p rocession.
As Ignatius says:
You are all therefore (eaxe oSv) companions on the way (cri)vo8oi rcdv-
xeq), God-bearers (Geocpopoi) and temple-bearers (Kal vaocpopoi), Christ
bearers (xpicxocpopoi), bearers of holy things (dyiocpopoi), in every way
adorned with the commandments of Jesus Christ (mid rcdvxa KeKoopripevoi
ev evioXaiq 'Inaoi) Xpiaxov).
Ephesians 9,2
Those w h o come at the summons of the martyr-bishop to join his
procession carry not the ekcbv of the emperor but, in their conduct
ing of Ignatius, the vbnoq or uaprjxriq of the suffering Father-God.
T h e y are analogously the equivalents of the Geocpopoi, iepacpopoi
(ayiocpopoi), a n d pcouocpopoi (vaocpopoi) of the traditional cults paral
leled by the imperial Sacristan of the div ine images (^arapoq xcov
0eicov eiKovcov). Instead of being clothed ev Xa\inpaiq eaGfjoiv for the
martyr 's sacrif ice ,6 8
they instead a r e m x d rcdvxa K e K o a p r i p e v o i ev
evxoAxxiq 'Inaou Xpiaxou. T h e letter to the C hurc h of Smyrna more
over is also addressed: e K K ^ n a i a Geov. . . ayiocpopcp (Smyrn. inscr.).
But what of the office of the martyr-bishop at the centre of the
cult at whose representation of the suffering God the Ephesians are
so "inflamed?" (Ephes. 1,1) Ignatius continually emphasises his otherna me or title (6 K a l Geocpopoq) at the beginning of each of the seven
letters. Ju st as there is in his thought a continuity between the liturgy
of the Eucharist each Sunday, and the prospective scene in the arena
where he is destined to be the Guoiaoxripiov exoiuov (Rom. 2,2), so
too I would suggest there is a continuity between Ignatius as Geocpopoq
of the suffering God and the bishop as xurcoq xou rcaxpoq (6A 2).
6B 2.3 . Geocpopoq and xurcoq in pagan cultic imagery
We saw that the bishop and presbytery, an d, by implication or assim
ilation, the deacons, are described in the Ignatian letters as rcpoKaG-
npevoi eiq xtmov (6A 2). We saw that this new concept in Ignatius of
Antioch grew out of the pagan symbolism of Syria a nd Asia Minor
6 8
W e have from Smyrna a marble tablet from the Museum and Library for the
ru ler cult of Attalus III in OGIS 332, 38: ev eo0[fj]aiv A.[au7cpa!<; eoxecpavcouevoDq . . . ] .
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240 C H A P T E R SIX
6B 2.4. Ignatius' procession and ouovoia and the pax deorum
As we have seen, Augustus' cult had, according to the Decree of
the Koi no n of Asia initi ating the Imperi al C ul t the re in 9 B.C., set
right a fallen social and political ord er if not a dis tur bed na tu ra l
or de r (2B 4). Cer tai nly wha t Luc an des cribe d in his de- mythol ogised
Stoic account of the Civil War as discors natura (Siarceurcov K a l ei<;
axx>%zq uexaPePnKoc; <5%r\\ia) ne ed ed a n act of au gu ry to be set right
(dvcbp0coo£v) (2A 4.2.1-2). We have stressed throughout the origins
of the Impe ria l Cult in an extra -or din ary act of aug ury whi ch ha d
secured the millennial pax of the saeculum aureum (2A 5). How, in the
imperial mysteries, was the supernatural and millennial pax, once
achi eved by Augu stus , to be co nti nue d sacr amentall y?
In the pax Augusti, we may say in pa ro dy of Igna tius ' "destr ucti on
is dissolved (Auexai 6 oXeGpoq) .. . in c on co rd (ev o u o v o i a ) . "7 2 'Ouovoia
(Concordia) was one of the ideal ized personif ied Vi rtu es ce leb ra ted in
a distinctive cultus, but associated early with Augustus' own divinity
as Concordia Augusta.13
Imperial society with the collective memory of
several generations of destructive civil war, in greeting pax et princeps,
wou ld have co nc ur re d t hat "n ot hi ng is bet te r tha n peac e (ouSev eaxiv
dueivov e ip r iv r iq ) , in which all war of earthly and heavenly things is
abol ished (ev r\ naq 7i6A,euo<; Kaxapyeixa i e r c o D p a v l c o v Kal e7iiye{cov) ."
(Ephes. 13) As we have seen, civil discord of "earthly things (erc iyeicov)"
went hand in hand with a discors natura supernaturally understood
(ercoupavlcov). Furthermore, we found the themes of o u o v o i a sung by
the cultic xopoq in Ephes. 4,1-2 (6A 1.1.1).
Thus in Ignatius the Christian cult, through its cultic act, brings
to an e nd th e otaGpoq of the cosm ic powe rs and the ir des tructi on.
That cultic act exhibited Christ's victory and peace to the daemonic
powers through its human icons or xurcoi, and through the dyiocpopoi
who att en de d the m. Suc h was the cosmic effect of thei r frequently
assembling as an eK K ^ r j m a (Ephes. 13,1: o x a v y a p KVKV&<; ercl TO a u x o
yiveoGe). T h u s the Chr is ti an C ul t paral lels in its acts and pu rp os e
tha t of Augus tus, who se aug ura l act secured th e pax deorum.
72
Ephes. 13,2 cf. 4, 1-2; Magnes. 15: eppcoaGe ev ouovoia 6eov, K£KiT|uevoi a8idicpi-
xov rcvevaa, oq eaxiv ' iTiaovq X p i a x o q . In Magnes. 6,2 6uor|0eiav Geofi is achieved by
b e i n g united with the bishop in the threefold Order (evcoOnxe xcp ejuaiconq) Kai xoiq
7tpOKa9r|uevoi<;. . .). See also Tral. 12,2; Philad. inscr. and 11.7 3
J.R. F e a r s , The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology, in ANRW 2,17,2
( 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 886: "The cult epithet Augusta, attached to Pax, Justitia, Concordia, and
P r o v i d e n t i a , expressed the quintessence of the personalization of the cult of Virtues
at Rome." See also idem. pp. 8 8 9 - 8 9 2 .
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I G N A T I U S OF ANTIOCH AND THE MARTYR'S PROCESSION 241
Ignatius' use o f human persons to be Turcot of divine beings thus
constitutes a radical dev elopm ent of the typology of Ch ur ch Or de r,
but it is nevertheless a kind of reverse reflection of the typology of
the Imperial Cult. But ambassadors are mentioned in connection
with the Imperial Cult and the pax and concordia thus achieve d, a nd
to these and their Ignatian parallels we now turn.
6B 3. The role of the rcpeapeioc in the martyr-procession
It is im po rt an t for us to begin by no ting the connect ion be tween
the carrying of sacred Turcot and embassies from various cities toR o m e . Ig na ti us ' role as the ma rt yr bi sho p is linked in his con
sciousness, as we have shown (6B 2.3), with the pagan concept of a
Geocpopoq in a pagan myst ery ri te . Likewise his role as rcpoKcxGriuivoq
e i q Turcov rcotTpoq is linked with the pr om in en t or pr e-emin en t statu
ary of pagan Turcot of the gods in their cities (6A 2.2). But such Turcot
pla yed a role, no t only in pa ga n mysteries examp les of whi ch ca me
to be associated with the Imperial Cult, but also in ambassadorialprocessions.
Robert points to the way in which small statues (iepcouxxTcc or
&YaA,u,dTioc) were carried by individuals and groups such as mer
chants in their clothing.7 4
Furthermore, he notes that these small idols
were descr ibed in Jo se ph us as Turcot , with reference to Rachel's idols
in Gen. 31 , 31 -35 .7 5
Fur the rmo re, the purpose of such o rna men ts
was not simply general individual devotion or drcoTporcr | . There were
"elements d'un laraire porta t i f" in groups that carried images of
their common, protecting gods. The Alexandrine Acts of the Pagan
Martyrs describe two embassies, Ale xan dr ian a nd Jewish , the former
of whi ch has as their spo kes man H er ma is cu s, wh o ar gu ed their
respective cases before the tr ibunal of Tr aj an .7 6
Regarding the Alex
andrians, it is recorded that they were: e K a a T o i p a a T d £ o v T £ < ; Touq i5iouq
Oeouq (/. 17-18) . Furt he rmo re p a a T c i ^ e i v is a technica l term me an
ing "to carry in a procession." "The bust of Sarapis (IcxpdrciSoq rcpo-
T o u r | ) which the ambassadors were carrying (tiv epdoTOt^ov oi rcpeaPetq)
7 4
Robert Opera Min. Sel. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 751-755 (= CRAI ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 1 7 - 5 2 1 ) .7 3
Josephus, Antiquit., 1,9,10 (= 322): 'Paxr|A.a jcuvOavouevTi KaxaxiOr|ai xoix; xvnovq
ei<; XTIV odynv xfiq cpepovariq a\)xr\v mur |A,o \ ) .7 6 Robert, Opera Min. Sel. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 764-765 (= CRAI ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 ) ;
H . A . Musurillo, The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs, Acta Alexandrinorum, (New York: Arno
Press 1 9 7 9 ) , 8, pp. 4 4 - 4 8 .
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2 4 2 C H A P T E R S I X
su d d en ly b e g a n sw ea t in g (a i(p v{ 5io v i8 p co aev ) ?" a n d t h e m i r a c l e c a u s e d
c o n s t e r n a t i o n (/. 5 1 - 5 5 ) .
W e h a v e f u r t h e r m o r e t h e e p i g r a p h i c a l r e m a i n s o f a l e t t e r o f
C a r a c a l l a to E p h e s u s ( A . D . 2 0 0 - 2 0 5 ) . I n o n e p a r t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n
s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o d y o f t h e l e t t e r w e h a v e C a r a c a l l a ' s c o m
m e n t s o n t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e e m b a s s y w h o h a v e p r e s e n t e d t h e i r
c i ty 's c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s t o t h e e m p e r o r o n h is v i c t o r y o v e r t h e P a r t h i a n s .
W h e n h e sa y s : [ a 8 e rc] poercpeopeuev T I rcdxpioc; uucbv 0e6<; "A px eu iq, h e
m e a n s th a t " y o u r a n c e s t r a l g o d d e s s A r t e m i s h e a d s t h e e m b a s s y "
b e c a u s e h e r i m a g e is l it e ra l ly c a r r i e d a t t h e e m b a s s y ' s h e a d . T o p a r
a ll el I g n a t i a n u s a g e , w e m a y s ay t h a t , in t h e a m b a s s a d o r i a l p r o c e s
s ion, the ivnoq xfjg uucov Geou 'Apx euioo q is " p r e - e m i n e n t (7ipoKa0n,uevo<;),"
j u s t a s i n I g n a t i u s ' m a r t y r p r o c e s s i o n , a s i n h i s C h r i s t i a n c u l t , t h e
b i s h o p is 7ipOKa0r|uivo<; eiq xurcov 0eo u uucbv. J u s t as in th e Acts of the
Pagan Martyrs t h e x un oq o f S e r a p i s c a u s e d w o n d e r a t R o m e b y t h e
m i r a c l e t h a t it p r o d u c e d , so t o o I g n a t i u s , w h o b e a r s t h e x tm o q o f
t h e s u ff er in g G o d , w ill i n t h e a r e n a c o n f r o n t R o m e ' s p o w e r a s t h e
b i s h o p f r o m t h e E a s t c o n f r o n t s t h e E m p e r o r f r o m t h e W e s t .7 7
B u t t h e c o n c e p t o f Kpec^eia is r e l a t e d t o I g n a t i u s ' i m p e r i a l b a c k
g r o u n d i n o t h e r a n d m o r e g e n e r a l w a y s t h a n t h e b e a r i n g o f i m a g e s
a l o n e . T h e e l e c t io n o f d e a c o n s a s a m b a s s a d o r s i n Philadelphians a n d
Smyrnaeans w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n I g n a t i u s ' C h u r c h o f A n t i o c h
i n S y r i a . U n d o u b t e d l y , a n d a t v e r y l e a s t , s u c h e l e c t i o n s o f d e l e g a
t i o n s f r o m t h e l e a d e r s o f c o m m u n i t i e s w a s a g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e
f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e c i t y s t a t e s i n A s i a M i n o r , a n d c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d b y a n a l o g y w i t h s u c h c i v i c r e l a t i o n s .7 8
B u t w h a t w a s t h e
p u r p o s e o f t h i s e m b a s s y a n d w h a t s e n s e c a n b e m a d e o f it a g a i n s t
s u ch a c o n t e m p o r a r y b a c k g r o u n d ?
I b e l i e v e S c h o e d e l t o b e c o r r e c t i n i d e n t i f y i n g a d i v i d e d C h r i s t i a n
c o m m u n i t y a t A n t i o c h w h i c h h a s f o u n d p e a c e , r a t h e r t h a n a C h u r c h
p e r s e c u t e d e x t e r n a l l y .7 9
W e m a y n o t e f r o m t h e e x a m p l e o f C l e m e n t
Cor. t h a t s u c h a n e x t e r n a l t h r e a t m a y fo l lo w , n o t in t e r m s o f a g e n
e r a l p e r s e c u t i o n , b u t f r o m t h e ci vi l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s
f o r a c o m m u n i t y d i v i d e d b y i n t e r n a l s t r i f e a n d t h e n e e d f o r t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s t o i n t e r v e n e . B u t t h e r e is s till a p r o b l e m r e g a r d i n g t h e
p u r p o s e a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e e l e c t io n a n d s e n d i n g of t h e s e c l e r ic a l
S e e a ls o f o o t n o te s 4 6 - 4 9 .
T h u s S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 2 1 3 .
S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 1 0 - 1 2 , 2 4 8 2 5 1 .
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 243
8 0
ema^ia for the p o s s e s s i o n of w h i c h O n e s i m u s , b i s h o p of E p h e s u s , p r a i s e s his
c o n g r e g a t i o n (Ephes. 6,2); cf. C l e m e n t Cor. 37,2; 40,1.
ambassadors even on the view that strife had given way to peace
within a divided Christian community.
Why should Ignatius have considered it necessary to send repre
sentatives whose office he concei ved in ter ms of am bass ad ors in or de r
to rejoice with them in the gathered Eucharistic assembly? Ambassadors
were usually sent to confer s ome benefit or ma rk of rega rd , in p ar
ticular upon the emperor in connection with his cult. Ignatius con
siders th e imperi al virtue s of oudvoia an d eipr|vr| as essen tial fea tures
of an y Chr ist ian c om mu ni ty tha t by its very natu re will be ma rk ed
by the threefold hierarchy.8 0
These were also the divine qualities
associated with Augus tus' act of aug ury an d contin ued sacram entally
in his cult, as we have sh own.
I propose, therefore, that we should understand references to a
clerical rcpeopeia in the Ignatian letters in the light of the 7ipeaPei<;
associated with the inscriptions of the Imp eri al Cult .
W e have the dec ree of the Peopl e (8fjuo<;) and Council (yepouaia)
of Sardis hono ur in g Me no ge ne s son of Isidore. H e was to be co me
priest of R o m a a nd Augus tus shor dy after his selection as an am ba s
sador on an embassy to Augustus, to seek approval for the conse
cration of a day co mm em or at in g his gra nds on Ga ius ' ass umpti on of
the toga praetextata. Here the usual provisions for an imperial cultic
celebration are prescribed.
. . . all in resplendent clothes shall wear crowns (ev taxprcpaic; eaOiiciv
oxe<pavr|(popeiv arcavxaq), and the strategoi each year shall present sacrificesto the gods (0 [i )]aia(;TeKapiaTdvaiToi<;9eoi(;xou(;Kax
,
^iauT6vaTpaTr |Yoi)(;)
and make prayers through the sacred heralds for his safety (Kai K a x e u x d q
rcoieioGai 8 i d xcov iepoicnpuKCGv vnkp xn<; acoxripiaq auxou), and they shall
set up and consecrate his statue in the shrine of his father (cruvraBiepcoaai
xe dyaXpa auxou xcp xou rcaxpoq evi8pt>ovxa<; vaco) . . . and an embassy be
sent on these matters to go to Rome (rcpeoPr |av X E urcep xouxcov axeiAm
X T ] V dcpt^ouevnv eiq 'PcbpTw) and to congratulate him and Augustus (Kai
a u v x a p T i o o p e v i i v a\>xcp xeKai xa> l e [PJaoxcp). . . and there were chosen
as ambassadors (Kai fipe9t|aav rcpeaPei<;) Iollas son of Metrodorus and
Menogenes son of Isidore . . .
IGRR 4, 1756 I, /. 10-23
Following the cultic provisions, 7ipeopei<; are therefore duly appointed,
whose function is to take the provisions for the extension of the
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244 C H A P T E R SIX
Imp eri al Cul t to R o m e for the appro val of those who m the cult
hon our s. "E mp er or Ca es ar son of Go d, Augustus, high pr ie st . . ."
replies in approval {IGRR 4,1756 I I ) . 8 1
T h e rcpeaPeiq funct ion the ref ore as pr oc la imer s of the cult, w ho
convey its benefits to the ir fellow-citizens. A similar idea su rr ou nds
Ignatius' cultic procession which proclaims as a counter-culture aris
ing from the East the reverse image of the Imperial Cult of the West
as it arrives at the latt er 's a rena of sacrifice. Th is is wh y he will also
ch an ge the na mes of civic officials to give th em a Chri st ian mean
ing , as wh en he calls a rcpeaP\)xr|<; a 0eo7ipeaPuxr|<;, or a TipepoSpouoq
a GeoSpouoq.
Fu r th er mo re there is epi graphical evidence of rcpeopeiq who ac co m
panied the emperor. These Georcpeapuxai should therefore return and
accompany the martyr-bishop from the East, as the counterpart to
the emp er or a n d his cult in the Wes t. npeoPeuxcu clearly ac co mp an y
Julius Caesar as general (SylL3
761 A, /. 2-5), where Callistus of
Knidos (48/47 B.C.) is described as "coming to Greece (yevouevoq eni
xfjc; 'EXkxSoq) in the company of the imperator (u[exdxou auxoKpJdxopoq)
and in the company of his ambassadors (Kai uexd xcov e K e i v o u rcpeo-
Peuxcov).
We can see how the communities who support Ignatius' proces
sion enlarge it by sen di ng the ir ow n rcpeopeia to jo in it. T o the
Philadelphians he says:
. . . since according to your prayer (ercei&n m x d XTJV rcpoaeuxfiv v p x o v ) . . .
it has been announced (anr\yyekr\ uoi ) to me that the Church in Antioch
in Syria is at peace (eipT|vet>eiv x f j v e K K A ^ a i a v XTJV ev 'Avxio%e{a xf jq I \ ) p ( a q ) ,
it is fitting for you ( r c p e n o v e a x i v \ ) u i v ) as a church of God (d>q eKK^rjaia
9eot>) to elect a deacon to conduct God's embassy there ( % e i p o x o v f j a a i
8 i a K o v o v eiq xo Ttpeapevaai eKei QE O V rcpeaPe(av), in order to rejoice with
them when assembled (eiq xo a\)yxapf|vai amoiq inx xo avxb y e v o u e v o i q )
and to glorify the name (Kai 8o £d aa i xo o v o u a ) . . .
Philad. 10,1
Though Ignatius mentions that it is a deacon who acts as a rcpeopuxriq
(rcpeoPeuoai) here, he goes on to assert that such an office can be
also exercised by bishops and presbyters.8 2
8 1
E h r e n b e r g andJ o n e s ( 1 9 5 4 ) no. 99 (= IGRR 4, 1756 = I. Sardis 7 , 1 , 8 , /. 1 2 - 1 4 ) ;
Pr i ce ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 66 and p. 259 cat. no. 56.82
Philad. 10, 2: ox ; mi a i ey y i a x a e i a c X r i a i a i e7teu\j/av ETiiaKOTtoix;, a i 8e rcpeaPwepoix;
K a i 8iaic6vo\)<;.
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S PR OC E S S I ON 24 5
8 3 IGRR 4, 1756, X /. 104.
8 4
See f o o t n o t e 84.
T hus th e e K K ^ r j a i a 0eou in Philadelphia sent a n elected deacon
as a n ambassador a n d n o doubt welcomed him on his return a n d
received his report ( d 7 t 0 7 t p e a P e i a ) . Like th e embassy (rcpeaPeiav) of
Menogenes, that would travel to R o m e a n d greet Gaius a n d Augustus
(xuv dq>i!;ou£vr|v e i q TCOUTW K a l Guy%apr |aouevr |v a u x c p xe K a i xcp l e p a a x c o ) ,
so too this deacon as ambassador is to greet th e gathered Church
in Antioch ( e i q xo ouyxapiivai auxoiq en\ xo auxo yevouevoiq). Th is de a
con however will n o t proclaim th e cult of Augustus a n d sacrifices
for Gaius' birthday, b u t rather th e progress of the martyr 's proces
sion. They ar e " to glorify t h e na me ( K a i 8o£daai xo ovoua)" of Christ
which is associated with both Ignatius' martyrdom an d t he peace of
Christ's sacrifice of which that martyrdom is an image o r xurcoq.
Ignatius informs those w h o a r e "inflamed by the blood of G o d
(dva^coTtupf ioavxeq ev a i u o c x i Geou)." that it is "for the common name
(u7i6 xou KOIVOU ovouxxxoq)" that h e goes bound (8e8euevov) to th e arena
(0up iouccxf |Ga i ) . " T o suffer reproach for the name (6vei8(£eo0ai)" is
a common martyrological sentiment (1 Pet.4,14). B ut here it is quali
fied by th e adjective K o i v o q a n d indicates that what h e does is shared
in common with all those churches through which his procession
passes a n d which respond to his apellatio.
Koivov was , after all, the na me of the "Commonwea l th of Asia"
(Koivov xii<; 'Aoiaq) that organised a provincial Imperial Cult a n d
elected a n archierew/zsiaxch.. Menogenes is approved because h e "acted
also as an ambassador (npeofievGaq x e K a i ) to Caesar Augustus (npbq
xov l e p a a x o v Kaiaapa) o n behalf of the Koinon of Asia ( u r c e p x e xou
KOIVOU xcovf
E A A f | v c o v ) . "8 3
Jus t as the object of that cult wa s the pax
deorum, so too Ignatius' cultic procession is involved with securing
the pax Christi, and i ts ambassadors a r e concerned with that e n d .
Wha t " h a s been announced (drcr|yyeX,r| uoi) to m e , " just as the glad
tidings were announced (euayye^{o0n) a t Sardis of Gaius' celebra
tion,84
was that the Church in Antioch in Syria is at peace (eipnveueiv
xf|v eKKtaiaiav xnv ev 'Avxioxeia xfjq l u p i a q ) . Furthermore, that peace
was in accordance with th e congregation's prayer (Kaxd xrjv Ttpoaeuxuv
u u x o v ) , jus t as the prayers (Kaxeu^dq) through th e sacred heralds (8id
xcov iepoKnpuKcov) a t Sardis were for Gaius' safety ( u r c e p zr\q a c o x r j p i a q
auxou).
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I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R 'S P R O C E S S I O N 2 4 7
Ig n a t iu s h e re i s p ro v id in g in t h e fu n c t io n o f Geo Sp ouo c;, a C h r i s t i a n
vers ion o f the f |pepo8p6uo<; .8 6
T h i s t e r m r e f e rs to a v e r y f as t r u n n e r
o r c o u r i e r , w h o b e c a u s e o f i m p e r i a l b u s in e s s w a s a l lo w e d t o u s e t h e
cursus publicus (8p6uo<; 8r|uooio<;). 8 7 I g n a t i u s ' c o m p a n i o n s w e r e a l lo w e d
to u se t h e cursus publicus i n h i s c a s e a s t h e y w e r e a c c o m p a n y i n g a n
o ff ic ia l p a r t y w i th a p r i s o n e r i n ch a i n s . I t is t h e re f o re a fu r t h e r co r
r o b o r a t i o n o f I g n a t i u s ' t r i u m p h a l i s m t h a t h e re a s s ig n s t h o s e w h o
a c c o m p a n y h i m in t h e r o l e o f a c o n d e m n e d c r i m i n a l ' s f r ie n d s t o t h e
c a t e g o r y o f t h e of fic ia l e n t o u r a g e o f t h e b i s h o p f r o m t h e E a s t r is
i n g , li ke t h e s u n , a g a i n s t t h e E m p e r o r f ro m t h e W e s t .
I n Philad. 2 , 2 t h i s t e r m a p p e a r s a g a i n , w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o f a l s e t e a c h
ers w h o h a v e t r i ed to ta ke th e GeoSpopoi ca p t ive s (xouq 0eo8p6po\)<; -
a ix^ iaXco x i^ o u aiv) , n o d o u b t i n a f i g u ra t i v e s en s e , a n d so im p e d e th e
p r o g r e s s o f t h e m a r t y r - p r o c e s s i o n .8 8
T h e y a r e " m a n y p l a u s i b l e w o l v e s
(rcoAAoi yap M K O I d ^ i6 7 i i ax o i ) , "8 9
g u id e d " b y ev il p l e a su re (f|8ovf| K a i q i ) . "
C l e a r l y " t h e s e w i l l h a v e n o p l a c e i n y o u r u n i t y (aXX* ev xfj evornTi
a m o s t w e l l p l e a s i n g w a y (XT V 7tpeapr|av exmperceaxaxa) worth i ly o f the c i ty (a^ icoq
xfiq rcotaox;)."8 6
Z a h n ' s v i e w (Ignatius p . 2 8 6 n o t e 3 ) , c o n t r a d i c t e d in S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 2 7 8 ,
w o u l d s e e m t o b e c o r r e c t i n v i e w o f t h e c i v i c b a c k g r o u n d i n t h e c i t y - s t a t e s o f A s i a
M i n o r t h a t I h a v e s k e t c h e d h e r e f o r b o t h I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse. I c a n n o t s e e
w h y t h e u s e o f 9 e o 8 p 6 | i o i i n Philad. 2 , 2 s h o u l d d e n y t h a t v i e w s i n c e h e r e t h e t e r m
i s n o t u s e d , a s S c h o e d e l s a y s , " t o C h r i s t i a n s i n g e n e r a l , " b u t t o m e m b e r s o f t h e
I g n a t i a n c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n w h i c h t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h u r c h e s t o w h i c h h e w r i t e s h a v e
u n d e r t a k e n b o t h i n s p ir it a n d t h r o u g h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o j o i n .8 7
Fo r f iu£po8p6uo<; s ee SEG 4 2 , 1 7 4 5 = S y / / .3
3 0 3 a n d P a u s a n i u s V I , 1 6 , 5 (M e n a c l e s
o f E l i s . . . . f iu e po 8 p 6u o < ; o f A l e x a n d e r s o n o f P h i l i p ). S e e a l s o L i v y 3 1 , 2 4 : h e m e r o -
d r o m o s v o c a n t G r a e c i i n g e n s d i e u n o c u r s u e m e t i e n t e s s p a t i u m . F o r t h e i r c o n n e c
t i o n w i t h t h e cursus publicus i n i m p e r i a l t i m e s , s e e H . S t e p h a n , D a s V e r k e h r s l e b e n
i m A l t e r t h u m , i n Historisches Taschenbuch ( E d . F . v o n R a u m e r ) 9 , 4 ( L e i p z i g : B r o c k h a u s
1 8 6 8 ) , p . 9 3 : " D e r c u r su s p u b l i c u s w a r n i c h t fu r j e d e r m a n n b e n u t z b a r ; e s b e s t a n d
k e i n r e g e l m a s s i g e r , f o r t l a u f e n d e r P o s t e n g a n g m i t v o r h e r f e s t g e s e t z t e n A b g a n g s - ,
A n k u n f t s - u n d B e f b r d e r u n g s z e i t e n ; v i e l m e h r fa n d d i e B e f b r d e r u n g n u r s ta tt , w e n n
g e r a d e D e p e s c h e n o d e r R e i s e n d e n v o r k a m e n . . ." S e e a l s o H . G . P f l a u m , E s s a i su rL e C u r s u s P u b l i c u s s o u s l e h a u t - e m p i r e R o m a i n , i n Extrait des mem oires presentes par
divers savants a L'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 1 4 , ( P ar is : I m p r i m e r i e N a t i o n a l e
1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 2 2 - 6 1 .8 8
C f. C i c e r o ' s c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t P i s o' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f M a c e d o n i a a s g o v e r n o r
a n d h i s a c c u s a t i o n s t h e t h e l a t t e r h a d a l l o w e d obsessio militaris viae, (In Pison. 4 0 ) : S e e
a l s o P f l a u m (1 9 4 0 ) , p . 3 2 : " L a m i l i t a r i s v i a . . . d o n t i l s ' a g it e s t L a V i a E g n a t i a ,
q u i tr a v e r s e d e b o u t e n b o u t la p r o v i n c e d e P i s o n . C e t t e r o u t e n 'e s t p a s s e u l e m e n t
i n f e s t e e p a r l e s i n v a s i o n s e n e m i e s , e l l e e s t m a r q u e e p a r d e s c a m p s t h r a c e s . . . "8 9
N o t e t h e u s e o f t h e ager publicus b y f r a u d u l e n t p e r s o n s m e n t i o n e d i n J u s t i n i a n
( M o d e s t i n u s ) , Dig, X L V I I I , 1 0 , 2 7 , 2 : " Q u i s e p r o m i l i t e g e s s i t v e l i ll i ci t is i n s i g n i b u s
u s u s e s t v e l f a l s o d i p l o m a t e v i a s c o m m e a v i t , p r o a d m i s s i q u a l i t a t e g r a v i s s i m e p u n i e n -
d u s e s t . " S e e a l s o P f l a u m (1 9 4 0 ) , p . 1 2 5 .
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2 4 8 C H A P T E R S I X
uucov oux e^ouovv TOTIOV)," t h a t is t h e u n i t y o f n a s c e n t e p i s c o p a l O r d e r
b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f t h e m a r t y r - b i s h o p o f A n t i o c h
a n d e ff ec ti ng p e a c e in h i s h o m e C h u r c h . I n d e e d t h e y a r e l ik e h i g h
w a y r o b b e r s a t t a c k i n g t h e b i s h o p w h o s e le g i t i m a c y is v i n d i c a t e d i n
h i s m ar ty r s ac r i f i ce a s Turcoq o f t h e su f f er i ng G o d .
P A R T C . O R D E R I N C L E M E N T , I G N A TI U S A N D T H E APOCALYPSE
I n t h i s a n d o u r l a st t w o c h a p t e r s ( 4- 6) w e h a v e e x a m i n e d t h r e e e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n w r i t e rs : C l e m e n t o f R o m e , th e S e e r of t h e Apocalypse, a n dI g n a t i u s . H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d i n D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n ,
w e h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e i r d e v e l o p i n g v i ew s o f e c c le s ia s ti c al O r d e r o v e r
a g a i n s t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n h i s r e i g n . C l e m e n t ' s
C h r i s t i a n b a c k g r o u n d in R o m e w a s c l e a rl y u n r e l a t e d t o t h a t o f
I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse i n A s ia M i n o r . T h e C h u r c h O r d e r o f
C l e m e n t , Corinthians w a s c l e a r l y n o t t h a t o f I g n a t i u s ' S y r i a , w h e n t h e
f o r m e r e n v i s a g e d a c h u r c h g o v e r n e d b y a p l u r a l i t y o f £ 7 U G K 0 7 t o i -
j cpeaPu x ep o i a s su cc es so r s o f t h e ap o sd es , w h e re a s t h e l a t t e r b y a s in
g le b i s h o p a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G o d t h e F a t h e r . W e s a w , h o w e v e r ,
t h a t , d e s p i t e g r e a t d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e r e w e r e c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n
t h e Apocalypse a n d I g n a t i u s . W e e x p l a i n e d t h o s e d i s si m i l ar i ti e s i n t e r m s
o f a r a p i d h i s t o r ic a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t s e p a r a t e d t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f
A s i a M i n o r i n A . D . 8 5 - 9 5 f r o m t h o se w h i c h e m e r g e d i n 1 0 7 - 1 1 8 .
D e s p i t e t h e l a ck o f c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n C l e m e n t o n th e o n e h a n d ,a n d I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse o n t h e o t h e r , w e d e t e c t e d t h e I m p e r i a l
C u l t a s b a ck g r o u n d to al l t h ree wr i t e r s . In C le m en t w e fo u n d re fl ect io n s
o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h a t C u l t , a n d t o o u r p i c t u r e w e w e r e a b l e t o a d d
t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Apocalypse, a n d th eo lo g y o f Ig n a t iu s . In C lem en t ' s
d o x o l o g y t h e v a l u e s o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n , a n d t h e e n d s
d e s i r e d t h r o u g h t h a t u n i t y (e ip u vr i, o u d v o i a , u y i e i a ) w e r e r e q u e s t e d
f r o m t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d (4 B 1.2.2).
C l e m e n t ' s v ie w o f t h e o i d o u ; o f h is c o m m u n i t y a s d v o a i o q r e v e a l e d
t h e f e a rs , d e e p s e a t e d i n h i s I m p e r i a l C u l t u r e , o f a n u p s e t t i n g o f c u l
t i c o rd e r t h a t wo u ld l ead to Kiv Su v o q fo r t h e so c i a l an d p o l i t i ca l
o rd e r (4 B 3 ) . As su ch h e w as r e f l ec t i n g t h e p e r sp ec t iv e o f t h e l a t e
R e p u b l i c a n d e a r l y E m p i r e b o t h e x e m p l i f i e d b y a n d f o r m e d i n t h e
p r o g r a m o f t h e Res Gestae. T h e p e r c e i v e d e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d p o r t e n
t o u s c o l la p s e o f b o t h t h e n a t u r a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r r e q u i r e d
a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y a c t o f a u g u r y , t h e augurium salutis c e l e b r a t e d b y
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I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 249
Augustus when he initiated his reformed, Imperial Cult (2A 5-6).
Clement assured both himself and his circle that the Christian cul
t u s , wit h its O r d e r in te rms of Apostolic Succession (4B 1.1-4B 1.2),
could banish more truly and therefore effectively than the Imperial
Cult both the political and metaphysical disorder that every good
Roman citizen, whether in Italy or in Asia Minor, feared (4B 2.2
and 4B 3).
We saw regarding the Apocalypse that general relations between the
Letters to the Churches and the Imperial Cult had been well estab
lished by Ra ms ay an d H e m e r (5B 1). W e th en do cu me nt ed further
links between the Letters and the main text of the Apocalypse (5B 2).
Inscriptional and numismatic evidence illuminated the cultic scene
around the heavenly altar in which clear reflections of the Imperial
Cu lt we re revealed. Specific example s of such reflections we re the
i)|ivq)8o{ and rcpecpuxepoi, the e iK oveq and the imperial mysteries, the
7ipoe8p(ai as places of hon our for notable spectato rs an d the con
co mi tant s of sacrifice such as cpidAm and whi te rob be d worship pers ,
axe9avr|(p6poi and a i 8 ( p a v o i % p \ )oo ( , etc. (5B 2.1-2.2.5). We saw in the
praises of the pray er s an d the hym ns of the Apocalypse typical themes
(86£cc, euxapiaxia, K p d x o q , acoxnpia, Suvapiq, ia/tx;, rcAoftxoq and euXoyia)
of amba ssa dori al panegyrics in conne ctio n with the Impe rial Cult
(5B 3.1-3.3).
Having established the general background to the Apocalypse in the
expe rience of the Imper ial Cul t in Asia Mi no r, we th en re tu rn ed to
our specific thesis of the rela tionshi p be twee n C h u r ch O r d e r an d
the Imperial Cult as a contra-cultural relationship. We argued that
there was a historical relationship between the communities of Asia
Minor addressed by the Seer, and those to whom Ignatius of Antioch
was to wri te som e 10 - 15 year s la te r (6A 1). In the light of th at rel a
tionship we were able to use Igna tius ' claims ab ou t C h u r ch O r d e r
in his contemporary situation to illuminate the historical situation as
witnessed by the Apocalypse out of whi ch those claims ha d deve loped .
W e saw tha t on e typology of represen ta tion found in Igna tiu s was
also sh ar ed by hi m with the Seer. T h e angels of the churc hes embo d
ied the cor por at e personalities of the co mmuni tie s tha t they re pr e
sented as did the Ignatian clerics (6A 1.1.2). We saw also that the
heavenly liturgy of the Apocalypse was replicated in both the Hippolytan
horsesh oe of the pre sby ter ate sea ted liturgically a ro un d the bi shop's
throne, and in Ignatius' description of the presbyteral rcveupccxiKOc;
ox&pccvoq at the Eucharist (6A 1.1).
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2 5 0 C H A P T E R S I X
I n s o f ar a s t h o s e c u l t i c s c e n e s , w h e t h e r o f a h e a v e n l y o r e a r t h l y
C h u r c h O r d e r , w e r e re f le c ti o n s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e y w e r e c o n
t r a - c u l t u r a l r e f l e c t i o n s ( 6 A 1.1.2). I n a n o t h e r k i n d o f I g n a t i a n t y p o
lo g y o f O r d e r , t h a t o f t h e th ree fo ld , c l e r i ca l TUJCOI, w e g a v e e p i g r a p h i c
a n d l it e r a r y e v i d e n c e fr o m t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e c u lt t h a t e s t a b
l is h e d h e r e a ls o a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ( 6A 2 . 1 - 2 . 2 ) . W e e s t a b
l i sh e d I g n a t i u s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s m a r t y r d o m i n t e r m s o f a n i m p e r i a l
cu l t i c p r oc es s io n (6B) in wh ic h as b i sh op h e se rv ed as Turcoq, as t he
b e a r e r o f t h e d i v i n e i m a g e a n d e x p o s i t o r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n m y s t e r i e s
(aePaoxocpdvTTiq/Geocpopoq) in which diaconal npicfiexq p l a y e d a p a r
a ll el r o l e t o t h a t o f t h e i r p a g a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e
I m p e r i a l C u l t ( 6 B 2 . 2 ). I n th i s p a r a l l e l t h e i m p e r i a l g a m e s p l a y e d
t h e r o l e o f t h e c u l t o f t h o s e g a t h e r e d fo r t h e E u c h a r i s t a t R o m e
a r o u n d t h e Gu a iao x f ip io v ex o iu o v (6 B 1 ).
T h u s w e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f O r d e r b o t h a t R o m e w i t h C l e m e n t , o r i n A s i a M i n o r w i t h t h e
S e e r a n d I g n a t i u s , w h i c h s u p p o r t s o u r c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l t he s is . T h e
C h r i s t i a n g r o u p in e a c h c a s e , m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d d e n i e d s t a tu s b y t h e
w i d e r c u l t u r e in v i e w o f i ts n o n - c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e s ta t e r e l i g i o n ,
c o n s t r u c t s a c o u n t e r c u l t u r e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s a s y s t e m o f r e v e r s e d
v a l u e s a n d s t a tu s , t h u s a w a r d i n g its m e m b e r s si g n if ic a n c e a n d e s t e e m
d e n i e d t o t h e m b y t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n
c o n t r a - c u l t u r e , w i t h i t s O r d e r a n d M i n i s t r y , w a s a c r e a t i v e a c t p r o
v i d i n g a s o l u t i o n t o a s o c i a l p r e d i c a m e n t .
W e s h a ll n o w se e h o w t h e p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f
t h e C h u r c h O r d e r a n d A p o s t o l i c S u c c e s s i o n i n t h e l a t e s e c o n d a n d
e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y as w i t n e s s e d in H e g e s i p p u s a n d I r e n a e u s , a n d i n
P s e u d o H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e C l e m e n t i n e s . W e sh a ll t r a c e a s t h e g o v
e r n i n g p r i n c i p l e a N e o - P l a t o n i c m e t a p h y s i c s o f s o c ia l o r d e r t h a t
s e v e r e l y m o d i f i e d i f n o t r e p l a c e d t h e e a r l i e r S t o i c c o n c e p t i o n , a n d
t h e n e g a t i o n b y t h a t m e t a p h y s i c s o f a n a r c h i c , G n o s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m .
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C H A P T E R S E V E N
P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M
Severan Universalism, the Imperial Cult,
and Christian Apologists
T h e c lo s e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r d w a s
t o s e e t h e f in a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i d e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y b a s e d
u p o n a r e l i g i o u s s y n c r e t i s m a n d e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a p p l i e d
t o t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n . T h e Constitutio Antoniniana, d r a w n u p b y
C a r a c a l l a , g a v e c i t i z e n s h i p g e n e r a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e E m p i r e t o a l l
i n h a b i t a n t s o f t o w n s a n d v il la g e s b e y o n d t h e c i ti e s .1
T h e m o t i v e f o r
t h e p o l i c y c a n n o t s i m p l y h a v e b e e n t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t a x a t i o n2
o r a n
a t t a c k u p o n t h e s e n a t o r i a l a r i s t o c r a c y .
3
O n e i n s c r i p t i o n m a k e s i t c l e a rt h a t t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n w a s re l i g io u s , a n d t h a t it w a s a n e x t e n
s io n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .4
T h e e m p e r o r a n d h is c o n s o r t w e r e t o
p o s s e ss t h e r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n o f e f fe c t in g s a c r a m e n t a l l y t h e u n i t y o f
t h e e m p i r e f or w h i c h t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c i t i z e n s h i p c o n t a i n e d t h e h o p e .
C a r a c a l l a a p p e a r s o n c o i n s a s t h e L o r d o f t h e w o r l d a n d t h e r e fl e c ti o n
o f t h e d i v i n e li g h t o f t h e s u n , p e r m e a t i n g al l t h i n g s a n d c r e a t i n g u n i
v e r s a l o r d e r .
5
I n th i s r e s p e c t w e s h a l l s e e , i n C h a p t e r 8 , t h a t w h a t E l a g a b a l u s
1
J u s t i n i a n U l p i a n , Dig. 1 , 5 ,1 7 : " I d e m ( s c. U l p i a n u s ) l i b r o v i c e n s i m o s e c u n d o a d
e d i c t u m . In o r b e R o m a n o q u i s u n t e x c o n s t i t u t i o n e i m p e r a t o r i s A n t o n i n i c i v e s
R o m a n i e f fe c ti s u n t . " C f . S . N . M i l l e r , C a r a c a l l a , i n CAH x ii , p p . 4 5 - 4 7 .2
F . M i l l a r , T h e d a te o f th e Constitutio Antoniana, in JEgArch 4 8 (1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 1 2 4 - 1 3 1 .3
C f . M . R o s t o v t z e f f , Social and Econom ic History of the Rom an Em pire, ( O x f o r d :
C l a r e n d o n 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 4 1 8 - 4 2 8 .4
A . H . M . J o n e s , A n o t h e r I n t e rp r e t a ti o n o f t h e C o n s t i t u t io A n t o n i a n a , i n JRomS,
2 6 , 2 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 2 2 3 - 2 2 5 ; J . S t r o u x , D i e C o n s t i t u ti o A n t o n i a n a , in Phil 8 8 (4 2 )
( 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 9 5 , i n s c r i p t i o n c i t e d p . 2 9 4 : x o vy ot po vv v o u i^ c o o i i t w u e [yaXonpen&c,
Kai Geooepjcbq 8\>vaa9ai xfj ^eyaAxioxrixi avxcbv xo IKOCVOV r c o i e w e i x o o d i a a < ; u v p i o u q
6oaKi<; ed v i )7teiaeA,6coaiv ei< ; xoix; euo ix; dvBp am oix; [au vO uo vxa q] e iq x d i ep d xcov Becov
c r uv e iG e v ey K o iu a , c i t e d a l s o i n W . C . H . F r e n d , Ma rtyrdom and Persecution in the Early
Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 3 3 8 . S e e a l s o F . G h e d i n i , G i u l i a D o m n a t ra
O r i e n t e e d O c c i d e n t e : L e f o n t i a r c h e o l o g i c h e , i n La Eenice, Collana di Scienze delV
Antichita 5 , ( R o m a : « L ' E r m a » d i B r e t s c h n e i d er 1 9 8 4 ), p p . 5 7 - 9 0 , 1 2 2 - 1 6 0 .5
S e e a l s o A . B r e n t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e R o m a n C h u r c h in t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y :C o m m u n i t i e s i n T e n s i o n b ef o r e t h e E m e r g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , i n Suppl. VCh
3 1 ( L e i d e n : E J . B r ill 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 8 4 - 8 5 .
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2 5 2 C H A P T E R S E V E N
a t t e m p t e d w i t h s u c h d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t s w a s a n o v e r t l y d o g m a t i c v a r i
a n t o n a g e n e r a l t h e m e r a t h e r t h a n a r a d i c a l v a r i a t i o n . T h e S u n
G o d o f E m e s a w a s t o b e fin ally i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s t h e l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus
u n d e r A u r e l i a n ( 2 7 0 - 2 7 5 ) w a s c o n t i n u e d t o o b y h is s u c ce s s or P r o b u s
( 2 7 6 - 2 8 2 ) , w h o s e c o i n s e x u l t h is p e r s o n a s soli invicto comiti.6 B u t p r e
v i o u sl y , f r o m M a r c u s A u r e l i u s o n w a r d s , w e s h a ll f in d a g e n e r a l a s s i m
i l a ti o n of c e r t a i n o r i e n t a l c u l ts w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i c o n o g r a p h y i n o r d e r
t o s e r v i c e a n i d e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y . T h e S e v e r a n p o l i c y o f i n c o r
p o r a t i n g a ll c u l t u r e s w i t h i n t h e o n e e m p i r e f o u n d r e li g io u s e x p r e s
s i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h i t o f
s u c h u n i v e r s a l i s ti c c u lt s a s I si s a n d S a r a p i s , o f M i t h r a s , a n d o f t h e
U n c o n q u e r e d S u n .
I n s u p p o r t o f t h e i m p e r i a l id e a l w a s a n i m p o r t a n t r e l i g io u s p h i
l o s o p h y o f a P l a t o n i s m t h a t w a s t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e N e o - P l a t o n i s m
o f P l o t i n u s , t h a t s tr e s s e d a g a i n s t G n o s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h e u n i t y o f
M a n , t h e C o s m o s , a n d so c i et y , a n d t h e d e r i v e d b e i n g o f e a c h f r o m
a n u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y t h a t w a s t h e h i g h e s t g o o d . T h e i d e n
t if i ca ti o n o f su c h d e i t ie s w i th t h e S u n wa s r e in f o rc ed b y a N eo p l a t o n i c
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f r e a l i t y i n t h e O n e r e f l e c te d
i n d i v e r s e a p p e a r a n c e s . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o l i t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t
c o s m i c u n i t y w a s i n t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a n d t h a t o f h is c o n s o r t .
T h u s th e i c o n o g r a p h y o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y w a s d u l y a s s i m i la t e d
t o a r e li g io u s i c o n o g r a p h y e v o c a t i v e o f s u c h u n d e r l y i n g p h i l o s o p h i
c a l a s s u m p t i o n s . I t is w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u c h s y n c r e t is t ic t h e m e s
i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a t w e sh a ll b e c o n c e r n e d i n
P a r t A , w h i c h w i ll l e a d u s , i n P a r t B , t o c o n s i d e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g
p a g a n , p h i l o s o p h i c a l o n t o l o g y .
W e s ha ll t r a c e t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p o l it ic a l s e n s e o f
uovccpxioc a n d th e o n to lo g ica l s i g n i f i can ce o f t h i s t e rm . G n o s t i c i sm
w a s r e f u te d b y l a t e r N e o - P l a t o n i s m b y m e a n s o f a n o n t o l o g y w h i c h
r e d u c e d t h e c o s m i c c h a o s o f G n o s t i c i s m t o a n o r d e r g e n e r a t e d b y
a n u l t i m a t e a n d f i n a l g o o d f i r s t p r i n c i p l e . T h e r e w a s a c o u n t e r p a r t t o
t h is o n t o l o g i c a l r e f u t a t i o n i n p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e
c h a o s of i n d i v i d u a l k i n g d o m s w a s r e d u c e d t o a s in g le u n i t e d e m p i r e .
I n t h e c o n t e x t o f a so c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e , w e sh a l l a r g u e t h a t
6
RIC 5 , 2 , p . 1 0 8 n o . 8 2 9 a n d W . C . H . F r e n d , The Rise of Christianity, ( L o n d o n :
D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 84 ) , p . 4 4 0 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 5 3
t h e r e w a s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e i n w h i c h
th e p h i lo so p h y o f P lo t in u s w as t o flou rish , a n d th e im p e r i a l i d ea l
t h a t f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y . H e r e w e w i l l i d e n t i f y
a r e l i g i o u s s y n c r e t i s m t h a t w a s a b l e t o a s s o c i a t e u n i v e r s a l i z a b l e c u l t s
o f t h e e m p i r e w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h u s E g y p t a n d S y r i a w i t h
A s i a M i n o r o f t h e E a s t , a n d R o m e o f t h e W e s t , w e r e u n i t e d in t h e
e x p r e s s i o n o f a c o m m o n i m p e r i a l u n i t y o f a ll c u l t u r e s a n d r e l ig i o n s .
W e sh a ll p u r s u e a p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n s u c h p a g a n s o c i al d e v e l o p
m e n t s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h r i s t i a n o r t h o d o x y a n d O r d e r i n
P a r t C .
T h e w r i t e r s a n d w r i t i n g s t h a t w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d (Luke, Apocalypse,
C l e m e n t , a n d I g n a t iu s ) b e t w e e n t h e l a t e first a n d e a r l y s e c o n d c e n
t u r y a n d t h e a g e o f C y p r i a n e x h i b i t e d t w o s et s o f c h a n g e s i n b o t h
t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f C h u r c h O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l O r d e r t h a t c le a r ly
r a n p a r a l l e l w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h o s e c h a n g e s w e r e to d e v e l o p f u r t h e r
b e t w e en t h e en d o f t h e s ec o n d ce n t u ry an d th e f ir st fifty y ea r s o f
t h e t h i r d . I n t h e c a s e o f C h u r c h O r d e r , w e w i ll f in d t h e d e v e l o p
m e n t o f o n t o l o g i c a l i d e a s a b o u t t h e t r i u n e G o d h e a d , p a r a l l e l i n g p o l i t
i c al i d e a s o f a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s io n a n d e p i s c o p a l O r d e r , a s g u a r a n t e e i n g
t h e v al i d it y a n d u l t i m a t e u n i t y o f t h e C h u r c h . I n t h e c a s e o f I m p e r i a l
O r d e r , uo vo cp xic t, o r t h e o n to lo g ic a l i d ea t h a t a l l p o w e r w i th in t h e
u n iv e r se is d e r iv ed f ro m a s in g l e u l t im a t e so u r ce o r o r ig in , w i ll b e
es sen t i a l t o t h e p o l i t i ca l u o v o cp x ia o f t h e im p er i a l i d ea l . Bo th s e t s o f
i d e a s a r e r e l a t e d , w e s h al l a r g u e , in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f
k n o w l e d g e . 7 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e b y s u c h
w r i t e r s a s B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n n 8 h a v e s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d c o n f i rm e d ,
in a v a r i e ty o f a reas , t h e i n s ig h t s o f Pe t e r so n , wh ich we wi l l s eek to
d e v e l o p .9
W i t h i n a s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e p a r a d i g m , t h e e s s e n ti a l
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e o f t h e monorchia or u l t imate s ing le f i r s t p r inc ip le
f r o m w h i c h a l l r e a l i t y m u s t b e d e r i v e d is , d e s p i t e t h e o b j e c t i o n s o f
7 I w o u l d n o t d e n y in e m p l o y i n g a s o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e a n y u l t i m a t e c l a i m s
t o t r u t h t h a t t h e o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e m i g h t a d d i t i o n a l l y m a k e . T h i s w a s a d i s t i n c t i o n
w e l l m a d e b y P . B e r g e r , The Social Reality of Religion, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n 1 9 7 3 ) ,
A p p e n d i x 2 . I w o u l d t h e r e fo r e s u p p o r t E . O s b o r n , The Beginning of Christian Philosophy,
( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 1 ) , c h a p t e r 2 i n s e e i n g a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n N e o - P l a t o n i s m a n d
C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n w h i c h b o t h u s e d a n d r e d e f i n e d t h i s p h i l o s o p h y .8 P . B e r g e r a n d T . L u c k m a n n , The Social Construction of Reality, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n
1 9 6 7 ) , a n d B e r g e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) .9 E . P e t e r s o n , Der Monotheismus als politisches Problem. E in Betrag zur Geschichte der
politischen Theologie im Imperium R omanu m, (Leipz ig: 1935) = Theologische Traktate, ( M i i n c h e n
1 9 5 1 ) .
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2 5 4 C H A P T E R S E V E N
S c h i n d l e r a n d o t h e r s , r e l a t e d t o t h e p o l i t i c a l c l a i m s o f m o n a r c h i c a l ,
i m p e r i a l r u l e .1 0
W e sh all a r g u e t h a t b o t h p s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e Clementines
a r e i n f l u e n c e d a l s o b y a m e t a p h y s i c s o f u n i t y t h a t r e g a r d s w h a t is
r e a l a n d t r u e a s d e r i v e d f r o m s o m e u l t i m a t e h i st o r i c a l o r i g i n . N e o -
p l a t o n i s m r e p r e s e n t e d s u c h a m e t a p h y s i c s t o w h i c h A m m o n i u s S a c c a s
a n d P l o t i n u s g a v e e x p r e s s i o n , a n d w a s q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e S t o i c
m o n i s m t h a t p r e c e d e d i t. I t w a s th i s m e t a p h y s i c t h a t al so i n c r e a s
i n g l y u n d e r l a y s u c h e x p r e s s i o n s o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y t h a t a r e f o u n d i n
t h e S e v e r a n i c o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e w r i t e r s o f t h e ci rc l e o f J u l i a D o m n a .
H e r e w e f in d o n c e a g a i n a r e f l e c ti o n o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r i n e c c le s i a s
t ic a l o r d e r s u c h a s w e w i t n e s s e d in I g n a t i u s , a n d i n t h e S t o i c i s m o f
C l e m e n t Corinthians. W e s ha ll c o n s i d e r t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
p a g a n p o l it ic a l i d e o lo g y a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h O r d e r .
I n C w e sh a ll c o n s i d e r t h e d e v e l o p i n g M o n a r c h i a n i s m o f t h e
A p o l o g is t s r e g a r d i n g t h e G o d h e a d , a n d t h e i r d e n i a l o f t h e c o n c e p t
o f uovocp% {a t o p a g a n i s m , a n d h e n c e t o t h e p o l i t ic a l m o n a r c h y t h a t
s u c h a n o n t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t w a s i n t e n d e d t o l e g i t i m a t e .
T h e f inal f o c u s o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w i ll b e t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n
C a l l i st u s a n d t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Elenchos, w h i c h w i ll b e m y n e x t a n d
final c h a p t e r ( C h a p t e r 8 ). T h e r e I w ill d r a w u p o n t h e v a l u a b l e i n si g h ts
o f D a l C o v o l o .1 1
T h e e v e n t s o f A . D . 2 1 7 w e r e t o w i t n e s s t h e a c c u
s a t i o n a g a i n s t C a l l i st u s b o t h o f M o n a r c h i a n i s m i n t h e T r i n i t y a n d
t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f e c c l e s ia s t ic a l b o u n d a r i e s in h i s a t t e m p t t o c o n
s t ru c t a m o n a r c h i c a l e p i sc o p a c y . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t in o n t o l o g y w a s
i n d e e d p a r a l l e l w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t s in p o l i ti c a l i d e o l o g y a n d r e f le c t e d
t h e m . T h u s t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e t h a t is d e v e l o p i n g C h r i s t i a n O r d e r
c o n t i n u e s as i t b e g a n t o re f le c t t h e i m a g e s o f t h e p a g a n c u l t u r e o n
w h i c h i t i s p a r a s i t i c .
L e t u s b e g i n , t h e r e f o r e , b y c o n s i d e r i n g h o w , i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e
s e c o n d c e n t u r y , E g y p t a n d S y r i a w e r e to m a k e t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s A s i a M i n o r
a n d t h e G r e e k c i ty s t a t e s h a d m a d e t h e i r s i n t h e first c e n t u r y .
1 0 A . S c h i n d l e r ( E d . ) , Mon otheismus als politisches Problem? Eric P eterson und die K ritik
der politischen Theologie, ( G u t e r s lo h : G e r d M o h n 1 9 7 8 ) .
1 1 E . D a l C o v o l o , I S e v e r i e il c r i s t i a n e s i m o : R i c e r c h e s u l l ' a m b i e n t e s t o r ic o - i st i -t u z i o n a l e d e l l e o r i g i n i c r i s t i a n e t r a i l s e c o n d o e i l t e r z o s e c o l o , i n Biblioteca di Scienze
Religiose, 8 7 (L i b re r ia A t h e n o S a l e s ia n o : R o m e 1 9 8 9 ) .
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P A G A N A N D C H R IS T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 5 5
P A R T A . A N T E C E D E N T S O F T H E S E V E R A N R E F O R M A T I O N
E a s t e r n i d e a s o f m o n a r c h y w e r e t o p r e v a i l i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e
g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o lo g y t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y . T h e i r f o r m a l a d o p t i o n i n t h e W e s t u n d e r D i o c l e t i a n r e p l a c e d
t h e c o n t i n u i n g s h a m r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s a n d i m a g e r y t h a t u n t i l h i s
r e i g n m a s k e d a m i l i t a r y d e s p o t i s m . B u t w h a t w a s t o t r i u m p h w i t h
A u r e l i a n , D i o c l e t i a n , a n d C o n s t a n t i n e , th e l a t t e r o f w h o m a t o n e
p o i n t f o u n d t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus a t t r a c t i v e ,1 2
h a d a l o n g g e s t a t i o n
i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g s y n c r e t i s m o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h e d e v e l o p
m e n t o f t h o s e p o l i ti c a l i d e a s w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e k i n d o f p h i l o
so p h ica l p i c t u re o f a m o n ar ch i ca l co sm o s th a t a l so h a d a l o n g g es t a t i o n
b e fo re P lo t in u s , a s w e sh a l l s ee i n P a r t B .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f a n i c o n o g r a p h y o f
a d o p t e d E a s t e r n d e i t ie s s u c h a s I si s a n d Sol Invictus e x p r e s s e d t h e
s y n c r e t i s m t h a t w a s j u s t if i e d b y s u c h a n e w v e r s i o n o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p h i
l o s o p h y r e a d t h r o u g h P l a t o n i s t e y e s . B u t w e c a n g o f u r t h e r . I t w a s
n o t s i m p l y a g e n e r a l , p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n s u c h E a s t e r n r e l i g i o n s , a s
w e m i g h t i n f e r f r o m A p u l e i u s , Metamorphoses, o r P l u t a r c h , De hide et
Osiride. S u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e o r g a n i s e d in t e r m s o f t h e i c o n o
g r a p h y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t th a t i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e p r o d u c t s o f s u c h
s y n c r e t i s m , a n d its p h i l o s o p h i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n , i n t o it s o w n s t r u c t u r e
a n d r a t i o n a l e .
L e t u s n o w l o o k a t t h e e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a
t i o n b y t h e E m p e r o r a n d hi s f a m i ly o f s u c h d e v e l o p i n g t h e m e s b o t h
i n r e l i g io u s p r a c t i c e a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y of r e l i g i o n t h a t g a v e t h e m
r a t i o n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
7 A 1. The recognition of E astern cults before the Severan s
T h e o n to l o g i c a l u n i t y , t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h h i e r a r c h i c a l g r a d a t i o n , t o
w h i c h P l o t i n u s w a s t o g i v e e x p r e s s i o n , w a s p a r a l l e l e d b y t h o s e c u l t ss u c h a s I s i s , M i t h r a s , o r Dea Caelestis t h a t u n i t e d t h e p a n t h e o n a r o u n d
a s in g l e d iv in i ty i n c reas in g ly i d en t i f i ed wi th Sol Invictus. T h e a n a l o g y
o f t h e s u n , s o u se fu l to P l o t i n u s i n e x p o u n d i n g t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
o f r e a l i t y f r o m t h e O n e t o t h e m a n y , p r o v e d a l s o u s ef u l t h e o l o g i
c a l l y i n p o i n t i n g t o t h a t w i t h w h i c h t h e s u p r e m e d e i t y w a s t o b e
1 2
A . H . M . J o n e s , Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n
1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 9 6 - 9 9 .
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256 C H A P T E R S E V E N
identified and from whic h the subo rd in at e relations of ot he r deities
introduced into the pantheon could be duly drawn.
Let us now examine how, before the radical development that was
the Severan Reformation, these universalistic Eastern cults came to
c omme nd themselves to the ico nog rap hy of the Imperi al Cult .
7 A 1.1. Isis and Sarapis
Isis was originally an Egyptian deity, but, like the Syrian Dea Caelestis,
Cybele, or the Persian Mithras was, as Takacs points out, integrated
into an existing Graeco-Roman model derived from the basic struc
tur e of the Eleusini an an d Dionys iac mysteries. The y wer e to receive
an interpretatio Romana, and Plutarch at least was to show how a dev
eloping Neo pla ton ism pro vid ed the framework of tha t interpretation
But let us see first of all how an Isis theology established the parallel
ism that we are to claim with Neoplatonic ontology and the political
ideology of imper ial unity.
T h e claims ma de by he r wors hippers for Isis within the p an th eo n
of divinities ar e truly imperi al. In her hymn, insc ribed in the Iseum
in Cyrene (103 B.C.) on a marble tablet, she reveals herself as "Isis
only ru le r of the age (xupocvvoq Eiaiq aiSvoq udvu) . . . who ho lds the
sceptre (oicf|7cxp' e'xouaa)." She continues: "All call me Goddess most
High (KOCAOUGI 5T| ue rcdvxeq u\|/{axrjv Geov), the grea test of all gods who
are in heaven (rcdvxcov M x y i o x r i v xcov ev oupctvco Gecov)."14
In a first cen
tury hy mn from Egypt she is add res sed as "Q u e e n of the God s,
endowed with wealth (TIAOUXO86XI paaiA,eia Gecov), La dy Thermouthi s
('EpuouGi avocaoa), Mistress of the world (rcavxoKpdxepia), Go od Fo rtune
(Tuxrj 'AyaGri), Isis of great n ame (ueycctaovuue?
Iai ), Most Hi gh god
dess (Ar|oi u \ | / ( a x r | ) , discoverer of all life ( cofjq eupexpia rcdariq)."15
T h e
inscription continues:
All kinds of works were your care (rcavxoicov epycov eueXxiae aoi), so that
you grant to men life and good order (6<pp' dva8oui<; dvGpamoioi |3iovxe Kai euvouinv xe drcaai), and have discovered and made known the
laws (Kai Geauxnx; Kaxe8ei£a<;) in order that righteousness might endure
(iv' eu6iKir| xi<; i m a p x i i ) . . . For your sake ( G O V xe xdpw ) the celestial sphere
and the whole earth are brought together (avveaxTix' 6 noXoc, Kai y a i a
arcaoa), and the rushing winds and the sun with its sweet rays (Kai
1 3 S.A. T a k a c s , Isis and S a r a p i s in the R o m a n w o r l d , in EPRO 124 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 2.14
SEG 9,1, 192 /. 4-8 .15
SEG 8,1, 548 /. 1-4.
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 2 5 7
rcvoia i dv epc ov K ai r(kio(; 6 yA /uicucp£ yyr|< ; ), b y y o u r p o w e r (a p 5 i )v d | i e i ) a l l
t h e r i v e r s o f t h e N i l e r u n fu l l (N e (X o \ ) rc ox ap oi 7 iA .r jp oi )v xa i a r c a v x e q ) . . , "1 6
Is is n o w e m b r a c e s o t h e r d e i ti e s w h o s e n a m e s a r e r e c o r d e d a s e q u i v
a l e n t t o h e r o w n . B o t h P l u t a r c h a n d P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s w e r e t o
c l a i m t h a t P l a t o l e a r n e d h is p h i l o s o p h y f r o m E g y p t i a n p r ie s t s , s o t h a t
t h e t r u e o r ig i n of t h a t p h i l o s o p h y w a s E g y p t i a n , e v e n t h o u g h , a s w e
s h a ll s e e , b o t h D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s , w i t h i n t h e c i r c l e
o f Ju l i a D o m n a , w er e t o c l a im a d i ff e ren t o r ig in o r ocp%r|. W e see
in t h i s an d o th e r i n sc r ip t i o n s t h e c l a im th a t a l l r e l i g io n h as i t s u l t i
m a t e l y r e a l h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n i n E g y p t a n d Is is w o r s h i p , o f w h i c h a ll
o t h e r r e l i g i o n s a r e b u t le ss p e r f e c t r e f le c t i o n s o r e v e n c o r r u p t i o n s .
T h e n a m e o f Isis is " g r e a d y h o n o u r e d b y all (TIOAA)X{UT|XOV rcapa jcaai) ,"
w h e t h e r b y G r e e k o r b y B a r b a r i a n s , b u t e a c h u s e t h e i r o w n e x p r e s
sions (ipcovaioi i8iai<;). T h e S y r i a n s c a ll h e r A s t a r t e o r A r t e m i s , t h e
G r e e k s H e r a , A p h r o d i t e , H e s t i a , R h e a a n d D e m e t e r . T h e E g y p t i a n s
c a l l h e r T h e r m o u t h i s .1 7
" G r e a t I s i s (v
Ioi p ey io x r) )" c l ea r ly m er i t s h e r
t i tl e " m a n y n a m e d ( rcoAu cb vu pe )."18
H e r p o w e r s , i n d e e d t h e p o w e r s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l g o d d e s s e s t h a t
s h e u n i t e s i n h e r p e r s o n , a r e n o t s i m p l y o v e r t h e n a t u r a l b u t a l s o
o v e r t h e so c i a l o r d e r . " G r e a t I s i s " a l s o is " s h e w h o d e l i v e r s f r o m
w a r b o t h c i t i e s a n d c i t i z e n s (EK rcoAiuou puuivn xe noXeiq navxaq xe
noXiiaq), t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r w i v e s a n d p o s s e ss i o ns a n d d e a r c h i l d r e n
(auxoix; Kai aXoxovq Kai Kxripaxa Kai <p{Xa xeicva)."1 9
S i m i l a r l y w e h a v e
f r o m t h e A u g u s t a n a g e a n a r e t o l o g i a o f Isis f r o m C u m a e , i n s c r i b e do n a s t e l e , w h ic h li st s t h e u n iv e r s a l i t y o f I s i s, a n d h e r ru l e o v e r
n a t u r e , soc iety , a n d i n di v id u al l i fe , in s o m e f if ty s ix eyco o r eyco eip i
c l a im s , b eg in n in g E ia iq eyco e ip i TI xt>pavvo<; nac^q x cb paq, a n d w h ic h
i n c l u d e t h e g i v i n g o f l a w s2 0
a n d h e r p r e s e n c e i n t h e r a y s o f t h e s u n .2 1
W e m u s t t h e r e f o r e n o w l o o k a t h o w s u c h a c u l t c a m e f irs t t o b e
v i e w e d w i t h s u s p i c io n a t R o m e , a n d t h e n t o b e a c c e p t e d in t o t h e
p a n t h e o n .
16 SEG 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 /. 4 - 1 0 .17 SEG 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 /. 1 4 - 2 4 .18 SEG 8 ,1 , 548 / . 26 c f . a l so 549 / . 1 .19 SEG 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 /. 2 7 - 2 8 .
20 I.G. 1 2 suppl. p . 9 8 : 1 4 A = EG 4 p . 1 38 : 4 eyco vouo\><; dv9pcbrcoi<; eGe unv K ai
e v o u o B e i T i o a d oi> 0ei< ; 5 i ) v a x a i u e x a 9 e i v a i a n d p . 1 3 9 : 5 2 eyco e i u i r\ S e o u o c p o p o q
KaAxxuuevTi.21 I.G. 12 suppl. p . 9 8 : 1 4 A = EG \ p. 13 9: 4 4 eyco ev xa lq xoft r\h\ox> at)ya i< ; e iu i .
4 5 eyco 7tape8p e\)co xf\ TOV r\Xio\) rcopeux.
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2 5 8 C H A P T E R S E V E N
7 A 1 .1 .1 . The reception of Isis as political iconography
I n l a t e R e p u b l i c a n t i m e s , I s i a c r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l s b e g a n t o p e n e t r a t e
i n t o t h e p r i v a t e s p a c e o f t h e v il la s o f t h e w e a l t h y s e n a t o r i a l a r i s t o c
r a c y . F r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e S o c i a l W a r , d u r i n g t h e 8 0 s B . C . , v a r i
o u s c o i n s w e r e m i n t e d s h o w i n g I s ia c s y m b o l s . 2 2 B u t i n 5 8 , 5 3 a n d
4 8 B . C . s e n a t o r i a l a c t i o n w a s t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e c u l t .2 3
T i b e r i u s ' r e i g n
m a r k e d t h e r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e c u l t o f I s i s .2 4
B u t n e v e r th e l e s s w e fin d
an in sc r ip t i o n f ro m E g y p t (A .D. 2 3 ) i n w h i ch Ju l i a Se b as t e is d esc r ib e d
as vecc "Iaiq (IGRR 1, 11 5 0 ) . H e r e c l e a r l y t h e G r e e k E a s t t h a t o r i g
i n a l l y p e t i t i o n e d A u g u s t u s t o b e a l l o w e d t o o f f e r h i m a d i v i n e c u l t
c o n t i n u e s a p o l i c y w h i c h t h e E m p e r o r h i m s e l f a s y e t o n l y p a r t i a l l y
a c c e p t s . B u t f r o m C a l i g u l a ' s t i m e t h e p o l i c y o f a v e r s i o n t o w a r d s t h e
c u l t o f I sis h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s o f t e n e d . C a l i g u l a a p p e a r s t o h a v e
e i t h e r r e f u r b is h e d a n e x is t in g T e m p l e o r c o m m e n c e d t h e b u i l d i n g
o f a n e w o n e .
T h e V e s p a s i a n m y t h r e c o r d e d t h e h e a l i n g o f a b l i n d a n d l a m e
m a n s e n t b y O s i r i s t o V e s p a s i a n a s t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f H o r u s , t o
w h o m I sis h a d g i v e n b i r t h . 2 5 H e r e w e a r e o b s e r v i n g a s l o w a s s i m i
l a t i o n o f t h e e a s t e r n c u l t o f I sis a n d O s i r i s i n t o t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o
lo g y , i n wh ich to b e divifilius d o e s n o t i n v o l v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e
p r o g e n y o f V e n u s a l o n e . T h e d e v o t e e s o f I si s, i n t o w h o s e m y s t e r i e s
n e i t h e r C a l i g u l a n o r V e s p a s i a n w e r e e v e r f o r m a l l y a d m i t t e d , c o u l d
rea d i ly a s s u re t h e E m p e r o r t h a t I si s w as rco Xu cbv uuo q a n d th a t i d en
t if i c at io n w i t h t h e s o n o f o n e g o d d e s s d i d n o t p r e c l u d e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
w i t h t h e s o n o f a n o t h e r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , s u c h a n a s s i m i l a t io n c o u l d a l so b e j u s ti f ie d w i t h i n
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d i ts f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p
t i o n s .
7 A 1.1.2. The reception of Isis and the p a x d e o r u m
O n t h e o n e h a n d o n e c a n r e g a r d I s ia c r i te s a s a prava religio, n o t
c o n d u c t e d more Romano, a n d non patrio sed externo ritu. A s s u c h t h o s er i t e s b e a r t h e m a r k s o f a superstitio s u c h a s T a c i t u s h e l d C h r i s t i a n i t y
t o b e ( 3 C 2 . 3 ). T h u s o n e c o u l d r e g a r d t h e w o r s h i p o f I sis a n d O s i r i s
a s a t h rea t t o t h e pax deorum t h a t t h e P r i n c i p a t e w a s t o c l a i m , t h r o u g h
2 2 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ), p p . 3 3 - 4 0 .2 3 F o r a t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e a c t i o n s a n d t h e i r p r e c i s e h i s to r i c a l l o c a t i o n ,
w i t h a n a n a ly s i s o f t h e s o u r c e s , s e e T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 5 6 - 7 0 .2 4 J o s e p h u s , Antiqu., 1 8, 6 6 - 8 0 ; T a k a c s (1 9 9 5 ), p p . 8 2 - 8 6 .2 5 T a c i t u s , Hist. 4 , 8 1 ; S u e t o n i u s Titus 5 , 3 a n d T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 9 6 9 8 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 5 9
its r e f o r m o f r e p u b l i c a n r e l ig i o n , t o h a v e s e c u r e d . T h i s h a d b e e n
p r e v i o u s l y t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e S e n a t e r e g a r d i n g Is is i n 5 8 , 5 3 a n d
4 8 B . C . , a s w a s to b e t h e p o s i t i o n o f T i b e r i u s . B u t o n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , a n d w i t h i n t h e s a m e se t o f a s s u m p t i o n s , it c a n e q u a l l y b e
a r g u e d t h a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f l es s e x t r e m e r e li g i o u s g r o u p s s u c h a s
Is iacs wi l l i t se l f upse t the pax deorum. T h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e pax Romana
t o E g y p t a n d S y r i a t h r o u g h i m p e r i a l r u l e r e q u i r e s a l s o t h e e x t e n
s ion o f the pax deorum t o t h e g o d s w h o r u l e s u c h p l a c e s .
T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f k i n g s i n t o t h e e m p i r e a s s u b j e c t s a n d c l i e n t s
t h u s r e q u i r e s a s its c o u n t e r p a r t t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s u c h d e i ti e s a s
Isis i n t o t h e R o m a n p a n t h e o n . T h e p r o c e s s w a s b o t h g r a d u a l a n d
d y n a m i c , a n d n o d o u b t a s s i s t e d b y s u c h a n e m p e r o r a s V e s p a s i a n
w h o c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e p e a c e t h a t h e p e r s o n a l l y h a d s e c u r e d o u t
o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a o s w a s a p e a c e in w h i c h Is is h a d p l a y e d a
c r it ic a l a n d s u p p o r t i v e r o l e . A s T a k a c s , t o w h o s e p e r c e p t i v e a c c o u n t
I a m h e r e i n d e b t e d , p u t i t :
. . . the R o m a n abili ty an d re adine ss to acc ept a nd in tegr ate foreignideas and cults was l inked with the all-encompassing notion of the pax
deorum. R om an con t ro l of geograph ica l a reas en ta i led accep tance o f
the area ' s dei t ies . Since inclus iveness marked Roman paganism, the
R o m a n pa nth eo n co ntain ed indigenou s as well as foreign dei ties . T he y
could co-exist or fuse. The belief in the pax deorum and the resul t ing
pax hominum encouraged th is inclus iveness or openness .2 6
D o m i t i a n r e b u i l t C a l i g u l a ' s t e m p l e o n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s .2 7
I n c o m
m e m o r a t i o n o f t hi s r e s t o r a t i o n , D o m i t i a n h a d e r e c t e d a n O b e l i s k ,
w h i c h s t a n d s t o d a y in t h e P i a z z a N a v o n a , w i t h a p i c t u r e o f h i m s e l f
b e i n g c r o w n e d b y I sis . A s T a k a c s p o i n t s o u t , t h e i c o n o g r a p h y w a s
s ig n i fi can t i n t h a t i t r ev e r s ed th e t r a d i t i o n t h a t A u g u s t u s h a d fo l lo wed .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h a t t r a d i t i o n , t h e r u l e r , w h e t h e r P h a r a o h o r E m p e r o r ,
s t o o d b e f o r e O s i r i s a n d Is is a n d g a v e t h e m g i f t s .2 8
H e r e t h e r e f o r e
w e h a v e a n a d o p t i o n b y D o m i t i a n o f t h e I s ia c i c o n o g r a p h y , a n d its
s ig n i f i can ce fo r t h e w o r sh ip o f t h e ru l e r cu l t , fo r r e a s o n s t h a t a r i s e
f r om t h e l og ic a n d d e v e l o p i n g l e g i t i m a t i o n o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l p o w e r .
2 6 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 0 7 .2 7 R . M . K r il l, R o m a n P a g a n i s m u n d e r t h e A n t o n i n e s a n d S e v e r a n s , i n ANRW
2 , 1 6 , 1 , ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3 3 f o l l o w i n g S u e t o n i u s , DomiL, 1 ,2 : " . . . I s iac i c e l a tu s ha bi tu
i n t e r q u e s a c r i f i cu l o s v a r i a e s u p e r s t i t i o n i s . . . ," m e n t i o n s t h a t D o m i t i a n d r e s s e d a s a n
I s ia c . T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 d i s p u t e s S u e t o n i u s a c c o u n t as " n o t h i n g m o r e t h a na cl ev er fiction."
2 8 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 0 0 .
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2 6 0 C H A P T E R S E V E N
Prev io u sly , i n t h e ex a m p le o f V esp a s i an , t h e ad o p t i o n o f t h ese E g y p t i a n
r it e s h a d b e e n fo r p e r s o n a l r e a s o n s a l o n e , n a m e l y p e r s o n a l g r a t i t u d e
f or I s is ' d e l i v e r a n c e . N o w t h e y h a d b e c o m e fo r D o m i t i a n p a r t o f t h e
g e n e r a l l o g i c o f t h e c u l t f o r s e c u r i n g t h e g e n e r a l pax deorum in po l i t
i c a l m a t t e r s .
I t w a s w i t h H a d r i a n t h a t t h e a c c e p t a n c e o r ig i n a l ly r e f us e d b y
T ib e r iu s was f i n a l l y g iv en to Sa rap i s an d I s i s .
7 A 1.1.3. Isis and the official iconography of imperial divinity
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s w e r e a c c e p t e d w i t h t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d p o l i t i c a l i d e o
l o g y t h a t T i b e r i u s , i n h i s a n x i e t y to p r e s e r v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o fR e p u b l i c a n f o r m s , h a d o ri g i n a ll y d e n i e d . It w a s n o t s i m p l y t h a t
H a d r i a n a ls o h o n o u r e d S a r a p i s , c o n s o r t o f I sis , w i t h a S a r a p e u m i n
h is V i l l a. C o i n ty p e s n o w a p p e a r t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f H a d r i a n ' s r e i g n
( A . D . 1 3 2 - 1 3 4 ) w i t h I si s i m p o s e d o n t h e s t a r S o t h i s .2 9
W e h a v e
" A d v e n t u s " ty p e s f r o m A l e x a n d r i a in w h i c h S a r a p i s a p p e a r s w i t h
modius o n h i s h e a d , a n d Is is w i t h l o t u s o n h e r h e a d s t a n d i n g o n
t h e r i g h t . O n t h e left s t a n d H a d r i a n a n d S a b i n a fa c i n g t h e m . S a r a p i sa n d H a d r i a n c l a s p t h e i r r i g h t h a n d s o v e r a n a l t a r , w h i l s t I s i s h o l d s
u p a sistrum i n h e r r i g h t h a n d , w i t h S a b i n a h o l d i n g a n u n c e r t a i n
o b j e c t .3 0
T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t h u s a p p r o p r i a t i n g th e i c o n o g r a p h y
of a u n i ve rsa l re l i g io n , o f Is i s rcoA,ucbvuuo<;, w i th a d i re c t re le va nc e
t o a n i d e o l o g y t h a t s a w d i v i n e p o w e r d i r e c d y i n c a r n a t e d i n t h e p e r
s o n o f e a r t h l y r u l e rs . H a d r i a n a n d S a b i n a w e r e Turcot o f S a r a p i s a n d
Is is ju s t as th e e m p e r o r E la g ab al us in h i s eiiccov (A .D . 218) w as tob e a ss oc ia t ed w i th th e xurcoq xou ercixcopiou Geou (H e ro d ia n V , 5 , 6 - 7 ) ,
a n d I g na t i us ' b i sh o p h a d b e e n xurcoq rcocxpoq .
T h i s t y p o l o g y o f a u n i v e r s a l i m p e r i a l i s m e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f a
u n i v e r s a l c u l t w a s t o b e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e n e x t r e i g n . W e h a v e a
c o i n f ro m t h e m i n t o f R o m e l a t e i n t h e r e i g n o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s ,
i n s c r i b e d D I V A F A U S T I N A , o n t h e r e v e r s e s id e o f w h i c h I sis is
s e a t e d o n a d o g h o l d i n g a sistrum.^ L i k e w i s e w i t h M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ,w e find t w o c o i n s o f h i s e m p r e s s F a u s t i n a I I w h e r e o n t h e r e v e r s e
o f c o i n s d e p i c t i n g h e r b u s t d u l y d r a p e d a n d i n s c r i b e d F A U S T I N A
A U G U S T A , w e f ind I sis w i t h a l o t u s o n h e r h e a d , h o l d i n g a sistrum
w ith p e ac o ck a n d l ion a t h er fee t , o r a l t e rn a t i ve ly w i th a ve i l f loating
RIC 2 , p . 4 4 4 n o . 8 2 6 a n d T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 0 6 .BMC 3 , p p . 3 3 9 a n d 4 8 9 , cf. p . 4 8 5 f o r I s is a l o n e .
BMC 4 , p . 2 5 5 .
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P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 2 6 1
a b o v e h e r h e a d a n d w i t h a s h i p w i t h m a s t a n d s a i l s p r e a d .3 2
F u r
t h e r m o r e c o in s w h o s e r e v e r s e s p a c e s h o w b o t h F a u s t i n a a n d Isis
t o g e t h e r m a k e the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of F a u s t i n a I I w i t h I sis m o r e s e c u r e .
T h e r e is no e v i d e n c e t h a t A n t o n i n u s a n d M a r c u s a n d t h e i r c o n s o r t s
a c c e p t e d i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the I s i s m y s t e r i e s as H a d r i a n h a d i n t o the
D i o n y s i a c . W e h a v e h e r e r a t h e r an e x a m p l e of a n interpretatio R oma na
a p p l i e d to the i c o n o g r a p h y of the I m p e r i a l C u l t .3 3
T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of t h i s i c o n o g r a p h y was s u g g e s t e d by the g e n e r a l
c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d , and no t i n i t i a t e d by an i n t e n t i o n a l p o l i c y of
u n i v e r a l i m p e r i a l i s m b a c k e d by a s u p p o r t i n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l o n t o l o g y .
C o m m o d u s did not c o n t i n u e his p r e d e c e s s o r s ' i c o n o g r a p h y on his
c o i n a g e as s u c h , b u t r a t h e r r e v e r t e d to s u c h l e g e n d s as S E R A P I D I
C O N S E R V A T O R I .3 4
T h e r e is c l e a r l y n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h e r e w i t h the
d e i t y w h o s e g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n is i n v o k e d . A s i m i l a r a c c o u n t can a l so
b e g i v e n of the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the c u l t of C y b e l e , a t f i rs t experi
en c in g in i t i a l h o s t i l i t y , b u t dest ined f inal ly to be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
t h e R o m a n p a n t h e o n . C y b e l e too was i d en t i f i ed wi th the e m p e r o r
t h r o u g h his c o n s o r t w e l l b e f o r e the age of the S e v e r a n s w h e n D e a
C a e l e s t i s a n d A r t a g a t i s b e c a m e finally p a r t of th e i m p e r i a l p a n t h e o n .
T o the p r e - S e v e r a n p e r i o d we can a l s o a s s i g n r e c o g n i t i o n of M i t h r a s
b y the I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r the t i t le of Sol Invictus.
7 A 1.2. Cybele and Magna Mater
A s e a r l y as 2 04 B .C . th e r i t e s of C y b e l e a n d At t i s h a d b e e n i n t r o
d u c e d i n t o R o m e w i t h the f o u n d a t i o n of th e t e m p l e on the P a l a t i n e
t o Magna Mater. Bu t the c u l t was c o n f i n e d to t h i s t e m p l e a l o n e , si n c e
a t t h a t t i m e o r g i a s t i c r i t e s w e r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of n o r m a t i v e
R o m a n r el ig io n . H o w e v e r , e v e n at t h a t t i m e t h e r e was an a m b i g u
i t y a b o u t s u c h a r e l i g io u s p o l i cy . T h e b r i n g i n g of a c o p y of C y b e l e ' s
image (d (p{8pupa) in r e s p o n s e to a S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e w as p a r t of an
i d e o l o g i c a l s t r a t e g y m a r k i n g a n d l e g i t i m i s i n g th e e x t e n s i o n of R o m a n
p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e in the G r e e k E a s t . 3 5
32
BMC 4, p. 545 n. 1006 (= H. C o h e n , Description Historique desMonnaies, (Par i s :
R o l l i n and F e u a r d e n t 1 8 8 4 ) , nos C. 298 , C. 299 and C. 304).3 3 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 112.34
Ibid. ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 113.3 5 S t r a b o 12, 567 (= EPRO 50 (1987) 1 ,55): ercupaveq 8' inoir\aav T c o u a i o i xo
i epov , d (p {8p \ )ua ev9ev8e x f jq Geou uexa7 ieu \ | /auevo i K a x a xoix; xfjq ItfK>M,Ti<; x p T i a p o \ > < ; ,
m O a r c e p K a l x o v 'AOKAJITIIOV x o v ev 'E7ti8ai)pcp. See a l so E.S. G r u e n , S t u d i e s in G r e e k
C u l t u r e and R o m a n P o l i c y , in Cincinnati Classical Studies, VII ( L e i d e n : EJ . Bri l l 1990) ,
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2 6 2 C H A P T E R S E V E N
F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e f o r e , w e w i t n e s s E a s t e r n de i ti e s b e i n g
a c c e p t e d b u t w i t h i n t h e id e o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f a n interpretatio romana.
A s w i t h Is is , t h e r e w a s a n i m a g e r y in C y b e l e ' s c u l t t h a t w e l l - s u i te d
Magna Mater i n t h e ro l e o f a u n iv e r s a l g o d d es s f ro m w h i ch a l l d e i t y
a n d t h u s all p o w e r a n d o r d e r c o u l d b e d e r i v e d , a n d , a s it w e r e ,
w a i t i n g f or t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n a g e t h a t r e q u i r e d s u c h a s y s t e m
a t i c l eg i t im a t io n o f i ts im p e r i a l i sm . D io d o r u s S i cu lu s (3 ,5 7 ,3 ) d esc r ib e s
h e r a s Q u e e n (PotoiX eicc) a n d e ld e s t d a u g h t e r o f U r a n u s w h o b e c o m e s
ueydAri ur |xr |p and uT|TT|p Gecov (3,59,8).
C e r t a i n l y t h e s e t i d e s c a n b e s e e n e x t e n s i v e l y i n i n s c r i p t i o n s , a s t h e
i n d i c e s t o V e r m a s e r e n EPRO 5 0 H V ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 7 ) w ill s h o w . T o
t a k e s o m e e x a m p l e s , w e find, d a t i n g f r o m t h e R o m a n p e r i o d a t
P e r g a m o n , a d e d i c a t i o n t o P h i l a , d a u g h t e r o f M e n a n d e r , w h o is
"p ri es te ss (xnv iepeiccv) of th e M o t h e r th e Q u e e n (xf)<; M uxpoq xfjq
pocoiXeicxq)."36
I n P e s s i n u s i n G a l a t i a , i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e c
o n d ce n t u r y , w e h a v e a r e fe r en ce t o C y b e l e a s urixrjp Gecov .37
M o r e
r e l e v a n t l y f or o u r p u r p o s e w e f ind m e n t i o n o f s o m e o n e w h o is " li fe
lo n g p r ie s t (8 id p iou iepec t) o f th e M o t h e r o f the G o d s (Muxpoq Gecov)
i n a n i n s c r i p t i o n t o b e d a t e d e i t h e r A . D . 7 0 o r i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f
o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h e p r i e s t m e n t i o n e d i s a l s o " s ix t i m e s h i g h -
p r i e s t o f t h e Augusti i n t h e K o i n o n o f t h e G a l a t i a n Sebastenoi (xcov xe
I e ( 3 a a x S v e^ a K iq d p x i e p e a x o u KOIVOU Lepaoxr ivcov TaXaxcov) ,"3 8
a n d
aePao xo (p dv xr |< ; o f t h e im p e r i a l t e m p l e (xou v a o u ) . T h e s a m e is t ru e
f or T i b e r i u s C l a u d i u s A t t i u s w h o , a t t h e e n d o f t h e f irst c e n t u r y A . D . ,
is a d d re ss e d as 8 iq dpxiepeoc xcov lep ao xc bv xou KOIVOU xcov Tataxxcov K a i
o ePao x o cp d v x r iv .3 9
p. 1 0 w h o a r g u e s t h a t t h e s e n d i n g f o r t h e i m a g e of Magna Mater i s a d i r e c t p a r a l
l el w i t h t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h e S i b y l l i n e B o o k s f r o m t h e D e l p h i c O r a c l e a n d t h e i r
t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o L a t i n b y Q . F a b i u s P i c t o r i n 2 1 6 a f te r t h e d e f e a t o f H a n n i b a l a t
C a n n a e . " T h i s s e q u e n c e o f a d o p t i o n s a n d a d a p t a t i o n s o f G r e e k r i tu a l s, d i v i n i t i e s,
a n d o r a c u l a r a u t h o r i t y s u p p l i e s t h e p r o p e r s e tt i n g f o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e M a g n aM a t e r . I t is n o t i n c i d e n t a l t h a t b o t h t h e S i b y l l i n e B o o k s a n d P y t h i a n A p o l l o a t
D e l p h i p l a y a r o l e i n e m p o w e r i n g R o m a n o f fi ci a ls t o f e t c h h e r fr o m A s i a a n d i n st i
t u t e h e r c u l t a t h o m e . T h e e v e n t h a d i t s p r e c e d e n t s a n d i ts p a r a l l e ls . I t b e l o n g s t o
a g r o w i n g s e r ie s o f th r u s ts b y t h e R o m a n p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s e l i te to e x p a n d a n d
e x p l o i t c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e c u l tu r a l w o r l d o f t h e G r e e k E a s t . "36 EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) I , 3 5 2 ; cf. a l so 3 5 3 - 3 5 5 . S e e a ls o EPRO ( 1 9 7 7 ) I I I , 2 4 4
(= CIL 6 , 5 1 2 ) ( A . D . 3 9 0 R o m e ) : " M a t r i d e u m m a g n a e I d a e a e e t A t t i d i m e n o -
t y r a n n o d i s m a g n i s . " I l l , 4 7 6 ( A . D . 2 4 1 F o r m i a e ) : " s a c e r d o s M a t r i s M a g n a e I d a e a e
t a u r o b o l i u m . "37 EPRO 50 (1987) I , 57 , / . 6 .38 EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) I , 5 9 , / . 5 - 9 .39 EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) I , 6 0 /. 4 - 7 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N I SM 2 6 3
T h e l a s t n a m e d p e r s o n b e a r s t h e gentilicium o f t h e e m p e r o r C l a u d i u s
w h o h a d p l a c e d t h e c u l t u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e quindecimviri a n d
o ffic ia lly s a n c t i o n e d a d m i s s i o n s o f m o r e R o m a n c i t iz e n s i n t o t h e r a n k s
o f i t s p r i e s t s . 4 0 C l e a r l y b e i n g a p r i e s t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t d i d n o t
e x c l u d e o n e b e i n g a p r i e s t o f C y b e l e a s w e l l .
B u t i n t h e r e i g n o f H a d r i a n , C y b e l e a s s u m e s a s u r e p l a c e i n t h e
i c o n o g r a p h y o f d i v i n e i m p e r i a l p o w e r .
7 A 1 .2 .1 . Imperial adoption of Cy tele's iconography
W e f in d fo r t h e fi rs t t im e six ex am p l es o n th e co i n a g e i ts e lf o f C y b e l e
t o w e r e d a n d s e a t e d ( s o m e t i m e s o n a t h r o n e ) , h o l d i n g a patera a n dr e s t i n g h e r a r m o n a d r u m w i t h a l i o n a t h e r f e e t ( P l a t e 2 8 ) . T h e
first five h a v e H A D R I A N V S A V G V S T V S i n t h e l e g e n d b u t t h e
s ix th h a s S A B I N A A V G V S T A u n d e r h e r i m a g e t h a t h a s a d o u b l e
d i a d e m . ( P l a t e 2 6 ) .4 1
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e i g n , w e f i n d a n a l m o s t p a r
a ll e l p r o c e s s w i t h t h a t o f I si s. F a u s t i n a I , a d d r e s s e d i n t h e l e g e n d o n
h e r c o i n s a s A V G V S T A , al so h a s o n th e o b v e r s e C y b e l e t o w e r e d
a n d d r a p e d , s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e w i t h t w o l i o n s a t h e r s i d e ( P l a t e 2 9 ) .T h e l e g e n d r ea d s M A T R I D E V M S A L V T A R I S C . 4 2 F o r F a u s t i n a
I I , w e h a v e o n t h e o b v e r s e o f a c o i n h e r o w n p o r t r a i t , d r a p e d w i t h
h e r h a i r e l a b o r a te l y w a v e d a n d k n o t t e d , w i t h t h e l e g e n d F A V S T I N A
A V G V S T A ( P la te 3 0 ). O n t h e r e v e r s e w e f in d C y b e l e t o w e r e d a n d
d r a p e d , w i t h a l i o n a t h e r r i g h t s id e a n d w i t h t h e l e g e n d M A T R I
M A G N A E (P la te 3 1 ) .4 3
L u c i u s V e r u s , a d o p t e d b r o t h e r o f M a r c u s
A u r e l i u s , h a s a c o i n b e a r i n g h i s h e a d o n t h e o b v e r s e , w i t h t h e r e v e r s es h o w i n g C y b e l e w i t h t h e l e g en d M A T R I [ M A G N A E ] S C .
4 4
His wi fe
L u c i l l a a l s o h a s s i m i l a r c o i n s .4 5
F i n a ll y C o m m o d u s h a s c o i n s t h a t , a s
in t h e case o f I s is , s ee m to r e t r e a t f ro m f ina l i d en t i f i ca t i o n o f t h e
g o d d es s w i t h t h e i m p e r i al p e r s o n a n d r e ve r ts t o M A T R I D E V C O N -
S E R V A V G . o r M A T R I D E V M C O N S E R V A V G (P la te 3 2 ) .4 6
W e s e e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t , i n t h e c a s e o f t w o u n i v e r s a l i s t ic c u l ts , t h a t
4 0 K r i l l ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3 1 .41
BMC 3 , p . 3 8 2 n o . f; P- 3 8 5 n o . 1 0 5 9 ; p . 3 8 6 n o . 1 0 6 0 ( P l a te 7 2 , 6 ) , p . 3 9 6
n o . 1 0 9 5 ( P l a t e 7 5 , 7 ) .42
BMC 4 , p p . 2 3 2 - 2 3 3 n o s 1 4 3 6 - 1 4 4 0 (P la te 3 4 ,4 ) .4 3
BMC 4 , p . 5 1 5 n o . 8 3 6 . S e e a l s o p . 4 0 2 n o . 1 3 2 a n d p . 4 0 3 n o . 1 3 4 ; p . 5 3 4
n o s 9 3 2 - 9 3 4 ( P la t e 7 3 , 1 1 ) ; p . 5 4 2 n o . 9 8 9 ( P la t e 7 4 , 9 ) . F o r puellae o f F a u s t i n a I s e e
p . 2 4 5 § .44
BMC 4 , p . 6 1 0 n o . * .45
BMC 4 , p . 57 1 n o . *; p . 57 7 n o . * .4(1
BMC 4 , p . 7 5 5 n o . 3 5 4 a n d p . 8 3 4 n o . 6 8 0 (P l a te 1 0 9 , 1 5 ) .
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2 6 4 C H A P T E R S E V E N
o f I si s a n d S a r a p i s , a n d o f C y b e l e , t h e s y n c r e t i s m o f b o t h w i t h o n e
a n o th e r is e f fec ted t h r o u g h th e a s so c i a t i o n o f b o th wi th t h e divi Augusti.
B u t n e i t h e r I si s n o r C y b e l e w e r e d e s t i n e d t o a c h i e v e t h e i r u n i v e r s a l
h e g e m o n y i n t h e i r o w n n a m e w i t h i n w h i c h o t h e r s m i g h t t h e n b e
in c lu d ed . N e i th e r Is is n o r C y b e le w er e t o p r o v e th e fo rce t h a t e f fec ted
t h e fi na l s y n c r e t i s m i n t o a p a g a n u n i v e r s a l r e l i g i o n . I t w a s a t h i r d
fo rce in the fo rm of th e cu l t o f Sol Invictus tha t was to be f ina l ly
v i c t o r i o u s .
7A 1.3. The cult ofSo\ I n v i c t u s
T h e t h i r d s y n c r e t i s i n g f o r c e w a s t h e w o r s h i p o f Sol Invictus, w h i c h
w a s e v e n t u a l l y t o s u c c e e d i n p r o d u c i n g , u n d e r A u r e l i a n , t h e s y n c r e
t i sm th a t t h e Se v e ra n s , a s w e sh a l l s ee , w e re t o s e a r ch fo r so i n t e n
t i o n a ll y a n d s y s t e m a t ic a l l y . W e w i t n e s s t h e g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e o f
t h is g o d w h i c h H a l s b e r g h e h a s i d e n ti f ie d , fr o m t h e t i m e o f H a d r i a n ,
spec i f ica l ly wi th Sol Invictus Elagab w h i c h E l a g a b a l u s w a s t o e n d e a
v o u r to i m p o s e u p o n t h e e m p i r e in A . D . 2 1 8 .4 7 W h e t h e r a t t h e e a r
l ie r s t a g e s o f i ts a p p e a r a n c e i t s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a r i s i n g o u t o f
M i t h r a i s m , o r w h e t h e r it w a s i d e n ti f ie d w i t h t h e S y r i a n E l a g a b f r o m
i ts first a p p e a ra n c e , is n o t o u r co n ce rn h e re . Su ff ice i t t o s ay t h a t i t
w a s t h i s i n g r e d i e n t i n a d y n a m i c , s y n c r e t i s t i c p r o c e s s t h a t w a s t o
p r e v a i l , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e a s p e c t s o f I sis a n d C y b e l e a l o n g w i t h t h e
o t h e r d ei tie s o f t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n p a n t h e o n w i th w h i c h t h e y h a d
b e e n i d e n ti f ie d . B u t u n l i k e I si s, S a r a p i s , a n d C y b e l e , n o a t t e m p t
b e f o r e t h e S e v e r a n s w a s m a d e t o e x p r e s s i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y u n i v e r s a l
d i v i n e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n t e r m s o f Sol Invictus. R a t h e r H a d r i a n , f ro m
A . D . 1 2 9 o n w a r d s , a f t e r h is v i c t o r i e s i n t h e E a s t , " c e a s e d t o h a v e
h i m s e l f p o r t r a y e d w i t h a n a u r e o l e , w h i c h h e n o w a s s ig n e d e x c l u
s iv e ly t o t h e su n g o d . "4 8
H a l s b e r g h e h y p o th e s i s e s t h a t it w a s H a d r i a n ' s
d e f e r e n c e t o t h e n e w c u l t f r o m S y r i a t h a t l e a d t o h i s a t t r i b u t i o n t o
it o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e a n c i e n t R o m a n c u l t o f Sol I t was th i s
d e f e r e n c e t h a t l e a d t o h is d i s s o c i a ti o n o f n u m i s m a t i c i c o n o g r a p h y
f r o m h i s o w n p e r s o n . P . A e l i u s A m a n d u s ( A . D . 1 58 ) p r e s e n t s u s w i t h
t h e e a rl ie s t e v i d e n c e w h e n h e d e d i c a t e s h is s m a l l m a r b l e a l t a r Soli
Invicto Deo.49
B u t i n t h i s , a s i n a n u m b e r o f o t h e r in s c r i p t i o n s u n t i l
t h e r e ig n o f C o m m o d u s , Sol Invictus w a s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
G . H a l s b e r g h e , T h e C u l t o f S o l I n v i c t u s , i n EPRO ( 1 9 7 2 ) .
Ibid. ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 6 .
CIL 6 , 7 1 5 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 2 6 5
e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n o r w i t h t h a t o f h i s c o n s o r t , a s S a r a p i s , I si s, a n d
C y b e l e h a d b e e n .5 0
I t is o n l y C o m m o d u s , b e f o re S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ,
w h o m a k e s invictus a c o m p o n e n t o f t h e i m p e r i a l t i d e , a n d w h o h a d
t h e s u n g o d p o r t r a y e d u p o n h i s c o i n s . 5 1
W i t h t h e S e v e r a n s , w e w i t n e s s a m a j o r s hif t i n p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y n c r e t i c u n i v e r s a l i s m , i n t e n t i o n a l l y p r o p a g a t e d a s
a n id e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r a n d s u p p o r t e d b y a p h i l o s o p h i c a l
o n t o l o g y .
7 A 2 . The Severan Reformation
W e c a n m a r k s u c h a c o n c e p t u a l sh ift b y r e f e r e n c e s t o a n a n a c h r o
n i st ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , r e p r e s e n t e d b y D i o C a s s i u s
w h o i n t e r p r e t e d t h e I s ia c r it e s i n a w a y t h a t w o u l d h a v e a p p e a r e d
a l i e n i n t h e p a s t p e r i o d o f t i m e t h a t h e a t t e m p t s t o d e s c r i b e . H i s
a n a c h r o n i s t i c e r r o r g iv e s u s a p o s i ti v e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a c o n c e p t u a l
s h i f t h a s t a k e n p l a c e i n h i s o w n t i m e . D i o c a n o n l y i n t e r p r e t p a s t
ev en t s i n t e rm s o f a p r e s en t t h a t c l ea r ly is q u i t e d i f f e ren t f ro m th ep a s t t h a t h e s e e k s b u t f a i l s a c c u r a t e l y t o d e s c r i b e .
D i o C a s s i u s c l a i m e d t h a t i l l - o m e n s f o l l o w e d t h e d e c r e e o f t h e
S e n a t e in 5 3 B . C . t h a t c a u s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p r i v a t e l y b u i l t t e m
p l e s o f I si s a n d S a r a p i s . N o d o u b t t h e S e n a t e a t t h e t i m e h a d s e e n
s u c h o m e n s a s i n d i c a t i v e o f natura discors re f lec ted in the soc ia l d i s
o r d e r , a n d t h a t t h e pax deorum r e q u i r e d t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e s e f o r e ig n
g o d s f r o m w i t h i n t h e pomerium. S i m i l a r l y s u c h p o r t e n t s o c c u r r e d i n4 8 B . C . f o ll o w i n g t h e m u r d e r of P o m p e y i n E g y p t . B u t , a s T a k a c s
p o i n t s o u t , " f o r D i o t h e s e a c t i o n s w e r e d r e a d f u l p o r t e n t s ; i n h i s w o r l d
Isis a n d S a r a p i s h a d n o t o n l y a p l a c e in t h e R o m a n p a n t h e o n b u t
w e r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l c o u p l e . "5 2
D i o b e g a n h i s c a r e e r
w i t h hi s n o m i n a t i o n b y P e r t i n a x fo r t h e p r a e t o r s h i p ( A . D . 1 9 3) . H e
w a s f inally t o t a k e u p t h i s a p p o i n t m e n t u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s in
w h o s e r e i g n hi s l i t e r a r y a c t iv i ty c o m m e n c e d . H e t h u s m a r k s a c o n c e p t u a l s h i f t t h a t w e c a n a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y a s i t
d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h a t r e i g n . S i m i l a r l y S u e t o n i u s , e a r l i e r t h a n D i o
( A . D . 1 1 9) , h o l d i n g o ffice u n d e r H a d r i a n , m a k e s D o m i t i a n i n t o a n
5 0 F o r a f ul l lis t a n d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , s e e H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) ,
p p . 4 5 - 4 9 .5 1 H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 9 a n d f o o t n o t e 2 .5 2 D i o C a s s i u s 4 0 , 4 7 a n d 4 2 , 2 6 a n d T a k a c s (1 9 9 5 ) , p . 6 7 .
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2 6 6 CHAPTER SEVEN
i n i t i a t e i n t o t h e I s ia c c u l t w h e r e a s , a s w e h a v e n o t e d , h e s i m p l y
m a d e u se o f E g y p t i a n i c o n o g r a p h y .5 3
H e is n o t a s p o s i t iv e a b o u t t h a t
c u l t a s is D i o , b u t c l e a r l y c a n r e g a r d i m p e r i a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h it a s
p o s s i b le , a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e n u m i s m a t i c e v i d e n c e t h a t w e g a v e
r e g a r d i n g t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c i d e n ti f ic a t io n o f H a d r i a n w i t h S a r a p i s
a n d S a b i n a w i t h I s i s .
B u t g i v e n t h e c o n c e p t u a l s hi ft, h o w is t h i s t o b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d ? I
wi ll a r g u e t h a t t h e i n t e g ra t i v e fo rce o f t h e cu l t o f Sol Invictus, i n p r o
d u c i n g a u n i v e r s a l s o l a r m o n o t h e i s m e m b r a c i n g a ll o t h e r d e i t i e s ,
e n a b l e d a l so d i v i n e p o w e r t o b e fo c u s e d o n th e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n i n
w h i c h a m u l t i c u l t u r a l e m p i r e w a s t o f i n d i t s u n i t y .
7 A 2 . 1 . Unity in diversity as a comprehensive imperial ideal
T h e a t t e m p t o f E l a g a b a l u s t o f o c us t o o e x c lu s i v e ly o n t h e r it e s a n d
c u l t u s o f h is o w n , S y r i a n s u n g o d w a s a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a b e r r a t i o n
f r o m a g e n e r a l S e v e r a n p o li c y t h a t r e m a i n e d in t a c t a n d w a s t o g r a d
u a l l y d e v e l o p i n t o i ts final t r i u m p h u n d e r A u r e l i a n .
S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , s uc c e ss o r t o E l a g a b a l u s , m a y h a v e d e m o l i s h e d
t h e l a t t e r ' s a t t e m p t t o f o u n d a u n i v e r s a l m o n o t h e i s m i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y
S y r i a n c u l t u r a l f o r m . T h e fire o f V e s t a a n d t h e g r e a t s t o n e o f M a g n a
M a t e r ( C y b e l e) w e r e r e t u r n e d f ro m t h e t e m p l e o f t h e S u n t o t h e i r
o r i g i n a l l o c a t i o n s , a s w a s a l s o h i s i m a g e (XUTCOC;) t o E m e s a . B u t n e v
e r th e l e s s , a s t h e l e g e n d i f n o t f ac t o f t h e lararium m a k e s c l e a r :
there soon emerged under Alexander a renewed a t tempt towards to l erance of al l cults combined under different aspects of a universal rel i
g ion. U nd er the s t rong influence of N eo- Py thag ore an a nd Ne o-Plato nic
concepts, individual cults came to be regarded as expressions of a truth
proper to all religions. Each was but a different version of a single
S u p r e m e G o d .5 4
B u t t h o u g h K r i l l is u n d o u b t e d l y c o r r e c t i n t h is a s s e r t i o n , I s h a ll a r g u e
t h a t h e w a s q u i t e w r o n g t o s e e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f Sol Invictus as ana l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s t h e c e n t r e a n d fo c u s o f i m p e r i a l
u n i t y .5 5
T h e n u m i s m a t i c i c o n o g r a p h y , inter alia, w i ll m a k e c l e a r t h a t
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s a s c a p a b l e o f a b s o r b i n g Sol Invictus in to i t s
5 3
Suetonius, Domit. 1 ,4 and Takacs (1995), p . 9 9 .5 4
Krill (1978), p . 4 1 . S e e also J . Ferguson, The Religions of the Roman Empire,
(London: Thames a n d Hudson 1970), p p . 47-56, p p . 2 1 1 - 2 3 3 .
^ Ibid. p. 44 : "In the third century, th e attempts t o identify a single S u n g o d
divinity amid t h e circle o f s o many other gods is seen a s a n e w unifying imperial
goal which emperor deification could n o longer achieve."
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2 6 8 C H A P T E R S E V E N
t h i r d c e n t u r y . A c o i n o f C o m m o d u s p o r t r a y e d t h e s u n g o d w i t h r a d i
a n t c r o w n i n a s c e n e t h a t i n c l u d e s p a r t o f t h e s ig n s o f t h e Z o d i a c
( S a g i t t a r i u s , C a p r i c o r n , a n d t w o o t h e r s ) .5 9
T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e s ig n s
is i n d i c a t i v e t h a t w e h a v e h e r e , n o t s i m p l y a c o n t i n u i t y o f s o l a r
t h e m e s f o u n d i n e a r l i e r c o i n a g e ,6 0
a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h e o l d e r R o m a n
s u n g o d , b u t w i t h Sol Invictus Elagabal. G e t a w a s p o r t r a y e d o n c o in s
a s t h e S u n a n d a s s o n o f C a e s a r a s S u n .
W e h a v e f r o m R o m e ( A . D . 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 ) a c o i n o f G e t a , t h e r e v e r s e
o f w h i c h d e s c r i b e s h i s r e l a t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r i n t h e w o r d s Seven
invicti Augfusti), piifilfii) ( " th e d u t ifu l so n o f t h e u n co n q u e r ed A u g u s tu s " ) .
T h e b u s t of G e t a h i m s e l f is n o t s i m p l y n o r m a l l y r a d i a t e b u t s h o w s
t h e c r o w n o f t h e s u n . 6 1 A s A l f bl di p o i n t e d o u t , t h i s i m a g e w a s m o r e
t h a n m e r e r e p e t i t io n o f t h a t o f C o m m o d u s . G e t a is n o t d e p i c t e d
w i t h th e n o r m a l l u m i n o u s c r o w n o f a n e m p e r o r , w h i c h is f a s te n e d
t o t h e n e c k b y m e a n s o f a n e t . R a t h e r h e w e a r s t h e c i r c le o f r a y s
o f t h e s u n - g o d a n d r a i s e s h i s r i g h t h a n d i n b le s s i n g , n o t a s Sol b u t
as o f fsp r ing o f Sol.62
T h u s t h e d i v i n e p o w e r , b o t h p o l it ic a l a n d o n t o
lo g i ca l , f l o ws f ro m Sep t im iu s a s Sol, t o h i s s o n w h o m h e c r o w n s a n d
t h r o u g h w h o m h i s b l e s s i n g c a n flow . W e a r e t h u s s e e i n g a f u n d a
m e n t a l s hift o f p e r s p e c t i v e t o w a r d s a n o r i e n t a l t h e o r y b o t h o f d i v i n
i ty a n d o f its a s s o c i a t e d m o n a r c h y .
C a r a c a l l a is p o r t r a y e d a s S a r a p i s6 3
o n co in s i n wh ich h e i s a s so
c i a t e d w i t h Sol Invictus a n d w h i c h in d i c a t e t h a t h e is t o b e r e g a r d e d
as KoauoKpdxcop.64 F u r t h e r m o r e , h e h a s l e f t a s t a t u e t h a t p o r t r a y s h i m
5 9
H . C o h e n , Description Historique des Monn aies, ( P ar is : R o l l i n a n d F e u a r d e n t 1 8 8 4 ) ,
V o l . I l l , p . 2 3 6 n o . 7 0 a n d H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 9 .6 0
RIC 2 p . 2 6 7 n o . 3 2 6 ( T r a j a n , A . D . 1 1 4 - 1 1 7 ) , b u s t o f s o l r a d i a te ; p . 3 6 0 n o s
1 6 6 a n d 1 6 7 ( H a d r i a n , A . D . 1 2 5 ) , s h o w i n g s ol r a d i a t e i n a q u a d r i g a .6 1 / 2 / C 4 , l p . 3 1 7 n o . 2 1 [ Pla te X I V , 5 ] ( O bv .) : P . S E P T . G E T A C A E S . P O N T .
( B us t, d r a p e d c u i ra s s e d , h e a d b e a r , r., ( R e v .) : S E V E R . I N V I C T I A V G . P I I . F I L .
( B u s t w i t h s u n - c r o w n , le f t, h a l f - l e n g t h , d r a p e d , c u i r a s s e d , w i t h a e g i s , r ig ht h a n d
ra i sed) .6 2 A . A l f o l d i , Die Monarchische Reprdsentation im rbmischen Kaiserreiche, ( D a r m s t a d t :
W i s s e n s c h a f d i c h e B u c h g e s e l l s c h a f t 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 2 2 5 - 2 2 6 : " G e t a i st d e r e r s t e , d e r a u f
e i n e r s t a a t l i c h e n M u n z p r a g u n g a l s S o l a u s g e s t a t t e t a b g e b i l d e t w u r d e : n i c h t m i t d e r
n o r m a l e n k a i s er l ic h e n S t r a h l e n k r o n e , d i e d u r c h e i n e M a s c h e a m N a c k e n b e f es t ig t
i st , s o n d e r n m i t d e m S t r a h l e n r e i f d e s S o n n e n g o t t e s . . . i s t e r g e k r o n t u n d h e b t s e i n e
r e c h t e H a n d s e g n e n d e m p o r , e i g e n t l i c h n i c h t a l s S o l , s o n d e r n a ls S p r o s s l i n g d e s
S o n n e n k o n i g s . "6 3 F o r S e r a p i s s e e RIC 4 , 1 p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 0 ( C a r a c a l l a , A . D . 2 1 7 ) S e r a p i s s t a n d
i n g f r o n t , h e a d l e f t , r a i s i n g r i g h t h a n d a n d h o l d i n g s c e p t r e , a n d a l s o p . 2 5 6 n o .
2 9 1 ( a ) -( c ) . F o r s o l a l o n e , p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 3 ( a ) - ( f ) ; n o . 2 9 4 ( a ) - ( c ) S o l r a d i a t e m o u n t
i n g q u a d r i g a , l e f t [ s e e P l a t e X I I , 2 0 ] .6 4
F . C u m o n t a n d L . C a n e t , M i t h r a o u S e r a p i s K O Z M O K P A T Q P , i n CRAIBL,
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 6 9
a s a P h a r a o h .6 5
I n h is v is it t o A l e x a n d r i a i n A . D . 2 1 5 h e b o t h
s a c ri fi c ed t o S a r a p i s a n d p a i d t r i b u t e t o A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t . B u t
t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e s e t w o e v e n t s t o o k p l a c e i s i n d i
c a t e d b y :
(i) t h e S a r a p e u m w h i c h h e al so b u i l t o n t h e Q u i r i n a l w i t h d i m e n
s i o n s a n d l o c a t i o n t h a t i n d i c a t e d a p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h t h e t e m p l e o f
J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s ,6 6
a n d ,
(ii) t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f S a r a p i s o n c o i n s b o t h w i t h H e l i o s a n d w i t h
G r a e c o - R o m a n d i v in i ti es s u c h a s Z e u s , A s c l e p i u s , P o s e i d o n , a n d
D i o n y s u s .
6 7
W e h a v e a c o i n f ro m t h e r e i g n o f D o m i t i a n w i t h t h e l e g e n d H A IO C
C AP AFIIC a n d o t h e r e x a m p l e s i n s c r i b e d o n s t o n e a n d o n a m u l e t s .
W e f in d d e d i c a t i o n s to Zevq "HAaoq \izyaq IdparcK;.6 8 But i t i s wi th
C a r a c a l l a , as A b d e l M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b c o r r e c t ly p o i n t s o u t , t h a t
a q u i t e n e w i d e n t i f i c a t io n w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t a k e s p l a c e a s p a r t
o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y . C e r t a i n l y KoapoKpdxcop o c c u r s
fir st i n t h i s r e i g n . T h e o r i g i n o f t h e t e r m w a s u n d o u b t e d l y in M i t h r a -
i s m , b u t h e r e t h e r e f e r e n c e w a s t o a p l u r a l o f Koouoicpdxopeq, s e v e n
i n n u m b e r w h o c o n t r o l l e d t h e s e v e n p l a n e t s . I n c o n s e q u e n c e " H X i o q
b e c a m e t h e KoouoKpdxcop par excellence a n d s u p r e m e . B u t t h e i n s c r i p
t i o n d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e b a t h s o f C a r a c a l l a a n d p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 2 ,
read s i n i t s r e s to red fo rm : eiq Zeuq IdpocTuc; "HAaoq KoauoKpdxcop aveiicn-
x o q .6 9
T h u s w e h a v e a w i t n e s s t o a s y n c r e t i s m t h a t h a s a b s o r b e d n o t
o n l y M i t h r a i s m , b u t b o t h Z e u s a n d S a r a p i s i n t o t h e u n i v e r s a l i s m o f
Sol Invictus t h a t e m b r a c e s a ll d i v in i ti e s . M o r e o v e r t h e i d e n t if i c a ti o n
o f t h i s d i v i n i t y w i t h C a r a c a l l a is o f u t t e r m o s t i m p o r t a n t fo r t h e d e v e l
o p m e n t o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r b e g u n b y S e p t i m i u s
S e v e r u s a n d re a l i s e d b y C a r a c a l l a .
W e f in d m o r e o v e r , a s w i t h hi s f a t h e r , n o a t t e m p t t o i n v o k e I sis
s p e ci fi c al ly a s t h e c o n s o r t o f S a r a p i s a n d t o i d e n ti f y k i n g a n d q u e e n
( 1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 3 1 3 - 3 2 8 c i t e d i n F r e n d ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 3 2 7 a n d p . 3 4 4 ; A b d e l M o h s e n e l
K h a c h a b , 6 KocpdKaA.A£><; K o a p o K p d x c o p , in JJEgArch, 4 7 ( 1 9 61 ) , p p . 1 1 9 - 1 3 3 ; S H A
Caracalla, 9 , 1 0 ; BMC 5 , c x x x i i i a n d CAH x ii 3 5 6 - 3 5 7 ; S e e a l s o J . R e v i l l e, La reli
gion a Rome sous les Severes, (P ar is : L e r o u x 1 8 8 6 ), p p . 3 0 - 3 5 , 2 1 0 - 2 8 3 .6 5 A b d e l M o h s e n el K h a c h a b ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 1 2 5 .6 6 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 1 7 .
6 7 A b d e l M o h s e n el K h a c h a b ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 1 2 7 .H 8 C u m o n t a n d C a n e t ( 1 91 9 ) , p p . 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 .6 9 C u m o n t ( 1 91 9 ), p p . 3 1 3 - 3 1 6 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 7 1
f or p r o m i n e n t m e n , " b u t s h e still r a t h e r c o n d u c t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s
c u s s i o n w i t h t h e m (aXk* r\ uev K a i uexa xouxcov exi \ iaXkov ecpiAoaotpei)."73
Certa in ly her ro le in these d i scuss ions was no t a pass ive one . Ph i los t ra tus
d e s c r i b e s h o w h e is i n s t r u c t e d , a s a m e m b e r o f t h e c ir c le a r o u n d
h e r (ue xe^ ovx i 8 e uo i xou rcepi ccuxrjv KUKAOU), to c o rr e c t (uexaypdxj/a i)
th e d o c u m e n t s of m e m o ir s (xdq SeXxouq xSv urcouvrjudxcov) of th e li fe
o f A p o l l o n i us o f T y a n n a .7 4
I t is w i t h a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l
a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l life o f t h e S e v e r a n a g e , i n w h i c h J u l i a D o m n a a n d
i n d e e d h e r n i e c e J u l i a M a m a e a a f te r h e r h a d s u c h i n t e r e s t , a n d its
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y , w i t h w h i c h w e m u s t n o w b e
c o n c e r n e d .
P A R T B . P A G A N O N T O L O G I E S : G N O S T I C IS M A N D N E O P L A T O N I S M
W e m u s t n o w r e t r a c e o u r s t e p s f r o m t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y u n t i l
t h e t h i r d in o r d e r to u n r a v e l t h e r e v o l u t i o n i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u
l a t i o n t h a t p a r a l l e l e d t h e S e v e r a n r e v o l u t i o n in t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a n dt h e o l o g y of t h e e m p e r o r ' s d i v in i t y . W e s a w i n C h a p t e r 2 t h e r e l a
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S t o i c o n t o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l o r d e r a s r e f l e c t e d i n
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . S t o i c is m le g i t i m a t e d a u g u r y (2 A 2 ), a n d A u g u s t u s '
a u g u r a l a c t h a d p r o d u c e d t h e pax deorum w h i c h o l d e r, R e p u b l i c a n
r e l i g i o n h a d fa i le d t o s e c u r e ( 2A 3 ) . I m p e r i a l o r d e r , a s L u c a n h a d
ex p r es s ed i t , w as b u t t h e r e s to ra t i o n o f 6p06<; Xoyoq f r o m a natura
discors ( 2 A 4 ). G n o s t i c i s m d e v e l o p e d s o m e o f its c e n t r a l t h e m e s i no p p o s i t i o n t o S t o i c i s m , a n d s o m e o f t h o s e t h e m e s w e r e n e g a t e d b y
N e o p l a t o n i s m . I t is t o t h e a n a l y s is o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t w e
n o w t u r n .
7B 1 . Stoic monism, Platonic dualism, and Gnosticism
A s o c i o lo g y o f k n o w l e d g e o f a n y s y s te m o f i d e a s e x a m i n e s h o w s u c h
s y s t em s s h a p e , r ef le c t a n d m a i n t a i n s o c ia l o r d e r . W e n e e d n o t h e r e
e n t e r i n t o t h e c o m p l e x p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u ss i o n o f w h e t h e r a ll r e a l
i ty is s o ci al ly c o n s t r u c t e d i n a w a y t h a t p r e c l u d e s a n y t r a n s c e n d e n
t a l ( i n t h e s en se o f c ro s s cu l tu ra l ) l o g i c g o v e rn in g c l a im s to t ru th . A t
v e r y l e a s t , w e c a n m a i n t a i n t h a t s o c i a l o r d e r reflects e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l
73
Ibid. 7 8 , 3 .7 4 P h i l o s t r a t u s , Vita Apollon., 3 .
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272 CHAPTER SEVEN
order without also maintaining that social order totally conditions epis-
temological order.
T h e social cons truc tion of reality tha t was cre ate d an d ma in ta in ed
by a Stoic world view ordered the ideology of imperial society in
the first and second centuries. Nature and society were one in a Stoic
mon is m in wh ic h t he taSyoq 8V8KX0£TO<; permeated all things which it
bound together into a rational and harmonious whole. Ultimate real
ity was not to be found be yo nd n at ur e or society in some form of
Platonic duali sm. Ult imat e reality, giving pu rpo se a nd design to the
universe, was to be found indissolubly bound up with matter in the
Stoic pan the ism . Th us the metaphysic al coun te rpa rt of the im perial
ideal found expressio n in Stoic mo ni sm . A cos mop oli tan em pi re
embraced all lesser societies in a rational imperial order that gave
them unity and purpose. The individual had no free destiny of his
own, but Fata could determine all things according to the providentia,
eiuapuevr), or rcpovoia of the Xoyoq evSidGeioq. Thus the freedom of
the individual was denied by the rational purpose of the whole, and
individual purpose dissolved into the purpose of the universe as a
whole. The consuls or the emperor, performing their political func
tions on the one hand, would reduce to order a turbulent populace,
and performing their religious ones on the other would through the
auspicia set right a disturbed nature by securing through the state's
religious rites the pax deorum.
Such a collectivist view of h u m a n significance an d destiny ha d
how eve r be en chall enged from Augus tus ' time onwa rd s, as we shall
no w see, by an intens e interest in pe rsona l immor ta lit y. Suc h an
interest itself represented the resistance of the individual against being
assigned an ident ity tha t only had me an ing as pa r t of a collectivist
whole. There is a possible sociological explanation of this interest in
the Principate itself. In a post-Republican age in which all political
alternatives to military autocracy had been ruled out by the per
ceived necessity of Tacitus' pax et princeps, the minds of individuals
sought refuge in the in ne r life. T h e ques t for h u m a n significance
was in the form of th e ques t for per sona l salvation. We t ur n the re
fore firstly to a consideration of some representative expressions of
the quest for personal salvation that initially challenged the collec
tivist imperial idea but which in Plotinus were finally to be recon
ciled with it.
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PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MONARCHIANISM 273
7B 1.1. Individual immortality and the Gnostic quest
T h e belief in pers onal a nd individual immortal ity is pe rh aps the m ost
unambiguous social indicator of the existence of a belief in individ
ual fre edom, an d, indeed, the ult ima te significance of the ind ividual
against the social group. The individual soul, according to both
Cle ant hes and Chrys ipp us, survived dea th, but it wou ld not survive
the eK7it)pcoai(; or universal conflagration.7 5
All matter, which is, accord
ing to the Stoic mo ni sm , simply a modif ication of the refined pn eu
matic substance of the ultimate divine being, would return to its
divine source and therefore cease to exist even in limited indepen
dence .7 6
Personal immortality was therefore relative.
It is interesting to not e that Stoicism's sub ord ina ti on of personal
immortality to the unity of the cosmic whole reflected what we can
deduce about faith in personal immortality at the time of the late
republic and early empire from epigraphic and other evidence. We
can see in the iconography of the Vatican Mausolea expressions of
a religious response to the denial of religious individualism.
7B 1.2. Individual immortality: the art of the Vatican Mausolea
As To yn be e and Perkins poin ted out in .t hei r mo nu me nt al study of
the icon ogr aphy of the excavated Vati can mausole a, the traditional
funerary inscription, Dis Manibus, reflected an earlier view, shared
also by the early Greek mystery religions, that the soul shed at death
its per sonal characteristics to be co me re abs orb ed into the half-divine
(Di), half hu ma n, amor pho us shades (Manes).77
But from abou t the mi dd le of the first cen tu ry B.C. we find clear
definition given to the individual soul after death, as in Cicero's
Somnium Scipionis, where Africanus, dwelling amongst the blessed dead
in the Milky Way, "revealed himself to me (se ostendit mihi) in that
shape (ea forma) bet te r kn ow n to me from his po rt ra it than from his
person (ex imagine eius quam ex ipso erat notior)."78
Along with Vergil's
descript ion of the un der worl d in Aeneid 6, this unconditioned view
of per sonal immorta lit y repla ced tha t expressed in CIL 6, 4, 29609
(cinis sum, cinis terra est, terra dea est, ergo mortua non sum), which was
7 5
Diogenes Laertius, Succ. 7, 1156-157.7 6
Plutarch, De Comm. Motit. 36,5.
7 7 J. Toynbee, and J. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations,
( L o n d o n : Longmans Green 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 109-117.7 8
Cicero, De Rep. 6,10 quoted Toynbee and Ward Perkins ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 110.
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2 7 4 C H A P T E R S E V E N
f a r c l o s e r t o a m o r p h o u s s u r v i v a l w i t h n o c l e a r l y d e f i n e d p e r s o n h o o d
a m o n g s t t h e Di Manes.
T o y n b e e a n d W a r d P e r k i n s w e r e t h e n a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t su c h i m a g e s
f r o m t h e m y t h s o f D i o n y s i u s o r o f N e p t u n e , r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e d e c
o r a t i o n s o n s a r c o p h a g i o r i n f r e s c o e s o n t o m b s t h e m s e l v e s , a s e x p r e s
s io n s o f t h e h o p e o f u n q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y . T h e d e p i c t i o n
o f M a r c i u s H e r m e s o r M a r c i a F e l i c it a s is o f t h e e s s e n t i a l s elf t h a t
s u rv iv e s d e a t h . T h e p r e s e n c e of H e r m e s o n t h e P e r s e p h o n e M o s a i c
s h o w s t h a t t h e m y t h h a s b e c o m e a l l e g o r is e d a s t h e s o ul 's j o u r n e y t o
t h e u n d e r w o r l d a n d i ts r e b i r t h t o e t e r n a l l i f e .7 9
H e r m e s i s d e p i c t e d
h o l d i n g t h e w a n d t h a t r e v e a l s h i m t o b e psychopomos: he ra i ses sou ls
i n H a d e s f r o m t h e i r s l u m b e r .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f G n o s t i c m y t h o l o g y a ls o r ef le c ts t h is p r o c e s s
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s a t i o n o f t h e a m o r p h o u s w o r l d s o u l , t o w h i c h i n d i
v i d u a l s o u l s d o n o t s i m p l y r e t u r n i n o r d e r t o o b l i t e r a t e t h e i r i n d i
v id u a l i t y , b u t r a th e r t o r ea l i ze i t m o re fu l l y .
7B 1.3. Gn osticism a s a rejection of political collectivism
I n G n o s t i c i s m t h e u n i v e r s a l w o r l d s o u l o f S t o i c i s m is f r a g m e n t e d a n d
b e c o m e s e m b o d i e d a n d i m p r i s o n e d i n i n d iv i d u al s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
p r o c e s s b y w h i c h t h i s c o m e s a b o u t is n o t o n e o f t h e d i v i n e o r d e r o f
a c r e a t e d w o r l d i n w h i c h o p G o q Xoyoq finds its e m b o d i m e n t . C r e a t i o n
is a d i s a s t e r . I t is S o p h i a c a s t o u t o f t h e P l e r o m a w h o c r e a t e s
I a l d a b a o t h o r t h e D e m i u r g e , a n d w h o h o l d s t h e so u ls o f t h e pneu-
matikoi i n b o n d a g e t o t h e i r r a t i o n a l a n d p r e v e n t s t h e i r a s c e n s i o n t o
t h e u n i t y o f t h e P l e r o m a . 8 0
I n t e r p r e t e d w i t h i n a s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e p e r s p e c t i v e , G n o s t i c
m e t a p h y s i c s d e n i e s t h e g o o d n e s s o r r a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e a l
a n d o p p o s e s t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o t h e i m p e r i a l w h o l e .
S o u l s a r e i m p r e g n a t e d i n t o m a t t e r b y S o p h i a w h e r e t h e y a r e i m p r i s
o n e d b y t h e D e m i u r g e w h o s e b e l ie f t h a t h e is t h e so le c r e a t o r o f a
r a t i o n a l a n d g o o d o r d e r is i ll u si o n a n d t h e r e f o r e e r r o r . M e t a p h y s i c a l
s t a n c e w a s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h a t t h e pneumatikoi
e x p e r i e n c e d e c s t a s y s o t h a t a t l e a s t s o m e G n o s t i c a s s e m b l i e s w e r e
c h a r i s m a t i c a n d p r o p h e t i c .8 1
I t w a s a s w e a r g u e d a g a i n s t a n e a r l y
7 9 T o y n b e e a n d W a r d P er k in s ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 1 7 .8 0 S e e e .g . H y p o s t a s i s o f t h e A r c h o n s , I I, 9 5 - 9 7 , in Nag Hammadi Library in English,
( E d .) J . M . R o b i n s o n , ( L e i d e n : B r il l 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 1 6 8 .8 1 G . F i l o r a m o , A H istory of Gnosticism. ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 9 0 ) , c h a p t e r 1 1 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I SM 2 7 5
c h a r i s m a t i c g r o u p t h a t C l e m e n t o f R o m e a d d r e s s e d his c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f C h u r c h O r d e r as a C h r i s t i a n i s e d v e rs i o n o f i m p e r
i a l O r d e r ( 4 B 3 ) .
W e s h al l n o w se e h o w t h e l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n
H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y r e p r e s e n t c h a n g e s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p a g a n e m p i r e . W e s h a l l t h e n b e i n a p o s i
t i o n , i n P a r t C , t o t r a c e h o w s u c h c h a n g e s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e
n o t w i t h o u t effect in s h a p i n g t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h
O r d e r , a s t h e l a t t e r i n t e r a c t e d in t e r m s o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e s p o n s e
t o t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g p a g a n c u l tu r a l a m b i e n c e .
7 B 2 . Plotinus, the One: imperial unity as S o l I n v i c t u s
T h e n e e d f or R o m a n s o c ie t y t o a d d r e s s t h is a l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f s o c ia l r e a l i ty t h a t t h r e a t e n e d t o n i h i l a t e its c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e g o o d
n e s s a n d r a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e a l , c l e a r l y p r e d a t e d t h e rise
o f N e o p l a t o n i s m , a t l e a s t i n its f in a l d e v e l o p m e n t b y P l o t i n u s ( A . D .
2 0 4 - 2 7 0 ) . I n d e e d b o t h A m m o n i u s S a c c a s , P l o t in u s ' t e a c h e r ,8 2
C l e m e n to f A l e x a n d r i a , I r e n a e u s , a n d P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s a ll r e fl ec te d a c o m
m o n i n t e l l e c t u a l s t r a t e g y o f r e d u c i n g t h e c h a o s o f a e o n i c c o n f li c t a n d
s tr if e b y m e a n s o f a m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r t h a t w a s t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o
t h e s o c i a l o r d e r t h a t t h e y s u p p o r t e d w h e t h e r i n C h u r c h o r i n S t a t e .8 3
Plo t in u s w as t o r e p r e s en t t h e fina l n ih i l a t i o n o f a p lu ra l i t y o f o r ig i
n a t o r s (d px ov xe q) a s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d w h e n h e i n s is ts
o n o n ly t h re e o r ig in s (dpxoci) o r first p r in c ip l e s , n a m e l y t h e O n e ,M i n d , a n d S o u l :
It is unn ec es sa ry to go in se ar ch for d ifferent origin s (e<p' etepa<; dpx aq
ievai) but ra ther to have es tabl ished th is One, and then af ter the One
(TO " E V ) , T h o u g h t (Nofcv), which the One conceived first by thinking
(UET' a\)To K a i TO voovv Tcparcooq), then af ter Thought , Soul (efra ^ a ^ v
ueTa Nouv), for this is the order of Nature (avTrj y a p xa^iq Kaxa <pt>aiv).
No more than these nor fewer are to be found in the intell igible world(EV TCp VOT|TCp).
Enneads I I , 9 ,1 ,13 -16
8 2
P o r p h y r y , Vit. Plotin., 3 , 1 3 - 1 6 .8 3 A . B r e n t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e R o m a n C h u r c h i n t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e s
in T e n s i o n b e fo r e t h e E m e r g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , i n Suppl. VCh. 31 ( L e i d e n :E J . Bri l l 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 4 9 2 - 5 0 1 ; Idem. T h e C i r c l e o f J u l i a D o m n a a n d C h r i s t i a n
H e r e s i o l o g y , StEphAug 5 0 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 2 3 7 - 2 4 8 .
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2 7 6 C H A P T E R S E V E N
B u t t h e s e dp^ ou a r e li n k e d i n a n u n b r o k e n c h a i n o f b e i n g . T h e i r
d i v e r g e n c e is d u e o n l y t o t h e s e c o n d a r y c h a r a c t e r o f N o uq a n d ^Fu^ri
a s p a r t o f a c h a i n o f b e i n g , d e r i v a t i v e f r o m t h e u l t i m a t e O n e a s it s
f i r s t b e g i n n i n g . T h e i r " g e n e r a t i o n " d o e s n o t r e s u l t i n t h e i r p o s s e s s
i n g d i f fe r e n t n a t u r e s .
W e m a y t h u s r e g a r d t h e r is e o f P l o t i n i a n N e o - P l a t o n i s m a s a
s y m p t o m r a t h e r t h a n a c a u s e o f a f u n d a m e n t a l sh ift i n i n t e ll e c t u a l
p e r s p e c t i v e i n t e r m s o f w h i c h s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s t h e c o s m o s w a s n o w
t o b e u n d e r s t o o d . T h a t p e r s p e c t i v e w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y G n o s t i c i s m i n
th e s en se o f a r ea c t iv e i n f lu en c e . G n o s t i c i sm h a d fed o ff t h e r i s e o f
i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t f r a g m e n t e d t h e w o r l d - s o u l o f S t o i c is m a n d t h u s
d e p r i v e d t h a t p h i l o s o h p y o f i ts a b i l i ty t o c r e a t e a s o c i a l r e a l i t y t h a t
l e g i t i m a t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l u n i t y o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e a l . T h e q u e s t f or
p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y it se lf c o u l d b e r e a d a s t h e in d i v i d u a l s e e k i n g
re fu g e in t h e i n n e r lif e a n d it s h o p e s an d p o s s ib i li t i e s w h e n a l l so c i a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s w e r e c l o s e d b y a s e e m i n g l y " i n e v i t a b l e " m i l
i t a r y a u t o c r a c y t o w h i c h t h e r e w e r e n o re a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a l t e r n a
t ives . N e o p l a t o n i s m , i n its e m p h a s i s o n a n i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t l e a d
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o u n i t y w i t h t h e o r i g i n o r dpxf| o f a l l O r d e r , p o l i t i
c a l o r c o s m i c , t h u s s o u g h t t o r e s t o r e a r e c o n s t r u c t e d i m p e r i a l i d e a l .
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p o l i t ic a l
i d e o l o g y o f divi Augusti d e v e l o p e d u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s i n t o a s y n
c r e t i s t i c r e l i g i o u s u n i v e r s a l i s m e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f Sol Invictus t h a t
e m b r a c e d I s is a n d S a r a p i s a n d t h e i r l e g i t i m a t i o n s o f p o l i ti c a l p o w e r
t h r o u g h t h e i r i n c a r n a t i o n in E g y p t i a n k i ng s a n d q u e e n s . C a r a c a l l a
a s KoauoKpdxcop w a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Sol Invictus t o w h o m J u p i t e r -
S a r a p i s h a d g i v e n t h e g l o b e o f t h e w o r l d a s a s y m b o l o f Aeternitas.M
T h e r e w e r e g o o d P l a t o n i c r e a s o n s , w h i c h N e o p l a t o n i s m w a s t o
d e v e l o p , f or u s i n g t h e S u n a s a n i c o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f
r e a l i t y . A s a s y m b o l o f u n i v e r s a l i s m t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e S u n c o u l d
i n c o r p o r a t e i n t o a s i n gl e s y n c r e t i s ti c p a n t h e o n t h e a t t r i b u t e s a n d
v i r t u e s o f t h e m a j o r d e i t i e s o f t h e E m p i r e b o t h E a s t a n d W e s t , j u s t
a s t h e s u n ' s l ig h t u n i t e s t h e d i s p a r a t e o b j e c t s o f t h e p h e n o m e n a l
w o r l d i n t o a n i n t e l l i g i b l e w h o l e . P l o t i n u s d e v e l o p e d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n
t h e m e of t h e first u n m o v e d m o v e r t h a t is t h e h i g h e s t G o o d :
The sun too is a model (Kai rcapd8evyua 6 ti^ioq) since it is like a cen
tre in relation to the light (coarcep K a i K e v x p o v oiW rcpoq xo (pcbq) i t comes
A b d el M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b ( 19 6 1 ) , p p . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 .
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P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 277
from and it depends on it ( a v T i p i n u i v o v npbq auxov); for the light is
everywhere with it and is not cut off from it (rcavxaxou youv p.ex' auxou
Kai O U K d7coxexpT|xai); even if you want to cut it off on one side (mv
drcoxeueiv e9eA,fi<xn<; zni 0dxepa), the light remains with the sun (npbq xovr\k\6v eaxi xo cpcbq). And how is everything else directed towards it (xd
6k aXka rcdvxa npbq auxo Tccbq;)? Soulless things are directed towards soul
(il xd pev d\|/uxa 7tp6<; V| /U% TIV) and soul to the Good through the intel
lect (VJ/UXTI 5e 7cp6<; amb 8id vov).
Enneads 1,7,1,25-2,1-3.8 5
We find the social reality of the imperial ideal here reflected in onto
logy, in which the imperial centre moves the whole which depends
on it for its unity and purpose. The development of concepts of
political order, philosophical theology, and religious syncretism are
thus proceeding pari-passu. But Plotinus was not without his second
an d early third cent ury ant ece den ts, some of whom we will now
examine.
7B 3. Plotinus' predecessors: Apuleius and Plutarch
Plotinus was the product of a cultural milieu obsessed with the con
struction of order in any sphere, history, nature, society or philoso
phy, in terms of reality and goodness granted by a process of derivation
from an ultimate origin. We shall examine specifically the Platonising
of Aristode's first un mo ve d M ov er in Apuleius ' De Mundo, written
ar oun d A. D. 140, an d Plutarch' s Platonic justificat ion for the Isis
myth (circ. A. D. 104). In the fo rmer we shall no te specifically an
assimilation of ontologica l structure with political struct ure . Here was
not simply the seed-bed from which the Neoplatonism of Plotinus
was to grow, bu t also the just ification for th e religious syncret ism
unit ed into a solar mo no th ei sm of whic h imperia l po we r was the
political expression.
7B 3.1. Plotinus' predecessors: uovap%{oc and the De Mundo
Pe te rson followed Jaeger in stressing the origins of the ter m uovapxiot
in Aristode's Metaphysics 14. Clearly dpxr| me an s bo th "ru le" and "first
principle," and thus unites political philosophy with ontology. Peterson's
further ex amp le of the relati onship between onto logy and political
ideology came from the pseudepigraphic Aristotelian text De Mundo?6
8 5
See a l s o 11 ,3 ,18: eax; av f) Ti^ioq, i ca v x a xa an ax>xox> (pcbxa.8
" P e t e r s o n ( 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 1 6 - 1 7 .
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2 7 8 C H A P T E R S E V E N
T h i s t e x t is o f g r e a t s ig n i f ic a n c e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
b a c k g r o u n d i n w h i c h , a s i n P l o t i n u s , A r i s t o t l e 's u n m o v e d m o v e r h a s
b e e n s y n t h e s i s e d w i t h t h e N e o p l a t o n i c O n e . I n d e e d , t h i s p s e u d e p i -
g r a p h i c w o r k h a s a r g u a b l y A p u l e i u s a s i ts t r u e a u t h o r , a n d t h u s its
d a t e w o u l d b e a b o u t A . D . 1 4 0 , A p u l e i u s h a v i n g b e e n b o r n a r o u n d
A . D . 1 2 5 .8 7 I n c h a p t e r 6 t h e a u t h o r as ks h o w G o d as t h e u n m o v e d
f irs t p r i n c i p l e c a n m o v e t h e w o r l d . H e b e g i n s w i t h t h e g o o d P l a t o n i c
p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l n a t u r e o f a n y t h i n g is n o t s elf -s uf fi cie nt
(ou8epia 8e cpuaiq ami] KCC6' eauxr |v eaxiv a\)xdpKr|<;) a n d is d e p r i v e d o f
th e m e a n s of i ts o w n p r e s e r v a ti o n (eprjpcoGeioa xfjq eic xouxou acoxrj-
piaq). G o d is t h e r e f o r e " t h e P r e s e r v e r o f a ll t h i n g s t h a t r e a l l y e xi st
(Icoxf |p pev y a p ovxcoq drcdvxcov eaxl) a n d th e B e g e t t e r of a l l th in g s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d i n w h a t e v e r w a y t h e y a r e c o m p o s e d (Kal yevexcop
xcov O7ccoa8r|7coxe m x d x o v 8 e xov KOOUOV auvxeAxvopevcov 6 6e6q; De Mundo
6 , 2 0 - 2 2 ) . "
B u t h o w is G o d t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s m o v i n g t h e w o r l d if m a t t e r
is e t e r n a l ? G o d , a s A r i s t o d e h a d a r g u e d , c o u l d n o t a c t u p o n t h e
w o r l d a s a n ef fi ci en t c a u s e . T h e a u t h o r t h e r e f o r e a s s u r e s u s t h a t G o d
" d o e s n o t e n d u r e w e a r i n e s s l i k e a l i v i n g t h i n g t h a t w o r k s b y i t s o w n
labour and to i l (ou \ri\v auxoupyou Kai eninovov ^coou K apax ov imopevcov)."
G o d r a t h e r " u s e s a n u n f a i l i n g p o t e n c y (aXXa Suvdpei xpcopevoq dxpuxcp)
t h r o u g h w h i c h h e b e c o m e s m a s t e r of e v e n t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h s e e m
fa r f ro m h i m (8 i' f|<; K al xcov rcoppco SOKOUVXCOV eivai rcepiywexai; 6, 397b
2 3 - 2 4 ) . "
B u t h o w is t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h a p o w e r o r p o t e n c y t o b e u n d e r
s t o o d ? A p u l e i u s h a s a l r e a d y b e g a n t o a n s w e r s u c h a q u e s t i o n b y
m e a n s o f a p o l i t i c a l a n a l o g y a s h i s m i n d c o n c e i v e s t h e o p e r a t i o n i n
te r m s of m a s te r y (xcov jcoppco SOKOVVXCOV e iv a i rcepiyivexai) . G o d oc cu
p i e s " th e h ig h es t an d f i r s t s ea t (xf|V pev ouv dvcoxdxco Kai rcpcoxnv eS pa v
auxoq e Xa ^e v) a n d , a s M o s t H i g h , is e n t h r o n e d o n t h e h i g h e s t s u m
m i t o f a l l h e a v e n (uoxaxoq xe . . . aKpoxaxn. Kopucpp xou ouprcavxoq e y m -
9 i8 p \) pe vo (; o u p a v o u ) . " A c c o r d i n g t o P l a t o , t h e i n a b i l i t y o f m a t t e r
t o r e fl e ct o r p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e F o r m s l e d to it s a m b i g u i t y a n d t o
i ts i n a b i l i ty t o b e k n o w n . B u t A p u l e i u s w i ll n o w l i k e n t h e d i s t a n c e
b e t w e e n o b je c t s a n d G o d a s t h e c a u s e o f a w e a k n e s s a n d i n c o m -
8 7
F o r a d i s c u s s i o n a n d f u l l b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e A . M a r c h e t t a , VAutmticita Apuleiana
del D e M u n d o , ( R o m e : J a p a d r e E d i t o r e L ' A q u i l a 1 9 9 1 ) cf. G . R e a l e a n d A . P . B o s ,II t r a t t a t o s ul C o s m o p e r A l e s s a n d r o a t t r i b u i t o a d A r i s t o t e l e , i n T e m i m e t a f is i c i e
p r o b l e m i d e l p e n s i e r o , i n Set 4 2 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 2 9 - 5 7 .
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280 CHAPTER SEVEN
The sharpest analogy used by Apuleius is of the sentinels with
light-signals:
So great is the order, (xoao\)xo<; 8e rjv 6 Koopoq) and most of all of the
signal lights (Kai pdA,iaxa xcov cppvKxcopicov) which are set alight in suc
cession (mxd 8ia5oxd<; Trupoevovxcov) by each other (aKk^Xoiq) from the
borders of the empire (EK rcepdxcov xf|<; dpxfj<;) to Susa and Ecbatana,
(pexpi XOTLKJCOV Kai 'EKpaxdvcov) so that the Great King gets to know the
same day every new occurence in Asia (coaxe xov PaaiAia yvyvcboKew
avOrjpepov Tidvxa xd ev xp' Aaia Kawovpyovpeva) .
De Mundo 6, 398a 31-35
God does not have need of others and so in this respect Apuleius
adm its tha t his anal ogy breaks do wn . But like a Mo n a r ch causi ng
his commands to be obeyed, his power executed his will because the
be in g wh o is pu re act can realise the po te nc y of all things in a ccord
ance with his design:
It is of greater awe and more fitting in dignity (aepvoxepov 8e Kai
rcperccoSeaxepov auxov pev) that God should have his throne in the high
est place (en! zr\q dvcoxdxco x«>Pa
$ !8p\)G0ai), but that his power, pene
trating throughout the whole universe (xrjv 8e Svvapw 8id xov o-uprcavxoq
Koapoi) 8ir |K0\)aav), should move the sun and moon (riA,iov xe Kiveiv Kai
ceA,f|vr|v) and rotate the whole heaven (mixov rcdvxa ovpavov rcepidyeiv),
and become the cause of preservation for the things on earth (ai'xiov
xe y(vea6ai xoiq erci xfjq yr\q acoxrjp(aq). God has no need of intervention
and aid which comes from others (ovSev ydp eTuxexvrioeax; 8ei Ka! bmr\pEGia<;
xfjq nap' exepcov) as with those who rule us require many hands (coarcep
zoiq Ttap' rjpiv dpxouai xf|<; rcoXuxeipiac;) because of their weakness (8id
xr|v doGeveiav), but this is the most divine property (aXXaxovxo fjv xo
Beioxaxov), to realise all kinds of Forms with ease and with simple
movement (xo pexd paaxcbvriq Ka! anXr\<; KWT|aeco<; rcavxoSarcdq drcoxeA,eiv
iSeaq). . .
De Mundo 6, 398b 6-14
We see, therefore, in the mid-second century, a clear reflection in
Apuleius ' De Mundo of an Aristotelian cosmology that produces a
theology that is highly an th ro po mo rp hi c. T h e result of the an th ro
pomorphism is to make Aristotle service a political philosophy that
ungesehen und verhullt wie der Spieler des Marionettentheaters. Sichtbar ist nur
d ie Macht (Svvapiq), die in der Welt wirksam ist, doch die Gewalt, die dahinter-
s t e h t , ist unsichtbar. Diese eben angedeuteten Verschiedenheiten sind nicht nur
darum lehrreich, weil sie Ausdruck einer anderen Zeit und einer anderen politi-
schen Situation sind, sondern weil sie zugleich zeigen, dass die letzte Formulierung
d e r Einheit eines metaphysischen Weltbildes von der Entscheidung fur eine der poli-
tischen Einheits-Moglichkeiten immer mit- und vorbestimmt ist."
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P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 281
celebrates an eastern imperial ideal. That ideal involves uovap%(a
justified in te rms of an ulti mate pri nciple in na tu re that gives cohe r
ence, movement, and finally, when suitably Platonised, reality to the
Wh ol e. Apule ius finds himself ma ki ng such Plato nisin g c om me nt s
when he envisages, as a result of the signal given by the unseen Ruler
and Progenitor, all nature "revealing one thousand Forms (p /upiaq
i8eaq dvacpaivouod) an d agai n con ceal ing th em (XE Kai naXw d r c o K p u r c -
xouaa) from the one first principle (EK \iiaq d p % f j < ; ) . "8 9 Such a Platonis
ing we find in Plotinus wh er e Plato 's ultimate ly real O n e in whi ch
the Forms are found has become identified with Aristode's first prin
ciple. Clearly the cultural background in which Plotinus and Neo-
Pl at on is m flourished was on e th at loo ked for an ep is temologica l
justifica tion of imper ial un ity.
W e shall take Plutar ch 's tr ea tm ent of the Isis my th as ou r s econd
ex ample of Hellenistic phil osop hy legitimat ing religious universalism.
7B 3.2. Plutarch's Platonism in De Iside et Osiride
There are no analogies between a Platonic ontology in the cosmos
and divine rulers on earth in this treatise. Indeed Plutarch was a
great sceptic regarding ruler-worship in his Life of Demetrius.90
Most
significantly, in his Romulus, he denied the literal truth of Romulus'
ass umpt ion into hea ven . How ev er , he was pr ep ar ed to conceive
that virtue could make the emperor divine so that the good ruler,
as the Living Logos (EUA|/UXO<; Xoyoq), wou ld incar na te vouoq on ea rth .
As he says:
For God punishes (vepeoa yap 6 0e6<;) those who imitate (xoiq drcoui-
uouuevoK;) thunders (ppovxdq) and lightning bolts (Kai Kepauvoix;) and
rays of the sun (Kai aKXwopoXia<;), but he is pleased with those who are
zealous for his virtue and make themselves like the good and humane
(xoix; 8e xqv dpexriv ^rjXouvxaq auxou Kai npbq xo KaXov Kai (piAdvGpamov
d<po|ioiouvxa<; eauxoix; Ti86|ievo<;).
Ad principem ineruditum 781 A, 3
"T h e ru ler is the imag e of Go d wh o orders the world (dp%cov 8 ' EIKWV
0EOU xou rcdvxa K o o u o u v x o q ) , " bu t only because "law is th e function of
89
De Mundo, 6, 3 9 9 a 3 0 - 3 5 : o x a v ouv 6 rcavxcov fyyen-cov xe K a i yevexcop , aopaxoq
GO V akXto nXr\v Xoyiouep , O T | | I T | V T I rcaofl (puoei uexa^i) oi )pavo\) xe Kai yr\<; (pepoueVp,
K i v e t x a i rcaaa ev8eA,excb<; ev K U K X O K ; Kai rcepaoiv i8 (oi< ;, rcoxe |iev a(pavi£ouevr | , rcoxe
8e (pa ivouevr i , \ivpiac, ibeaq & v a ( p a i v o \ ) a a xe K a i naXiv arcoKp\mxo'UGa E K ui&q dpxfj<;.9 0
P l u t a r c h , Demetrius, 1 0 , 2 - 4 ; 11,1; 12,1; and 1 3 , 1 - 2 cf. G. C h e s n u t , The R u l e r
a n d the L o g o s , in ANRW 1 1 , 1 6 , 2 , pp. 1 3 2 1 - 1 3 2 4 .
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282 C H A P T E R S E V E N
the ru ler (vopoq 8 ' dpxovxoq epyov)," and in turn "just ice is th e end of
law (8{KT| . . . vopou xekoq eox()."9 1
But in giving a cosmic significance
to Isis and Osiris in terms of a Platonic ontology he was unwittingly
participating in the movement that, some ninety years later, was to
lead to the place of Isis and Osiris in Severan universalism. His modi
fication of th e theology of ru le r-worship was no t to be successful.
Plutarch identifies Osiris with Sarapis as the consort of Isis. He
reads their na me s "bot h as belongi ng to one Go d an d to one p ower
(dpcpco 8' evoq 0eou K a i piaq Suvdpecoc;)."92
Plutarch however firmly held
that both Osiris and Isis had been originally purely mortal rulers,
albeit heroic ones, whom legend had exalted after their deaths. Yet
he will attribute significance to the Isis myth and cult as an allegory
of Platonist philos ophica l tru th.
The end of the religion of Isis is "the knowledge of the first and
sovere ign and intell igible god (f| xou rcpcoxorj K a i K u p i o u K a i VOTJXOU
yv&oxq) which the goddess (Isis) beseeches us to seek since he exists
beside her and associates with her (ov i\ 0e6<; rcapaKaA,ei i^nxeiv rcap'
avxf\ K a i pex' auxfjq ovxa K a i ouvovxa)." Her shrine, the Iseion, by its
very name, "promises both knowledge and understanding of what
exists (ercayyeA,A,exai K a i yvcbaiv K a i ei8r |aiv xov ovxoq)" since it is the
shrine of "thos e wh o know the real (eioopevcov xo 8v )."9 3
T h e creat ion and consti tut ion of the world for Plutarch is a mix
ture of opposing forces (pepeiypevn. ydp f| xou8e xot> KOGUOD yeveciq K a i
Gvcxaaiq e£ evavxicov). Fo r proper Platon ic rea sons however , all pow
ers ar e not equal , bu t final cont rol is with the bet te r (ov prjv ioooGevcov
8uvdpecov, aXka xr\q fiekxiovoq xo K p d x o q eaxiv). T h e bad (xr\v yavXr\v
8uvdpiv) "is always fighting agains t the be tt er ( K a i npbq xf|V peXxiova
dei 8uo|iaxot>oav)." T he r e is however a princip le of order , bo th in
the soul and in Nature when in harmony, and this is Intelligence
(vovq) and Reason (Xoyoq) as the Ruler (fiyepcov) and Sovereign (lc&pioq)
of all that is Good (xcov dpioxcov rcavxcov). T h a t pr incipl e of un iver
sal Order Plutarch identifies with Osiris as the soul of the world.
The order of the world is therefore "the efflux of Osiris (drcoppori)
and his reflected image ( K a i eiKcbv) ."9 4
91
Ad princip. inerudit. 780 E, 3.92
De Is. et Osir. 376 A, 61.9 3
Ibid. 352 A, 2.
94 Ibid. 371 A, 49: ev pev cuv ir\ \|ruxfi vo\)<; mi Xoyoq 6 xcov dp { ox( ov rcdvxcov Tjyepawm i i cupioq "Oaipiq eax iv , ev 8e yr\ mi 7ive\)uaxi mi \S8axi mi c u p a v c p mi ocoxpoi<; xo
x e x a y u e v o v mi m 0 ea x r | K6 < ; mi v y i a i v o v cSpaic; mi K p d o e o i mi rcepioSoic; 'Oa{pi8o<;
arcoppofi K
« i eikodv epcpa ivopevr | .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 8 3
I f O s i r i s is v o u q in y u x r i , f ro m w h e re h a s t h e b o d y o f t h e w o r ld
c o m e ? F o l l o w i n g t h e m y t h , w e c o u l d sa y t h a t i t c o m e s f r o m H o r u s
w h o is t h e o f f s p ri n g o f O s i r i s a n d I s is , a l t h o u g h o f t en P l u t a r c h s p e a k s
as i f th i s co u l d b e O s i r i s himself. 9 5
T y p h o n f r e qu e n d y d i s m e m b e r s
t h e b o d y o f O s i r i s , t h o u g h h i s s o u l , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e s o u l o f t h e
w o r l d , r e m a i n s in d e s t r u c t i b l e . I t is Is is w h o p u t s t h e d i s m e m b e r e d
b o d y b a c k t o g e t h e r a g a i n . P l u t a r c h a l l e g o r i s e s a s f o l l o w s :
Isis is in fact the female power of nature (r\ y d p?Iai<; eaxi pev T O xfjq
(puaecoq Qr\kv) and is receptive of every form of generation ( K a l 8£KTIK6V
drcdc?T)<; yeveaecoq), in accord with what she is called by Plato the gen-
de nurse and the all-receptive ( K a 9 6 xi8r|vr| K a i navdexftq vnb xou ntaxxcovoq),
and by most people she has been cal led coundess names (hub 8e xcov
rcoAAxov pupicovupoq KeK^xa i ) , since, because of the force of Reason,
she turns herself into this thing or that and is receptive of al l manner
of shape s an d forms (8id xo naoaq vnb xou Adyou xpErcopevii uopcpdq SexeoGai
Kai i8ea<;).
De hide et Osiride 372 E, 53
T h e w o r l d h e r e , s e e n u n d e r t h e a s p e c t o f I si s, r e c e i v e s t h e F o r m sfrom vouq o r Aoyoq th a t is L o r d O s i r i s .
A t a n o t h e r p o i n t , i n a m e t h o d t h a t p r o c e e d s b y a v a r i e t y o f a n a l o
g ie s a n d n o t b y a h e r m e n e u t i c t h a t is s y s t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y , Is is is
s een a s t h e m e a n s b y w h i ch th e v o u q o r Aoyoq is r e s to re d to a w o r ld
t h a t h a s b e c o m e d i s m e m b e r e d a n d c h a o t i c . I t is H o r u s , t h e i r m u t u a l
o f f sp r i ng , o n w h o m s h e i m p r e s s e d t h e e t e r n a l f o r m s o f t h i n g s a s h e
r e p r e s e n t s i n t h e a l l e g o r y m a t t e r t h a t c a n n o t m a i n t a i n i t s e t e r n i t y .
A s P l u t a r c h s a y s i n e x p l a n a t i o n o f I sis w a n d e r i n g to c o l le c t a n d
r e a s s e m b l e t h e d i s m e m b e r e d b o d y o f O s i r is :
. . . for that which real ly is an d is percep t ib le an d good (xo yd p ov K ai
vor|xov Kai dya06v) is far s tron ger th an d estruc tion a nd c ha ng e (cpGopaq
K a i pexapoATJq K p e tx x o v eaxiv). The images from it with which the sen
sible a n d co rp or ea l is im pre sse d (&<; 8 ' an avxov xo aiaOnxriv K a i a c o u a x i K o v
e i K o v a q e K p d x x e x a i ) , and the relations, forms and l ikenesses which this
9 5
I n 3 7 3 A , 5 4 w e a r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e w o r l d o r H o r u s OVK ai 'S ioq ot>8' anc&r\<;
ov>8' acpBapxoq , aXXy
ae iye vr iq cov b ut a ls o th at , in 3 7 4 E , 5 7 , |Lru9oA.oyoi)Oi TTJV
'Oa(pi8o<; \|/\)x?iv d( 8 io v e iv a i K ai dcpBapxov , xo 8e acoua noTCkaKiq S i a o j i a v K a i dcpavi^eiv
x o v T ix p cb v a . . . H o r u s w o u l d th e r e fo r e b e f r o m a P l a to n i c p o i n t o f v i e w , a far b e t
t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e w o r l d o f m a t t e r b e a r i n g t h e F o r m s b u t d i s m e m b e r e d b y
T y p h o n . B u t P l u t a r c h c o u l d n o t c h a n g e t o o a r b i t ra r i ly t h e m y t h i n f a v o u r o f h is
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y , a n d w a s e x p l o r i n g a n a l o g i e s r a t h e r t h a n e n g a g i n g i n sys t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y . S e e a l s o C . P a n a g o p o u l o s , V o c a b u l a i r e et m e n t a l i t e d a n s l e s
M o r a l i a d e P l u t a r q u e , i n Dialogues d'histoire ancienne 3 (= Annates Litteraires de I'Un iversite
de Besancon, 1 9 7 7 ), p p . 1 9 7 - 2 3 5 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R IS T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 8 5
in g o r d e r , li ke A r i s to d e ' s first p r in c ip l e , t h an P l a to o r ig in a l ly co n ce iv e d
h is t r a n s c e n d e n t w o r l d to b e . T h u s P l u t a r c h ' s r e fl e ct io n s i n t e r c o n n e c t
w i t h a r e li g io u s a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l c u l t u r e o u t o f w h i c h N e o p l a t o n i s m
w a s t o d e v e l o p , a n d w h i c h w a s t o r e p r e s e n t a l s o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
b a s is f or t h e S e v e r a n i c o n o g r a p h y o f d i v i n e i m p e r i a l o r d e r .
B u t h o w w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h C h u r c h O r d e r , a n d t h e
C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y t h a t w a s l i k e w i s e t o r e f l e c t s o c i a l o r d e r n o w t o
p r o c e e d ? W e s h a ll s ee t h a t t h e c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e d e v e l o p e d h e r e t o o
a s t h e r e v e r s e d i m a g e o f t h e p a g a n c u l t u r e t h a t i t c o n f r o n t e d .
P A R T C . S O C I A L O R D E R A N D TH E
D O C T R I N E O F T H E T R I N I T Y
P l u t a r c h h a d c l a i m e d t h e w i s e m e n o r aocpoi o f t h e h i s t o r y o f G r e e k
p h i lo so p h y a s wi tn es ses t o t h e r e l i g io n o f I s is , a n d i ts j u s t i fy in g o n to
l o g y . " T h e m o s t w i s e m e n o f t h e G r e e k s b e a r w i t n e s s ( u t t p x u p o u o w
8 e K a i xcov 'EXXr\v(ov o i a o(p cb xax oi), S o l o n , T h a l e s , P l a t o , E u d o x u s ,P y t h a g o r a s ( l o t a o v QaXr\c, IlAxxxcov EuS o^oq r i u B ay o p a q ). . . w h o c a m e
to E gy p t a n d c o n so r t ed w i t h t he i r p r ie s t s (e iq Aiyujcxov dqu icouevo i Kai
a u y y e v 6 | i e v o i x o i q i e p e u a w ) . "9 7
T h e r e w a s m o r e t o t h is c l a i m t h a n
s i m p l y a n a p p e a l t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a s t i n o r d e r t o s u b s t a n t i
a t e a r e l i g io u s c l a im .
T h e wo r ld o f t h e l a te s eco n d cen tu ry , o f I r en aeu s an d th e H ip p o ly t an
s c h o o l n o le ss t h a n H e l l e n i s t i c h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s s u c h a s D i o g e n e sL a e r t i u s o r P h i l o s t r a t u s i n h i s Vita Apollonii, w a s c o n c e r n e d e v e n
b e f o r e P l o t i n u s c a m e t o R o m e ( c. 2 4 4 A . D . ) w i t h t h e q u e s t f o r a
s in g l e h i s to r i ca l dpxf| f o r t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y o r t h e t r u e r e l i g i o n .
P l o t i n u s a n d e v e n A m m o n i u s S a c c a s c a n t h u s b e s e e n a s p r o d u c t s
o f t h e q u es t for a s in g l e dp%r| o rd e r i n g n o t o n l y t h e c o s m o s , b u t
h u m a n h i s to r y a n d h u m a n s oc ie ty . T h e m o s t v a li d p h i l o s o p h y o r
r e l i g i o n w i l l n o t s i m p l y b e t h e m o s t a n c i e n t , b u t t h e o n e f r o m w h i c ha ll o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i e s o r r e l i g io n s a r e d e r i v e d w h e t h e r a s lo g i c a l
d e v e l o p m e n t s o r a s l o gi c a l c o r r u p t i o n s .
B o t h D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s w e r e to d e n y P l u t a r c h ' s
c l a i m f o r E g y p t a s p r o v i d i n g i n I si s w o r s h i p , o r r a t h e r i n t h e o n t o
lo g y o f w h i ch i t w as an a l l eg o ry , t h e u l t im a t e h i s to r i ca l dp%r| o f p h i
l o s o p h y a s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f it s t r u t h . F o r D i o g e n e s p h i l o s o p h y h a d
1,7 Ibid. 3 5 4 E 1 0 .
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2 8 6 C H A P T E R S E V E N
to be a w h o l l y G r e e k p h e n o m e n o n and the oocpoi q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t
o f s u c h n o n - G r e e k i n f l u e n ce . For A p o l l o n i u s the E g y p t i a n s w e r e to
b e q u i t e u n w o r t h y and the t r u e dpxri was to be f o u n d in the I n d i a n
g y m n o s o p h i s t s . W e sh a l l sh o w a s i m i l a r c o n c e r n for the dpxri of the
C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y and its t h e o l o g y in e x p r e s s i o n s of the t h e o r y
o f the a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s i o n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e d the l a t e r s e c o n d an d
e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y (7C 1).
W e sh a ll s eek (7C 2) to p l a c e the t h e o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the
T r i n i t y , as f i n a l l y d e r iv ed f ro m a povapxioc or f i r s t p r in c ip l e , in the
c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t of the g r o w t h of a p a g a n , N e o p l a t o n i c o n t o
l o g y t h a t r e s t o r e d c o s m i c o r d e r in the f ace of the c h a o s of a G n o s t i c
w o r l d v i e w . T h e g r o w t h of C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , we s h a l l a r g u e , no
l ess re f lec ted the s o c i a l o r d e r of the C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y as had the
g r o w t h of a t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n of i m p e r i a l o r d e r .
7 C 1. I r e n a e u s a n d Pseudo-Hippolytus: 8 ia8oxou drcooToAxov
I r e n a e u s p r o d u c e d his ep i s co p a l su cces s io n l i s t for R o m e , a n d a r g u e d ,f ro m th i s one e x a m p l e , t h a t all v a l i d c h u r c h e s h a d v a l i d d o c t r i n e
t h a t u l t i m a t e l y was d e r i v e d f r o m the a p o s t l e or ap o s t l e s t h a t i n i t i
a t e d the s u c c e s s i o n . All h e r e s y was d e r i v e d f r o m the d o c t r i n e of
S i m o n M a g u s and his s u c c e s s o r s .9 8
T h e s e h a d 8 i a 8 o x a i or successiones
i n t e a c h i n g o f f i c e t h a t , d e s p i t e a p p a r e n t v a r i e t y a n d c o n f l i c t , m a d e
t h e m d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n d d e r i v e d fr o m t h is c o m m o n o r i g in . It was
insuff ic ient to s i m p l y a t t r i b u t e t h e i r o r i g i n to d i s t i n c t H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , t h o u g h t h i s was m o r e h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e . A s in
g l e o r i g i n t h a t was not a p o s t o l i c was e s s e n t i a l for the i n t e l l e c t u a l
c r e d i b i l i t y of an a r g u m e n t in the c o n t e x t of a c u l t u r e o b s e s s e d w i t h
so c i a l , cu l tu ra l , p o l i t i ca l an d o n t o l o g i c a l u n i t y .
P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s and his g r o u p w i t h i n t h a t c o l l e c t i o n of g r o u p s
t h a t f o r m e d the R o m a n EKKX^GIOL of the l a t e s e c o n d an d e a r l y t h i r d
c e n t u r y p u r s u e d an a r g u m e n t f o r m a l l y s i m i l a r to t h a t of I r e n a e u s . 9 9
B u t P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s p e r f e c t e d the m o r e e m b r y o n i c N e o - P l a to n i c
9 8 I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., 1,23, 1-2; II, Praef. 1: " . . . et p r o g e n i t o r i s i p s o r u m doc-
t r i n a m , S i m o n i s M a g i S a m a r i t a n i , et o m n i u m e o r u m , qui s u c c e s s e r u n t ei, m a n i f e s -
t a v i m u s . . . o m n e s a S i m o n e h a e r e ti c i i n i ti a s u m e n t e s . . . et d i f f e r e n t i a s i p s o r u m et
d o c t r i n a s et s u c c e s s i o n e s a d n o t a v i m u s . . ." Ill , Praef.: " A g r e s s i s u m u s a u t e m nos,
a r g u e n t e s eos a S i m o n e , p a t re o m n i u m h a e r e t i c o r u m , et d o c t r i n a s et s u c c e s s i o n e sm a n i f e s t a r e . . . "
9 9 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, c h a p t e r s 6 7.
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PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MONARCHIANISM 287
ar gu me nt of the latter tha t justified or refuted ideas in te rms of tr ac
ing their ultimate historical origin. Contrary to Irenaeus, the heretical
schools do not go back to Greek philosophy, as Simon Magus applied
it to Christianity, but to the Greek philosophers themselves, whose
ult ima te origin is in the snake wor sh ip of the Naasenes .
Plato erred when, according to Timaeus 22 b 4, he derived Solon's
teaching from an Egyptian priest. He did not inquire further for the
true dpxr| which he would have found to be the serpent-worship
characterising all pa ga n religion. Fu rt he rm or e the Hip pol yta n school,
in its ch ro no gr ap hi c concerns shar ed by Jul ius Africanus a nd des
tined to be continued by Eusebius, reflected the quest for an ulti
ma te origin by me an s of which the tea ching of Moses and Ab ra ha m
could be shown to be older than either Greek philosophy or pagan
religion and thus more real. This was the conclusion that the par
allel lists of Olympiads, Roman Consuls, Patriarchs etc. were intended
to establish.1 0 0
As such , the concerns of Chr is ti an writers such as Ir enaeus and
those of the Hi ppol yt an school reflected a hi sto riogr aph y that they
held in common with such imperial writers as Philostratus or even
Diog enes Laert ius, wh o formed p ar t of the circle of Ju li a Do mn a ,
to w ho m the former de dicat ed the Vita Apollonii shortly after her
de at h (A.D. 217). Philostratus is de te rm in ed to show tha t the ulti
ma te orig in of ph ilosophy is no t in Egypti an religion bu t in the
Indian gymnosophists. Laertius will deny such an extraneous origin,
and will argue instead that philosophy was a purely Greek phe
nomenon whose origin was in the golden age when the twelve wise
men lived.1 0 1
7C 1.1. Diogenes Laertius and philosophical origins
Laertius uses the concept of 8icc8oxf| to dem ons tr ate the cultural
puri ty of Hellenistic philo sophy, as does Pse udo-Hippo lytus regard
ing pur ity of or th od ox doctr ine ha nd ed do wn by those wh o s hare
in the teach ing and hie rocrat ic 8ioc8o%r| of bishops. In orde r to demon
strate the validity of conflicting schools of Gr ee k phi losophy, Laer tiu s
has to come to terms with the existence of basically four 8icc8o%a{,
1 0 0
A. Brent, Diogenes Laertius and the Apostolic Succession, in JEH 44,3 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ,
p p . 3 6 7 - 3 7 1 ; idem. ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p. 343; idem. ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, pp. 262-265;
4 9 3 - 4 9 5 .1 0 1
Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, pp. 238-240.
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2 8 8 C H A P T E R S E V E N
P l a t o n i s m , S t o i c is m , A r i s t o t e l i a n i sm , a n d E p i c u r e a n i s m . N o L a t i n
e x p o n e n t o f t h e s e w r i t e r s s u c h as S e n e c a , C i c e r o , o r L u c r e t i u s a r e
m e n t i o n e d o r s u m m a r i s e d . T h e f o u r 8 i a 8 o x o u e f f e c t i v e l y c o m e t o a n
e n d i n t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y f r o m t h a t
t i m e u n t i l D i o g e n e s ' o w n is t r e a t e d b y h i m a s a f in i sh e d p r o d u c t
t h a t c a n b e t a u g h t a n d a d m i r e d in a ll i ts u n c o n t a m i n a t e d H e l l e n i c
p u r i t y . B u t i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c u l t u r e t h a t w a s t o n u r t u r e a n a s c e n t
N e o - P l a t o n i s m , s u c h d i v e r s i t y a s f o u r 8 i a8 o % a { , w i t h n o a c c o u n t o f
th e i r e s s en t i a l u n i ty f ro m wh ich th ey co u ld b e h i s to r i ca l l y o r l o g i ca l l y
d e r i v e d , w a s h i g h l y u n s a t i s f a c to r y . A n d s o L a e r t i u s w a s t o m a k e a n
a l r e a d y h i g h l y a r t i f i c i a l a n d s c h e m a t i s e d a c c o u n t e v e n m o r e s o . 1 0 2
H e r e d u c e d t h e f o u r 8ioc8o% ai t o t w o d p ^ o u t h a t b e g a n t h e m , a n d
t h e s e t w o w e r e re s p e c t iv e l y t h e w o r k o f T h a l e s a n d P h e r e k y d e s . B u t
t h e n h e u s e s t h e l i t e r a r y d e v i c e o f e p i s t o l a r y p s e u d o n y m i t y t o u n if y
t h e v a r i o u s s e v e n , e l e v e n o r t w e l v e w i s e m e n , i n h a b i t i n g t h e Urzeit
o f G r e e k ci v il is a ti o n a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c o m b i n e d w i s d o m o f t h e
oocpoi of w h i c h th e cpiAxSaocpoi a r e cl ea rl y th e cpiAoi. T h a l e s w ri te s to
P h e r e k y d e s a n d vice versa.103 P h e r e k y d e s o n hi s d e a t h - b e d w r i t e s to
T h a l e s t h a t h e is s e n d i n g h i s w r i t i n g f o r t h e l a t t e r t o p u b l i s h i t " p r o
v i d e d t h a t y o u t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o t h e r w i s e m e n a p p r o v e o f i t (o u
8e r\v 8oici|LicboT|<; GUV xoiq aAAoiq oocpoiq) a n d n o t ot he rw is e (Succ. 1,122)."
T h e r e is t h u s s u g ge s te d a c o m m o n a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n T h a l e s a n d
P h e r e k y d e s a b o u t t h e i r w o r k t o w h i c h a ll t h e oocpoi c o n s e n t a s a n
e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e o n e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y . T h u s t h e p s e u d o n y m o u s lit
e r a r y d e v i c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t w o &p% ai a r e in a g r e e m e n t , a n d t h a t
a g r e e m e n t h a s it s u l t i m a t e h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n in t h e u n i t y e s t a b l i s h e d
b y t h e e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s b e t w e e n a l l t h e oocpoi i n t h e Urzeit o f
H e l l e n i s t i c c i v i l i s a t i o n .1 0 4
W e t h u s s ee a m o n g s t t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e c u r s o r s t o P l o t i n u s t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f a f ir m o n t o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a m o n g s t t h e
d i v e rs i ty o f p h e n o m e n a r e a l i ty m u s t b e , c o n t r a r y to S t o i c i s m , n o t a n
i m m a n e n t b u t a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l O n e . T h i s g e n e r a l a s s u m p t i o n , w h ils t
n o t a r t i c u l a t e d in t e r m s o f t h e p r e c i s e m e t a p h y s i c s o f N e o - P l a t o n i s m
b e f o r e P l o t i n u s , w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s re f l e c te d i n t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f
i d e a s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .
1 0 2 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 3 7 2 - 3 7 5 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 3 .103
Succ. 1, 4 3 - 4 4 a n d 1 2 2 .1 0 4 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 3 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p p . 3 7 2 3 7 6 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 8 9
7 C 1 . 2 . Historiography w ithin the circle of Julia Dom na
W e saw (7 A 2 .3) t h a t Ju l i a D o m n a , a s fj (piXooocpoq, fo u n d e d a p h i lo
s o p h i c c ir c le t h a t p r o d u c e d a n i d e o l o g y t h a t j u s ti f ie d t h e S e v e r a n
R e f o r m a t i o n . S u c h a n i d e o l o g y w a s p r o p a g a t e d b y t h e i c o n o g r a p h y
o f Sol Invictus a n d KoouoicpaTCGp, i n w h i c h a u n i v e r s a l r e l i g i o u s s y n
c r e t i s m c o u l d j u s ti f y t h e g o a l o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y e m b r a c i n g t h e d i v e r s e
c u l t u r e s o f t h e e m p i r e .
W e n o w s e e t h a t h e r s c h o o l w a s i n t e r e s t e d n o t s i m p l y i n a c o s
m ic u o v ccpx ia b u t a h i s to r i ca l uovocpxicc t o o . D i o g en es L ae r t i u s a n d
P h i l o s t r a t u s , o n t h e p a g a n s i d e , t h e f o r m e r a m e m b e r o f t h e c i r c le
o f J u l i a D o m n a a l m o s t a s c e r t a i n l y a s t h e l a t t e r , p r o d u c e d i ff e re n t
a n s w e r s t o t h e i r c o m m o n q u e s t f or t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y a s t h e h i s
t o r i c a l ly o r i g i n a l p h i l o s o p h y f r o m w h i c h al l o t h e r s a r e d e r i v a t i v e
r e f l e c t i o n s . T h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t a b o u t t h e m e t h o d o f d e t e r
m i n i n g w h a t is o f u l t i m a t e v a l u e b u t s i m p l y a n d s u b s t a n t i v e l y w h a t
is t h e p a r t i c u l a r o r ig i n o f u l t i m a t e p h i l o s o p h y u n d i l u t e d b y d i m i n
i s h i n g r e f le c t io n a n d d e r i v a t i o n .1 0 5
D i o g e n e s a n s w e r e d t h a t p h i l o s o p h y d e r i v e s f r o m t h e oocpoi o f t h e
g o l d e n a g e o f H e l l e n i s t ic c u l t u r e , w h o s e t e s t i m o n y w a s o f o n e p h e n o
m e n o n v o u c h s a f e d b y t h e i r e p i st o la r y e x c h a n g e s a n d a g r e e m e n t s .
P h i l o s t r a t u s h a s , a l s o f r o m w i t h i n i n t h e c i rc l e o f J u l i a D o m n a , r e p l i e d
t h a t t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y w a s f r o m t h e I n d i a n g y m n o s o p h i s t s a n d
n o t f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s t t o w h o m P l a t o a t t r i b u t e s h is p h i l o s o
p h y i n t h e Timaeus. P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s , w h o a d d r e s s e d o n e w o r k o n
t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n t o J u l i a M a m a e a a n d a n o t h e r to a c e r t a i n S e v e r i n a ,
m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n , l i k e t h e C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r a n d a r c h i t e c t o f t h e
P a n t h e o n , J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s , a C h r i s t i a n m e m b e r o f t h a t c i r c l e .1 0 6
P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s t o o is a w a r e t h a t P l a t o i n Timaeus d e r iv es h i s
p h i l o s o p h y f r om a n E g y p t i a n p r i e st w h i c h i n t u r n h e h a s n o w d e r i v e d
f r o m t h e u n i v e r s a l p a g a n r e l i g i o n , r e f l e c t e d i n e v e r y p a g a n c u l t , t h e
s n a k e w o r s h i p o f t h e N a a s e n e s .1 0 7
T h e t ru e te s t fo r v a l i d i t y o f d o c t r i n e
is its u l t i m a t e d e r i v a t i o n f r o m t h e a p o s tl e s t h r o u g h a n u n c o r r u p t e d
s u c c e s s i o n o f t e a c h e r s . I n t h is r e s p e c t P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s is c l o s e r t o
D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s t h a n t o P h i l o s t r a t u s . B o t h a g r e e o n a g o l d e n a g e
o f u n c o n t a m i n a t e d t r u t h b y t w e l v e oocpoi o r tw e l v e a p o s t l e s , b e f o r e
1 0 5 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p p . 2 3 7 - 2 4 8 .1 0 6 M . S o r d i , II C r i s t i a n e s i m o e R o m a , in Storia di Roma X I X , I s t it u t o d i S t u d i
R o m a n i , (B o l o g n a : C a p p e l l i 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 2 4 0 .1 0 7 P l a t o , Timaeus, 1 9 E 8 - 2 2 B 4 a n d B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) Hippolytus, p p . 2 6 2 - 2 6 5 .
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2 9 0 C H A P T E R S E V E N
e x t r a n e o u s a n d f or e ig n a c c r e t i o n s h a d s e t u p t h e i r c o u n t e r c l a i m s in
th e fo rm o f e i t h e r H e l l en i s t i c r e l i g io n ( fo r L a e r t i u s ) o r h e re sy (fo r
P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s ) . S u c h a q u e s t to l o c a t e t h e t r u e fa i th in a n u l t i
m a t e h i s to r i c a l o r i g i n a l s o , I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e , l a y b e h i n d t h e
e p is tl e o f P e t e r t o C l e m e n t a n d C l e m e n t to J a m e s in t h e C l e m e n t i n e
Homilies. T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i r e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s is f o r m a l l y s i m i
l a r t o t h a t o f T h a l e s a n d P h e r e k y d e s in D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s . T h e
P e t r i n e a n d J a c o b e a n t r a d i t i o n s a r e s h o w n b y t h is u s e o f t h e d e v i c e
o f p s e u d o n y m i t y t o c o n s t i tu t e a c o m m o n o r i g i n o r &p%f|.108
A M o n a r c h i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y a s w e ll a s a M o n a r c h i a n o n t o l o g y
w e r e b o t h p r e s e n t i n t h e c u l t u r a l s oil f r o m w h i c h N e o p l a t o n i s m w a s
t o g r o w a n d flourish. H i s t o r i o g r a p h y a n d o n t o l o g y b o t h c o n t r i b u t e d
f u n d a m e n t a l l y t o t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f a p r o c e s s o f r e l i g i o u s s y n c r e t i s m
t h a t w a s s e e k i n g t o o r d e r t h e c h a o s o f c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y b y m e a n s
o f t h e r e l ig i o u s c u l t o f a d i v i n e e m p e r o r . A c o h e r e n t s y n c r e t i s m c o u l d
b e a c h i e v e d b y c h a r t i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c u l t u r e s in a n
u l t i m a t e s o u r c e o r ocpxn f r o m w h i c h t h a t d i v e r s i t y w a s d e r i v e d . T h i s
w a s t h e h i s to r i c a l M o n a r c h i a n i s m j u s ti f yi n g S e v e r a n u n i v e r s a l i s m .
H e r e w e h a v e f o u n d a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p o l i t i c a l i c o n o
g r a p h y o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a n d t h e l a t e r N e o p l a t o n i s t o n t o l o g y .
B u t o n t h e C h r i s t i a n s i d e , t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , a n d t h e
q u e s t f or a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e G o d h e a d i n t e r m s o f
uovccpxicc a g a i n s t G n o s t i c i s m , a c c o m p a n i e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h
O r d e r t h a t w a s t o r e s u l t i n a m o n a r c h - b i s h o p . T o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h i s
c a s e w e m u s t n o w t u r n .
7 C 2 . M onarchian theology, Gnosticism and Im perial Order
W e e m p h a s i s e d th e g r o w t h o f M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m a n d N e o p l a t o n i s m
a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f S t o i c h o li st ic h y l o m o r p h i s m
b y G n o s t i c d u a l i s m . J u s t as t h e f o r m e r w a s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l r e f l e c ti o n
o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y , so t h e l a t t e r , in its e m p h a s i s o n t h e d i s o r d e r o fc r e a t i o n a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r o f r e d e m p t i o n , w a s , i n its p o r
t r a y a l o f c o s m i c c h a o s , t h e o n t o l o g i c a l r e f le c t i o n o f t h e d e n i a l o f t h e
i m p e r i a l i s t s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y .
T h e g r o w t h o f t h e t h r e e f o ld O r d e r , o r i g in a l ly w i t h I g n a t i u s a t y p o
l o g y b u t , i n t h e s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y t o d e v e l o p i n t o a
h i e r a r c h y w i t h a m o n a r c h b i s h o p a t i t s a p e x , l i k e w i s e w a s a d e n i a l
B r e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) p p . 3 7 7 - 3 8 0 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, p p . 4 9 2 - 5 0 0 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 9 1
o f G n o s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m . I t is n o t w i t h o u t s i g n if i c a n ce t h a t t h e e x a m
p l e o f a G n o s d c l it u r g y t h a t w e h a v e is i n d e e d a c h a r i s m a t i c l i t u r g y .1 0 9
W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t C l e m e n t d ir e c t e d h is v i ew o f C h u r c h O r d e r
a g a i n s t s u c h a c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i t y ( 4 B 3 ).
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c l a i m e d o r t h o d o x y t h a t c r e a t e d a g a i n s t G n o s t i c i s m
a s y s te m r u l e d b y m o n a r c h b i s h o p s w a s i ts elf M o n a r c h i a n i n t h e o
l o g y. A l t h o u g h I g n a t i u s d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n m o n a r c h b i s h o p s a s s u c h ,
h i s n a s c e n t T r i n i t a r i a n i s m d o e s e x h i b i t t e n d e n c i e s s u gg e s ti v e o f t h e
l a t e r M o n a r c h i a n s . W e h a v e , f u r t h e r m o r e , a r g u e d t h a t h is v i ew o f
t h e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f t h e m a r t y r b i s h o p d o e s s h o w
e c c l e s ia s t i c a l o r d e r a s a r e v e r s e d , c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e f l e c ti o n o f i m p e
r i al o r d e r i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t (6 A 2 ). T h e a d m i t t e d l y f o u r t h c e n
t u r y Apostolic Constitutions, c e l e b r a t i n g t h e b i s h o p a s s o l e r u l e r , a l s o
c l a i m e d a s u b o r d i n a t i o n i s m i n t h e G o d h e a d t h a t r e q u i r e d o n e s o u r c e
an d o r ig in fo r i t s f i r s t p r in c ip l e , i n o th e r wo rd s a d y n am ic fo rm o f
uovotpxicc.1 1 0
B e t w e e n t h e c l a i m s o f I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apostolic Constitutions
w e h a v e C a l l i s t u s ' r e v o l u t i o n i n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r d e r t h a t w e s h a l l
a r g u e m i r r o r s t h a t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y S e v e r a n e m p e r o r , E l a g a b a l u s
i n i m p e r i a l o r d e r ( C h a p t e r 8 ) .
L e t u s f or t h e m o m e n t b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g I r e n a e u s ' a t t a c k o n
t h e p l u r a l i t y o f c r e a t o r s , a n d it s i m p l i c a t i o n f o r a u n i v e r s e o f o r d e r
t h a t is e s s e n t ia l l y g o o d . H e r e w e s h a l l find a p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t
t o t h e p a g a n p r e c u r s o r s o f P l o t i n u s , i n w h i c h a p l u r a l i t y o f p o w e r s ,
w h e th e r i n n a tu re o r i n so c i e ty , is s ee n fo r t h e s ak e o f o rd e r t o b e
r e d u c i b l e t o th e o n e . P l o t i n u s , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , w a s to a r g u e
t h is c a s e a g a i n s t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l G n o s t i c o n t o l o g y in Enneads I I ,
9 , 1 , 1 3 - 1 6 ( 7 B 2 ).
7 C 2 . 1 . Irenaeus and the KoouoKpdxopeq
I t w a s , a s w e s a w , t h e i m a g e o f C a r a c a l l a a s KoauoKpdxcop, t h r o u g h
w h o m s h o n e t h e d i v i n i t y o f Sol Invictus, w h i c h , i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e r m s ,
w as n o w id en t i f i ed a s v o u q o r Aoyoq, t h e u l t i m a t e a n d first p r in c ip l e
o f o r d e r w h i c h w a s t h e O n e a n d t h e G o o d . B u t i n a s s e r t i n g t h e
1 0 9 K . K o s c h o r k e , D i e P o l e m i k d e r G n o s t i k e r g e g e n d a s k i r ch l i ch e C h r i s t e n t u m ,
in Nag Hamm adi Studies X I I , ( B ri ll : L e i d e n 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 1 ; idem., E i n e n e u g e f u n -
d e n e g n o s t i s c h e G e m e i n d e o r d n u n g , i n %ThK 7 6 ( 1 9 7 9 ), p p . 3 0 - 6 0 .1 1 0 F . X . F u n k , Die Apostolischen Konstitutionen: Eine litterarhistorische Untersuchung, ( M i n e r v a
G m b H . , F r a n k f u r t / M a i n 1 9 7 0) ( R o t t e n b e r g 1 8 9 1 ); G . S t r e ck e r , D a s J u d e n c h r i s t e n t u mi n d e n P s e u d o c l e m e n t i n e n , in TU 7 0 ( 1 9 5 8 a n d 1 9 8 1 ) , c f. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus,
p p . 4 6 1 - 4 6 2 f f .
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292 CHAPTER SEVEN
image of the rcavxoKpdxcop in these terms, th e imperial ideology was
negating Gnosticism in which, as Irenaeus in his Christian response
makes plain, there were a plurality of 7r.avxoKpdxope<; responsible for
the created order of evil darkness, chaos, a n d enslavement.
The au thor of the pseudo Pauline letter to the Ephesians h ad re
ferred to such a Gnostic mythology when he spoke about the Christian
struggle "against dominions (rcpoq y a p dpxdq), against authorities (npbq
xdq e^ouaiaq), against th e cosmic rulers of this darkness (npbq xouq
K O o p o K p d x o p a q xou OK6XOU<; xouxou)."1 1 1
Clement of Alexandria attrib
uted such a sentiment also to Plato when h e said: IlAdxcov ev xcp
epSopcp xf|<; IIoAaxeiaq xfjv evxauGa fipepav vuicxepivnv KeicA ,T|Kev 8id xoix;
K o a p o K p d x o p a q o lpa i xou OKOXOIX; xouxou.1 1 2
Irenaeus witnesses th e
Valentinian conception of the Demiurge as one such K o o p o i c p d x c o p
who believes that h e alone is the creator: "I a m Go d an d beside
me there is no other ( 'Ey© Geoq, nXr\v e p o u ou8ei<;)" as in Isaiah 45,5
and 4 6 , 9 . T h e Demiurge creates the I lavxoKpdxcop ( . . . Aiyouai xov
8e KoapoKpdxopa Kxiapa xou Anpioupyou).
O n e m a y note that th e Valentinians made the KoopoKpdxopeq into
a single power, as did the iconography of Caracalla. But the Valentinian
K o a p o K p d x c o p has his origin as one of the spirits of evil (xd rcveupaxiKa
xfjq T c o v n p i a q ) from the sorrow (EK TT\<; X\)Ky)<;) that causes th e cosmic
catastrophe that is the creation of the world. H is substance is the
same "spiritual substance of evil (xrjv 7rveupaxucf |v xr\q rcovripiag imo-
o x a a v v ) " as the daemons , a n d is identified b y Irenaeus with th e devil
(xov SidpoXov . . . ov Kai K o a p o K p d x o p a K a A x n x n ) .1 1 3
Fur thermore , he is
the inherent spirit of evil in the material world (xov 8e K o o p o i c p d x o p a
ev xcp Ka 0' f jpaq K oap cp) .1 1 4
Cerdo, likewise, in succession to Marcion ,
called the lesser g o d K o o p o i c p d x c o p .1 1 5
Caracal la 's iconography has
cleansed t h e p o wer of the KoapoKpdxcop , flowing throughout th e
world as the Sun, from all associations of grief a n d evil, and of
111
Eph. 6,12. I am i n d e b t e d form a n y of these re ferences and the ir d iscuss ion to
C u m o n t andC a n e t ( 1 9 1 9 ) , pp. 2 3 4 - 2 3 5 .112
Strom. 5,14.1 1 3
Ir e n ae u s , Adv. Haer. 1,5,4 (= Frag, graec. 1, 5 3 6 -5 4 3 ) : 'Eyo) Oeoq, nXr)v epov
o v Se i q , E K 8e xfjq X\)nr\<; xd jwevpaxim xfj<; 7tovr|pia<; S i S d o K o u a i yeyovevai- o0e v Kai
xov 8idpoAx>v XTJV yeveaiv eaxilKevai, ov Kai KoapoKpdxopa icaAouoi , Kai xd 8 a i p 6 v i a
Kai rcaaav xfjv rcvevpaxiicriv xfjq TcovripCaq VTtoaxaaw.... Xeyovai xov 8e KoapoKpdxopa
Kxiapa xo\)AT|pio\)pyo\).1 . 4
1,5,4 (= Frag, graec. 1,549) .1 . 5
1,27 ,2 .
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PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MONARCHIANISM 293
uncontrolled subordination. T h e power of the emperor as Sol Invictus
is a benign a nd good ordering of the imperial whole.
Later Neoplatonism was to order the seven planets, called the
KoouoKpdTopeq, within the monarchy of Sol Invictus as Plotinus had, in
Enneads II , 9,1,13-16, reduced all other powers to the status of deri
vative being of the One. Pursuing the same project with the same
ontological purpose, Proclus will later admit the seven cosmocrators
as the seven planets into his Neoplatonist scheme. " T h e planets are
called 'cosmocrators' (01 y d p KaAouuevoi rcXdvrixec; KoouoKpdxopeq)" bu t
they are no longer rebellious aeons fragmenting the pleroma through
their ignorance. Rather, "each of the cosm oc rator s (eraoxoc; xcov K O O -
uoKpaxopcov), being a m on a d (uovdq cov), is arranged together as par t
of a common assembly (xcp 7iA ,f|9ei auvxexayuivn)."1 1 6
The arrangement is the work of King Helios. As Proclus says:
The k i n g of all vis ib le th ings (6 pev ydp xcov opaxcov ndvxcov pcxoiXeix;
[ T I A , I O < ; ] ) , i m i t a t i n g the c r e a t i v e p o w e r s t h r o u g h r a y s of the l ight (Kai
xd<; 6*Tipio\)pYiKd<; 5\)vdpei<; 5id xcov xou cpcoxo<; dKXivcov drcouauouuevoq), is
a c c o m p a n i e d as his b o d y g u a r d by the c o s m o c r a t o r s (imo rcdvxcov 8opu-
cpopeixai xcov KoapoKpaxopcov).11 7
And behind King Helios stands the Demiurge from whom his pow
ers in imitating noumenal order are derived a n d subordinate. It is
quite clear that Helios is considered one of the cosmocrators, bu t
the supreme one , since "for the sake of the genesis of this (phe
nomenal) world (evem xfjq xouxou yeveaecoq), he begat (drcoyevva) bothsun (Kai fjtaov) and the other cosmocratores ( K a i xoix; aXXoxx; Koou oKp d -
xopa<;)."11 8
Thus clearly the KoouoKpdxopeq are assigned by the demiurge
their subordinate role in the operat ion of the whole, through a due
gradation. T h e Demiurge as King Helios is the noumenal Sun, and
supreme cosmocrator. T h e phenomena l sun reflects the noumenal
Sun through which the other cosmocrators mediate movement a n d
being to the phenomenal world. T h e Demiurge is one (6 Srjuroupyoc;...cov eiq) but he endows with assimilative power (xf|v dcpouoicoxncriv
Suvapiv evxiGeiq) the new creators with him (xoiq p.ex' auxov veoiq
Srjpioupyoiq). These are therefore but the means of reflecting power
l l b
E. Diehl, (Ed.), Prodi Diadochi, In Platonis Timaeum Commentaria, (Teubner: Leipzig
1903/Amsterdam: Hakkert 1965), III p. 58, 8 and 18.
1 1 7 W. Kroll, (Ed.), Prodi Diadochi, In Platonis Rem Publicam Commentarii I (Teubner:
Leipzig 1899/Amsterdam: Hakkert 1965), pp. 220, 25-28.1 , 8
Proclus, Comm. in Platonis Timaeum III, pp. 95, 31-33.
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294 CHAPTER SEVEN
deriv ed from him. H e com mand s th em to imita te his own p ow er
(pipeio0ai xf j v eauT ou 8uvapiv) with rega rd to thei r own creative activ
ity (nepi zr\v cruicov y e v e o i v ) . "Hence (oruxoGev) he appoints the cosmo-
crators as guards (xovq KoouoKpdxopocq cp\>A,aKa<; ucpiornoi) over the
intervals of time (TCOV dpiGpcov TOU % p o v o u ) and as the guard of night
and day (Kai TTVV cputaxKa vuKioq Kai r i p e p a q ) . "1 1 9 The Demiurge being
o n e , he injects the assimilative power similarly into those new demi
urges with hi m, wh en he com mand s th em to imita te his ow n pow er.
Thus the cosmocrators (oi KoouoKpdiopec; ) are those who are moved
( T pe r copevo i ) by the no um en al De mi ur ge who is "exceedingly Ki ng
Helios (8iacpepovTco<; 6 paai ta ix; "HAaoq)."1 2 0
As Proclus says:
. . . it is also clear (<p Kai8fjA,ov), that indeed time is not, since it has
numerical property, the sole participant in movement (&q dpa 6 xpbvoc,
OX>K eaxiv 6 pexexopevoq povov Kai dpiBpoq wv xfj<; Kwr |aeco<;), even though
the cosmocrators maintain the order appropriate to it [npbc, avxov xd£w
oi KoapoKpdxopeq), but the unseen God and eternal in essence (aXka
Qebq d<pavr|<; Kai Kax' ovaiav aicovioq) is the source of power (evepycov)
for all their movements (rcepi rcdoa<; xdq K IV TJ O EI^ ) and the entire rotation of the universe (Kai xr|v oXrjv xov Koapoi) rcepioSov), and he uses as
his own individual means these gods themselves (6pydvoi<; 8e xpcbpevoq
d>q pepiKcoxepoi(; pexpoiq eavxoi) xomoiq xoiq Oeoiq).121
T hu s the disor dere d universe of bot h polythei sm an d Gnostici sm
is finally orde re d, a nd its analogi cal mo na rc hi ca l political po we r
legitimated.
Both Plotinus and his pagan predecessors can clearly be regarded
as sharing a common cause with Irenaeus in reducing the disordered
world of Gnosticism to a single first principle from which other divine
enti t ies could proceed by ordered emanation or procession. For
Plotinus and his predecessors the process of em an at io n was on e by
wh ich an essentially go od ultima tely reality sh ar ed its be ing with t he
cosmic order without thereby experiencing diminution. For Plotinus
no more than the One (TO "E V ), the tho ug ht (Nouq) tha t proceeds
from the thinking One, and Soul (Vuxfl) are to be found in the intel
ligible world (ev TCO vonrcp). A m o n g the thr ee the re was a direct gra
dat ion of being, a subordination of lower to higher until finally
phenomenal nature could become the phenomenal napdSevypa of
the n o u m e n a l o r v o r r r o v .
119 Ibid. p. 2,10.120
Ibid. p. 227,28.121
Ibid. p. 40,2.
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P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 295
For Ir ena eus an d some of his predecessors ther e was a G o dh e ad
ma d e of two or thr ee per sons , wh o were jo in ed tog eth er with the
c o mm o n tide of Kupioq. Aga inst th e Gnosti cs he asserts at on e po in t
that Scripture knows only two divine beings assigned this name:
Neither the Lord (oike ouv 6 Kupioq) nor the Holy Spirit (oike rcveupa
ayiov), nor apostles (oike drcoaxotan) would have ever expressed with
accurate theology that he was not God (xov OUK ovxa Geov Kupico<; kQzoXo-
ynaev rcoxe) unless he was not truly God (ei \ir\ rjv aXrfiax; Geoq), nor would
they have used the term 'Lord' for someone (oike eKupio^eKxnadv xiva)
on grounds of his own personal nature (e£ i5iou rcpooamou) unless he
was the God and Father of all that exercised sovreignty (aXk' r\ xovKupieuovxa rcdvxcov Oeov rcaxepa) and his Son who received the sover
eignty from the Father of all creation (Kai xov uiov auxou xov xnv Kupieiav
A.a(36vxa rcapd xou rcaxpoq auxou rcdoTiq ir\q Kxiaecoq). . . Since therefore
the Father is truly Lord (&A,T8co<; ouv Kupiou ovxoq xou rcaxpoc;), and the
Son is truly Lord (Kai xou uiou dA.r|0cbq ovxo<; Kupiou), the Holy Spirit
naturally indicated them by the tide of 'Lord.' (eiKoxcoq xo rcveupa xo
ayiov xii xou Kupiou 7cpocrnyopia eor|pT|vev auxotx;).
Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., 6,1.
Thus Irenaeus reduces the gnostic pleroma to a Godhead of two
persons to which he will add elsewhere the Holy Spirit as a third.1 2 2
If it sho uld be ar gu ed tha t a Go d he a d of two or th ree per son s will
replicate th e chao s of gnostic creati on, clearly he re Ire naeu s claims
a unity of pu rp os e in a divine pl an , elsewher e desc rib ed by hi m as
o i K o v o u i a . But note how this unity is conceived in terms of a polit
ical analogy . Fa th er a nd S on hav e cr ea te d all th at the re is as a well-
ordered and good creation, and not chaotic and evil as was the
creation tha t was the out co me of the ba td e of the aeons over Sop hia 's
expulsion. T h e So n is uni ted in pu rp os e with the Fath er . His sov
ere ignty and ther efore divine tide (ldipioq), sh ar ed wit h the Fa th er
(xov Kupieuovxa rcdvxcov Geov rcaxepa), is by delegation (XTJV K u p e i a v
Axxpovxa 7tapd xou rcaxpoq). Irenaeus' ontology, like that of Plotinus,
is reflecting imperial order against Gnostic d x a c ; ( a .
Elsewhere Irenaeus will follow Jn. 14, 10-11 and assert:
Through the Son who is in the Father (8id xou uiou ouv xou ovxoq ev
xcp rcaxpi), and who has in himself the Father (Kai exovxoq ev eauxco xov
icaxepa), he who is God is manifested (6 cov ecpavepcb&ri Geoq), with the
122 Adv. Haer. Ill, 24,2; IV, 7,4, and 34,3 in w h i c h no c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n is d r a w n
b e t w e e n the C h r i s t as Verbum and Sapientia, and the H o l y S p i r i t as S a p i e n t i a , cf.
B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, pp. 2 1 5 - 2 1 8 .
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2 9 6 C H A P T E R S E V E N
Father witnessing to the Son (xov 7taxp6<; papxvpfioavxoq xcp via>), and the
Son p roc la iming the Fa ther (Kai xov viov Kaxayyeitaxvxo*; xov rcaxepa).
I r en aeu s , Adv. Haer., I l l , 6 ,2 ,48
Bu t w i th o u t t h e t h e o lo g y o f p e r s o n s i n t h e G o d h e a d (rcpoacorca) w h i ch
T e r t u l l i a n a n d H i p p o l y t u s w e r e t o d e v e l o p ,1 2 3
s u c h a n a c c o u n t o f
t h e u n i t y o f t h e G o d h e a d s e e m s f ar c l o s e r t o t h e M o n a r c h i a n i s m
t h a t b o t h o f t h e m o p p o s e d , a s S i m o n e t t i p o i n t s o u t .1 2 4
I n O c h a g a v i a ' s
t e ll in g p h r a s e , fo r I r e n a e u s t h e Filius w a s visibile patris.125
L e t u s t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e f u r t h e r t h e t h es is t h a t a M o n a r c h i a n
o n t o l o g y w a s r e f le c t ed i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t h a t
accep ted su ch a t h eo lo g y , w i th p a r t i cu l a r r e fe ren ce t o so m e o f I r en aeu s '
p r e d e c e s s o r s .
7 C 2 . 2 . Ignatius of Antioch: nascent Monarchianism
W e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l p a r a l l e li s m b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s '
c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e b i s h o p ' s o ff ic e, a n d h is c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e
i m p e r i a l p o w e r f o c u s e d u p o n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t it se lf ( 6A 2 ) .1 2 6
W e
s h a l l n o w s e e t h a t i n I g n a t i a n t h e o l o g y w e p o s s e s s a n a s c e n t M o n a r
c h i a n i s m i n t h e G o d h e a d t h a t a l s o f lo w s o v e r i n t o h is c o n c e p t i o n o f
C h u r c h O r d e r . H o w e v e r , w e d o w e ll t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t t h e M o n a r
c h i a n i s m is a n a s c e n t o n e .
D a s s m a n n , u s i n g t h e i n s ig h t s h e h a d g a i n e d f r o m w h a t t o d a y
w o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s P e t e r s o n ' s s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e , o r i g in a l l y
c o n n e c t e d I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h ' s m o d a l i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s w i t h h i s a r g u
m e n t f o r a n e p i s c o p a l m o n a r c h y .1 2 7
I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e a g a i n s t
t h e v i e w t h a t I g n a t i u s e n v i s a g e d a m o n a r c h b i s h o p a s l a t e r e m e r g e d
i n R o m e , a n d i n t h e S y r i a o f t h e Didascalia. I g n a t i u s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e
t h r e e f o l d O r d e r I h a v e a r g u e d e a r l i e r t o b e f ar m o r e i n f l u e n c e d b y
t y p o l o g i c a l a n a l o g i e s s h a r e d w i t h p a g a n w o r s h i p b e t w e e n d i v i n i t i e s
a n d t h e i r s a c r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n o n a n y d i r e c t r e l a t i o n
s h i p b e t w e e n a d e v e l o p e d d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o nw i t h i n e c c l e s i a l O r d e r ( 6 A 2 ) .
1 2 3 T e r t u l l i a n , Adv. Prax., 1 a n d 9 a n d H i p p o l y t u s , CJV. 1 4, 2 - 3 . F o r m y c o m
m e n t s o n t h e s e p a s s a g e s s e e B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, p p . 2 5 2 - 2 5 8 a n d p p . 5 3 0 - 5 3 5 .1 2 4 M . S i m o n e t t i , II p r o b l e m a d e l l ' u n i t a d i D i o d a G i u s t i n o a I r e n e o , i n RSLR
2 2 , 2 ( 1 9 8 6) , p p . 2 2 9 - 2 3 7 .1 2 } J . O c h a v g a v i a , V i s i b i l e P a tr is F i l iu s , A S t u d y o f I r e n a e u s ' T e a c h i n g o n R e v e
l a t i o n a n d T r a d i t i o n , i n OrChrA 1 7 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , c h a p t e r 3 .1 2 < > S e e a l s o A . B r e n t , I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , i n VCh 5 2 , 1
( 1 9 9 7 ), p p . 3 0 - 5 8 .1 2 7 E . D a s s m a n n , Z u r E n t s t e h u n g d e s M o n e p i s k o p a t s , i n JbAC 1 7 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p . 7 4 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N I SM 2 9 7
I h a v e a r g u e d in d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e t h a t C h u r c h O r d e r f or I g n a t i u s
is n o t m o n a r c h i c a l , a s a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e Didascalia Apostolorum
w i ll s h o w . H i s t h r e e f o l d O r d e r is a t h r e e - f o l d t y p o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n
a t h r e e - f o l d h i e r a r c h y . 1 2 8 T h e L a i t y a r e i n s t r u c t e d t o s u b m i t , f or t h e
sak e o f r e f l ec t i n g t h e d iv in e o i i co v o u ia o r p l an o f s a lv a t io n , t o B i sh o p s ,
P r e s b y t e r s , a n d D e a c o n s . B u t n e i t h e r t h e P r e s b y t e r s n o r D e a c o n s
r e c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o s u b m i t t o t h e B i s h o p , b u t a r e r e g a r d e d a s n a t
u r a l l y d o i n g s o , i n t h e s y m p h o n i c c h o r u s t h a t th e y f o r m t o g e t h e r
( 6 B 2 ). T h e O r d e r o f t h e C h u r c h i s a r e s u l t o f t h e li t u r g i c a l i n c a r
n a t i o n , i n t h e life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , o f t h e w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s o f a ll
t h r e e O r d e r s , a n d th e i r r e - e n a c t m e n t of t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e F a t h e r
B i s h o p , s e n d s t h e d i a c o n a l S o n , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e P r e s b y t e r a l
sp i ri t- f il led co u n c i l o f t h e A p o sd es .
Y e t u n d o u b t e d l y I g n a t iu s h a s t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d s a M o n a r c h i a n
v e r s i o n o f t h e T r i n i t y t h a t is n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h hi s m o r e T r i n i t a r i a n
v i e w o f O r d e r . I t w a s t h e f o r m e r t h a t w a s b o t h t o d e v e l o p a n d t o
p r e v a i l i n t h e a n t i - G n o s t i c w r i t e r s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
I s ha ll a r g u e t h a t w h e n T r i n i t a r i a n M o n a r c h i a n i s m d e v e l o p e d i n its
final f o r m , it p r o v i d e d a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l re f l e c t io n o f d i v i n e i m p e r
i a l o rd e r , a n d i ts co n s i s t en t r e f l ec t i o n i n t h e so c i a l co n s t ru c t io n o f
r e a li ty b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n t r a - c u l t u r e p r o d u c e d m o n a r c h - b i s h o p s ,
u n i t e d b y m u t u a l i n t e r - c o m m u n i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e episco-
patus. . . un a, c e n t r e d o n t h e S e e o f R o m e , w a s t h u s t o f o r m t h e
c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e p e r s o n o f t h e e m p e r o r as s o u r c e
o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r .
I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h h a d s p o k e n o f " J e su s C h r i s t w h o p r o c e e d e d
from th e o n e F a th e r (xov a<p' evoq rcaxpoq rcpoeAflovxa) a n d w h o re tu r n e d
t o h i m w h o w a s o n e (Kai eiq ev a o v x a K ai x c o p u a a v x a ) . "1 2 9
I t was c l ea r ly
s u c h t h e m e s t h a t w e r e t o d e v e l o p f u r t h e r i n t h e c u l t u r a l m a t r i x o f
t h e s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y f r o m w h i c h , a s w e h a v e a r g u e d ,
N e o p l a t o n i s m w a s t o a r i s e . H e r e t h e r e is c l e a r ly O r d e r in t e r m s o f
1 2 8 A . B r e n t , C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e M i n i s t r y in
C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e A g e o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h s p e
c ia l r e f e re n c e to c o n t e m p o r a r y e c u m e n i s m , in Studies in Christian Mission 6 , ( L e i d e n :
E J . B rill 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 3 ; Idem. H i s t o r y a n d E s c h a t o l o g i c a l M y s t i c i s m i n I g n a t i u s
o f A n t i o c h , i n EThL 6 5 , 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ), p p . 3 1 6 - 3 2 0 ; Idem. T h e R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s
o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e Didascalia Apostolorum, in Second Century, 8 , 3 ( 1 9 9 1 ), p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 4 ;
Idem. E c u m e n i c a l R e l a t i o n s a n d C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a t e s , i n AThR 7 2 , 3 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p .
2 6 6 - 2 6 9 .1 2 9 I g n a t i u s , Magnes., 7 , 2 . C f a l s o Magnes. 1 ,2 : . . . e v co o iv e u x o u a i . . . ' b i a o u K a i
rcaxpoq.
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2 9 8 CHAPTER SEVEN
d e r i v a t i o n f r o m a n u l t i m a t e o r i g i n t h a t w e h a v e w i t n e s s e d a l s o i n
t h e m e t a p h y s i c s a n d i c o n o g r a p h y o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r .
T h e C h u r c h i n I g n a t i u s is p o r t r a y e d a s d e r i v i n g its o r d e r e d life
f r o m t h e o r d e r o f t h e G o d h e a d . T h e risen C h r i s t w a s " u n i t e d w i t h
t h e F a t h e r i n S p i r i t (7ivei)paxiKco<; f|vcopevo<; xcp rcaxpi)" a s h e a p p e a r e d
to " th o se a r o u n d P e te r in th e f lesh (d><; oapKiKoq) ." T h e g r o u p t h a t
f o u n d s h i st o r i c a l ly t h e C h u r c h " i m m e d i a t e l y t o u c h e d h i m (K a i euO ix;
a u x o v f | \ | /avTo) a n d b e l i e v e d ( K ai e rc io x e uo a v ), s i n c e t h e y h a d b e c o m e
m in g le d (KpaGevxeq) wi th h is f lesh a n d sp ir i t (xf| oa pK i au xo u Ka i xcp
rcveupaxi)."130
I g n a t i u s n o w d e s c r i b e s a p r o c e s s i o n i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e c o m m u n i t y t h a t m i r r o r s t h e o n t o l o g y o f t h e G o d h e a d .
I g n a t i u s ' l a n g u a g e , i n Rom. 6 ,1 , a s w e h a v e s een (6B) , r e f l ec ts t h e
i m p e r i a l i d e a l , a n d t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t hi s o w n m a r t y r o l o g i c a l p r o
c e ss io n r e p r e s e n t s h is c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s
c o u n t e r i m a g e o f t h e im p e r i a l i d e a l w e r e a d :
For Jesus Chr i s t (mi yap Tnaovq Xpicxoq), o u r indivisible life (xodSiaKpi-
xov fjpcov £fjv), i s the mind of the Father (xov naxpoq r\ yvcbpri), even asthe bishops w h o are found at the earth ' s ends (ox; Kai oi e7iiGK07ioi, oi
Kaxd xd Ttepaxa opioGevxeq) ar e in th e m in d of Je su s C hr ist (ev 'Incou
Xpiaxov yvcbpri eiaiv) .
Igna t ius , Ephes., 3 ,1 .
Ecc les ias t ica l au thor i ty thus comes f rom the ind iv i s ib le l i fe (xo d8idKpi-
xov fjpcbv £fjv) o f t h e u l t i m a t e O n e F a t h e r f r om w h o m C h r i s t J e s u s
c a m e a n d t o w h o m h e r e t u r n e d . S u c h a u t h o r i t y is t h e r e f o re d e r i v e df r o m d i v i n e , u n i f y i n g p o w e r t h a t g i v es t h e m t h e i r a u t h o r i t y in t h e
c o m m u n i t y , j u s t a s N e o p l a t o n i s t p o l it ic a l t h e o l o g y w a s t o c l a i m f or
C a r a c a l l a t h e KoapoKpdxcop a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s .
J u s t a s t h e L o r d d i d n o t h i n g w i t h o u t t h e F a t h e r d u e t o t h e i r u n i o n
(riv co pevo qaW), n o r w i th o u t t h e ap o s t l e s w h o sh a r ed t h a t u n io n a s we
s a w w i t h " t h o s e a r o u n d P e t e r , " s o t h e c o m m u n i t y is t o d o n o t h i n g
w i t h o u t t h e b i s h o p w h o r e p r e s e n t s t h e F a t h e r , n o r t h e p r e s b y t e r sw h o r e p r e s e n t t h e a p o s t l e s .
1 3 1
T h e u n i ty o f t h e G o d h e a d m u s t b e
r e f le c t e d in t h e u n i t y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . S o c i a l s t r u c t u r e r e fl ec ts o n t o
l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . T h u s :
1 3 0
Ignatius, Smyr., 2 - 3 .131 Ibid. Magnes. 7,1: coarcep oi>v 6 K v p i o q avev xov rcaxpoq oi)8ev ercouiaev, fivcopevoq
"ov, oi)xe 5i' eavx ov o ike 5 id xcov &7toax6Xcov• ovxox; pn5e upeiq aveu xot> e i c i a K O T c o D K a i
xcov upeapDxepcov pnSev jcpdoaexe.
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PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MONARCHIANISM 299
Be subject to the bishop and each other (urcoxdynxe xcp erciaKOTicp Kai
aXkr\Xoi(;), as Jesus Christ to the Father according to the flesh (cbq
'I TIGOUC; Xpiaxoq xcp rcaxpi Kaxd c dpK a ) , and the aposdes to Jesus Christ,
and to the Father and Spirit (Kaioi d7coaxoXot xcp Xpiaxcp Kaixcp rcaxpiKai 7Tveuuaxi), in order that there may be a unity of flesh and Spirit
( iva evcocu<; f| aapKiicri xe Kai Ttveuuaxucri).
Magnes. 13,1
Ignatius sees in the person of the bishop an expression of divine
order that is euxa^ia:
It is clear that it is necessary to look upon the bishop as the Lord
himself (xov ouv eTuoKorcov Sr\Xov oxi cbq auxov xov Kupiov 8ei Ttpoo-pAirceiv).
Onesimus himself praises strongly your good order in God (auxoq pev
ouv 'Ovr|aipo<; i)7cepe7caivei upcbv X T ^ V ev 0ecp euxa^iav) .
Ephes. 6,2
The good order of society thus reflects the ontology of the Godhead .
Fur thermore , the ontology that legitimates social order must, in
order to justify its assumptions, reject the divided a n d chaotic view
of creation propounded by Gnosticism, with an early version of which
Ignatius clearly deals. T h e star of Bethlehem "was manifested to the
aeons (ecpavepcoOri xoiq aicoaiv)" and "all magic a n d every bond of
evil disa pp ea red (rc&ca uoryeia K a i naq 8eaud<; f|cpavi£exo; Ephes. 19,3)."
The escape from a world of war, division, a n d passion is union with
the threefold typology that mediates the unity of the Godhe a d for
"where there is division a n d wrath (oi) 8e |i£piaud<; eaxiv Kai6pyr|),
God does not abide (Geoq ou Kaxoncei . ) . T h e Lord forgives all that
repent (rcaaiv ouv pxxavoouaw dcpiei 6 Kupioq) if they turn in repentance
to the unity of God and the council of the bishop (edv u£xavor|acocyiv
eiq evoxnxa Geou K ai auveSpiov xou eniGKonov; Philad. 8,1)."
We have seen how, in Ephesians 13, the pax deorum that underlies
the imperial peace is realised instead for Ignatius ev xfi ouovoia upxbv
xf|<; jdaxecoq. "Nothing is better than peace (ouSev eaxiv apxvvov eipnvriq),
in which all war of earthly a n d heavenly things is abolished (ev r\
naq rcoXeuoq Kaxapyeixai ercoupavicov K ai eTuyeicov)." (6B 2.4) W e n ow
see ho w specifically that order is created for Ignatius through the
procession of Son from the Father that continues in the threefold
typology of Bishop, Presbyters a n d Deacons. W e have noted, more
over, h o w that procession from the One Father that returns to the
One Father (7C 2.2) is indicative of a general intellectual culture.
The unity of nature, history, or society is derived from an ultimate
reality in relation to which they are but modes or gradations of the
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300 C H A P T E R S E V E N
real, good, and One. It was a yearning that we have argued Plotinus
was to satisfy in a finished ontological system that found its pr io r
express ion in pa ga n an d imper ial as well as Chr ist ian reflections on
the st ructure of reali ty and its reflection in social order .
A consequence for Ignatian doctrine was that the unity of God
needed to be emphasised, with gradations allowed through the per
sons of the Trinity that lead in turn to their legitimating expression
in Church Order. Ignatius often speaks as though Father and Son
wer e bu t gr ad ed mani festations of a single reality. Je su s Chr ist , the
"one physician (eiq iccxpoq)" is y e v v n T O c ; and, pace the Nicen e Cr eed ,
also dyevvnioq.1 3 2
As we have considered in another context (6B 1),
Ignatius speaks of the Ephesians as dva£co7rupr|oavTe<; ev aipa-ci Geou
(Ephes. 1,1). In Rom. 6 he wishes to be a pipr|Tr|<; "of the suffering
of my God (TOU rcdGotx; TOU Geou pou)."1 3 3
T h e au th or of the L onge r
Recension, who may have been himself an Arian, corrected the for
me r, though no t the latter of these expressions in a subo rdi nat ion -
ist direction.1 3 4
W e see, therefore, a Mo na rc hi an t end enc y in Ignati us, not wholly
reconcilab le with his justification of ecclesiastical Orde r , bu t whi ch
ma ny of his successors develo ped in such a directi on. Let us now
turn our attention to three other second century writers who tell us,
before Callistus, nothing directly about Order but clearly participate
in an intellectual culture that seeks an ultimate ontological origin in
its metaphysi cal quest .
7C 2.3. Monarchianism: Athenagoras, Justin and Tatian
As Simonetti has po in ted out, the re was a strongly Mo na rch ia n strand
in the Chris tian apologists of the second ce nt ur y.1 3 5
Aeon specula
tion of Gnostics such as Valent inus an d Basilides was strongly rejected.
T h e emphasi s on the unity of Go d is often at tri but ed to the J ud ai c
132
Ephes. 7,1, cf. J .B. L i g h t f o o t , The Apostolic Fathers. P a r t I S. C l e m e n t of R o m e ,
2, II: S. I g n a t i u s . S. P o l y c a r p , ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 8 8 9 ) , pp. 9 0 - 9 4 .1 3 3
See also Rom. 3,3: &ya7rnv ' I r i a o v X p i o x o v xov Geou \iov cf. S i m o n e t t i ( 1 9 8 6 ) ,
p p . 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 .1 3 4
P s e u d o I g n a t i u s , Rom. 6 r e ta i n s the p h r a s e , but in Rom. 3 it is o m i t t e d a l t o
g e t h e r . In Ephes. t h e r e are e x te n s i v e a l t e r a t i o n s , see Ephes. 1: dva£co7rupr|oavx£<; ev
ai'paxi X p i o x o v and 7: i a x p o q 6e fipcov eaxi 6 povoq dXriGivoc; Geoq, 6 ayevvr|xo<; K a i
drcpoaixoq, 6 xcov otaov Kupioq, xov 8e p o v o y e v o t x ; naxr\p K a i yevvr|xcop. exopev i a x p o v
K a i xov Kt>piov fipcov Geov 'Ir|aovv xov X p i a x o v , xov rcpo aicbvcov vibv povoyevf j K a i
AxSyov.1 3 5
S i m o n e t t i ( 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 4 4 6 - 4 4 7 .
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PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MONARCHIANISM 301
bac kgr oun d of Mo na rc hi an groups. O n the one ha nd, dyn am ic
Mo na rc hi an s considered Jes us a me re m a n en dow ed with extra
ordinary powers at his baptism, and were characterised later by
Epi phan ius as Ebionites. O n the other, modalistic Mon ar ch ia ni sm
tu rn ed t he persons of the Trin it y into phases or mo des of the divine.
How eve r muc h the Ju da ic backg roun d may have emphasised the
unity of Go d, th at unity, even within Jud a is m, ca me to be expressed,
in the works of Philo and others, in terms of Hellenistic philoso
p h y .1 3 6
By the mid dle of the second cent ury the em br yon ic doct rin e
of the Trini ty begin to assume modali stic features in ot he r wr iters
in addition to Irenaeus.
7C 2 . 3 . 1 . uovocpxia and the Godhead in Justin and Tatian
Ta ti an (A.D. 165), ech oing Ju st in ,1 3 7
expresses the relation of the
Logos to the first principle, which he calls in the following passage
both dpxr| and 6 rcpcoxoq navioq:
By his mere will the Logos sprang forth (6eAr|uaxi 8e xfjq ankox zoq auxou
7ipo7cr|8a Aoyoq) and the Logos, not proceeding in vain (6 8e Aoyo<; ou
Kaxd K E V O U xcoprioaq), he became the firstborn work of the Father (epyov
TcpcoxoxoKov xou rcaxpoq yivexai). The latter we know as the first princi
ple of the world (xouxov i'apev xou K O G U O U XT^V dpxt|v), and he came into
being by part ition (yeyove 8e Kaxd peptapov) and not by section (ou mx'
drcoK07rr|v). For that which is cut off as a section (xo ydp drcoxurjBev) is
separated from its origin (xou rcpcoxou navibq Kexcopiaxai), but what is
divided into parts (xo 8e |iepic0ev), requiring distinction for the sake of
a plan of arrangement (oiKovopiaq xdpiv xf|v Siaipeaiv rcpoataxPov), isnot bereft of the origin from which it came ( O U K ev8ea xov o0ev exkr\n-
xa i 7t£7toir|Kev).
Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 5,7-10.
In this passage, as I have argued elsewhere, Tatian is far closer to
the Monarchianism of the later Callistus, to whom Hippolytus in the
Contra Noetum was to ma ke the conciliatory gesture of denyi ng tha t
the Aoyoq d a a p K o q was xzkexoc, uioq before he (it) became taSyoq evoapKoq
through incarnation in the Virgin.1 3 8
In T a t i an the Aoyoq is a cre
ation (epyov TcpcoxoxoKov), albeit inse para ble from its cre at or (ou rax'
1 3 6
P h i l o , De spec, legib I, 13-31 and Peterson ( 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 23-24 and pp. 107- 108.1 3 7
Justin M a r t y r , Dial., 61,2 where oi) K a i ' arcoxouriv coq eXaxTCoGfjvai xov ev
f|uiv \6yov parallels closely this p a s s a g e . See M. Marcovich (Ed . ) , Tatiani, Oratio
a d G r a e c o s , in PTS 43, ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 1.I 3 H
E.g. CJV. 4,8 and 15,7. For other references and a full d i s c u s s i o n , see Brent
( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, pp. 210 240.
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302 C H A P T E R S E V E N
dt7COK07cf|v) like a burning torch that creates a second one by contact.
It is the image of the bu rn in g torch t hat Ta ti an , like Ju st in before
h i m ,1 3 9
now employs:
For even as many fires are lighted from one torch (coarcep y a p anb piaq
dadb<; dvdrcxexai pev Trupd noXXa), but the light of the first torch is not
diminished because it has been lit from many torches, (xfjq 8e 7tpcbxr|<;
babbc, 8id xf v e avjnv xcov noXk&v 8a8cov oi)K eAxxxxovxai xo cpcoq), so also
the Logos proceeding from the power of the Father (oikco Kai6 Aoyoc;
7ipoeA,0o)v C K xfjq xov naxpbq 8\)vdpeco<;), does not deprive the one who
gave him birth of rational speech ( O V K d^oyov ne7toir|Ke xov yeyevvriKoxa).
Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 5, 11-15.
No twit hs tandi ng the parallel with Ju st in , we have seen tha t Apulei us
also, in De Mundo 6, 398a 31-35, made use of the image of the
transmiss ion of light signals to explain th e transmis sion of the divine
power that directs the universe C K piaq cxp%fj<;. In the previous pas
sage too ther e is a simil ar pr eo cc up at io n with cosmic unity in t er ms
of der iva tio n from the on e first pri nciple . T h e Logos procee ds from
the Father as xov K o o p o u TTIV dp%r|v without being cut off from xov
rcpcoTou navxbq.
But Tatian shared a quest for a unified cosmos with the follow
ers of Isis, and indeed with Marcus Aurelius who, as we have seen,
identified Faus tina wit h the religious ic on og ra ph y of a unified na tu re
expressed in a unified imperial order (7A 1.1.3). T h e Isis hy mn from
An dr os spoke of "th e sign of yo ur mo na rc hy , O Q u e e n (aapoc xeaq,
Seorcowa, povapxeiaq),"1 4 0
and Tatian sought such a unified order
whic h he found in the Ju da eo -C hr is ti an tradition. In the perplexity
tha t lead to his conve rsion, he read the Ol d Te st am en t Scrip tures ,
though they appeared "barbaric." He claims:
I was persuaded by these (Kai poi 7teio0f|vai xavxaiq a-uvePrj) because of
(Sid xe). . . the easily intelligible account of the creation of the world
(xfj<; xov rcavxoq
7tovr|Geco<; xo ei)Kaxd^r|7rxov), the foreknowledge of the future(Kai xcov peAAovxcov xo rcpoyvcoaxiKov), . . . and the monarchical doctrine
of the universe (Kai xcov oXxov xo povapxiKOv).
Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 29, 11-15.
I i 9
J u s t i n M a r t y r , Dialogus, 61,2: Kai orcoTov erci irupoq opcopev OLXXO y i v o p e v o v , OX>K
e X a x x o D p e v o o e K e i v o v e£ oi) f| dva\} / i< ; yeyovev.1 4 0
W. P e e k , Der hishymnus vonAndros und verwandte Texte, (Ber l in : W e i d m a n n 1 9 3 0 ) ,
p . 15,6 (= T o t t i ( 1 9 8 5 ) no. 2, 6), cf. P e t e r s o n ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p. 21 and p. 105.
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P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 303
Indeed, Tadan disregards the strong, pagan currents that were con
tributing to such a pagan doctrine both in the political ideology of
impe rial power, an d in the deve lopin g, justifying meta phy sic tha t
Apuleius and Plutarch exhibit. Tatian proceeds to attack pagan cul
ture for failing to exercise the principle of founding the religious
order of the cosmos on a single first principle from which all is
derived (uovapxia). As he says:
You Greeks are the sort of people (xoiouxoi xiveq eaxe Kai upeiq, co
"EM,r|ve<;) whose words are fluent, (pnpaai pev axcouuAui) whose ideas
are bizarre (yvcopriv 8' exovxe<; CCAAOKOTOV). YOU practice the rule of the
many rather than of one (Kai xfy 7ioA,uKoipavrnv paAAov rfrep xfiv povapxiav
e£uaKT|oaxe), and are used to following the daemons as if they were
strong (raGdrcep ioxupoiq voui^ovxeq aoyaXeq zolq Saipooi KaxaKO^ouGeiv).
Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 14,1-3
In adopting a polytheistic framework he argues therefore that the
Gr aec o- Ro man world is, inconsistendy with the imperi al ideal, attack
ing the uovapxia. His claim har dly did justi ce to the work of Apuleius
and Plutarch, let alone those who constructed the iconography of
the imperial coinage and presided over the development of the
Imperial Cult.
7C 2.3.2. Political structure and the Trinity in Athenagoras
Ta ti an does not explore the relat ionshi p of ontological uov apxi a to
political uovapxia, as opposed being simply parasitic upon the broader
culture in whic h the two conce pts were intertwined . At hen ago ras
conver sely does no t use the wo rd uovapx ia , bu t we find the co ncep t
of de riv ed au thor ity from a single dpxr| clearly drawn in ontology by
analogy with political structure.
Athenagoras begins by addressing the emperors Marcus Aurelius
and C om mo du s (A.D. 176-180) as "phi lo soph ers ."1 4 1
But in the
course of his address he attacks the worship of images (etKoveq) on
the gr ou nd tha t the na me s of those wh o sculpted th em an d thus
br ou gh t t he m int o existence ar e kno wn . "If they are gods (ei xoivuv
Geoi), why were they no t so from the beg inni ng (xi OUK r j o a v e£ dpxf|<;)?
Why are they more recent than their makers (xi8e eiaiv vecoxepoi xcov
ne7coir |K6xcov)?"14 2
He then uses an argument to Marcus Aurelius and
1 4 1 M. M a r c o v i c h (Ed.) , A t h e n a g o r a s , L e g a t i o pro Chris t ian is , in PTS 31, (1 9 9 0 ) , insc.1 4 2
A t h e n a g o r a s , Legatio, 17, 3 4 - 3 5 . See a l s o E. O s b o r n , The Emergence of Christian
Theology, ( C a m b r i d g e : U.P. 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 1 2 5 - 1 2 9 ; pp. 1 7 4 - 1 7 8 .
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304 CHAPTER SEVEN
his son Commodus in which he uses an analogy between the grades
of impe ria l po we r and relations bet ween Fa th er and Son:
May you find it possible to examine by your own efforts also the heav
enly kingdom (e'xoixe 8' dv oruioi dip' eauxcbv Kai xfjv enoupdviov PaaiXeiav
e£exd£eiv); for as all things have been subjected to you, a father and
a son (d>q yapi)piv rcaxpi Kaivicp ndvxa Kexeipcoxai), who have received
your kingdom from above (dvcoGev xfjv p a a i^ e i a v eiXr|(p6aiv), for "the
king's life is in God's hands («paaiAico<; yap \|/i)xr| ev xe i
Pl
Geot>»)," as
the prophetic spirit says ((pnai xo rcpocprixiKov rcveupa), so all things are
subordinated to the one God and the Word that issues from him whom
we consider his inseparable Son (omcoq evi xcp Gecp Kai xcp nap' amov
Xoycp, \)icp voovpevcp dpepiaxcp, rcdvxa imoxexaKxai).
Legatio 18,10-14
He nc e it is the insepa rabl e Son pro ce ed in g from th e true an d ulti
ma te dp%r| tha t guar an tees b ot h cosmic and political or de r whi ch
pagan ism, with its varie ty of myt hs in chao tic discorde r, can not . H e
goes thr ough a nu mbe r of pagan my th s1 4 3
of which he gives a Platonic
critique, and on the following principle:
Each of the beings endowed with divinity by them (eraaxov yap xcov
xeGeoXoyrjpevcov), must be perishable on the grounds that it has a begin-
ing (ox; xfjv dpxrjv e'xov, Kai cpGapxov 8eov e ivai ) . For if they, not existing,
have come into existence (ei ydp yey ovaa iv o\)K ovxeq), as those who the
ologize about them say (cbq oi rcepi avxcbv Geo oyoOvxeq ^eyoDGiv), they
do not exist ( O \ > K eia(v). For either something does not begin its exist
ence (fi ydpdyevrixov xi), and is eternal (Kai eaxiv diSiov), or it come
into existence (fi yevrixov), and is perishable (Kai cpGapxov eaxiv).
Athenagoras, Legatio, 19,1.
At henagor as ther efore is able to pre sen t an apologeti c tour de force.
H e can suggest that the true metap hys ics of orde r, reflected in the
deriv ed po we r of C o m m o d u s from his father, Ma rc us Aurelius , can
not find support in the theologoumena of pagani sm . T h e divine unity
of impe rial society reflects ra th er the rela tionship betw een Fa th eran d Son in the Chri sti an Go dh ead . It was a Platonis ing solution tha t
Plo tinus was lat er to find per suasive , tho ug h wi th a different and
pa ga n acco un t of the unity of the cosmos and its der iva tion from
the One.
Our conclusion must be that iconographic expression of universal
m
C h r o n o s , Z e u s , H e r a , R h e a , O s i r i s , and Isis all come under his censure in
chapters 2 0 - 2 3 .
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 3 0 5
p o w e r f r o m o n e u n i v e r s a l s o u r c e o r o r i g i n , s u c h a s w e h a v e s e e n
w i t h M a r c u s A u r e l i u s a n d F a u s t i n a I I ( 7 A 1.1.3) i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
th e Sa rap i s - I s i s m o t i f o n t h e i r co in s , h as f a i l ed t o im p res s Ath en ag o ras .
H e c l e a r ly d o e s n o t s h a r e t h e c o n v i c t i o n s o f P l u t a r c h o r A p u l e i u s
o n t h e u o v a p x i a o f I si s, a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e o n e g o d d e s s w i t h
m a n y n a m e s . B u t t h e o n t o l o g y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d h e a d w i t h w h i c h
h e r e p l a c e s s u c h a q u e s t f o r a t h e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y e q u a l l y c a n
s e r v i c e a n i m p e r i a l i s t p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y . T h e s p i r i t o f t h e a u t h o r o f
Luke-Acts, a n d h is m e s s a g e t o T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r c le c l e a r l y c o n
t i n u e s i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .
C e r t a i n l y A t h e n a g o r a s ' l a n g u a g e o f d e r i v a t i o n is t o find e c h o e s i n
l a t e r N e o p l a t o n i s m . H e d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h a T r i n i t y o f p e r s o n s ,
a n d in t h e fo l low ing p as sa ge rcveuuo: i s n o t d i s t in gu ish ed f rom Xoyoc;,
v o u q , o r o o cp ia . E a c h is d e sc r i p t i v e o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e So n :
F or as we say, G od , t he So n his Log os a n d H oly Sp irit (coq ydp 9e6v
(papev, Kai inov xov Xoyov auxou, Kai rcveuua dyiov) are u ni ted in po w er
(evoupeva pev Kaxd 8uvap.iv) bu t dist inguished in ran k (Staipoupeva 8e
Kaxd xd^tv) as th e F at he r, th e S on , a n d th e Sp irit (eiq xov rcaxepa, xov
uiov, xo rcveupa) since th e Son of the Fa the r is min d, Logo s, wis dom ,
a n d th e Sp iri t is effluenc e of G o d , as light f rom fire (oxi vouq, Adyoc;,
oocpia 6 uio<; xou rcaxpoq Kai drcoppoia xou Geou cbq cpcoc; anb jcupoq, xo jw eu ua ).
Legatio 24 ,2 .
O n c e a g a i n , t h e a n a l o g y o f d e r i v a t i o n , o f l i g h t f r o m t h e fire, is r e m
i n i s c e n t o f t h e p o l i t ic a l a n a l o g y o f t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n o r d e r o f t h e c o s
m o s a s A p u l e i u s e x p r e s s e d t h i s , i n a P l a t o n i c f o r m , i n De Mundo 6 ,
3 9 8 a 3 1 -3 5 , an d in d eed u sed a l so b y T a t i an (7 C 2 .3 .1 ) . I t i s s i g n i f i can t
h o w ev er t h a t n o t m e re ly t h e co n c ep t o f x d ^iq b u t a l so t h a t o f d rcop p o ia ,
b o t h f o u n d i n t h i s p a s s a g e , a r e u s e d i n a p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t .1 4 4
I n t h e H e r m e t i c f r a g m e n t e n t i t l e d K o pu K o o u o u , I sis b e g i n s h e r
s a c r e d d i s c o u r s e . T h e e a r t h e n t r e a t s h e r t h a t t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r a n d
g o o d n e s s a m o n g s t t h e e l e m e n t s it c o n t a i n s : " if n o t y o u r s e l f (KOCV ou
o e a u x o v ) . . . a c e r t a i n s a c r e d e f f l u e n c e o f y o u r s e l f ( o a u x o u x w a i e p d v
d r c o p p o i a v ) . "1 4 5
W e le a r n t h e n t h a t H e r m e s is t o c o m e a s " a n o t h e r
1 4 4
F o r a u s e f u l s u m m a r y o f r e f e r e n c e s t o u s e s o f a r c o p p o i a a n d c o g n a t e s , s e e
J . A m a n n , D i e Z e u s r e d e d e s A i l i o s A r i s t e i d e s, i n TBA 1 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 7 5 a n d P e t e r s o n
( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 2 3 - 2 5 ; 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 .1 4 5
A . D . N o c k a n d A . J . F e s t u g i e r e , C o r p u s H e r m e t i c u m I V : F r a g m e n t s e x t r a i t s
d e S t o b e e , I V , i n Collection des U niversites de France, Association Guillaume Bude, (Paris :S o c i e t e d ' E d i t i o n « L e s B e l l e s L e t t r e s » 1 9 5 4 ) , F r a g m e n t X X I I I (= S t o b a e u s , I , 4 1 ,
44) , 6 2 , 1 9 - 2 0 .
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306 CHAPTER SEVEN
effluence from my n a ture (exepa ydp ev uuiv xi<; r\5r\ xr\q eufjq drcoppoia
(puaecoq) who shall also be the holy examiner of all that is done (oq
5f| Kai ocioq eoxai xcov rcpaxxouevcov EKOKXJ]^) . . . "1 4 6
But the drcoppoia does not en d with He r mes alone . W h e n Ho ru s
asks his mother by whom the terrestrial sphere is to be ordered, Isis
replies by "the one wh o becom es em pe ro r from ti me to time (6 m i d
mipov yevouevog Paa i^eu q.). " She con tinues:
For, my child, the gods give birth to emperors (yevvcooi ydp, cb xeicvov,
paai^eiq) who are worthy of their earthly progeny (oi 0eoi enafyoxx; xr\q
eTiiyeio-u yovfiq). And rulers are emanations of the emperor (Kai eiaiv oi
ap%ovxe<; xot> PaaiAicoc; dnoppoiai), and the ruler amongst whom is near
est to him (G OV 6 udAAov eKeivco nXr\oiov) is also more royal than the
others (ot>xo<; K ai xcov dMcov paaiXiKcoxepoq). For the sun, as it is nearer
to God (6 uev ydp TIXIOQ , Ka06 eyyiov eaxi xov 0eo\>), is greater and more
powerful than the moon (xfjq oekr\vr\q erciuei cov K a i 8\)vauiKcbxepo<;) . . .
Corpus Hermeticum, Fragment 2 4 , 1 - 2
T h u s we find th e divine ord er of wh at is elsewhe re descr ibed as Isis'
uovapx ia pervades thr ough existence to divine mo na rc hy in the earthly
political sphere. The emperor here, like Caracalla as Koojioicpdxcop,
is the source from wh ic h all ot he r divine political po we r ema na te s
to the dpxovxeq. A view of the worl d as ord erl y em ana ti on der ived
from a Platonised Aristotelianism once again presupposes a refuta
tion of a Gnos ti ci sm th at ma d e th e ae on ic dpxovxeq xou K O O U O U the
source of cosmi c disorde r an d imper fecti on.
At he na go ra s finally de scribes the Ho ly Spirit, w h o m he identifies
with the Son who is vouq, oocpia, and Aoyoq, as we have seen, in
the following terms:
The same Holy Spirit that empowers (mixoi K a i avxb xo evepyovv) those
who proclaim prophetically (xoiq eKcpcovouoi 7tpoq>rixiKcb<;) we say is the
effluence of God (dyiov Ttvevuxx drcoppoiav eivai (pauev xov 0eov) which
flows forth from him (drcoppeov) and returns (K a i eTcavacpepojievov) like
the rays of the sun (ox; dKxiva f|A,(o\)). Who then would not be amazed
(x(q ovv o\)K dv drcopricai) if he heard of men called atheists (aKovoaq
d0eov<; Katayouevouc;) who bring forward God the Father, God the Son
and the Holy Spirit (xoix; dyovxaq 0e6v rcaxepa Kai mov 0e6v Kai KVEVLIOL
dyiov), and who proclaim both their power in their unity (5eiKv\>vxa<;
avxcbv K a i xf)v ev xfi evcoaei 8\)vauiv) and their diversity in rank (Kai xfjv
xfi xd^ei Sia(peaiv).
Athenagoras, Legatio 1 0 , 4 - 5 .
Corp. Herm., F r a g . XXIII (= S t o b a e u s , I, 41, 44), 62, 19 21.
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P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 307
Certainly Athenagoras' language here can be paralleled in pagan
Mo na rc hi an is m as it sought to expl ain all divinity as der ived from
a single dcp%r|. Aelius Aristides, his pagan contemporary, speaks of
Zeus as the dpxu. and the divinity of the other gods as derivation
(dTtoppofi).1 4 7
Thus though Athenagoras does not use the term uovapxia,
he is nevertheless involved in the same conceptual world as Tatian
and, as we shall see, Theophilus, who clearly did. Political power
an d der ive d authori ty is clearly seen by ana log y with the rays of the
sun, ju st as in the Corpus Hermeticum and in the coinage of Caracalla.
'Arcoppoicc as a ter m for emanat ion or deriva tion in na ture is app lied
to the pagan political structure in explication of the concept of an
empire of unity in diversity.
Clearly therefore Athenagoras' analogy between the derivation of
auth ori ty by em an at io n or effluence within the Godh e a d and the
derivative relationship bet ween his son Co mm o du s and the em pe ro r
Marcus Aurelius was sustained by both the pagan religious back
ground and the supportive Platonism that gave that background its
intellectual credibility. There was also a pagan uovapxia in accord
ance with which divine political power overflowed from the one
Em pe ro r an d th ro ug h the one Em pi re , just as in na tu re all was sub
ordinate to the uia dpxu..
Let us finally look at the concept of uovapxia as it frequently
appears in Theophilus, who might well have been employing the
concept of uovapxia in an argument similar to that of Athenagoras
who strongly implies the term even though he does not use it.
7C 2 . 3 . 3 . Theophilus and the pagan quest for the uovapxia
We have seen how Tatian used the term uovapxia against pagans
on the grounds that in their polytheism they were denying a con
cept, bo th ontological an d imperial , to which they wer e otherwise
com mi tt ed . The ophi lu s will now challenge the ability of pa ga n reli
gion to be able to use philosophy to produce its required ontologi
cal uovapxia.
1 4 7 A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s , Eiq Aia, 7,9: Z e i x ; . . . rcpoxepov auxoq eavxov e£ eauxoi) ercoi-
r|G£v K a i o u S e v rcpoae8ef|U> | ex ep o u eiq xo e i v a i , aXX' a u x o x o v v a v x i o v r c d v x a e i v a i arc'
eKeivou r jp^axo . K a i O U K e a x i X p o v o v eiTteiv • o u 8 e yap xpovoq r\v TWO rcoxe, oxi uTjSe aXXo
u r | 8 e v S n u i o v p y o i ) yap epy ov ou Se v ea xi rcpeapvxepov. ouxco 5f| dpxrj uev drcavxcov Zevq
xe K a i £ K Aibq rcdvxa; 7,15: coaxe mi 0ecov oaa (puXa drcoppofiv xf|<; Aioq TOX> rcdvxcovT t a x p o q 8\)vdueco<; e m a x a e'xei. (= B. K e i l , Aelii Aristidis Smyrnaei, opera quae supersunt
omnia, (Ber l in : W e i d m a n n 1 8 9 7 ) , II, pp. 339 347).
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308 CHAPTER SEVEN
Justin Martyr had claimed that the basic philosophical agenda in
the second century consisted in inquiries (£nxr|G£i<;) about the ulti
mat e first principle (rcepi uovapxia<;) and abou t the divine foreknowledge
(rcpovoiaq).14 8
Certainly Theophilus (A.D. 180) is con ce rned with the
uovapx ia as such . But thou gh he is co mm it te d to the basic que st for
the uia dpxu., both religious and philosophical, which he shares with
his pa ga n contempora ries , he nevertheless denies their par tic ula r solu
tion to the quest, c om mo n in the late secon d century, to bo th Pa ga n
and Christian.
It is in the light of his failure to fulfil the second cent ur y agenda
of discove ring an ul tima te first princip le th at Plato, ac co rd in g to
The oph ilus, is to be ju dg ed . By denyin g the creat ion of ma tt er tha t
exists therefore eternally alongside an uncreated God, Plato presents
an account that fails to demonstrate the uovapxia:
But if God is uncreated (ei 8e 6 9e6<; dyevrixo<;) and matter is uncreated
(Kai V X T \ dyeVnxcx;), then, according to the Platonists God is not the
Maker of the Universe ( O U K exi 6 9e6<; rcovnxr)*; xcov 6X,cov eaxiv Kaxd xoix;
nXaxcoviKouq), and, as far as they are concerned, the unique sover
eignty of God is not demonstrated (ou5e pr|v povapxia 0eou 5eiicvuxai,
oaov xo Kax' auxouq).
Theophilus, Ad Autolycum, 2,4-6.
It was not however simply the secondary, philosophy of religion that
had failed but the primary religious discourses themselves. He labours
to de mo ns tr at e the contrad ict ions of the poets , since "nevertheless
they introduce a multitude of gods (KXT\V Kai rcA,r|9uv 0ecov eioriyayov)
or else spoke of one single ultimate origin (r\ K a i uovapxiav eutov)."1 4 9
But why sho uld the first cause of the univer se be clea r to p agan
poets without divine revelation such as the prophets possessed as
they were moved by the prophetic spirit? Theophilus' explanation is
that sometimes the poe ts, shakin g off the dae mon possession t ha t
pe rs ua de d th em otherwise, "ma de stat emen ts (eiitov) in a gr ee me nt
with those of the prophets (aKoAouGa xoi<; Tcpocprixaiq) in order to bear
witness to themselves (ox; eiq uapxupiov eauxoiq) a nd all me n (x e K a i
rcaaiv dvOpamou;) concerning the monarchia of God (rcepi x e Geou uovap-
Xiaq) . . ."1 5
°
Theophilus does not bring out any explicit political analogies with
1 4 8
Justin Dial. 1,3: xi ydp; ox>x oi cpiXoaocpoi rcept Geov xov drcavxa rcoiovvxai taSyov,
e K e i v o q e'Xeye, K a i rcepi uovapxia*; ai>xoi<; K a i rcpovoiaq ai £ r i x T | a e i < ; yivovxai emaxoxe;
TI oi) xorno epyov eaxi <piA.oao(p(a<;, e^exd^eiv 7cepi xov Beicu.I 4 < )
Theophilus of Antioch, Ad Autolyc, 2,8,6.130
Ad Autolyc, 2,8.
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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I AN I SM 3 0 9
th e o n to l o g y o f povccpxioc. B u t we h a v e s een th a t T a t i a n d o e s so ,
w h i l s t s h a r i n g t h e g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e o n e u l t i
m a t e o r i g i n . T h a t q u e s t , w e h a v e e m p h a s i s e d , i n t h e Weltanschauung
o f t h e s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y , w a s n o t s i m p l y to d o w i t h
p h y s i c a l n a t u r e b u t w i t h h u m a n s o c i e ty a n d h i s to r y a s w e l l . B e t w e e n
T a t i a n a n d T h e o p h i l u s , a n d c l ea r ly s h a r i n g t h e i r c o m m o n o n t o l o g
i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , c a m e A t h e n a g o r a s , w h o w h i l s t n o t u s i n g p o v o c p % { a
e x p l ic i tl y , is w e l l a w a r e o f t h e p o l i t ic a l a n a l o g y d r a w n f r o m t h e o n t o
l o g y o f t h e u l t i m a t e c a u s e o r firs t p r i n c i p l e .1 5 1
I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t
t h e i r c o m m o n a p o l o g e t i c p r o j e c t c a n n o t b e d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e i r s y n c r e -
t is ti c, p a g a n re l ig i o u s a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d s . T h e a n a l o g i e s
o f l i g h t, t h e s u n ' s r a y s , o f e m a n a t i o n a n d d e r i v a t i o n , a r e e x e m p l i f i e d
b o t h b y g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s p h i l o s o p h y a n d b y t h e s p e c i f i c i c o n o g r a
p h y a n d c la i m s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
N e i t h e r J u s t i n , n o r T a t i a n , n o r A t h e n a g o r a s , n o r T h e o p h i l u s , d e
s c r ib e i n a n y d e t a i l t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e o p h i l u s ,
w r i t i n g in t h e la t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , w a s o n e o f t h e e p i s c o p a l s u c c e s
s o rs o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o d i s c u s si o n o f C h u r c h
O r d e r a n d its r e l a t i o n t o a w i d e r t h e o l o g y o f t h e G o d h e a d , as w a s
t h e c a s e i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . W e h a v e b e e n a b l e t o s t u d y t h e i r
v ie w s o n t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d h e a d a n d its m o n a r c h i c a l o r d e r a s a
r e fl e c ti o n b o t h o f p a g a n o n t o l o g y a n d o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r . W e h a v e
n o t h o w e v e r b e e n a b l e t o e x a m i n e h o w i m p e r i a l o r d e r , a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y
i m p e r i a l o r d e r e x p r e s s e d i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w a s a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n
C h u r c h O r d e r , a s w e w e r e a b l e t o d o in t h e c a s e o f I g n a t i u s .
B u t c o n c u r r e n t w i t h t h e S e v e r a n r e f o r m a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e
fo rm in to wh ich E lag ab a lu s was t o t ry u n su cces s fu l ly t o p re s s i t , we
w i t ne s s a ls o a n a t t e m p t e d r e v o l u t i o n i n C h u r c h O r d e r in w h i c h
C a l l is t u s w a s i n v o l v e d a s p r i m e m o v e r . W e w i t n e s s a l so a M o n a r c h i a n
t h eo lo g y i n C h u r c h O r d e r p r o p o u n d e d b y t h e a d v o c a t e o f a m o n a r c h -
b i s h o p o v e r a ll t h e h o u s e - c h u r c h e s o f t h e f r a c t io n a l i s e d R o m a n c o m
m u n i t y . W e a r e , c o m e t h e s e e v e n t s , i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o s t u d y t h e
r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g y a n d a M o n a r c h i a n
C h u r c h O r d e r , a n d its c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e la t i o n s h i p w i t h a n i m p e r i a l
o r d e r t h a t h a s d e v e l o p e d i n a f o r m a l l y s i m i l a r w a y .
I t is t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h is r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t w e n o w t u r n f or
o u r f in al a n d c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r .
1 , 1 J . B a d e w i e n , D i e A p o l o g e t e n u n d T e r t u l l i a n , i n S c h i n d l e r ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 ,
f ai ls t o g r a s p t h e r e l a t i o n o f a ll t h r e e A p o l o g i s t s t o a c o n c e p t u a l b a c k c l o t h t h a t t h e y
c l e a r l y s h a r e d .
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C H A P T E R E I G H T
T H E E M E R G E N C E O F I M P E R I A L A N D
C A T H O L I C O R D E R
Elagabalus and Callistus:
A M onarchian Episcopate for an Imperial Monarchy
I n A . D . 2 1 8 , f o l lo w i n g t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f C a r a c a l l a t h e y e a r b e f o r e ,
V a r i u s A v i t u s B a s s i a n u s as e m p e r o r a s s u m e d t h e ti tl e o f M a r c u s
A u r e l i u s A n t o n i n u s . H e t o o k t h e a d d i t i o n a l tit le o f E l a g a b a l u s , t h e
n a m e o f h is f a v o u r e d d e i t y , a n d a t t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o R o m e
th e cu l t o f Sol Invictus Elagabal, tha t i s to say the cu l t o f Sol Invictus
i n i ts sp ec if i cal ly S y r i an fo rm , a s t h e u n iv e r s a l r e l i g io n o f t h e E m p i r e .
T h a t a t t e m p t , c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e sp ec if ic r i t u a la n d p r ie s t l y d r e s s o f t h e f o r m o f a c u l t t h a t w a s a l ie n t o R o m a n
c u l t u r e , f ail ed f or t h a t r e a s o n . It is i m p o r t a n t h o w e v e r t o e m p h a s i s e
th a t i t was n o t a f a i l u re o f t h e p ro ces s o f sy n c re t i sm itself, h o w e v e r
m u c h t h i s m i g h t b e s u g g e s t e d b y t h e damnatio memoriae o f E l a g a b a l u s
himself, b u t t h e fa i lu r e o f a k i n d o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s m i n it s o w n w a y
i n i m i c a l t o s u c h a s y n c r e t i s m .
P a r a l l e l w i t h t h e s e e v e n t s , w e h a v e , d e s c r i b e d in P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s ,Refutatio, I X , 6 - 1 3 , 2 , a n a t t e m p t e d r e li gi o us r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n
c o m m u n i t y b y C a l l i s tu s , in w h i c h w e h a v e a m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s
m o n a r c h i c a l e p i s c o p a te a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n a d v o c a c y of u o v a p x i a
i n t h e g o d h e a d . C a l li s tu s a p p e a r e d t o T e r t u l l i a n a s b e h a v i n g lik e a
p a g a n Pontifex Maximus i n t r y i n g t o b e c o m e episcopus episcoporum} I n
d o i n g so h e , a s p u t a t i v e b i s h o p o f R o m e , w a s b u t m a k i n g s i m i l a r
c l a i m s t o t h o s e o f t h e e m p e r o r E l a g a b a l u s , as Pontifex Maximus o f asy n c re t i sm t h a t fo u n d i t s fin al ex p re s s io n in t h e Ba a l o f E m e sa a s
Sol Invictus. A s a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g i a n , h e w a s l o o k i n g f o r t h e u l t i
m a t e p r i n c i p l e in t h e g o d h e a d f r o m w h i c h al l l e ss e r b e i n g s o r p e r s o n s
w er e d e r iv ed , j u s t a s E l a g a b a lu s co u ld f in d t h a t p r in c ip l e i n Sol Invictus.
B o t h e m p e r o r a n d p u t a t i v e p o p e w e r e r e f le c t in g , i n t h e i r o w n w a y ,
1 A . B r en t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e R o m a n C h u r c h in t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e s
i n T e n s i o n b e f o r e t he E m e r g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , i n Suppl.VCh. 3 1 ( 1 9 9 5 ) ,
p p . 5 1 1 5 1 2 .
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T H E E M E R G E N C E O F IM P E R IA L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 1 1
2
H e r o d i a n , V , 5 , 1 - V I , 1 ,3 ; D i o C a s si u s , 7 8 , 3 1 , 2 - 7 9 , 2 1 , 2 ; S H A , Heliogab.; cf.
G . H . H a l s b e r g h e , T h e C u l t o f S o l I n v i c t u s , i n EPRO 2 3 (1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 6 2 - 7 8 .
< CIL 8 , 8 2 0 3 .
i d e a l s o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y i n t h e s o c i e ti e s o v e r w h i c h t h e y c l a i m e d t o
h a v e t h e right t o r u l e a b s o l u t e l y . W e m u s t n o w e x a m i n e t h e r e l a
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e p a r a l l e l e v e n t s i n t h e l ig h t o f m y th e s i s t h a t
t h e d y n a m i c a n d p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t o f I m p e r i a l a n d C h r i s t i a n
O r d e r b e u n d e r s t o o d d i a le c t ic a l ly a n d i n t e r a c ti v e l y i n t e r m s o f a s o c i o
l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e .
L e t u s b e g i n w i t h E l a g a b a l u s a n d h is p l a c e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .
P A R T A . E L A G A B A L U S A N D U N I V E R S A L M O N O T H E I S M
W e h a v e s e e n i n t h e c a s e o f I sis a n d S a r a p i s , a n d o f t h e i m a g e o f
Sol Invictus w i t h w h i c h t h a t w o r s h i p h a d b e e n a s s o c i a t e d a n d w h o s e
i c o n o g r a p h y S e p t i m i u s a n d C a r a c a l l a h a d a l so e m p l o y e d , a c l e a r c o n
f lu e n ce a n d a b s o r p t i o n o f a p o l y t h e i s m i n t o a n o r d e r e d m o n o t h e i s m
( 7 A 2 . 1 - 2 . 2 ) . T h e w o r s h i p o f C y b e l e t o o h a d r e f le c t e d s i m i l a rl y t h e
d i v i n e i m p e r i a l p o w e r (7 A 1 .2). E l a g a b a l u s , w h o s e re l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e sc a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a t i v e , d i d h im s e l f j o i n t h e r a n k s o f t h a t
p r i e s t h o o d , w a s c a s t r a t e d a n d i n f i b u l a t e d , a n d p l a c e d t h e s t a t u e o f
Magna Mater i n h i s o w n f a v o u r e d s a n c t u a r y o f t h e B a a l o f E m e s a .2
B u t A n t o n i n u s P i u s b e f o r e h i m h a d i n t r o d u c e d t h e taurobolium i n t o
h e r c u l t t h a t w a s p e r f o r m e d e x p r e s s l y pro salute imperatoris as wel l as
o n o c c a s i o n s pro salute totius domus divinae? W e h a v e a l r e a d y w i t n e s se d ,
e v e n b e f o r e t h e S e v e r a n s , e x a m p l e s o f t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f c u l t s f or m e r l y s a n i t i s e d i n t o t h e i m m e d i a t e c i r c l e o f c u l t s o f f er e d o n b e h a l f
o f t h e e m p e r o r (7 A 1.2-1.2.1).
W e wi tn es se d a sy n c re t is t ic p ro c es s o n th e p a r t o f t h e ea r ly Im p e r i a l
C u l t i n w h i c h o t h e r h i t h e r t o i n d e p e n d e n t d e i ti e s w e r e a s s i m i l a t e d
w i t h t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e e m p e r o r a n d r e l a t e d t o t h is i n a n e w w a y .
O n e e x a m p l e o f t h a t p r o c e s s w a s t o d e s c r i b e t h e v a r i o u s d e if ie d
V i r t u e s b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f v a r i a n t s o f augustus, s o t h a t t h e d i v i n eV i r t u e s b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e c o ll e ct iv e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e e m p e r o r
( 2B 3 ). A n o t h e r e x a m p l e w a s th e r e c e p t i o n o f a n e m p e r o r s u c h a s
H a d r i a n i n to t h e cu l t o f D io n y su s so t h a t h e b e co m es a v eo q Aio v u a io q
( 6 B 2 ) , b u t m o r e t h a n s i m p l y a n o r d i n a r y in i t i a t e . B u t w h a t is n e w
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3 1 2 C H A P T E R E I G H T
i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y is c l e a r ly b o t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l e a s t e r n
d e i t ie s a n d t h e i r c u l t s , a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i m a g e
i n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s i m p e r i a l u n i t y m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y .
I n s u p p o r t o f E l a g a b a l u s ' r e f o r m s , t h e r e h a d b e e n a r e c o g n i t i o n
o f t h e S y r i a n A r t a g a t i s , a g o d d e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n u m b e r o f S y r i a n
B a a ls s u c h a s H a d a d . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e w a s a ls o M i t h r a i s m , w h o s e
sy n th es i s w i th t h e cu l t o f Sol Invictus s h o u l d n o t , a s H a l s b e r g h e h a s
a r g u e d , b l i n d u s t o t h e s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e o f t h is c u l t w i t h c l a i m s t o
o n e p e d i g r e e i n t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n r e l i g i o n .4
T h e a m b i g u i t y a l s o c o n
t i n u e d w h e n t h e e m p e r o r w a s b o t h h i g h p r i e s t a n d o b j e c t o f h i g h -
p r i e s t l y a c t i o n o f c u l t o f f er e d b y a n d t o t h e s a m e p e r s o n . T h u s t h e
e v e n t s o f t h e r e i g n o f E l a g a b a l u s w e r e t o w i t n e s s , n o t a d e f e a t , b u t
a s e t b a c k t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s o l ar m o n o t h e i s m t o w a r d s w h i c h
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s m o v i n g , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r m a j o r r e l i
g i o u s m o v e m e n t s w i t h w h i c h i t h a d a s s o c i a t e d itself.
A l t h o u g h a m a r r i a g e t o a V e s t a l V i r g i n l e a d t o g r e a t o u t r a g e i n
a R o m a n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e r e w a s c l ea r ly n o c o m p r e
h e n s i o n o f s u c h E a s t e r n a n d S y r i a n j u s t if i c a ti o n s , h is t h i r d m a r r i a g e
d i d n o t . H i s m a r r i a g e t o A n n i a F a u s t i n a w a s m a r k e d b y t h e t r a n s
l a t i o n o f t h e i m a g e o f t h e g o d d e s s Dea Caelestis f ro m C a r t h a g e a n d
N o r t h A f r i c a i n o r d e r t o e n t e r h i s Elagabalium, a n d b e c o m e p a r t o f
the cu l t o f Sol Invictus. H o w e v e r , a t e m p l e t o t h a t c u l t h a d e x i s te d
o n t h e P a l a t i n e s i n c e 2 0 4 B . C . , w i t h s o m e o f t h e c o n s t r a i n t s c o n
n e c t e d w i t h its w o r s h i p h a v i n g b e e n r e m o v e d b y C l a u d i u s . E l a g a b a l u s
c l e a r l y h a d t r i e d t o o h a r d t o e x p e d i t e a p r o c e s s o f s y n c r e t i s m t h a t
w a s a l r e a d y p r o g r e s s i n g , a l b e i t w i t h o u t t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f c h i l d
s a c r i f i c e s a n d c a s t r a t e d p r i e s t s .5
T h e r e w a s c l e a r ly a w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f s y n c r e ti s ti c i c o n o g r a p h y t o
r e i n f o r c e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y . S e p t i m i u s a n d C a r a c a l l a h a d u s e d a v a r i
e t y o f i m a g e s f r o m v a r i o u s c u l ts d u l y s y n c r e t i s e d . E l a g a b a l u s ' m i s t a k e
h a d b e e n p a r a d o x i c a l l y t o d e n y t h a t s y n c r e t i s m in p r a c t i c e t h r o u g h
t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l o f h i s o n e , f a v o u r e d c u l t , a n d b y s u b o r
d i n a t i n g o t h e r d e it ie s t o h is o w n r a t h e r t h a n a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t a ll
w e r e , a s it w e r e , c o n s u b s t a n t i a l a n d c o - e t e r n a l w i t h e a c h o t h e r . I n
th i s r e s p e c t h i s m i s t ak e m a y h av e b e en th eo lo g ica l a s we l l a s p o l i t i
c a l . H e s i m p l y h a d n o t r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e B a a l o f E m e s a w a s s i m p l y
4 V a r r o , De Re Rustica, 1 , 1 , 5 ; D i o n y s i o s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s , Antiqu. Rom., 1 1 , 5 0 , 3 ;T a c i t u s , Annal. X V , 4 1 , 1 ; 7 4 , 1 a n d H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , c h a p . 2 .
s H a l s b e r g e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 8 4 8 8 .
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T H E E M E R G E N C E O F I M P E RI A L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 1 3
6 Ibid. C h a p t e r 5 .7
B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 3 8 8 - 4 5 7 .8 Ibid. p p . 4 2 4 - 4 3 1 .
o n e m o r e i m a g e o r a s p e c t o f t h e o n e li g h t b e y o n d t h e m a l l, j u s t a s
d e a d a n d d e i f i e d e m p e r o r s s t o o d f o r t h e c o l l e c t i v e a n d n o t i n d i v i d u a l
i m p e r i a l v i r t u e s . T h e c o n s p i r a c y t h a t s w e p t h i m a w a y i n A . D . 2 2 2 ,
l a u n c h e d b y J u l i a M a m a e a h is a u n t a n d h e r s o n S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ,
h i s c o u s i n , w a s n o t t o h a l t t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w a s t o
l e a d t o a s o l a r m o n o t h e i s m r e f le c t e d i n a u n i v e r s a l m o n a r c h y .6
O u r th e s is h a s b e e n t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e o f C h r i s t i a n c o m
m u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e to f o r m t h e G r e a t C h u r c h d e v e l o p e d , a s c o n t r a -
c u l t u r e s d e v e l o p , i n d i a l e c t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e
o f t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e in w h i c h t h e y a r i se . W e m u s t n o w a s k h o w t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t n e s s e d i n E l a g a b a l u s 5 p a g a n
e m p i r e f o u n d t h e i r r e fl ec ti on i n t h e C h r i s t i a n R o m a n C o m m u n i t y
o f C a l l is t u s a n d h is a n o n y m o u s o p p o n e n t , t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Elenchos.
P A R T B . C A L L I S T U S , M O N A R C H B I SH O P S A N D M O N A R C H I A N I S M
W e h a v e a l r e a d y e m p h a s i s e d h o w t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e o l o g i c a l r e f le c t io nw i t h i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n
t u r y p a r a l l e l e d s u c h p a g a n d e v e l o p m e n t s (7 C ) . A s i m i l a r , p a r a l l e l
p r o c e s s o f s y n c r e t i s m r e fl e c te d in C h u r c h O r d e r w a s a l so p r o c e e d
i n g . I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e C l e m e n t i n e Homilies, i n w h i c h
J a c o b e a n a n d P e t r i n e t r a d i t i o n s flow t o g e t h e r i n t o a u n i t y e x p r e s s e d
c r y p t o g r a m i c a l l y in t h e p s e u d o n y m o u s l e t te r s w i t h w h i c h t h is w o r k
b e g i n s ( 7 C 1). B u t w i t h t h e d o c u m e n t s in w h i c h C a l l i s tu s p r e f i g u r e s ,w e a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o e v a l u a t e s p e ci f ic a l ly d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e
a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t h a t d i r e c t l y p a r a l l e l
t h e E l a g a b a l a n r e f o r m a t i o n .
8B 1 . Callistus' revolution in Church Order
C a l l i s t u s , a s I h a v e a r g u e d i n d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e , w a s n o t a P o p e i n
t h e la t e r se n s e b u t p r e s i d e d o v e r a g r o u p o f h o u s e c h u r c h e s w i t h
l oo se b o n d s o f i n t e r c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r e s i d i n g e7UGK07to< ; -
7tpeaPuT£po<; o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n i t y .7
T h e p r e s b y t e r s , l i k e t h e i r
c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e , d id m e e t f o r m a l l y fo r d is c u s
s i o n s , a h e a t e d e x a m p l e o f w h i c h is f o u n d i n El. I X , 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 6 .8
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314 C H A P T E R E I G H T
They did have at their head a chairman-secretary, who, as Lampe
also argued,9
supervised the distribution of letters from ext ern al
Churches amongst the house-churches, and w ho was responsible for
writing replies where necessary on behalf of all the groups. Clement
of Rome had be en such a figure, an d, if n o t identical with him, also
the Clement of Hermas Vis. II, 4 , 2 ~ 3 , w ho had such a function
entrusted to him ( e T U T e T p o m a i ) as his ministry.1 0
T h e pu rp os e of Callistus' refo rmat ion was to re duc e the semi-
autonomous congregations to a monarchical whole with himself as
monarch-bishop at the centre. His method in executing the revolu
tion was to exercise a policy of leniency in matters of discipline.
Callistus was prepared to admit to his house-church those w ho had
been ex com mun ica ted f o r various sins from ot her house-c hurche s in
Rome. Those house-churches had always, as Ignatius' Romans, insc.
(TT\ e K K ^ n o i o c . . . r i n g K a i 7 ipoKd0r | xa i ev xon& xcopiou Tcopaicov), or fo r
that matter Paul's Romans 16, ma ke clear, regarded themselves together
n o t as separate churches but constituting the one church of Rome.
A ma rk of this unity was in te rc om mu ni on m ar ke d by the exc han ge
of the fermentum between themselves.
A gro up such as the Qua rt od ec im an s had been exc omm uni cat ed,
and the means was presumably that the other congregations ceased
to exchange the fermentum with them.1 1
Marcion and Valentinus had
left, with their followers, of their own accord .1 2
It is against such a
backcloth that we must understand Callistus' strategy. His offence,
in the eyes of the author of the Elenchos, was not t h a t Callistus was
an anti-Pope erected against his ow n lawful papacy. This author
never claims to possess himself what Callistus had only thought,
according to him, that he now possessed as the object of his ambi
tions and the reforms which he initiated.1 3
Callistus had rather b r o
ken the disciplinary conve ntion of n o t co mm un ic at in g with those
wh om anoth er presiding presbyter of another house-church has excom-
9
P. L a m p e , Die s t a d t r o m i s c h e n C h r i s t e n in den e r s te n b e i d e n J a h r h u n d e r t e n ,
in WUKT 2,18 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 3 8 8 - 4 1 2 .1 0
H e r m a s Vis. II, 4,2-3 and L a m p e (1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 3 5 - 3 3 7 cf. A. B ren t , Ps eu d o n y m i t y
a n d C h a r i s m a in the M i n i s t r y of the E a r l y C h u r c h , in Aug 27,3 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , pp. 3 4 7 - 3 7 6
w h i c h a p p e a r e d at the s a m e t i m e as the f irst edi t ion of his b o o k . See a l s o B ren t
( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 0 - 4 3 4 .1 1
E u s e b i u s , H.E. V, 24,15 and B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 2 - 4 1 5 .1 2 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 8 - 4 2 1 ; L a m p e ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 3 1 - 3 3 2 .11
El. IX, 1 2 , 1 5 : vop(^(ov TeiDxriKevai oi) eQr |p a xo w i t h o u t h ere s p ec i f y i n g xov xfjc;
e7ucnco7rii<; B p o vo v as in IX, 11,1. See a l s o B ren t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 419 and p. 427.
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T H E EMERGENCE OF IMPERIAL AND CATHOLIC ORDER 315
14
EL IX , 12,20-21 and 25, cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 7 - 4 1 8 ; pp. 4 3 2 - 4 3 6 .15
Ibid. 12,21-22 and 1 Tim. 3,2, cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 518.16
Ibid. 12,24-25 cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 5 2 0 - 5 2 3 .1 7
U l p i a n , Dig., I, 9,8, cf Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 521, particularly references in footnote
1 0 1 .18
El. IX , 12,6 and 13, 1-4.
municated. It was this convention that clearly constituted the "cus
to ma ry bou nd ar y (opoq)" tha t Callistus was ove rs teppi ng.1 4
8B 1.1. The charges against Callistus
The once or twice widowed clergy that Callistus allowed to remarry
twice or three times had previously clearly communicated with the
house-group of the author of EL Callistus clearly asserted they suffered
no im pe di me nt such as tha t imp ose d by wh at was to be co me the
New Testament demand that a bishop or deacon be "husband of
on e wife (uiaq yuvancoq av8pa ) ."1 5
Unions between patrician ladies
and househol d slaves or freedmen we re allowed by him . So me wh at
casuistically, Pseudo-Hippolytus claims that this lead to the commit
ting of mo rt al sin after bapt ism.
T h e mor ta l sins of adul ter y an d mur de r we re , he claims, enc our
aged. "Adul te ry (uoi%eia)" he app arend y claims is co mm it te d by a
wi dow ed cler gyman whe n he rem arr ies , or is ind eed an apt desc rip
tion of "fornicat ion (rcopveiot)" whe n com mi tt ed con tr ar y to R o m a n
law with a slave.1 6
M u r d e r (cpoveia) results from abort io ns wh ic h
som e pat ri ci an wo m e n sou ght in view of capit al legal sa ncti ons
following the conception of a child from such a union.1 7
Callistus
was also apparendy to be held responsible for Elkasite second bap
tism in that he had created the climate in which mortal sins could
be absolved after baptism, and thus even second baptism itself be
justified.1 8
Call istu s' stra tegy of rel axi ng discipline pr ov ed a very successful
o n e . It ach iev ed his ma in objective of centralising ecclesiastical p ow er
on himself and his successors, such as his predecessors, including
Clement, had never wielded in their secretary general's office over
oth er house -ch urc hes . It is of course paradox ical th at the looseni ng
of disc ipline sh oul d ha ve ha d this en d bu t, vis a vis the other
e7UGKorcoi-7tpeapUT £poi, it undoubtedly did. Callistus was making no
threa ts. His we re simply acts of forgiveness and reconc ilia tion. Like
Tertullian's adversary, whom we believe was in fact Callistus him
self, he could quote often Romans 14,14, and add that "the sons of
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T H E E M E R G E N C E O F I M P E R IA L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 1 7
8 B 1 .1 .1 . Callistus' broader justification
W e a r e d e p e n d e n t p r i m a r i l y o n C a l l i s t u s ' o p p o n e n t , t h e a u t h o r o f
t h e Elenchos, w h o m , a s w e h a v e s e e n , u s e s e x t r e m e c a s u i st r y t o p r o
d u c e a b i a s e d a c c o u n t o f h i s c l a i m s . B u t w e c a n a l s o , I b e l i e v e , u s e
T e r t u l l i a n w h o b o t h i n t h e Adversus Praxeam, a n d in h i s a t t ac k o n th e
" e d i c t " o f t h e episcopus episcoporum a n d pontifex maximus, i s in fact a t ta ck
i n g C a l l i s tu s . T h e m a i n g r o u n d s a g a i n s t s u c h a n i d e n t if i c a ti o n w e r e
a l w a y s t h a t a n e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y p o p e c o u l d n o t i s s u e u n i v e r s a l
e d i c t s s o t h a t T e r t u l l i a n ' s a t t a c k h a d t o b e u p o n a p u r e l y l o c a l b i s h o p .
B u t , a s I h a v e a r g u e d i n d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e , m y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d o e s n o t
d e p e n d o n C a l li s tu s h a v i n g f u n c t i o n e d a s a p o p e in t h e l a t e r se n s e .
A f a c t io n a l is e d c o m m u n i t y a t R o m e in t e n s i o n b e t w e e n its v a r i o u s
h o u s e c h u r c h e s , a n d r a i si n g s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s a b s o l u t i o n fo r m o r t a l
s i n a f t e r b a p t i s m a n d c l e r i c a l r e m a r r i a g e , c o u l d n o t f a i l t o d r a w i t
s elf t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a s i m i l a r c h u r c h i n N o r t h A f r i c a d i v i d e d b y
a M o n t a n i s m t h a t h a d n o t y e t b r o k e n c o m p l e t e l y f r o m t h e g r e a t
C h u r c h .2 0
T e r t u l l i a n h i m s e l f d o e s m e n t i o n t h e contesseratio hospitalitatis
b r o u g h t b y a C h r i s t i a n tr a v e l li n g f r o m o n e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t o
a n o t h e r s u c h a s f r e q u e n d y o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n R o m e a n d N o r t h A f ric a.
T h e c o n d i t i o n s of a b s o l u t i o n a s o f o r d i n a t i o n w o u l d i m p a c t u p o n
s u c h si gn s o f i n t e r c o m m u n i o n p r e s e n t a t t h is e a r l y p e r i o d .2 1
L e t u s l o o k t h e r e f o r e a t w h a t C a l l is t u s w a s c l a i m i n g . H e w a s c l a i m
i n g t h a t t h e C h u r c h w o u l d b e a m i x e d c o n g r e g a t i o n s u c h a s t h e a r k
o f N o a h i n w h i c h c l e a n a n d u n c l e a n a n i m a l s w e r e c o m b i n e d t o g e t h e r .
A n o t h e r p r o o f - t e x t fo r h i s p o l i c y w a s t h e P a r a b l e o f t h e W h e a t a n d
t h e T a r e s .2 2
F r o m t h e a u t h o r o f £ 7 .'s m o r e p u r i t a n i c a l p o s i t i o n ,
C a l l i s t u s c a n b e m a d e t o s a y t h a t t h e c l e a n a n d u n c l e a n s h o u l d e x i s t
b o t h t o g e t h e r i n t h e C h u r c h . B u t n o d o u b t C a l l i s t u s w o u l d h a v e
h a d a n o t h e r r e a s o n . H i s w a s a p o l ic y o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g a w i d e d i v e r
s it y o f v i e w s a n d p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n a c o m m o n u n i t y . I n t h a t r e s p e c t
h e r e f l e c t e d t h e g e n e r a l S e v e r a n p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y t h a t w e h a v e o u d i n e d ,
2 0 S e e D . R a n k i n , Tertullian and the Church, ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 3 5 - 3 6 ff.
f or a c o g e n t r e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t i n De Anima, 9 , 4 T e r t u l l i a n i s d e s c r i b
i n g a M o n t a n i s t p r o p h e t e s s h a v i n g p r i v a t e v i s i o n s d u r i n g t h e n o r m a l , c a t h o l i c
E u c h a r i s t a n d o n l y r e h e a r s i n g t h e s e w h e n t h e M o n t a n i s t g r o u p w i t h i n t h e c a t h o l i c
c o n g r e g a t i o n m e e t s a f t e r w a r d s b y itself. C f. U . N e y m e y r , D i e c h r i s t l i c h e n L e h r e r
i m z w e i t e n J a h r h u n d e r t : I h r L e h r t a t ig k e i t , i h r S e l b s t v e r s t a n d n i s , u n d i h r e G e s c h i c h t e ,
in Suppl. VCh 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 . S e e a l s o B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 5 3 8 - 5 3 9 .2 1 T e r t u l l i a n , De Praesc. Haer. 2 0 , 7 - 9 cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 5 0 5 - 5 0 9 .22
El. I X , 1 2 , 2 2 - 2 3 .
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318 CHAPTER EIGHT
if no t the more radical an d forced imposi tion of that policy rep re
sented by his co nt em po ra ry em pe ro r Elagabalus .
8B 1.1.2. Callistus and Elagabalus' reformationWe have argued that contemporary imperial policy was reflected in
an ontology of uov apx ia. Callistus def en ded a Chr is ti an form of
Monarchianism that we have seen to be present in the apologists,
an d em plo yed by th em in conscious awaren ess of the relati onship
between politics and ontology. Consequently they could imply that,
if a justificat ion of ontolo gical uov apx ia was inco he re nt , th en so
would be the princip le of political uovapx ia. Callistus ar gued , acco rding to his opponent:
Of that he says the Son himself is also the Father (on 8e Kai xov auxov
uiov eivai Aiyei Kai rcaxepa), no one is ignorant (ouSeiq dyvoei). For he
speaks as follows (Aiyei yap ouxcoq): when then the Father has not been
born (oxe pev ouv pri yeyevrixo 6 rcaxnp), he is jusdy called "Father" (8iKaico(;
rcaxriprcpocrriyopeuxo).But when he is pleased to experience birth from
the virgin (oxe 8e t|u86icnae yeveaiv E K rcapGevou upopeivai), the Father,
being begotten (yevvr|0ei<; 6 rcaxTip), becomes himself Son of himself, and
not of someone different (mbq eyevexo auxoq eauxou, oux exepou). Thus
he thinks (ouxcoq youv 8oKei) he has established the monarchia (povapxiav
auviaxav), asserting that Father and Son subsist as one and the same
being (ev Kai xo auxo (pdaKcov urcdpxeiv Ttaxepa Kai uiov), becoming not
different the one from the other (yivopevov oux exepov e£ exepou), but
the same from himself (aXX auxov e£ eauxou).
Elenchos IX, 10, 1 0 - 1 1 .
We see here what was no doubt Callistus' own expression of his aim,
nam el y uovapxia v auv iaxav . It is impossible tha t such an expression
could be or ought to be dissociated from the conceptual web that,
by the end of the second century, formed the backcloth to the dis
cussion of cosmic an d social ord er , Pag an or Chris tian, imperi al or
apologist. Such a term came already value-laden, and we have seen
ho w Ta ti an c an accuse the Greeks of den yin g uova pxi a in an im pe
rial and political sense because their polytheism cannot support their
ontological case for a single origin (7C 2.3.1). We have seen how
for At he nago ra s the eart hly kin gdo m of father Mar cu s Aurelius an d
his son C o m m o d u s is a reflection of the heavenl y ki ng do m of Fat he r
and Son (7C 2.3.2). In establishing the uovapxia against the alleged
ditheism of the au th or of El. and his group, Callistus was following
the pattern set by writers such as Tatian against polytheism.2 3
23
El. IX, 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 6 .
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T H E E M E R G E N C E OF I M P E R I A L AND C A T H O L I C O R D E R 319
T h e r e are , h o w e v e r , s e v e r a l p o i n t s to be m a d e in d e m o n s t r a t i o n
o f the m o r e t h a n a c c i d e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C a l l i s t u s ' r e f o r
m a t i o n a n d t h a t of E l a g a b a l u s . W e see in the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s
c l ea r r e f l ec t i o n s of the l a t t e r in the f o r m e r .
8 B 1 . 3. 1 . P o n t i f e x M a x i m u s and e p i s c o p u s e p i s c o p o r u m
W h e n T e r t u l l i a n a t ta c k s C a l li s tu s in t h e s e t e r m s , he is c l e a r l y c o m
p a r i n g th e l a t t e r ' s a c t i v i t y a n d c l a i m s w i t h t h o s e of the r e i g n i n g
R o m a n E m p e r o r . Pontifex Maximus is c l e a r l y a p a g a n t i t l e for the
E m p e r o r as H i g h P r i e s t of the R o m a n P a n t h e o n in w h i c h the I m p e r i a l
C u l t was i n c r e a s i n g l y e m e r g i n g as c e n t r a l . T h e b i s h o p of R o m e wasn o t as yet g i ve n t h is t i d e . F u r t h e r m o r e , T e r t u l l i a n m e n t i o n s an e d i c t
o f t h i s b i s h o p w h i c h c l e a r l y the b i s h o p of R o m e w o u l d not be a b l e
t o d e l i v e r in C a r t h a g e . It wil l not do, h o w e v e r , on t h i s a c c o u n t to
s u b s t i t u t e a s h a d o w y A g r i p p i n u s as l o c a l b i s h o p of C a r t h a g e in o r d e r
to f i l l t h i s ro l e . T e r tu l l i an wi sh es to r e p r e s e n t at all co s t s the R o m a n
b i s h o p as b e h a v i n g l i k e the c o n t e m p o r a r y e m p e r o r , and so he u s e s
h i g h l y m e t a p h o r i c a l l a n g u a g e in w h i c h C a l l i s t u s is r e p r e s e n t e d as ifh e w e r e an e m p e r o r d o i n g s u c h t h i n g s .
2 4
W e e m p h a s i s e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the t h e o l o g y of I g n a t i u s of
A n t i o c h the e s s e n t i a l l y p a g a n b a c k g r o u n d of his r e g a r d i n g b i s h o p s ,
p r i e s t s , a n d d e a c o n s as eiKove<; of the s a v i n g m y s t e r y of the i n c a r
n a t e g o d h e a d (6A 2.1). In t h i s r e s p e c t he r e f l e c t e d the p o s i t i o n in
t h e E a s t w h e r e " p r i e s t s a n d p r i e s t e s s e s p e r s o n i f i e d the d e i t y w h o m
t h e y s e r v e d . "2 5
It is in s u c h a c o n t e x t t h a t H a l s b e r g h e l o c a t e s them a r r i a g e of E l a g a b a l u s w i t h the V e s t a l V i r g i n A q u i l i a S e v e r a . She
r e p r e s e n t e d V e s t a as he r e p r e s e n t e d E l a g a b a l .
T h e palladium of M i n e r v a - A t h e n a , t a k e n out of the t e m p l e of the
f o r m e r , was t r a n s p o r t e d to Elagabalium on the P a l a t i n e . V e s t a ' s s h r i n e
c o n t a i n e d n o i m a g e of herself. T h u s the m a r r i a g e of p r i e s t a n d p r i e s t
ess was in f a c t r e g a r d e d by him as a t h e o g a m y . T h e i r c h i l d r e n w o u l d
b e the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of c o m b i n e d d i v i n i t i e s , a n d Sol Invictus w o u l dt h u s e x h i b i t the d i v i n e e s s e n c e a l s o of V e s t a - M i n e r v a . "I did th i s
(TOUT' eTcoinaa) in o r d e r t h a t , of c o u r s e (iva 8f| K a i ) g o d l i k e c h i l d r e n
(Georcperceiq 7tai8e<;) m i g h t be b o r n f r o m me the h i g h - p r i e s t a n d f r o m
t h i s h i g h - p r i e s t e s s (EK xe epou xou apxiepecoq E K xe xauxnq xf|<; dpxiepeiaq
yevvcovxai)."26
His j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h i s act to the S e n a t e was t h a t "a
2 4
T e r t u l l i a n , De Pudic. 1,1-2 cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 5 0 4 - 5 0 5 .2 5
H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 90.2 h
Dio ( X i p h i l i n u s ) 80, 9,3.
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320 CHAPTER EIGHT
ma rr ia ge of a priest and a priestess was a th ing of reverence (oePda-
uiov eivai yduov iepecoq xe K a i iepeiaq)."2 7
T h u s Elaga balu s justified his
marriage to the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa as a theogamy that
united through their sacred and divine offspring the combined divini
ties of Sol Invictus and Vest a-M ine rva . A line of divine priests incar
nating the essences of the male and female divinities into a unity or
povap%ia wo ul d thus result. In th at just ification, the claim for bo th
to be dp%i£p£t><; and dp^iep ei a now co mbined was clearly pr esen t.
Suc h a cont rove rsy is mi rr or ed too in the dispute betwe en Callistus
and the author of EL Callistus is cl ai mi ng the ulti mat e right t o
absolve over presbyte rs of the ot he r house grou ps . And for the first
time in the history of the apostolic ministry images of dpxiepaxeia
now become important. I have argued elsewhere that the notion that
James' authority was sacerdotal, and that the episcopal succession
lists we re mod el led on those of Je wi sh H ig h Priests is m isconcei ved.2 8
But in the lite ratur e of the Hi ppo ly ta n com mu ni ty , in part icu lar ,
that composite work published under the tide of the Apostolic Tradition,
Aa roni c an d sacerd ota l images of the bis hop 's office beg in to fuse
with Mosaic images that had characterised that office as essential
one of a te ac hi ng succession. Th a t fusion is one of the consequences
of the Callistan ref orm ati on.2 9
Certainly the author of EL insists on a plurality of successors to
the apostles. As he says, refe rring to himself as on e amon gs t others
in the Ro m a n c om mu ni ty by use of the collective "we ":
We have become their successors (cbv ripeiq 5 i d 8 o x o i xuyxdvovxeq), and
we participate in the same grace of both high priesthood and teach
ing, (xnq xe auxfjq xdpixoq pexe ovxeq dpxiepaxeiaq xe Kai 8i8aoKaA,ia<;), and,
being reckoned as guardians of the Church (Kai.cppoupoi xfjc; eKK^r|cria<;
A.eta>ytGpevoi), we neither let our eye slumber ( O U K ocpGa^pfjq vuoxd-
£opev), nor do we keep silence about or thodox discourse (ou8e Xoyov
6p06v aiconcopev). . . .
Elenchos I, prooem. 6
In the confluent curre nts of imagery , Mos ai c an d Aar oni c, Callistus
is cla imi ng th at at the he ad of the tradit ion mus t stand no t s imply
a single Moses who could have been Christ, but a sacerdotal rep-
2 7
Herodian V , 6 , 2 .2 8 A. Brent, Diogenes Laertius and the Apostolic S u c c e s s i o n , in JEH 44,3 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ,
p p . 3 6 7 - 3 8 9 ; Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 7 7 - 4 8 1 .29
Ap. Trad. 3 and 7 cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 471 492.
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THE E M E R G E N C E OF I M P E R I A L AND C A T H O L I C O R D E R 321
B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 473.
Petr. ad lac. i n s c . cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 5 1 2 5 1 3 .
resentat ive of Mos es (Christ), wh o, like an Igna ti an bis hop or i ndee d
like Elagabalus stood as an icon of the divine being that he repre
sented. But according to Pseudo-Hippolytus, all the presiding £7C{OKO7COI-
rcpeoPuxepoi could be said not simply to participate in the priesthood
but in the high priesthood (xr\<; xe am?[q %dpixo<; pexe^ovxec; dpxiep-
axeiaq xe Kai 8i8aoKaA , ia<;) . Callistus could not simply make himself
the supreme teacher by claiming that such an office needed to be
consecrated in the person of a single dp^iepeix;.
But Elagabalus was clearly claiming the indivisibility of the dp%-
tepaxeia . T h e povapxi a requ ir ed th e drcoppoia from a single dp%f|,
Sol Invictus. To secure a single hierocratic iconography, children must
be pr oduced (Georcperceic; 7cai8eq) who were icons of Sol Invictus incor
po ra ti ng Vesta-Minerva. Callistus likewise is co nc er ne d with povap%ia
in whi ch one source of po we r withi n the go dh ea d corr espon ds to
one source of autho rity over the fractionalized R o m a n co mm uni ty.
H e will secure this, as ha d Cara ca lla , by poi nti ng to the dp /i ep ax ei a
as flowing through him as his high-priest, as opposed to existing as
an abstract principle in which all could generally and without gra
dation participate. For him, as for Ignatius, there could be only one
Hi gh Priest an d therefo re, wh en the sacerdot al is imp ose d up on the
Mosaic, one leader emerges over the rcpeopuxepoi from whose spirit
their authority was derived.3 0
The title episcopus episcoporum, which goes with the title Pontifex
Maximus, reflects clearly Ter tul lia n's criticism of wh at was ha pp en
ing specifically wit hin the ch an gi ng pa tt er n of au thor it y within the
Roman Church. But that such a title can be seen to be part of the
c om m on P aga n an d Christi an pr og ra m of the early third centur y,
in whi ch the real ch ar ac te r of historical mo ve me nt s an d ideas could
be established with reference to their ultimate historical origin, can
be seen from its use in the Cl em en ti ne lit erat ure. He r e J a m e s in
called episcopus episcoporum in the ps eu do ny mo us lette r of Pe ter to
h im.3 1
But, as we hav e ar gue d, in Di oge nes ' hist orio grap hy, the two
successions are fused in to on e by means of a fictional epis tola ry
exchange. A fictional exchange of letters is also the literary device
which the Clem enti nes share with Diogene s Laertios. T h e exc han ge
of letters express the validity, whether of Christianity or of Greek
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322 CHAPTER EIGHT
philosophy, by reference to an ultimate historical dpxu., an Urzeit in
wh ic h the ex ch an ge took place and such a uni ty arose (7C 1.1).
Onc e mo re we find ourselves at the cent re of discour se abo ut ulti
ma te origins tha t is clearly contro lling bo th Chr ist ian an d Pa ga n
ontol ogy an d the co rr es po nd in g ideology of bo th Imp eri al an d
Christian Order.
Callistus therefore appeared to Tertullian as behaving like a pagan
Pontifex Maximus in trying to become episcopus episcoporum. In so doing
h e , as putative bishop of Rome, was but making similar claims to
those of the em pe ro r Elaga balus, as Pontifex Maximus, of a syncretism
that found its final expression in the Baal of Emesa as Sol Invictus?2
As a Monarchian theologian, Callistus was looking for the ultimate
principle in the godhead from which all lesser beings or persons were
der ived jus t as Ela gabalu s could find t ha t princip le in the cult of Sol
Invictus. Both emperor and putative pope were reflecting, in their
own way, ideals of imperial unity in the societies over which they
claimed to have the right to rule absolutely.
Let us now turn to the second way in which Callistus is seen to
be associated with the events of his time, and to reflect imperial pol
icy in his ecclesiastical policy.
8B 1.1.2.3. Social values of Callistus and Pseudo- Hippolytus
T h e highly cont rived piece of casuistry by me an s of which the au th or
of El. convicts Callistus of absolv ing the mor ta l sin of murder rea ds
as follows:
For he even allowed women (Kai yap Kai yuvai^ iv ercexpevj/ev), if they
should be without husbands (ei dvav8poi elev) and they burned due to
their youthful age for a man (Kai TjXtKia ye xe eiq av8pa eKKaioivxo), they
[being] of noble rank (a! ev d^ia), if they were unwilling to degrade
their rank (ei XT^V eauxcov d^iav r\v pfj poutanvxo KaGaipeiv) through legal
marr iage (8id xou vopipcoq yapr|8Tivai), to take someone whom they
should choose as a bed partner (e'xeiv eva, ov av aipf |acovxai, ouyKoixov),
whether household slave or free (eixe oiKexnv eixe etauGepov), to treat
this person (Kai xouxov Kpiveiv) as in place of a husband (dvxi dv5po<;)
even though she was not married by law (xf|v \n\ vopcp yeyaprjpevriv). In
consequence (ev6ev) women who were so called believers began to try
(rip^avxo ercixeipeiv ai rciaxai Xeyopevai) even to bind themselves round
with medicines against conception (dxoKioic; (pappaKoi<; Kai xa> rcepiSeo-
•*2
For the use of these terms in the cult of Sol Invictus, and their association with
the Emperor, see Halsberghe ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 77.
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T H E EMERGENCE OF IMPERIAL AND CATHOLIC ORDER 323
peioGai) in order to abort what they had conceived (itpbq xo xd ovX-
taxpPavopeva KaxaPdMeiv) because they were unwilling either to have
a child from a slave (8id xo pr|xe E K bo\)Xo\) fiovXzoQai e'xetv xeicvov) or
from a social inferior (pr|xe e£ evxeXotx;), because of their noble andsuperior birth (6id xrjv oruxcov euyeveiav Kai vrcepoyKov ouaiav).
Elenchos IX, 12,24-25
As Preysing pointed out, the author here reveals a clash of social
values between Callistus' group and his own. His critique assumes
a senatorial and patrician perspective on Callistus' activity.3 3
For the
leader of one group of what is an illegal sect to accuse the other of
not following pagan law on matrimony seems bizarre, but that isprecisely to what the criticism amounts: Callistus had sanctioned a
union involving a woman xf|V pr| vopcp yeyapnpevr|v, that is to say
pagan marriage law. No doubt, as Dollinger pointed out, Callistus
would have replied that there were no distinctions after baptism
between "male and female, bond nor free."3 4
The writer clearly attributes the quest for dxoKioc cpdppam to the
proper repugnance of "ladies of noble rank (ai ev d ^ i a ) " not to dilute
their "noble and superior birth ( T X \ V auxcov euyeveiav K a i urcepoyKov
ouaiav)" with progeny "from someone socially inferior (e£ euxeXouq)."
Undoubtedly this represents the patrician repugnance that he feels
and which he attributes to the ladies in question. But for them child
birth in this situation was not necessary a question of repugnance
towards offspring from a partner who was euxeAriq, which means lit
erally "of depleted value", nor indeed a desire to avoid degrading
their rank (XTJV . . . d ^ i a v . . . KaGaip e iv ) . Rather the quest for abor
t i o n s , a nd henc e the cpoveia of the ir un born chi ldr en, was because
they as women of senatorial rank lived under the threat of capital
punishment for cohabitation with a slave (oiKexriq). 35 Certainly mar
riage with a freedman was illegal, as the author claims.3 6
3 3 K. von Preysing, Der Leserkreis der Philosophoumena Hippolyts, in %KTh 38
( 1 9 1 4 ) , pp. 4 2 1 - 4 4 5 .34 Gal. 3,28 cf. I. von Dollinger, Hippolytus und Kallistus, oder Die romische Kirche in
der ersten Halfte des dritten Jahrhunderts, (Regensburg: Jos eph Ma nz 1 8 5 3 ) , p. 254.3 5 In Justinian, Dig. I, 9,8, Ulpian, the contemporary of the author of EL, states
t h a t a matrona was subject to the death penalty for sexual relations with s l a v e s .3 6 Justinian, Dig. X X II I, 2,4 2: "Mo des tin us, Bk 1 D e ritu nup tiar um: Si senatoris
filia n e p t i s proneptis libertino vel qui artem ludicram exercuit cuiusue pater materue
id fecerit nupserit, nuptiae non erunt," which clearly denies the validity of the marr i a g e of ai ev a£(a (= senatoris filia) to an etavGepoq (= libertinus) or even a free ei)xeA,f|<;
(vel qui artem ludicram).
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3 2 4 C H A P T E R E I G H T
C e r t a i n l y E l a g a b a l u s w o u l d h a v e n o c l a i m t o s h a r e t h e v a l u e -
s y s te m o f R o m a n p a t r i c i a n s o c ie ty . I n d e e d , t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y i ts elf
w a s f o u n d e d o n t h e p e r f i d y o f t h e m u r d e r o f P e r t i n a x , w h o s e n a m e
S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s b o r n w i t h o s t e n t a t i o u s p r i d e a s h i s o w n , b y D i d i u s
J u l i a n u s w h o l e a d a s e n a t o r i a l r e a c t i o n t h a t c l e a r l y f a i l e d ( A . D . 1 9 3 ) .
J u l i a n u s ' c r e d e n t i a l s w i t h t h e S e n a t e w e r e h i g h d u e t o h i s h a v i n g
b e e n p r o s e c u t e d s ev e r al t im e s d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f C o m m o d u s .3 7
B u t
t h e n o t i o n t h a t , w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t if i c a ti o n , s e n a t o r i a l
l a d i e s s h o u l d m a r r y t h e i r s l a v e s o r f r e e d m e n , d e s p i t e p a t r i c i a n h o s
t il it y, w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p e a r e d a s s c a n d a l o u s a s b e f o r e , in t h e s o c i al
e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f Sol Invictus Elagab as th e final fo rm
a n d d e f in i ti o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . C e r t a i n l y s u c h m a r r i a g e s w o u l d
n o t b e m o r e s c a n d a l o u s t h a n t h e a c t i o n of t h e E m p e r o r a s Pontifex
Maximus o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t o f Sol Invictus m a r r y i n g a V e s t a l V i r g i n
a l so w i t h a n e w a n d r a d i c a l t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
C e r t a i n l y t h e senaculum mulierum, e s t a b l i s h e d b y E l a g a b a l u s , m e n
t i o n e d i n a n o t h e r w i s e d u b i o u s s o u r c e b u t c o n f i r m e d b y e x c a v a t i o n s ,
w as i n d i ca t i v e o f a so c i a l p o l i cy i n w h i ch so c i a l ro l e s a n d s t a tu s w er e
b e c o m i n g f l u i d .38 T h e w r i t e r o f t h e S H A m e n t i o n s , m o r e o v e r , t h e
p r e d e c e s s o r o f t h i s senaculum b e in g h e ld o n ce r t a in f e s t i v a l s (sollem-
nibus. . . diebus). I ts p r i o r f u n c t io n w a s t o p r o v i d e k i n s w o m e n o f t h e
e m p e r o r s w h o h a d m a r r i e d h u s b a n d s w h o w e r e n o t nobilitati w i t h
" o r n a m e n t s o f c o n s u l a r m a r r i a g e (consularis coniugii ornamenta)" T h e
p u r p o s e w a s t h a t " t h e y s h o u l d n o t l o s e t h e i r c o n s u l a r r a n k (ne inno-
bilitatae remanereni)" i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f s u c h m a r r i a g e s . T h e a u t h o r o f
EL w o u l d c l e a r l y h a v e u p h e l d t h i s p r e v i o u s f u n c t i o n i n h i s d e s i r e
th a t cd ev oc^toc d i d n o t d e g ra d e th e i r r a n k (xfw d ^ ia v K a 0 a i p e i v ) . B u t
c l ea r ly n e w ru l e s , t h e p u rp o se o f w h i ch i t is d if fi cul t t o d i s ce rn , w er e
n o w b e i n g d e v e l o p e d . U p h o l d e r s of t r a d i t i o n a l s e n a t o r ia l v a l u e s m i g h t
w e l l c r i t i c i s e E l a g a b a l u s f o r t r a n s g r e s s i n g e s t a b l i s h e d n o r m s ( o p o i ) o f
R o m a n , p a g a n s o c ie t y , j u s t a s w e h a v e s e e n t h e a u t h o r o f EL to
h a v e d o n e i n t h e c a s e o f C a l l i s t u s a n d C h r i s t i a n s o c i e t y .
W e m u s t n o w c o n s i d e r a t h i r d p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e fo r h o w , i n t h e
m i n d s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y o b s e r v e r s , t h e e v e n t s o f C a l l i s t u s ' c a r e e r p a r
a l l e l e d t h o s e o f E l a g a b a l u s .
3 7 A . B i r l e y , Septimius Severus, the African Emperor, ( L o n d o n : E y r e a n d S p o t t i s w o o d e
1 9 7 1 ) , p . 1 5 4 .
3 8 S H A , Elagab., 4 , 3 c f . A . P a s q u i , R e g i o n e V I . A n t i c o e d i f i c i o r i c o n s c i u t o p e r l a
s e d e d e l s e n a c u l u m m u l i e r u m , i n NScavAnt, A n n . 3 1 1 , 5 , 1 1 ( 1 9 1 4 ) , p p . 1 4 1 - 1 4 6 .
S e e a l s o H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 7 0 .
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THE EMERGENCE OF IMPERIAL AND CATHOLIC ORDER 325
3 9
SHA, Elagab., 3,4 cf. M. Sordi, II Cristianesimo e Roma, in Storia di Roma
X I X , Istituto di Studi Romani, (Bologna: Cappelli 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 2384 0
For the identification of this with a work mentioned in Theodoret, and in
Anastasius Sinaitica, see Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 84- 85 and p. 331. For Julia Mamaea' s
role in the downful of Elagabalus, see Halsberghe ( 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 1 0 1 - 1 0 3 .4 1
P. Allard, Histoire des Persecutions pendant la premiere moitie du troisieme siecle (Septime
Severe, Maximin, Dece), d'apres les documents archeologiques, (Paris: LeCoffre 1 8 8 6 ) , pp.
1 8 8 - 1 9 0 cf. H. Dal Covolo, I Severi e il cristianesimo: Ricerche sull'ambiente
storico-istituzionale delle origini cristiane tra il secondo e il terzo secolo, in Biblioteca
di Scienze Religiose, 87 (Libreria Atheneo Salesiano: Rome 1 9 8 9 ) , p. 16 and pp. 6 4 - 6 5 .
8B 1 . 1 . 2 . 4 . Callistus' martyrdom and the fall of Elagabalus
Both the mar ty rd om of Callistus an d the violent en d of Elagabalus
took place in the same year (A.D. 222). There is no need to see
Ela gabalu s as a definite sup port er of Chr ist ian ity , on the shallow
basis of the SHA, and on the very dubious notion that his consort
and former Vestal Virgin, Aquilia Severa, was in fact the Severina
to which one work on the Statue of the Hippolytan community was
ded ica ted .3 9
Mos t of the references to dedi cati ons poi nt to Ju li a
M a m a e a a nd her circle, in the next reign , that of he r son Severus
Alexander, after Elagabalus' downfall in which she was direcdy instru
mental. Certainly the Hippoly tan commu nit y addressed Jul ia M am a e a
with respect.4 0
But it was otherwise with the reforms of Elagabalus,
and with what Callistus partially against the background of those
reforms proposed for the Christian community.
T h a t a later martyrology will desc ribe the events of the la tter 's
death in similar terms to those of Elagabalus show that the general
impres sion on the min ds of con tem por ar ies a nd later was tha t t he
two figures were in some way associated. It is my argument that the
sociological thesis that I have pursued and invoked throughout this
monograph can explain the association without any conscious and
intentional links on the part of the individuals participating in the
action. Christian communities form contra-cultures to the pagan host
culture, in part imitating both its social and its ontological con
struction of reality. But in part they also reconstruct the host cul
ture, so that their de pe nd en ce on tha t culture is conceal ed but no ne
the less necessary.
There was, according to Allard, a historical core to the late Acta
Martyrii Sancti Callisti.*1
The r e is at all events clearly a relationsh ip
bet ween the descriptions of the ma nne r of their death s, suggesting
a clear folk mem ory that these were the prod uc ts of similar hi sto
rical events at a similar moment which were in some way related to
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326 C H A P T E R E I G H T
each other. Callistus is martyred by being "thrown through the win
dow of a house (per fenestram domus praecipitari) a n d with a stone tied
to his neck (ligatoque ad collum ems saxo), submerged in a well (in puteum
demergi), a n d rubbish piled upon him (et in eo rudera cumulari)."*2
After Elagabalus is slain by the praetor ian guard on Alexander
and Mamaea's instruction, his mutilated body is dragged through
the streets.4 3
This, one source informs us, is:
in order that the soldiers might throw it into the sewer (ut id in cloa-
cam (- cloaca maxima) milites mitterent). But when the cloaca by chance
failed to take it (sed cum non cepisset cloaca fortuito), they attached a weight
that it should not float (adnexo pondere ne fluitaret), and threw it into the
Tiber from the Aurelian bridge (perpontem Aemilium . . . in Tiberim abiec-
tum est), so that it could never be buried (neumquam sepeliri posset). His
body had also been dragged around the Circus (tractum est cadaver eius
etiam per Circi spatid) before thrown into the Tiber (priusquam in Tiberim
praecipitaretur).
SHA, Elagabalus, 17, 1-3.
The idea that the cloaca maxima could not take his body seems strange,
but clearly required the second stage of throwing the body into the
Tiber direct. T h e Epitomist to Cassius D io claims that the body was
thrown direcdy into the Tiber (eq xov rcoxctuov evepXr|0r|), b u t men
tions the unsuccessful attempt to escape by hiding in a chest (epeXXev
xvXXov e|xpA,T0ei<; eicSpavai ).4 4
It is Herodian, however , w h o gives
us the simplest a n d most likely original account, namely that, after
Elagabalus a n d Soaemias were drawn a n d mutilated: "he was thrown
into the sewers (eq xoix; 6%exouq &7t£ppi(p9r|) which run down into the
river Tiber (xouq xov Guppiv rcoxapov peovxaq)."4 5
In at tempting to reconstruct the true relationship between the
accounts of the m a r t y r d o m of Callistus and the assassination of
Elagabalus, we can be certain only of equivalences or near equiva
lences in both descriptions. Both Callistus a n d Elagabalus are "thrown
(praecipitari/praecipitaretur/drceppicpOri)" into a well or sewer (in puteum/
4 2
A c t a S. C a l l i s t i P a p a e M a r t y r i s R o m a e , 8, in M i g n e P.L. 10, col. 120.4 3
SHA, Elagab., 17, 1-3: "Pos t hoc in eum i m p e t u s f a c t u s est a t q u e in la tr ina
a d q u a m c o n f u g e r a t o c c i s u s . t r a c t a t u s d e i n d e per p u b l i c u m ; a d d i t a i n i u r i a c a d a v -
eri est. . ." cf. Dio C a s s i u s L X X X , 20,2: mi oci xe K e c p o c t a x i d7t£K07tT|oav, m i xd
acbuaxa yuuvGoOevxa TO |iev T t p a k o v 8id 7idor|<; xfjq rcoXeox; ec \ >pT | . . and H e r o d i a n V,
8 , 9 : i d 5e o a > | i a x a xou xe 'Avxcoviou K a i xfj<; I o a i | i ( 8 o < ; 7 i a p e 8 o a a v a v p e i v xe m i
e v o p p i ^ e i v x o iq p o i A o u e v o K ; • a rc ep in\ KQ\X> 5id T c d a r i q xr\<; TioXeax; avpevxa . . .4 4
Dio C a s s i u s , 80, 20,2.4 f )
H e r o d i a n , V, 8,9.
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3 2 8 C H A P T E R E I G H T
o c c u r s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , t h a t c h a n g e , h o w e v e r
t e m p o r a r y , is a re v e r s a l o f a n e v o l v i n g g o a l . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e
c o n t r a - c u l t u r e t h a t is r e l a t e d d i a l e c t i c a ll y w i t h t h e h o s t c u l t u r e w i ll
f in d i ts e lf s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e s e n d e a v o u r i n g t o
c h a n g e t h e h o s t c u l t u r e . T h i s h a s c l e a r l y h a p p e n e d i n t h e c a s e o f
C a l l i s t u s . N o d o u b t h e a n d h is f o ll o w e r s w o u l d n o t h a v e i d e n t if i e d
t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , y e t , i n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e i r c a s e
a g a i n s t it p l a u s i b l e w i t h a l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e t o t h e m
s e lv e s a s w e l l a s t o o t h e r s , t h e y n e e d e d t h e b a c k c l o t h o f b o t h o n t o
l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e h o s t c u l t u r e o n w h i c h
t h e y w e r e p a r a s i t i c . B u t h a v i n g p u r s u e d a n d c o n s t r u c t e d s u c h a l e g i t
i m a t i o n , t h a t l e g i t i m a t i o n w a s b o u n d t o fa il i n t h e e y e s o f t h o s e s e e k
in g to ch an g e rad i ca l l y t h e d i r ec t i o n o f t h e h o s t - c u l tu re . T h u s Ca l l i s t u s
fell, o r ap p e a r e d in t h e ey es o f h i s c o n te m p o ra r i e s t o f all , fo r s im i
l a r r e a s o n s a n d i n a s i m i l a r w a y t o E l a g a b a l u s .
T h e a u t h o r o f EL a n d hi s g r o u p , w h o s o u g h t to c o n s t r u c t t h e i r
l e g i t i m a c y i n a d i f fe r e n t w a y r e g a r d i n g t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , w o u l d n o t
h a v e l a m e n t e d C a l l i s tu s ' f a te . A s I h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , t h o s e
w h o s e t h i n k i n g w a s c l e a r ly a t h o m e i n t h e c ir c le o f J u l i a D o m n a
( 7 C 1.2) d i d n o t s h r i n k f r o m d e d i c a t i n g w o r k s o f t h e o l o g i c a l p h i l o
s o p h y to J u l i a M a m a e a , m o t h e r o f S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , w h o l e a d t h e
r e v o l u t i o n .
P A R T C . I N C O N C L U S I O N :
T H E L E G A C Y F O R D E C I U S A N D C Y P R I A N
T h e r e w a s n o c o n c e r t e d p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h b e f o r e
t h e fall o f t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y a n d t h e a c c e s s io n o f M a x i m u s w h o ,
a c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s , p e r s e c u t e d t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e C h u r c h w h o
h a d b e f r i e n d e d t h e f o r m e r r e g i m e .4 8
C a l l i s tu s d i e d , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
a s t h e r e su l t o f a p e r c e i v e d a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h i m p e r i a l p o l i c i e s t h a tw e r e o v e r t h r o w n b y r e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y itself, a n d
i n t h e g e n e r a l c h a o s t h a t s w e p t E l a g a b a l u s a w a y . T h e g e n e r a l p e r
s e c u t i o n , w h e n it c a m e , w a s t h a t o f D e c i u s T r a j a n i n A . D . 2 5 1 , w i t h
w h i c h w e b e g a n o u r d i s c u ss i o n i n C h a p t e r 1.
B u t a s F r e n d h a s c o g e n t l y a r g u e d , t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s i n w h i c h
t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n o c c u r r e d , a n d t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s
E u s e b i u s , H.E. V I , 2 8 , 1 2 , c f B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 8 1 ; p . 2 9 1 ; p p . 3 7 8 3 7 9 .
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T H E E M E R G E N C E O F IM P E R I A L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 2 9
4 9 W . C . H . F r e n d , Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l1 9 6 5 ) , p . 3 1 2 ; idem. The Rise of Christianity, ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d
1 9 8 6 ) , p . 4 4 0 . S e e a l s o D a l C o v o l o ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 5 4 - 5 5 .
w e r e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y .4 9
T h e s e r e l ig i o u s a n d p o l i t
i c a l o b j e c t i v e s E l a g a b a l u s s h a r e d . H e s i m p l y f a il e d i n t h e m e a n s t o
s e c u r e t h e m b e c a u s e o f a r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m t h a t i d e n t i fi e d h i s
o w n l o ca l B a a l o f E m e s a w i t h Sol Invictus, a n d t h u s o b s c u r e d t h e
s y n c r e t i s m o f a g r a d u a l i s t p o l i c y . C a r a c a l l a ' s c i t i z e n s h i p la w i n A . D .
2 1 2 , a n d h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s s a c r e d r o l e a s E m p e r o r a s t h e
s o u r c e o f d i v i n e p o w e r a s KOOuoKpdxcop t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e u n i f y in g
a r c h e t y p a l li g h t f l ow e d , m a d e p o ss i b le t h e D e c i a n p e r s e c u t i o n . I f t h e
m a j o r i ty of t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e R o m a n E m p i r e w e r e
i n s c r i b e d o n r o ll s o f c i t i z e n s , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h i n e r y w a s i n
p l a ce t o s ec u r e t h e i r ac t o f s ac r i f i c in g in c en se a t t h e i r l o ca l a l t a r o f
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . If t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s n o w t h e m e a n s o f s y m
b o l i s i n g i m p e r i a l u n i t y , a n d i n d e e d e f fe c ti n g w h a t it s y m b o l i s e d b y
th e p a r t i c i p a t io n o f a l l c i t i zen s , t h e n th e l o g i c o f w h a t w as in e ffec t
t h e s a c r a m e n t o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y c l e a r ly r e q u i r e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o
b e l e g a ll y e n f o r c e d .
O v e r a g a i n s t t h a t c u lt , a s w e s a w al so i n C h a p t e r 1, C y p r i a n
p l a c e d h i s v i e w o f t h e C h r i s t i a n episcopatus, i n w h i c h e v e r y l o c a l
b i s h o p s t o o d f o r t h e w h o l e , l i k e t h e s u n ' s r a y s e m a n a t i n g f r o m a
c o m m o n s o u r c e a n d g iv i n g u n i t y a n d l ig h t t o t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r .
T h e i r m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d i n t e r c o m m u n i o n c o n s t i t u t e d t h e u n i t y
o f t h e B o d y of C h r i s t . A t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e n e x u s o f i n t e r c o m m u
n i o n s t o o d t h e b i s h o p o f R o m e . T h e s u c c e s s o r s o f C a l l i st u s t r u l y
w e r e a c o n v e r s e r e f le c t io n o f t h e d iv i n e E m p e r o r a s Pontifex Maximus,
a n d m e d i a t i n g a u n i f y i n g o n t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y j u s t a s finally C a r a c a l l a
a n d E l a g a b a l u s h a d c l a i m e d . T h u s E p i s c o p a l O r d e r r e f l e c t e d I m p e r i a l
O r d e r , n o t a s a d e r i v a t i o n o r e x p r e s s i o n o f i t, b u t a s i ts r e v e r s e
i m a g e in a n o p p o s i n g c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e . T r u e C h r i s t i a n s w e r e n o t t o
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a c r a m e n t o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y b u t i n t h e s a c r a m e n t
o f t h e B o d y o f C h r i s t .
T h i s m o n o g r a p h h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t C y p r i a n ' s t h e o l o g y o f
O r d e r w a s n o t s i m p l y a n ad hoc r e a c t i o n to I m p e r i a l p o w e r as m a n
i f e s te d i n t h e D e c i a n p e r s e c u t i o n . C y p r i a n finished a n e d i fi c e o f
C h u r c h O r d e r th a t d e v e lo p e d , pari passu, w i t h I m p e r i a l O r d e r , a s
t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C u l t h a d d e v e l o p e d , pari passu, w i t h
t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w h e t h e r i n S t . L u k e o r S t . C l e m e n t , t h e S e e r
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3 3 0 C H A P T E R E I G H T
o f t h e Apocalypse o r S t . I g n a t i u s , o r i n d e e d i n S t . I r e n a e u s o r S t .
H i p p o l y t u s .
T h e d y n a m i c o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d its d i a l e c ti c h a s a l so b e e n
a t l e a st p a r d y e x p l a i n e d b y a s o c io l o g ic a l m o d e l o f c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e .
B u t I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f C h u r c h O r d e r s u p p o r t e d b y
a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g y o f t h e g o d h e a d t h a t a r o s e a s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l
r e a c t i o n w a s a n h e r e t i c a l a n d n o t a n o r t h o d o x t h e o l o g y . A n d , t o t h e
e x t e n t t h a t m o d e r n f o r m s o f e p i s c o p a c y , o f t h e k i n d t h a t I h a v e
a t t a c k e d i n a p r e v i o u s w o r k , r e f l e c t s u c h a M o n a r c h i a n b a s i s , t h e y
c l e a r l y r e f l e c t , i n b o t h t h e o l o g y a n d p r a c t i c e , h e r e t i c a l r o o t s .5 0
T h e e m e r g i n g o r t h o d o x d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y a s t h r e e p e r s o n s ,
e a c h c o n s u b s t a n t i a l a n d c o - e t e r n a l , c a n n o t fit i n t o th e m o u l d o f a
s u c h a s o c i a l l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d d e v e l o p m e n t . I n c o n s e
q u e n c e t h e r e m a y h e r e b e t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f a n a r g u m e n t f or t h e t r a n
s c e n d e n t g r o u n d s o f d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n b r e a k i n g i n t o , b u t n o t a b s o r b e d
b y , its s u r r o u n d i n g c u l t u r e .
B u t t h a t m u s t b e a n o t h e r a r g u m e n t a n d a n o t h e r s t o r y .
1 0 A . B r e n t , E c u m e n i c a l R e l a t i o n s a n d C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a t e s , i n AThR 7 2 , 3 ( 1 9 9 0 ) ,
p p . 2 5 5 - 2 7 9 ; Idem. C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e M i n i st r y
i n C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e A g e o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t hs p e c ia l r e f e re n c e to c o n t e m p o r a r y e c u m e n i s m , i n Studies in Christian Mission 6 , ( L e i d e n :
EJ . Br i l l 1992) .
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B I B L I O G R A P H Y
A b d e l M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b , 6 KcxpcxKaAAoc; Ko ouo K pdx cop, in JEgArch 4 7 ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p .
1 1 9 - 1 3 3 .
A h l F . M . , Lucan. An Introduction, ( I t h a c a a n d L o n d o n : C o r n e l l U . P . 1 9 7 6 ) .
A l e x a n d e r L . , T h e P r e f a c e t o L u k e ' s G o s p e l . L it e ra r y C o n v e n t i o n a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t
i n L u k e 1 . 1 -4 a n d A c t s 1 . 1 , i n SNTS m o n o g r a p h s e r i e s 7 8 ( 1 9 9 3 ) .
A l fb l d i A . , Die monarchische Representation im rbmischen Kaiserreiche, ( D a r m s t a d t : W i s -
s e n s c h a f t l i c h e B u c h g e s e l l s c h a f t 1 9 7 0 ) .
A l f b l dy G . , S u b j e c t a n d R u l e r , S u b j e c t s a n d M e t h o d s : a n A t t e m p t a t a C o n c l u s i o n ,i n A . S m a l l (E d . ) , S u b je c t a n d R u l e r : T h e C u l t o f t h e R u l i n g P o w e r i n C l a s s i c a l
A n t i q u i t y , i n JRA: S u p p l . S e r i e s , 1 7 (1 9 9 6 ) .
A l l a r d P . , Histoire des persecutions pendant la premiere m oitie du troisieme siecle (Septime Severe,
Maxim in, Dece), d'apres les documents archeologiques, (P a r is : L e C o f fr e 1 8 8 6 ) .
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S q u i r e s J . T . , T h e P l a n o f G o d i n L u k e - A c t s , i n SNTS m o n g r a p h s e r i e s 7 6 ( C a m b r i d g e :
1 9 9 3 ) ,
S t a a ts R . , D i e m a r t y r o l o g i s c h e B e g r i i n d u n g d e s R o m p r i m a t s b e i I g n a t iu s v o n A n t i o
c h i e n , i n ZThKl'h ( 1 97 6 ) , p p . 4 6 1 - 4 7 0 .
S t a uf fe r E . , J i i d i s c h e s E r b e i m v o r c h r i s t li c h e n K i r c h e n r e c h t , i n 7 L £ 7 7 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 2 0 1 .
, Christ and the Caesars: Historical Sketches, ( L o n d o n : S . C . M . 1 9 5 5 ) .
S t e p h a n H . , D a s V e r k e h r s l e b e n i m A l t e r t h u m , in Historisches Taschenbuch ( E d . F . v o n
R a u m e r ) 9 , 4 , ( L e i p z ig : B r o c k h a u s 1 8 6 8 ) .
S t r e e t e r B . H . , The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 5 1) .
S t r e ck e r G . , D a s J u d e n c h r i s t e n t u m i n d e n P s e u d o c l e m e n t i n e n , i n 7 7 7 7 0 ( 1 9 5 8 a n d
1 9 8 1 ) .
S t r o u x J . , D i e C o n s t i t u t i o A n t o n i a n a , i n Phil 8 8 (4 2 ) ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 9 5 .
S w a r d e y W . M . , T h e I m i t a t i o C h r i s ti i n t h e I g n a t i a n L e t t e r s , i n VCh 2 7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,
p p . 8 1 - 1 0 3 .
S w e t e H . B . , The Apocalypse of St. John, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 1 1) .
S y m e R . , The Roman Revolution, ( O x f o r d : U . P . 1 9 6 0 ) .
T a k a c s S . A . , Is is a n d S a r a p i s i n t h e R o m a n w o r l d , in EPRO 1 2 4 ( 1 9 9 5 ) .
T a l b e r t C , L i t e r ar y P a t t e rn s , T h e o l o g i c a l T h e m e s , a n d th e G e n r e o f L u k e - A c t s , in
SBLMS 2 0 ( 1 9 7 4 ) .
T a y l o r V . , The Historical Evidence for the Virgin Birth, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 2 0 ) .
T h e i s s e n G . , Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity, t r a n s . J . B o w d e n , ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :
F o r t r e ss 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 - 3 0 .
T h u r i a n M . , L ' O r g a n i s a t i o n d u m i n i s t e r e d a n s l ' eg l is e p r i m i t i v e s e l o n S a i n t I g n a c e
d ' A n t i o c h e , i n VC 2 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 7 1 .
T o d M . N . , N o t e s o n s o m e In s c r ip t i o n s f r o m A s ia M i n o r , i n CR 2 9 , 1 ( 1 9 1 5 ) , p p . 1 - 2 .
T o r e l l i M . , Typology and Structure of Rom an Historical Reliefs, ( A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y
o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s 1 9 8 2 ) .
T o t t i M . , Ausgewahlte Texte der Isis- und Sarapis-Religion, ( Z u r i c h : O l m s 1 9 8 5 ) .
T o y n b e e J . a n d W a r d P e r k i n s J . , The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations,
( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s G r e e n 1 9 5 6 ), p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 6 .
T r a n k l e H . , Livius und Polybios, ( B a s l e / S t u t t g a r t : S c h w a b e 1 9 7 7 ) .
T r e b i l c o P ., A s i a , i n T h e B o o k o f A c t s i n I ts G r a e c o - R o m a n S e t t i n g , (E d . W J . G i l l
a n d C . G e m p f ) , i n The Book of Acts in Its F irst Century Setting, V o l . 2 ( M i c h i g a n
a n d Ca r li sl e: E e r d m a n s / P a t e r n o s t e r 1 9 9 4 ), p p . 2 9 2 - 3 6 2 .
T r e i t i n g e r O . , Die ostromische Kaiser- und Reichs-idee nach ihrer Gestaltung im hofischen
^eremoniell vom ostromischen Staats- und Reichsgedanken, ( D a r m s t a d t : G e n t n e r 1 9 5 6 ) .
T r e v e t t C , P r o p h e c y a n d A n t i - E p i s c o p a l A c ti v it y : A T h i r d E r ro r C o m b a t t e d b y
I g n a t i u s ? i n JE H 3 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 7 1 .
T u r c a n R . , H e l i o g a b a l e p r e c u r s e u r d e C o n s t a n t i n ? i n Bulletin de VAssociation Guillaume
Bude, 1 ( 1 9 88 ) p p . 3 9 - 5 2 .
V a i l l a n t M . , D u t it re d e N e o c o r e d a n s l e s m e d a i l l e s f r a p p e e s s o u s l es e m p e r e u r s
r o m a i n s , i n Histoire de VAcademie royale des inscriptions, 2 ( 1 71 7 ) , 5 4 5 - 5 6 1 .
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B I B L I O G R A P H Y 3 4 3
V a n g g a a r d J . H . , The Flamen: A Study in the History and Sociology of Roma n Religion,
( C o p e n h a g e n : M u s e u m T u s c u l a n u m P res s) .
V e r m a s e r e n M J . , C o r p u s C u l t u s C y b e l a e A t t i d i s q u e ( C C C A ) , i n EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 7 )
V o l . I ( 1 9 8 7 ) A s i a M i n o r ; I I ( 1 9 8 2 ) G r a e c i a a t q u e I n s u l a e ; I II ( 1 9 7 7 ) I t a l i a -
L a t i u m ; I V ( 1 9 7 8 ) I t a l ia - A l i a e P r o v i n c i a e .
V e r m a s e r e n M . J . ( E d .) , D i e O r i e n t a l i s c h e n R e l i g i o n e n i m R o m e r r e i c h , in EPRO 9 3
( 1 9 8 1 ) .
W a c h s m u t h C , Ioannis Stobaei, anthobgii libri duo priores qui inscribi solent Ecbgae Physicae
et Ethicae, ( B er li n : W e i d m a n n 1 8 8 4 ) .
W a l l a c e - H a d r i l l A . , T h e E m p e r o r a n d h is V i r t u e s , i n Historia 3 0 ( 1 9 81 ) , p p . 2 9 8 - 3 1 4 .
, R o m e ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , i n JRomS 7 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 1 5 7 - 1 6 4 . ;
W a l a s k y P . W . , " A n d s o W e C a m e t o R o m e " : T h e P o l it ic a l P e r s p e c t i v e o f S t . L u k e ,
in SNTSMS 4 9 ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
W a l s h P . G . , Lwy: his Historical Aims and Methods, 2nd Ed. (Br i s to l : C lass i ca l Press
1 9 8 9 ) .
W a l t e r E . V i c t o r , F r o m C o u n t e r c u l t u r e t o S u b c u l t u r e : a n E p i s o d e i n t h e H i s t o r y
o f P o v e r t y , i n L e v e n t m a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 5 - 8 6 .
W a n k e l H . , Imchriften Griechischer Stddte aus K leinasien ( B o n n : H a b e l t 1 9 7 9 ) , V o l s . 1 1 - 1 7 :
Die Inschrifien von Ephesus.
W a r d m a n A . , Religion and Statecraft amongst the Roma ns, ( L o n d o n : G r a n a d a 1 9 8 2) .
W e i n s t o c k S . , Divus Julius, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 7 1 ) .
W e n g s t K . , Pax Roman a and the Peace of Jesus Christ, t ra n s . J . B o w d e n , ( L o n d o n : S C M
1 9 8 7 ) .
W e t t e r G . P . , A l t c h r i s t l i c h e L i t u r g i e n : D a s c h r i s t l i c h e M y s t e r i u m : S t u d i e z u r G e s c h i c h t e
d e s A b e n d m a h l e s , in FRLAJVT 1 3 ( 1 9 2 1 ) .
W i l k e n R . L . , The Christians as the Roman s saw them, ( N e w H a v e n a n d L o n d o n : Y a l e
U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) .
W i s s o w a G . , R e l i g i o n u n d K u l t u s d e r R o m e r , i n Handbuch der Altertumswissenschqft,
5 , 4 ( 1 9 1 2 ) .
W h i t t a k e r M . (E d . ), T a t i a n , Oratio ad Graecos, a n d f r a g m e n t s , i n OECT ( 1 9 8 2 ) .
Z a n k e r P . , The P ower of Images in the Age of Augustus, t r a n s . A . S h a p i r o , ( A n n A r b o r :
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P re s s 1 9 9 0 ) .
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I N D I C E S
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1 . B I BL I C AL C I T A T I O N S
G e n e s i s
2 , 9 1 7 8
3 1 , 3 1 - 3 5 2 4 1
E x o d u s
3 0 , 1 a n d 7 8 8
L e v i t i c u s
2 9 2
N u m b e r s
2 4 , 1 7 1 8 6
1 S a m u e l
2 ,7 155
2 S a m u e l
2 2 , 3 9 2
1 C h r o n i c l e s
1 3 , 1 0 - 1 1 8 8
2 3 , 1 6 8 8
P s a l m s
2 , 7 9 6
2 , 7 - 9 1 8 6
1 7 , 1 8 - 1 9 9 2
4 0 , 3 1 5 6
7 8 , 2 5 1 8 2
1 1 8 1 1 5
P r o v e r b s
2 0 , 2 7 1 5 3
I s a i a h
2 , 1 - 4 1 0 0
7 , 1 4 5 7 , 9 6
1 0 , 3 3 1 5 51 1 , 1 - 1 1 1 0 0
O L D TESTAMENT
1 3 , 2 2 1 5 6
4 5 . 5 2 9 2
4 6 , 9 2 9 2
5 8 . 6 1 0 5
6 0 , 1 7 1 4 86 1 , 1 - 2 1 0 5
D a n i e l
2 , 3 3 - 4 5 5 5
9 , 2 7 7 9
1 0 , 1 0 - 2 1 2 1 9
1 2 , 1 2 1 9
H o s e a
1 1 , 1 9 6
J o e l
2 , 2 7 9
M i c a h
5 , 2 8 3
M a l a c h i
3 1 5 6
3 , 2 - 6 1 0 0
3 , 2 2 - 2 3 1 0 0
W i s d o m
3 , 1 - 9 1 9 7
2 B a r u c h
6,7-10 1 8 2
2 9 , 8 1 8 2
2 M a c c a b e e s
2 , 4 - 7 1 8 2
1 E n o c h6 , 1 1 1 9 7
N E W TESTAMENT
M a t t h e w
1,18-25 9 5 , 9 6
1,22-23 9 6
2 , 1 8 3
2 , 1 - 2 9 6
2 , 5 - 6 9 6
2 , 1 5 9 6
3 , 7 - 1 2 1 0 0
3 , 1 7 9 6
7 , 1 3 1 6
9 , 2 8 1 3 1
1 0 , 1 - 2 3 8 0
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3 4 8 INDICES
10 ,2 132 1,5 75
1 0 , 1 3 114 1 , 5 - 2 5 8 8 , 9 1
1 0 , 3 4 114 1 , 8 - 1 1 88
1 2 , 3 3 80 1,9 114
1 9 , 1 6 - 2 1 132 1,11 102
1 9 , 2 3 - 3 0 132 1,14 113
1 9 , 2 8 116, 131 1 , 1 5 - 1 7 100
2 0 96 1,20 96
2 0 , 2 0 - 2 8 116 1 , 2 6 - 5 6 91
2 0 , 2 3 116 1,32 96
2 0 , 2 5 117 1 , 3 2 - 3 3 99
2 0 , 2 6 - 2 7 117 1,34 97
21 96 1,35 97, 98
2 1 , 9 115 1 , 4 1 - 5 2 912 4 - 2 5 80 1 , 4 6 - 5 5 98
2 4 , 1 5 81 1 , 4 8 - 5 99
2 4 , 3 2 - 3 5 157 1,51 156
2 4 , 3 7 - 4 2 81 1 , 5 2 - 5 3 101, 102, 103, 117, 155
2 4 , 4 3 - 5 1 81 1 , 5 5 , 7 1 , 7 7 , 7 9 105
2 5 , 1 - 1 3 81 1 , 5 7 - 8 0 91
2 5 , 1 4 - 3 0 1,68 94
2 5 , 3 1 - 4 6 81 1,69 92
M a r k
L u k e
1 - 2 7 5 , 105, 115
1 -3 7 7 , 100
1,1 1 1 9
1 , 1 - 4 9 3
1,3 9 3
1 , 3 - 4 10 61,4 112 , 124, 138
1 , 6 9 - 7 0 99
1,79 94, 95, 113, 114, 156
2 ,1 124
2 , 1 - 2 83
2 , 1 - 2 1 91
1 , 6 - 8 1 0 0 I'nVSf1 11 96 '' ' ' * 1,72-73 119
5 3 4 14 > >77 9 2
' 1 77-7Q Q48,27-30 72, 100
1 , 7 7
^
9,1 78
10,4 116
10,35-45 116
10,42 117
10,43-44 117 V 95 115
11,10 115 ' '
13 9-13 792
'2 4 7 7
i s ! 12 158 2,26-3 9513 14 81 14^ '
O L , 1* 0 O Q C _ Q Q Q1
13 20-28 79 ^'
1582
'4 6
"4 8 1 0 4
13^28-31 157 ^ ^ '1 0 4
13,37 80A J 1 U U
13 78 94
3
'
7
"
1 5 1 0 0
, OO % Q 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 100, 101
5 39 984
'1 6
~3 0 1 0 4
' Y T 5
4,18 91, 122, 155
4 , 1 9 105
6 , 1 3 132
6 , 1 5 115
6 , 3 7 316
7 , 5 0 114
8 , 4 8 114
9 , 1 8 - 2 0 10011,21 115
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B I B L I C A L C I T A T I O N S 3 4 9
1 2 , 5 1 1 1 4 6 , 1 - 6 1 3 3 , 1 3 4
1 3 , 1 3 9 4 6 , 6 1 3 3
1 4 , 3 2 1 1 5 1 0 , 3 6 1 1 9
1 9 , 3 7 - 3 8 1 1 5 1 1 ,1 1 3 4
1 9 , 4 2 1 1 5 1 1 , 2 7 1 3 42 1 , 7 - 2 8 9 4 1 1 , 2 8 - 3 0 1 3 2
2 1 , 2 0 - 2 4 8 1 1 1 , 3 0 1 3 3
2 1 , 2 4 7 4 1 2 , 1 - 5 1 3 7
2 1 , 2 5 - 2 6 9 4 1 2 , 2 1 3 3
2 1 , 2 5 - 2 7 8 1 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 2 1 2 2 , 1 2 3
2 1 , 2 8 9 4 1 3 , 1 - 3 1 3 2
2 1 , 2 9 - 3 3 1 5 7 1 3 , 3 1 3 3
2 2 , 1 9 b - 2 0 1 1 6 13 ,5 107
2 2 , 2 4 1 1 6 1 4 , 2 1 0 7 , 1 3 32 2 , 2 4 - 2 7 1 1 6 1 4 , 4 1 3 2
2 2 , 2 5 1 1 7 1 4 , 1 1 - 1 8 1 2 3
2 2 , 2 6 - 2 7 1 1 7 1 4 , 1 9 1 0 7
2 2 , 2 7 1 1 7 1 4 , 2 1 1 3 4
2 2 , 2 8 - 3 0 1 1 6 1 5 , 1 - 3 5 1 3 4
2 2 , 3 0 1 3 1 1 5 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 2 2 - 2 3 1 3 3
2 2 , 3 5 - 3 8 1 1 5 1 5 , 2 0 1 8 1
2 4 , 3 6 1 1 4 1 6 , 2 0 - 2 1 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 ,
J o h n6,48-50 1 8 2
1 7 , 5 - 9 1 0 7
1 7 , 6 1 2 4
1 2 4
1 7 , 8 - 9 1 2 5
18 ,1 107
1 2 , 1 3 1 1 5
1 4 , 1 0 - 1 1 2 9 5
1 4 , 2 7 1 1 4 1 8 2 g 2
J c S 2 1 / 2 6 1 1 4 ; ^ - 1 7
1 0 7
1 0 6
2 0 1 9 - 2 2 2 2 2 , 2 3 9 ° ' '
2 0 , 2 2 2 2 2 >jg
A c t s 1 8 , 1 3 1 2 4 , 1 2 61.1 9 3 1 8 , 1 6 - 1 7 1 0 7
1 .6 115 18 ,25 11 9
1 , 6 - 8 8 2 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 0 1 2 0
1 .7 7 4 19 ,23 12 0
1 ,9 81 19 ,27 12 4
1,9-11 82 19 ,31 121
1,12-26 1 3 5 1 9 , 3 5 1 6 8 , 1 2 0
1 . 1 3 1 1 5 2 0 , 1 7 1 3 3
1 . 14 1 3 3 2 0 , 2 8 1 3 3
1,15-26 8 2 , 1 3 2 2 2 - 2 3 1 1 4
1 .2 2 1 3 3 2 3 , 2 5 9 3
1,24-26 1 37 2 3 , 2 5 - 2 7 8 2
1 ,2 5 1 3 7 2 2 , 3 0 - 2 3 , 1 0 1 1 4
2 . 2 9 4 2 4 , 1 - 9 1 0 7 , 1 1 2
2 . 2 3 9 4 , 1 1 3 2 4 , 2 - 3 1 1 3
2 , 4 2 7 7 , 1 1 8 2 4 , 5 - 6 1 1 4
2,44-45 1 17 2 4 , 2 4 - 2 5 1 07
2 , 4 6 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 2 4 , 2 6 1 0 8
5 , 1 2 1 1 8 2 4 , 2 7 1 1 85 , 3 0 1 7 8 2 5 , 1 - 1 1 1 0 8
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3 5 0 I N D I C E S
2 5 , 1 3 - 2 6 - 3 2 1 18
2 6 , 6 - 7 1 1 9
2 6 , 2 4 1 2 2
2 6 , 3 0 1 0 8
R o m a n s
9 - 1 1 1 2 7 , 1 3 8
9 - 1 2 7 4
1 1 , 5 1 3 2
1 1 , 1 3 1 3 2
1 1 , 1 7 - 2 4 1 2 7
1 2 , 1 1 1 3 2
1 4 , 1 4 3 1 5 , 3 1 6
1 6 3 1 4
1 6 , 7 1 3 2
1 C o r i n t h i a n s
8 , 1 - 6 1 8 1
1 5 , 6 - 7 1 3 2
2 C o r i n t h i a n s
8 , 2 3 1 3 2
8 - 1 0 1 3 5
E p h e s i a n s
5 , 1 - 2 2 3 2
C o l o s s i a n s
1 ,15 196
G a l a t i a n s
1 - 2 1 3 4
2 , 6 1 3 5
2 , 1 0 1 3 5
3 , 8 3 2 3
3,10-14 1 2 7 , 1 3 83 . 1 3 1 7 8
P h i l i p p i a n s
1 ,2 134
6 , 1 2 2 9 2
1 T i m o t h y
3 , 2 1 3 4 , 3 1 5
3 , 8 a n d 1 2 1 3 4
4 . 6 1 3 4
5 , 1 7 1 3 4
T i t u s
1.7 134
H e b r e w s
9 , 4 1 8 2
1 P e t e r
2 , 2 1 7 8
4 . 1 4 2 4 5
2 P e t e r
2 , 4 1 5 6
3 . 4 1 5 6
3 , 1 0 1 5 7
A p o c a l y p s e
1,12-1 1 9 61 ,20 196
2 , 1 1 6 7 , 2 1 9
2 - 3 2 1 9
2 - 4 1 6 6
2 . 7 1 6 8 , 2 1 3
2 ,9 16 8 , 187
2 . 9 a n d 3 , 9 1 6 9
2,9-3,22 1 7 7
2,10-11 1 7 9
2 . 1 3 1 8 0 , 1 8 1
2 . 1 4 1 8 1 , 1 8 6
2 , 1 7 1 8 3 , 1 8 5
2 , 2 0 1 8 6
2 , 2 0 , 2 6 - 2 7 1 8 6
2 , 2 8 1 6 8 , 1 8 6
2 1 7 8
3 , 4 - 5 1 8 6
3 .5 187
3 . 8 1 8 83 , 1 2 1 8 8
3 . 2 0 1 8 9
3 . 2 1 1 8 9
4 - 5 2 1 4
4 - 1 9 1 9 0
4 2 0 4
4 , 4 1 9 8 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 2
4,4-11 2 0 4
4 . 1 0 1 9 9 , 2 0 5
4 .1 1 2 0 1 , 2 0 1
5 , 1 2 0 6
5 . 6 2 0 0
5 . 8 8 9 , 1 8 0 , 2 1 5
6 a n d 8 1 9 7
6 , 6 1 6 5 , 1 8 8
6 .9 an d 11 197
6 , 1 1 1 9 7
6 , 1 4 2 0 0
7 . 9 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 2 3 37 . 1 0 2 0 1 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 6
7,10-12 2 0 6
7 , 1 4 2 0 1
7 , 1 7 2 1 7
8 , 3 2 0 0
8 , 3 - 4 1 9 7
12 ,1 16 6 , 167
1 2 , 1 - 6 1 6 6
1 2 , 5 1 6 7
1 3 - 1 4 1 9 6
1 3 , 1 4 - 1 5 1 9 6
1 3 , 1 5 1 9 6 , 1 9 7
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A N C I E N T C H R I S T I A N A N D J E W I S H W R I T E R S 3 5 1
1 4 , 2 - 3 1 9 9 , 2 3 3
1 4 , 9 , 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 9 - 2 0 1 96
1 6 , 2 1 9 3
1 6 , 3 - 2 1 1 9 3
1 7 , 1 - 6 1 6 9
1 7 . 9 1 6 5
1 7 , 9 - 1 1 1 6 5
1 7 . 1 0 1 6 5
1 9 , 9 1 8 2
1 9 , 9 a n d 1 7 1 8 9
2 0 , 2 1 8 0
2 1 , 7 - 8 1 7 9
2 1 , 1 4 a n d 1 9 2 1 32 2 . 1 2 1 7
2 2 . 2 2 1 3
2 . A N C I E N T C H R I S T I A N A N D J E W I S H W R I T E R S
Acta Sancti Justini1 1 4
Acta Sancti Callisti Papae Martyris Rom ae
8 ( M i g n e PL. 1 0 , c o l 1 2 0 ) 3 2 5 ,
3 2 6
A t h e n a g o r a s
Legatio pro Christianis
Insc. 3 0 3
1 7 , 3 4 - 3 5 3 0 3
1 8 , 1 0 - 1 4 3 0 4
1 9 , 1 3 0 4
C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a
Stromateis
5 , 1 4 2 9 2
C l e m e n t o f R o m e
Ad Corinthios
1,1 1 4 0 , 1 5 9
1 , 1 - 2 1 4 5
2 ,2 6 1
2 ,6 1 6 0
2 ,8 16 1
3 ,2 1 5 9
3 ,3 1 5 9
3 , 4 16 1
7,1 1 4 3
1 4 , 2 1 5 4
2 0 1 5 22 0 , 3 1 4 7
2 1 - 2 2 1 5 6
2 1 , 2 1 5 3
2 1 , 6 - 7 1 5 8
2 1 , 9 1 5 3
2 3 - 2 7 1 5 6
2 3 , 4 - 5 1 57
2 3 , 5 1 5 6
2 4 , 2 1 5 7
3 2 1 5 2
3 7 1 4 6
3 7 , 2 2 4 3
4 0 1 4 74 1 , 1 1 4 7
4 1 , 3 - 4 1 4 7 4
4 2 , 3 1 5 9
4 2 , 4 1 5 9
4 2 , 4 - 5 1 4 8
4 4 1 4 9
4 4 , 1 - 5 1 3 3
4 5 , 3 1 6 1
4 6 , 6 1 5 9
4 6 , 7 1 5 9
5 1 , 2 16 1
5 6 1 6 0
5 7 , 2 1 5 9
5 9 , 3 1 5 2 , 1 5 5
6 0 - 6 1 2 1 6 , 2 3 4
6 0 , 1 1 5 2
6 0 , 2 1 5 6
6 0 , 4 1 5 3
6 0 , 4 - 6 1 , 2 5 26 0 , 4 - 6 1 , 3 1 5 1
6 1 , 1 1 5 3 , 1 5 6
6 1 , 2 1 5 0 , 1 5 6
6 1 , 2 - 3 1 6 3
6 1 , 3 1 5 4
6 2 , 2 1 5 9
6 2 , 3 1 6 0
6 3 , 1 1 5 9
6 3 , 2 - 3 1 6 0
6 4 1 5 9
Constitutiones Apostolicae
2 , 2 6 2 2 2
(= Didasc. Apost.) II , 5 7 , 4 - 5 2 1 7
Constitutiones Apostolicae (Epitome)
5 1 - 7 7 3 8
C y p r i a n
De Lapsis
28 14
Epistulae
3 0 , 6 5
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3 5 2 I N D I C E S
4 3 , 5 4
5 5 , 8 4
5 9 , 7 4
5 9 , 1 4 4
7 3 , 7 47 5 , 1 6 4
Zte Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate
5 3
4 4
Sententiae Episcoporum
19 5
Didache
8 15
9 , 4 1 5 8
1 1 , 3 - 6 1 3 2
1 4 , 3 2 1 8
Didascalia Apostolorum
I I , 5 7 , 4 - 5 2 1 4
E p i p h a n i u s
H a e r . , 6 8 , 2 5
E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a
Historia Ecclesiastica
1 1 1 , 2 0 , 3 - 4 1 1 2
V I , 2 8 , 1 - 2 3 2 8
I I , 1 0 , 3 1 2 3
V , 1,3-63 6
V , 1 ,14 6
V , 1 , 1 9 1 4
V , 1 ,33 6
V , 2 4 , 1 5 3 1 4
III , 18 14 2 , 16 5V , 6 1 4 8
V I , 2 1 , 3 - 4 1 4 2
Martyres Palestinae
1 1 , 3 0 1 2 2
Chronicon
II , p . 1 6 0 1 4 0
C h r o n i c o n A n n . A b r . 2 1 1 2 ,
D o m i t . 1 6 1 4 0
C h r o n i c o n II a n n . A b r . 2 1 1 0
D o m i t . 1 4 1 4 2
H e g e s i p p u s
A p u d E u s e b i u m , Historia Ecclesiastica
III , 2 0 14 0
H e r m a s
Visiones
II , 4 , 2 - 3 3 1 4 , 3 1 6
II , 4 , 3 2 1 5
H I , 9 , 7 2 1 5
( P s e u d o ) H i p p o l y t u s
I proem. 6 3 2 0
V , 8 , 3 9 2 3 5
I X , 6 - 1 3 , 2 3 1 0
I X , 7 , 1 - 3 5
I X , 1 0 , 1 0 - 1 1 3 1 8
I X , 1 1 ,1 3 1 4
I X , 1 2 , 1 5 3 1 4
I X , 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 6 3 1 3 , 3 1 8
I X , 1 2 , 2 0 - 2 1 3 1 5
I X , 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 2 3 1 5
I X , 1 2 , 2 2 3 1 6
I X , 1 2 , 2 2 - 2 3 3 1 7
I X , 1 2 , 2 4 - 2 5 3 2 3
I X , 1 2 , 2 5 3 1 5
I X , 1 2 , 6 3 1 5I X , 1 3 , 1 - 4 3 1 5
Traditio Apostolica
3 1 , 1 2 0 , 3 2 0
4 2 1 4 , 2 1 6
7 3 2 0
H i p p o l y t u s
Contra Noetum
4 , 8 3 0 1
1 4 , 2 - 3 2 9 61 5 , 7 3 0 1
Hypostasis of the Archons ( R o b i n s o n )
II , 9 5 - 9 7 2 7 4
I r e n a e u s o f L y o n s
Adversus Haereseos
I , 5 ,4 (= Frag, graec. 1 , 5 3 6 - 5 4 3 )
2 9 2
I, 5 ,4 (= Frag, graec. 1 , 549 )
2 9 2
I, 2 3 , 1 - 2 2 8 6
I , 2 7 , 2 2 9 2
II , praef 1 2 8 6
III praef. 2 8 6
III , 3 , 3 1
III , 6 , 1 2 9 5
I I I, 6 , 2 , 4 8 2 9 6
III , 2 4 , 2 2 9 5
V , 3 0 , 3 1 6 5V , 3 0 , 3 1 4 0
I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h
Epistula ad Ephesios
1.1 2 3 1 , 2 3 8 , 3 0 0
1 ,3 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 8
1 , 5 2 3 4
4 , 1 - 2 2 3 3 , 2 4 0
4 . 2 2 3 4
5 .1 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 85 . 2 2 3 2
6 , 2 2 9 9 , 2 4 3
7 , 1 3 0 0
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A N C I E N T C H R I S T I A N A N D J E W I S H W R I T E R S
9 , 2 2 3 8
1 2 , 2 2 3 5
1 3 .1 2 2 1 , 2 3 9 , 2 9 9
1 3 . 2 2 4 0
1 4 . 2 8 0
1 9 , 1 2 3 5
1 9 . 3 2 9 9
2 1 , 1 2 3 1
Epistula ad Magnesios
1 ,2 297
6 .1 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 9
6 , 1 - 2 2 2 2
6 . 2 2 4 0
7 . 1 2 9 8 1 3 2 2 77 , 1 - 2 2 2 2
7 . 2 2 3 2
1 3. 1 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 4 ,
2 9 9
1 3 . 2 2 2 1
1 5 2 4 0
Epistula ad Philadelphenses
Inscr. 2 4 0
1 .1 212
2 . 2 2 4 7
4 2 3 2
6 .1 168
7 . 2 2 3 5
8 , 1 2 9 9
9 . 1 2 3 5
1 0 .1 2 2 8 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 6
1 0 . 2 2 2 9 , 2 4 4
1 1 2 4 0
Epistula ad Polycarpum2 , 6 2 4 6
7 . 2 2 4 6
8 2 2 8
8 . 1 2 2 8
Epistula ad Romanos
i n s c . 2 2 5 , 3 1 4
1 - 2 1 5
2 . 2 2 2 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 8
3 3 0 0
3 . 3 3 0 0
4 . 1 2 3 2
4 . 2 2 3 3
6 ,1 2 2 9 , 2 9 8
6 . 3 2 3 3
6 , 3 2 3 5
8 , 3 2 3 2
9 , 3 2 2 9
1 0 , 1 - 2 2 2 8
1 0 , 2 2 2 8Epistula ad Smyrnaeos
i n s c r . 2 3 8
1,1 218
2 - 3 2 9 8
3 , 2 2 2 1
6 ,1 2 2 1 , 2 3 9
8 , 2 2 1 9
1 0 , 2 2 3 1 , 2 4 6
1 1 , 2 - 3 2 2 8
1 1 , 2 2 4 6
Vistula ad Trallianos
1,1 2 2 8
3 ,1 2 1 8 , 2 2 2
3 , 1 - 3 2 2 2
3 ,2 2 1 9
5 , 2 2 3 5
8 ,2 2 1 91 1 , 1 2 1 8
1 1 , 1 - 2 2 1 3
12 ,1 2 2 8
1 2 , 2 2 4 0
P s e u d o I g n a t i u s
Ad Romanos
3 3 0 0
6 3 0 0
J e r o m e
Epistulae
1 0 8 , 7 1 4 0
J o h n C h r y s o s t o m
Hom ilia in Iohannem
2 7 , 1 5
J o s e p h u s
Antiquitates Iudaicae
1 , 3 2 2 2 4 1
1 2 , 2 6 5 8 8
1 5 , 3 3 9 7 2
1 6 , 1 3 6 1 2 2
1 8 , 6 6 - 8 0 2 5 8
1 9 , 3 4 3 - 3 5 1 1 2 3
2 0 , 1 2 9 3
2 0 , 1 0 2 8 3
2 0 , 1 9 7 - 2 0 3 8 2
Bellum Iudaicum1 , 1 5 2 1 2 8
1 , 4 1 4 7 2
2 , 1 6 6 8 2
6,387-391 7 9
7 , 1 6 2 7 9
J o a n n e s M a l a l a s
Chronographia
1 0 1 4 0
J u s t i n M a r t y r
Cohortatio ad Graecos
1 5 2 6 9
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3 5 4 I N D I C E S
Dialogus cum Tryphone
1 ,3 308
4 1 2 1 8
6 1 , 2 3 0 1 , 3 0 2
Apologia1 , 9 8 2 2 5
L a c t a n t i u s
De Mortibus Persecutorum
3 1 4 0
M e l i t o o f S a r d i s
A p u d E u s e b i u m , Historia Ecclesiastica
I V , 2 6 1 4 0 , 1 4 2
P a p i a s
A p u d E u s e b i u m , Historia Ecclesiastica
I I I , 3 9 , 1 5 7 9
Passio Poly carpi ( L i g h t f o o t ( 1 8 9 1 ) )
8 ,2 6 , 14
9 ,2 6
9 , 2 - 3 6
10,1 6
Passio Sanctae Perpetuae ( A r m i t a g eR o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) )
1 3 - 1 4 ( p . 1 6) 1 4
3 ,1 ( pp . 6 2 / 6 3 , 2 - 6 4 / 6 5 ) 14
1 8 , 1 ( p . 8 6 , 1 6 ) 1 4
Passio Scillitanorum ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n
( 1 8 9 1 ) )
p . 1 1 2 , 1 8 - 2 2 4
p . 1 1 6 , 2 - 3 5
p . 1 1 2 , 9 - 1 1 5
P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a
De specialibus legibus
I , 1 3 - 3 1 3 0 1
T a t i a n
Oratio ad Graecos
5,7-10 3 0 1
5 , 1 1 - 1 5 3 0 2
1 4 , 1 - 3 3 0 32 9 , 1 1 - 1 5 3 0 2
T e r t u l l i a n
Adversus Praxeam
1 2 9 6
9 2 9 6
Apologia
5 1 4 0 , 1 4 2
De Anima
9 , 4 3 1 7De Idolatria
18 ,1 176
De Pallio
2 1 4 0
De Praescriptione Haereticorum
2 0 , 7 - 9 1 8 5 , 3 1 7
De Pudicitia
1 , 1 - 2 3 1 9
2 , 2 3 1 6
T h e o d o r e t
Graec. Affect. Cur.
9 1 4 0
T h e o p h i l u s o f A n t i o c h
Ad Autolycum
2 , 8 3 0 8
2 , 4 - 6 3 0 8
3 . A N C I E N T P A G A N W R I T E R S
Acta Alexandrinorum ( M u s u r i l l o ( 1 9 7 9 ) )1. 1 7 - 1 8 2 4 1
1. 5 1 - 5 5 2 4 2
A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s
Eiq A(cc
7 , 9 3 0 7
Eumenides
7 3 7 - 7 5 6
A e s c h y l e s
1 8 2
A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n n aEpistolae
6 5 1 6 8 , 1 7 9
6 6 1 6 8
A p u l e i u s
De Mundo
6 , 2 0 - 2 2 2 7 8
6 , 3 9 7 b 2 3 - 2 4 2 7 8
6 , 3 9 7 b 3 0 - 3 5 2 7 9
6 , 3 9 8 a 3 1 - 3 5 2 8 0 , 3 0 5
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A N C I E N T P A G A N W R I T E R S 3 5 5
6 , 3 9 8 b 6 - 1 4 2 8 0
6 , 3 9 9 a 3 0 - 3 5 2 8 1 , 2 8 4
Metamorphoses
1 1 , 1 0 2 2 4 , 2 3 7
A r i s t o t l e
Metaphysics
1 2 2 7 9
1 4 2 7 7
Politics
6 , 7 5 5
A u g u s t u s
Res Gestae
3 5 1
4 , 2 5 1
4 ,7 1 3 6
6 , 2 5 3
7 ,2 4 4
7 ,3 5 2 , 5 9
8 ,2 8 4 , 8 6 , 1 2 4
10 3 3
11 5 4
12 5 4 , 6 51 2 - 13 35
13 37
19 4 1
2 1 4 1
2 4 4 1
C i c e r o
De Divinatione
2 . 7 4 2 0
2 . 7 5 2 1
De Legibus
2 ,31 21
De Natura Deorum
2 , 2 2 0 , 2 3
2 , 4 2 0 , 4 8 , 1 4 7
2 . 2 9 2 3
2 . 3 0 2 2
2 , 7 3 2 2
3 , 9 5 2 5De Republica
6 , 1 0 6 3
6 , 1 0 2 7 3
De Oratore
3 , 7 8 1 9
In Pisonem
4 0 2 4 7
Pro Lege Man ilia
1 3 6 5
16 65
Corpus Hermeticum ( N o c k a n d F e s t u g i e r e )
Frag. X X I I I 3 0 5
Frag. X X I I I , 6 2 , 1 9 - 2 1 3 0 6
Frag. X X I V , 1 -2 3 0 6
D i o C a s s i u s
Historia Romana
2 7 , 3 7 3 8
3 7 , 2 4 , 1 3 8 , 3 9
3 7 , 2 4 , 2 4 0
3 7 , 2 5 , 1 4 0
4 0 , 4 7 2 6 5
4 2 , 2 6 2 6 5
4 5 , 6 , 5 2 0 4
4 7 , 4 0 , 1 - 5 4 4
5 1 , 1 9 , 7 6 1
5 1 , 2 0 , 3 4 0
5 1 , 2 0 , 4 3 8 , 4 0
5 1 , 2 0 , 6 1 2 0
5 1 , 2 0 , 7 1 8 0
5 3 , 1 7 - 1 9 3 9
5 4 3 9
5 4 , 3 3 7 0
5 9 , 2 4 , 3 - 4 2 0 45 9 , 2 8 , 5 1 9 3
6 3 , 4 , 2 2 0 1
6 3 , 4 , 2 8 - 2 9 2 0 1
6 5 , 7 , 2 1 2 8
6 7 , 1 4 1 6 4
6 7 , 1 4 , 1 - 2 1 2 9
6 7 , 1 4 , 1 - 3 1 4 1
6 8 , 1 , 2 1 2 9
7 6 , 7 2 7 0
7 8 , 3 2 7 1
7 8 , 2 0 , 1 2 0 0
7 8 , 3 1 , 2 - 7 9 , 2 1 , 2
8 0 , 9 , 3 3 1 9
8 0 , 1 1 3 2 7
8 0 , 2 0 , 2 3 2 6
D i o C h r y s o s t o m
O r . 4 5 , 1 1 7 0
D i o d o r u s S i c u l u s3,57,3 2 6 2
D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s
Successiones Philosophorum
1, 4 3 - 4 4 2 8 8
I , 1 2 2 2 8 8
7, 1 1 5 6 - 1 1 5 7 2 7 3
D i o n y s i u s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s
Antiquates Romanae
II , 5 0 , 3 3 1 2
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3 5 6 I N D I C E S
G e l l i u s
Nocks Atticae
V I I , 8 , 7 1 3 6
H e r o d i a nII , 2 ,9 187
V , 5 , 1 - V I , 1 ,3 3 1 1
V , 5 , 6 - 7 2 2 7 , 2 6 0
V , 6 , 2 3 2 0
V , 8 , 9 3 2 6
V I I I , 7 , 2 2 0 1 , 2 0 5
H o r a c e
Carmen Saeculare
2 9 - 3 3 6 1Epodes
16 58
Odes
I, 2,29-30 1 7 3
I , 3 ,5 17 3
III , 14 ,1 3 3
I V , 1 4 , 1 3 3
J u s t i n i a n
Digestae ( M o d e s t i n u s )X X I I I , 2 , 4 2 3 2 3
X L V I I I , 1 0 , 2 7 , 2 2 4 7
Digestae ( U l p i a n )
I , 5 , 1 7 2 5 1
I , 9 , 8 3 1 5
X X I I I , 2 , 4 2 3 2 3
J u v e n a l
Satires
X I I I , 4 6 - 4 9 1 67
L i v y
Ab Urbe Condita
1 3 1
1 praef 1 3 2
1 praef 9 a n d 1 2 5 5
1 ,7 ,9 32
1.18.6 3 4
1,18,7-10 3 4
1,19,1-3 3 31.20.7 4 1
1,31,6-8 2 8
1.31.8 3 0
1,44,2 8 4 , 8 5
3 . 6 . 5 2 8
3 . 7 . 6 2 8
3 . 7 . 7 2 8
3 , 8 , 1 2 8
4 31
4,20,7 2 6 , 4 1
4.30.10 3 0
4.30.11 3 0
5,23,4-11 3 2 ,
6,1,12 2 9
6 , 3 7 8 4
8 , 6 , 9 3 2
8,6,11 3 2
8,6,12 3 3 , 6 0
8 , 9 , 1 4 2
1 1 - 2 0 31
2 2 , 2 1 , 7 6 4
2 3 , 3 6 , 9 - 1 0 4 2
2 5 , 1 , 7 3 0
2 5 , 1 , 8 3 0
2 5 , 1 , 1 1 3 0
2 5 , 1 , 1 2 3 02 5 , 1 6 , 1 - 4 4 2
2 7 , 1 6 , 1 5 4 3
2 7 , 2 3 , 1 2 9
2 7 , 2 3 , 4 2 9
2 7 , 2 6 , 1 4 4 3
2 8 , 2 , 2 3 3
2 8 , 1 2 , 1 2 3 7
2 9 , 1 4 , 2 2 8
2 9 , 1 6 , 6 3 0
2 9 , 1 6 , 7 3 0
3 1 , 5 , 7 4 3
3 1 , 2 4 2 4 7
3 6 , 1 , 3 4 3
3 7 - 1 4 2 3 1
3 9 , 8 - 1 9 7
3 9 , 8 , 1 - 1 9 1 5 0
3 9 , 2 2 , 4 - 5 8 5
3 9 , 2 2 , 5 4 7
4 0 , 6 3 , 4 3 84 1 , 1 4 , 7 4 3
4 5 , 1 6 , 6 4 7
4 6 - 1 4 2 3 1
6 7 , 1 2 , 4 3 8
6 9 , 5 1 , 1 3 8
1 4 2 3 2
dius Obsequens
9 4 3
12 47
1 3 8 5
4 4 8 5
4 6 8 5
4 9 8 5
5 2 8 5
6 3 8 5
6 7 4 4
L u c a n
Pharsalia
1 , 5 5 7 4 6
1 , 6 0 4 4 7
1 ,617 47
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A N C I E N T P A G A N W R I T E R S
1 , 6 6 4 4 8
1 , 6 7 0 4 8 , 5 0
1 , 6 7 2 4 8
1,248-250 4 6
1,265-330 4 9
1,522-605 4 6
1,559-560 4 6
1,562-563 4 6
1,564-565 4 6
1,572-574 4 6
1,580-583 4 6
1,585-588 4 7
1,589-590 4 7
1,591-595 4 71,593-595 8 5
1,606-610 4 7
1,609-615 4 7
1,617-629 4 7
1,633-634 4 8
1,638-672 4 8
1,641-645 4 8
2 , 4 7 8 - 5 2 5 4 9
4 , 4 9 - 1 3 0 5 1
4 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 5 1
L u c i a n
De Dea Syria 1 5 2 3 5
L u c r e t i u s
D e R e r . N a t . 6 , 8 4 8 - 9 0 5 2 4
M a c r o b i u s
Sat. Conv.
I, 18 18III , 5 ,7 13 6
M a r t i a l
Epigrammata
3 1 0 3
4 , 8 , 1 2 1 7 3
5 , 2 , 1 7 6 1 7 2
5 , 3 , 3 1 7 3
5 , 5 1 7 0
5 , 7 , 4 1 7 36 , 2 , 5 1 7 3
6,10,9 1 7 4
6 , 8 7 1 7 0
7 , 2 , 2 1 7 0
7,2,5-6 1 7 0
7 , 5 - 6 1 7 0
7,5,1-6 1 7 0
7 ,21 2 7
7 , 2 3 2 7
7 , 3 4 , 8 - < ) 17(
8,2,6-7 1 7 0
8,80,5 1 7 3
8 , 8 2 , 1 - 5 1 7 0
9 , 8 , 6 1 7 4
9 , 1 6 1 8 0
9,18,1 1 7 3
9 , 6 6 , 3 - 4 1 7 0
9 , 8 6 , 7 - 8 1 7 3
9 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 1 6 7
1 3 , 6 4 1 7 0
1 3 , 7 4 1 7 0
1 4 , 1 , 2 1 7 4
1 4 , 1 2 4 1 6 7
OvidFasti
3 , 5 5 , 5 7 6 2
Metamorphoses
1 5 , 4 1 - 4 1 1 1 8 2
1 5 , 8 5 8 - 8 7 0 1 7 3
1 5 , 8 6 7 - 8 7 0 5 8
Tristia
5 , 2 , 4 7 - 4 8 1 7 3
P a u s a n i u s
Graeciae Descriptio
V I , 1 6 , 5 2 4 7
P l a t o
Respublica
4 1 5 A - C 5 4
Timaeus
2 2 B 4 2 8 7
P h i l o s t r a t u s
Vita Apollonii
4 , 3 4 1 8 0
6 , 4 2 1 6 6
P l i n y t h e E l d e r
Historia Naturalis
X V I I I , 2 , 6 1 3 6
P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r
Epistulae
X , 9 6 , 1 1 4 3
X , 9 6 , 2 6X , 9 6 , 5 1 1 0 , 1 1 1
Panegyricus
2 , 2 3 1 7 0
5 2 , 6 - 7 1 7 4
8 0 1 7 3
P l o t i n u s
Enneades
I , 7 , 1 , 2 5 - 2 , 1 - 3 2 7 7
I I , 9 , 1 , 1 3 - 1 6 2 7 5 , 2 9 2 ,2 9 3
V I , 9 , 9 3
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3 5 8 I N D I C E S
P l u t a r c h
Ad principem ineruditum
7 8 0 E , 3 2 8 2
781 A , 3 2 8 1
Alcibiades2 2 , 2 1 8 2
De Com munibus Notitiis
3 6 , 5 2 7 3
De hide et Osiride
3 5 2 A , 2 2 8 2
3 5 2 B , 3 2 3 6
3 5 4 E , 1 0 2 8 5
3 6 1 D , 2 7 2 3 5 , 2 3 9
3 6 4 E , 3 5 2 3 5
3 7 1 A , 4 9 2 8 2 , 2 8 3
3 7 2 E , 5 3 2 8 3
3 7 3 A , 5 4 2 8 3
3 7 3 A - B , 5 4 2 8 4
3 7 6 A , 6 1 2 8 2
Demetrius
10 , 2 - 4 2 8 1
P o l y b i u s
Historiae6,4,5-10 5 5
6 , 4 , 7 5 5
6,9,10-14 5 5
P o r p h y r y
Vita Plotini
3 , 1 3 - 1 6 2 7 5
P r o c l u s
In Platonis Tim aeum Comm entaria ( D i e h l
( 1 9 0 3 ) )
III p . 2 , 10 2 9 4
I I I p . 5 8 , 8 2 9 3
I I I p . 5 8 , 1 8 2 9 3
I II p . 9 5 , 3 1 - 3 3 2 9 3
In Platonis Rem Publicam Com mentarii
( K r o l l ( 1 8 9 9 ) )
I p . 2 2 0 , 2 5 - 2 8 2 9 3
P r o p e r t i u s
Elegiaca4,6,37 6 0
Q u i n t i l i a n
Institutio Oratoria
4 , proem. 141
S e n e c a
Quaestiones Naturales
2,32,4 4 5
S c r i p t or e s H i s t o r i a e A u g u s t a eElagabalus
3 , 4 3 2 5
4 , 3 3 2 4
1 7 , 1 - 3 3 2 6
Severus Alexander
2 9 , 2 - 3 1 4 2
S i l v i u s S t a t i u s
Punica
3,629 1 6 7
S t a t i u s
Silvae
I , 1 17 4
I, 1 ,62 17 0
I , 2 , 1 7 5 1 7 3
I , 2 , 1 7 8 1 7 4
I , 4 , 9 5 1 7 4
I, 6,83-84 1 71
III , 4,23-24 1 8 0
I V , 3,11-12 1 6 6
I V , 3 , 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 1 7 3
S t r a b o
X I I , 8 , 1 8 1 8 8
X I I , 5 6 7 2 6 1X I V , 1 ,4 1 0 9
X I V , 1 ,2 3 1 6 8
S t o b a e u s
Eclogae
I , 4 1 , 4 4 3 0 5
S u e t o n i u s
Augustus
1 3 8
2 9 , 3 6 0
5 7 , 2 2 0 0
Claudius
2 5 , 4 1 1 0
Domitianus
1,2 2 5 9
1,4 2 6 6
4 2 2 6
4 , 4 1 7 57 ,2 1 6 6
1 2 , 2 1 2 8
1 3 , 1 - 2 16
1 5 , 1 7 141
Tiberius
2 0 6 6
3 7 1 6 8
Titus
5 , 3 2 5 8
Oracula Sibyllina
7,148-149 1 8 2
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ANCIENT PAGAN WRITERS 3 5 9
T a c i t u s
Annales
II , 4 7 , 3 - 4 1 8 8
III , 6 0 - 6 3 1 68
I V , 3 7 1 8 0X V , 4 1 , 1 3 1 2
X V , 4 4 , 4 7
X V , 4 4 , 3 1 1 0
X V , 4 4 , 4 1 11
X V , 4 4 , 5 1 1 0
X V , 5 5 - 5 6 1 80
Historiae
2 , 5 5 1 9 9
4 , 8 1 2 5 8
V a r r o
De Re Rustica
I , 1 ,5 3 1 2
V e r g i l
Aeneid
1,257-296 1 7 3
1 , 2 8 7 5 8
1 ,291 581,617-620 9 7
6 6 3
6 2 7 3
6 , 7 9 1 - 7 9 4 9 5
6 , 7 9 1 - 8 0 7 1 7 3
8 , 7 0 4 6 0
6 , 7 9 1 - 7 9 4 5 8
Eclogae
4 5 4
4 6 04 , 6 9 7
4 , 8 5 6
4 , 1 1 5 7
4 , 1 5 9 5
4 , 1 7 5 8
4 , 2 6 - 3 6 5 6
5 , 5 4 5 7
4 , 4 - 1 0 5 4
4 , 1 5 - 1 7 5 64 , 1 8 - 2 5 5 6
4 , 3 7 - 4 5 5 6
Georgics
1,24-30 5 8
1,24-42 5 7
1 . 2 6 5 8
1 .27 58
1,500-501 5 8
1,502-503 5 8
3 , 1 3 - 4 4 5 8
X e n o p h o n
Cyropaedia
1,3 64
4 . I N S CR I P T I O N S A N D C O I N S
INSCRIPTIONS
A u b r e t o n a n d F . B u f f i e r e
3 5 0 , 8 2 2 4
3 6 1 , 1 - 2 2 2 4
3 6 7 , 5 2 2 4
CIG
9 4 9 1 8 9
3 1 7 3 , 1 5 1 8 3
3 1 7 6 a . 1 8 3
3 1 7 6 b . 1 8 3
3 6 4 2 2 0 3
IG
5 , 1 , 1 3 6 8 1 8 4
1 1 , 4 , 1 2 9 9 1 5 0
1 2 , 2 , 5 8 2 0 31 2 , 5 , 2 9 1 2 3 6
1 2 s u p p l . p . 9 8 : 1 4 A 2 5 7
CIL
2 , 1 7 2 1 7 5
2 , 1 9 6 3 1 7 5
3 , 1 4 3 3 1 7 6
3 , 7 1 1 8 1 2 0
4 s u p p l . I I ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 3 2 (1 9 8 2 ) ,
1 1 4 2 1 8 4
4 s u p p l . I I ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 8 3 1 8 4
4 s u p p l . I I ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 8 6 1 1 8 4
6 , 5 1 2 2 6 2
6 , 7 1 5 2 6 4
6 , 2 0 8 0 , 2 2 1 3 7
6 , 4 , 2 9 6 0 9 2 7 3
8 , 8 2 0 3 3 1 1
8 , 1 7 8 9 6 1 7 6
9 , 3 1 8 4 6 31 0 , 1 6 2 4 1 8 8
1 2 , 6 0 3 8 1 8 7 , 2 0 2
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3 6 0 I N D I C E S
E h r e n b e r g a n d J o n e s ( 1 9 55 )
9 8 6 8 , 6 9
9 8 , 3 7 - 3 8 1 0 5
9 8 a 7 0
9 8 a . 709 8 a.,6 9 4
9 8 a . , 8 , 1 0 - 1 1 9 5
9 8 b . , 3 5 - 4 1 7 0
9 9 7 2 , 2 4 4
1 0 0 a . , 2 0 - 2 7 7 1
1 0 2 , 2 5 2 0 4
1 0 2 a . 2 0 1 , 2 3 2
1 2 8 6 9 , 7 0
EPRO 5 0 ( V e r m a s e r e n )
I , 5 5 26 1
I , 57 26 2
I, 5 9 , 5 - 9 2 6 2
I, 6 0 , 4 - 7 2 6 2
I , 3 5 2 2 6 2
III , 2 4 4 2 6 2
I I I, 4 7 6 2 6 2
H o r s l e y New Documents
III , p . 13 10 5
I V , p . 4 6 - 5 5 1 0 9
/. Ephesus
l a , 2 2 , 1 - 8 1 9 4
l a , 2 7 , 2 9 2 - 2 9 7 1 9 4
l a , 4 5 A , l - 8 1 9 4
l a , 4 7 , 7 3 1 9 4
I I , 2 3 1 9 2
I I , 2 8 6 2 2 3
I I , 5 9 9 2 0 6
I II , 6 4 5 , 3 - 7 1 9 4
I I I , 9 0 2 1 2 0
I V , 1 2 7 9 1 9 4
V I I , 1 3 0 1 5 , 2 1 9 4
V I I , 1 3 0 7 4 1 9 4
V I I , 2 4 1 3 3 , 9 1 9 4
V I I , 2 4 3 1 1 ( a ) 1 9 4
V I I , 2 4 3 1 4 1 9 4
V I I , 2 4 3 1 8 (a ) 1 9 4
I. Pergamon
3 3 6 2 3 6
/. Sardis
7, 1,8,12 7 2
7 , 1 , 8 , 1 2 - 1 4 2 4 4
IGRR
1, 1 1 5 0 2 5 8
3 , 2 0 9 2 3 43 , 2 0 9 , 1 - 5 2 3 4
3 , 1 2 8 7 , 4 2 0 6
1 2 8 8 , 5 2 0 6
3 9 a , 1 0 2 0 3
3 9 b . , 6 2 0 6
3 9 b . , 3 0 - 3 1 2 0 5 , 2 0 6
3 9 b . , 2 4 2 0 6
3 9 b . , 3 4 2 0 6
1 0 5 1 8 0
1 4 5 2 0 3
1 4 5 , 5 2 0 6
1 8 0 7 0
3 0 9 1 5 2
3 5 3 1 8 2 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 8 , 1 9 9
3 5 3 a . , 4 - 5 a 1 9 4
3 5 3 a . , 5 b . 1 9 43 5 3 a . , 1 7 - 1 8 1 9 4
3 5 3 a . , 3 0 - 3 1 1 9 4
3 5 3 a . , 3 1 1 9 8
3 5 3 b . , 5 1 9 4
3 5 3 b . , 1 2 - 1 9 1 9 5 , 2 3 4
3 5 3 b . , 1 5 - 1 6 2 0 3
3 5 3 b . , 1 8 - 1 9 2 3 4
3 5 3 b . , 2 0 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 , 2 3 2
3 5 3 c . , 1 0 1 9 9
3 5 3 c . , 1 0 - 1 1 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 ,
2 3 7
3 5 3 c.,4-7 1 8 2 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 ,
2 2 4
3 5 3 d . , 1 4 1 8 3 , 1 8 5
3 5 3 d . , 1 4 - 1 5 1 9 9
5 2 2 1 9 2
5 2 2 1 9 9
5 2 2 2 3 4
6 6 1 , 2 2 - 2 3 2 2 67 7 8 , 1 a n d 1 5 2 0 2
8 4 7 2 0 3
1 1 6 7 . 4 2 0 2
1 3 0 4 . 5 2 0 4
1 3 9 3 1 8 3
1 3 9 9 , 5 - 6 1 8 3
1 4 0 0 , 9 - 1 0 1 8 3
1 5 5 8 , 2 7 - 3 0 2 0 2
1 6 0 8 1 9 9
1 6 0 8 a . , 1 0 2 3 4
1 6 0 8 b . , 5 1 9 9 , 2 3 4
1 6 0 8 c . 1 0 3
16 08 c . 181
1 7 0 8 . 1 0 5
1 7 5 6 7 1 , 2 4 4
1 7 5 6 1,10-23 2 4 3
1 7 5 6 I I 2 4 4
1 7 5 6 1 1 , 3 2 - 3 3 2 4 6
1 7 5 6 X , 1 0 4 2 4 51 7 5 6 , 1 4 1 0 5
1 8 0 6 9
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INSCRIPTIONS AND COINS 3 6 1
IGUR, M o r e t t i 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 , 2 6 2 5 7
1 ,3 3 2 2 5 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 , 2 7 - 2 8 2 5 7
1 ,6 7 2 2 3 8 , 1 , 5 4 9 2 5 7
1 ,7 8 2 2 5 9 , 1 , 1 9 2 , 4 - 8 2 5 6
1 , 8 0 2 2 5 1 1 , 9 2 2 , 2 5 f f . 2 0 1
n r r Q 1 1 , 9 2 2 - 9 2 3 2 0 4U (
Y 2 i 2 07 1 1 , 9 2 2 - 9 3 3 8 9 , 2 3 2
3 3 2 , 2 7 — 2 9 1 8 7 2y' 7 58 3 2 2 5
3 3 2 , 2 9 1 8 7 29' 1527 2 2 5
III'38
i « 72 3 8 3 1
'1 7 0 3 2 2 3
Hi I N ' 3 5 , 8 2 6 , 9 - 1 0 2 2 5
T J O D O NR 1 9 9 ^
4 7 9 1 9 2 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 9 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 4 ? ; £
1 6 8
7 19 3 3 9
' > 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 4 1 1 2 9
A 0 0 4 2 , 1 7 4 5 2 4 76 o 7 , 4 9 . 3 4 3 7 4 6 n o
6 6 9 2 0 7 ^
6 6 9 , 8 - 9 2 0 7 Syll?
7 3 0 2 0 4 3 0 2 4 7
SEG
4 , 5 1 7 1 9 4
6 , 5 9 2 3 4
6 9 5 , 3 3 - 3 4 2 0 4
6 9 5 , 3 5 1 8 7
6 9 5 , 5 0 - 5 4 2 2 57 3 6 2 3 6
8,1, 5 4 8 , 1 4 2 5 6 7 3 6 vi 30-31 2 3 6
8 , 1 , 5 4 8 , 4 - 1 0 2 5 7 7 6 1 A 2 - 5 2 4 4
8 1 <S48 1 4 - 2 4 9«S7 '
1 * 9 8 9 1 6 8
C O I N S
£ A f C , M a t t i n g l y
1, p. 10 0 no s 61 I ff . 167
1, p . 1 4 2 n o 1 5 5 , p l a t e 2 6 , 3
167 (P lates 16 a n d 17)
2 , p . 8 n o . 4 7 , p l a t e 1 , 1 5 1 6 7
2 , p . 7 7 n o . 3 8 1 1 7 3
2 , p . 2 1 2 n o . 8 5 6 , p l a t e 4 1 , 9
2 0 8
2 , p . 2 5 5 n o . 1 5 6 2 0 8
2 , p . 2 8 0 2 0 82 , p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 3 n o s 2 6 6 , 2 6 7 ,
a n d 2 7 1 , p l a te 5 4 , 3
18 6 (P lates 18 a nd 19)
2 , p . 3 1 1 n o . 6 2 , p l a t e 6 1 , 6
1 6 7 (P l a te s 2 2 a n d 2 3 )
2 , p . 3 1 1 n o s 6 3 - 6 5 ,
p l a t e s 6 1 , 7 - 9
1 6 7 (P l a te s 2 0 a n d 2 1 )
2 , p . 3 6 0 n o . * 2 0 7
2 , p . 3 6 4 n o 3 0 3 , p l a t e 7 1 , 6 [ 6 1 , 6 ? ]
1 6 7
2 , p . 3 6 5 n o . 3 0 4 , p l a t e 7 1 , 5 , a n d
p . 3 7 3 , n o . 3 4 7 , p l a t e 7 3 , 6
2 0 7
2 , p . 3 6 7 n o . 3 1 4 2 0 8
2 , p . 3 7 2 n o . 3 4 6 , p l a t e 7 3 , 4
1 6 7 (P l a te s 2 4 a n d 2 5 )
2 , p . 3 7 8 n o . 3 6 5 , p l a t e 7 4 , 8 2 0 8
2 , p . 4 1 3 n o . 5 0 1 , p l a t e 8 2 , 8
1 6 7
2 , p . 4 1 4 n o . 5 0 4 a n d 5 0 5 ,
p l a t e 8 2 , 8 1 6 72 , p . 4 1 4 n o s 5 0 4 a n d 5 0 5 ,
p l a t e 8 2 , 8 1 6 7
3 , p p . 2 3 2 - 2 3 3 n o s 1 4 3 6 - 1 4 4 0 ,
p l a t e 3 4 , 4 2 6 3 ( P l a te s 2 8
a n d 2 9 )
3 , p . 3 3 9 a n d p . 4 8 9 2 6 0
3 , p . 3 8 2 n o . f 2 6 3
3 , p . 3 8 5 n o . 1 0 5 9 2 6 3
3 , p . 3 8 6 n o . 1 0 6 0 , p l a t e 7 2 , 6
2 6 3
3 , p . 3 9 6 n o . 1 0 9 5 , p l a t e 7 5 , 7
2 6 3 (P l a te s 2 6 a n d 2 7 )
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3 6 2 I N D I C E S
3 , p . 4 8 5 2 6 0
4 , p . 4 0 2 n o . 1 3 2 2 6 2
4 , p . 4 0 3 n o . 1 3 4 2 6 3
4 , p . 5 1 5 n o . 8 3 6 2 6 2
4 , p . 5 3 4 n o s 9 3 2 - 9 3 4 , p l a t e 7 3 , 1 12 6 3 (P l a te s 3 0 a n d 3 1 )
4 , p . 5 4 5 n o . 1 0 0 6 2 6 1
4 , p . 5 7 1 n o . * 2 6 3
4 , p . 6 1 0 n o . * 2 6 3
4 , p . 7 5 5 n o . 3 5 4 a n d p . 8 3 4
n o . 6 8 0 , p l a t e 1 0 9 , 1 5
2 6 3 (P l a te 3 2 )
5 , p p . 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 , n o s 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 ,
p l a te 2 8 , 1 8 , n o s 7 8 - 8 2 2 7 0
(P lates 33 and 34)
Ionia
p . 2 6 8 n o s 2 6 6 - 2 6 8 1 9 3
Phrygia
p . 3 0 7 n o s 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 1 8 9
RIC, M a t t i n g ly a n d S y d e n h a m
2 , p . 2 6 7 n o 3 2 6 n o s 1 6 6 a n d 1 6 7
2 6 8
2 , p . 4 4 4 n o . 8 2 6 2 6 0
4 , 1 p . 1 7 0 n o . 5 7 7 , p l a t e 9 , 92 7 0
4 , 1 p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 0 2 6 8
4 ,1 p . 256 no . 291 (a ) - (c )
2 6 8
4 , 1 p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 3 (a ) - ( f )
2 6 8
4 .1 p . 317 no . 21
[ P la t e X I V , 5 ] 2 6 8
5 . 2 p . 1 0 8 n o . 8 2 9 2 5 2
C o h e n , Description Historique des
Monnaies
III , p . 2 3 6 n o . 7 0 2 6 8
I I I, C . 2 9 8 , C . 2 9 9 a n d C . 3 0 4
2 6 1
5 . G R E E K V O C A B U L A R Y
d y d ^ p a x c c 2 0 1
d y a A , p d x i a 2 4 1
dydjcTi 158
dyiocpopoi 240
d y i o c p o po i 2 3 0 , 2 3 8
dycovoGexf iaa i 234
dGepixoq 6pyr| 15 4 , 16 0
d 0 e o i 1 2 9dOeoxTiq 1 2 9 , 14 1
d ( 8 i a 3
a i a i o i q o ic o vo i q 5 1
a K a x a o x a o i a 1 6 0
dicpf| 7 0
d i c p o d p a x a 8 9
d ^ i G e i a 1 2 2
d t a y o q
O \ ) K dA.oyov 7cejcoiT|Ke 3 0 2
d pc op oq S i d v o i a 2 1 9
dva£co7rupt |oavxe<;
e v a i p a x i G eo u 2 4 5
dvdAji\j/i<; 14
d v a j i a u o p e v o i
d v a r c a u o p e v o K ; e iq Ai f tavov
7tpoxpT | ae i 6 dpxcov 19 6,
1 97
dvd7toa)Gi<; 14
dvarccxvaovxai 197dv8pa7to8ioxT|<; 1 7 9
dv8pocpovoi 6
d v o a i o i 1 6 1
d v o a i o q 2 4 8
d v x u r o o v 2 3 0 , 2 3 1
dvcopGcbGn 9 4
dvcbpGcoaev 6 9 , 9 4 , 11 3
d i c a p x a i 1 4 8
djrriyyeAji 245
drcoPdAAeaOaixr\q X e i x o D p y i a ^ 1 4 9
d7to8e8e iypevo< ; 94
d r c o y e v v a 2 9 3
d n o y p d c p e c G a i 8 3 , 8 8
dTcoXvxpcoaiq 9 4
drcovoCa 159
drcoTcpeaPeCa 245
d jc o v o i a 1 5 9
drcoppeov 306
drcoppori 282
Gecbv o a a cpvtax drcoppori
3 0 7
d r c o p p o ia 3 0 5 , 3 0 6 , 3 0 7
d y i o v jr v e v p a d i r o p p o i a v . . . x o v
Geou 3 0 6xov Geovox; cpcoq 3 0 5cpvaecoq 3 0 6
d r c o p p o i a i
dpxovx£<; xov |3aaiAico<; drc op po iai3 0 6
d icoxexpr ixa i 277
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G R E E K V O C A B U L A R Y 3 6 3
drcoTOur|
oi) m x ' d7ioxouT|v, cb<; eX aixco Qf| vai
3 0 1
drcoxporcri 241
d p £ X T |
' H A A O - U peydA.01) l a p d r c i S o q 267
d p i a x o K p a x i a 55
d p x o q 182, 195
d p x a i 275, 276
dpxri 3, 95, 285, 287, 290, 321,
3 2 2
E K p ia < ; d p x i k 284, 302
e^awcn? , 303
ecp' exepaq dp%d<; 275u i a dpxf| 279, 307, 308
xfi xcov rcdvxcov dpxfi 68, 84
d p x i e p a x e C a 320, 321
d p x i e p e v q 109, 110, 154, 203, 262,
3 2 0 , 321
dpxiepei peyCaxcp 189
dpxio"ovdycoyo<; 1 0 7
d p x o v x e q 275
o x p a r n y o t 1 2 6
xov Koopoft 3 0 6
xcov eOvcov 1 1 7
daePeia 1 2 9 , 11 , 1
daxf|p npmvoq 1 8 6
d a c p d X e i a 124, 1 3 8
d x a £ ( a 295
d x o i d o i 9 a p u d i c o i 322
dx\>xe<; 69, 160
a \ ) 6 d 8 e i a 159
avxoKpdxcop 5d(peX6xri<; 118
a<peai<; 94
d(p(8p\)pa 261
acppove<; 159
PotTtxCauct 5
paaiXeia 9 6 , 9 9 , 1 1 6erco-opdviov paaiA,e(av e £ e x d £ e i v
3 0 4
Paaitaiouxov aicovoq xovxou 229
paaitaix; 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 4 , 1 6 3P<xoiA,ei 8o\)Xet)o^ev 4
PaaiXe\)£iv
xcov jcepdxcov xr\c, ynq 229
paoxd^ew 241P8eAA)icx6<; 145
pSekuyua xr\q epTi cooeax; 7 9 , 8 1 ,
1 4 5PipAxx; 186
£K Tfjq p{pA,o\) xfjq £cofj<; 187
po\)Xt| 92xfi cbpiouivfi $o-oXr\ 94, 113
$OVXT\GI<;
9 e (a v P o v X r i a i v 94
xfi i)7cepxdxcp auxov po\)A.r|aei
1 4 7
pcopoq 3 4 , 2 0 2Pcouocpopoi 2 3 0 , 2 3 8Pcopocpopoq 236
yeve0A,io<; n p e p a 84, 94
yevvrixoq 300
yevvcbjievov 97
y £ p o \ ) a ( a 243, 183y p a p p a x e t x ; 195
yuvf| 166
Sacpvncpopoi 201
Sacpvncpopoc; 201
8e8oKipaapevoi a v 8 p e < ; 148, 149
8 e v 8 p o v 178
8ripio\)py6(; 293
Sfipoq 64, 123, 243
8 i a 8 e ^ c o v x a i 148, 149
8 i a 8 o x a i 149, 286, 287
drcooxotaov 286
S i a S o x r i 1, 8, 287
8 i d 8 o x o i 320
8iaKov(ca
i S i a i 147
Tterciaxevpevcov 8iaKoviav . . .
2 2 2
S i d K o v o i 8, 117, 1488iaKovo<; 134Siowteutxov 240
Siaarccopev 159
S i a x a y n 145
8i8aoKaA.(a 320, 321
8tiA,icopev 159
S i e u O v v o v 156
SiriKcuaa 279
8iraioa\)VTi 64
8IOIKT|OI<; 146
xfj 8 i o i ic f | a e i a u x o u a a t a u o p e v o i
1 4 5
5 t o p 6 c b p a x a 113
8icoyn6<; 160
8 o K i p d o a v x e < ;
xcp rcveuuaxi 148
8 6 y u a 88 , 124, 217
8 6 ^ a 151, 152, 1 6 3 , 205, 206, 249
S o f t v a iyvcoaiv acoxnpfac; 92
5p6uo<; 5rm6aio< ; 247
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3 6 4 I N D I C E S
8 t > v a u « ; 205 ; 207, 249^
S v v d u e i xpw^evoq dxpvxcp 278
u y i o x o v 98
8(o8eKd<p\)Xov 119
e(38eAA)Y|ievoi 179
eyicpaxeCa 159
eGri 130
ei8coA,a
rcoAAaxoGi dvOpcbrccov ecpavxdaOri
4 0
ei8cota)taxxpai 179
e k o v e q 70, 89, 192, 193, 195, 223,
2 2 6 , 2 3 4 - 2 3 6 , 239, 249
xcov lepaaxcov 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 , 2 2 4eiq eiKovaq xcov ZePaaxco 195
e k c b v 172, 193, 196, 223, 224,
2 2 7 , 230, 236, 238, 281, 282, 284
v o r i x i K o q 28 4
e i K ova ueyiaxTiv ypd\j/aq 227T
Iai<; eiKova xov vor\xox) KOGUOI)
2 8 4
e k o v i xov 9r |p {o \ ) 193, 196,
197
e'uxapixevTi 51, 55, 59, 272
eipr|vet>eiv 244, 245, 246
eipr|VTi 7 0 - 7 2 , 91, 94, 95, 99,
1 0 2 , 110, 1 1 2 - 1 1 5 , 123, 127,
1 3 6 , 145, 1 5 1 - 1 5 4 , 156, 160,
1 6 2 , 243, 248
ev eipf|vfl 115
i ) 7 c o x d a a e a 9 a i 146
\)7ioxdcaovxai 145e v a y y e X i ^ o i i e v o q e i p f | v r | v 119
ev o u p a v c o e i p f | v t | 115
o v S e v . . . dpe ivov e ip f | vr | < ;
2 4 0 , 299
noXXr\q eipr|vr|<; x v y x d v o v x e q
1 1 3
e i o r | t a 6 a i o v 183, 185
e K a x o v x a p x o q 146
eKK^TioCa 240, 286
e K K t a i a i a 6 e o t> . . . d y i o c p o p c o
2 3 8
xfj eKKA.r|o{a xov 9eoa) xr\
7rapoiKot>aTi KopivGov 151
rcpoTiyoDjievoK; xfjq eKKA.r|a[a<;
2 1 5
a \ )U7capo i )aa iq . . . eiacA,r|a{ai<;
2 2 8
eK7ti>pcoGi<; 273
e K x e v e i a 119
ZKxvoiq
nXr\pr\<; nveviiaxoq ayiov 161
eXevQepioq 72
iXniq 70
eXnideq
zXnibaq xcov7tpoA,aP6vxcov
euayyeXia jcdvxcov 105evBeov nXrfioq 219
evcoaiq
aapKiicri 221
eiq evoxrixa 0e o \ ) 299
ev xfi evoxrixi 247
evcoaiv eiSxouai 297
evcoOfivai
evco9t|xe xcpe7tiaK07ccp 239, 240
e eujttaxpiov
xr \<; dydjiriq -bjucbv 219
e^crooid ovxec; 117
eiovaia 292
SeSopevriv e^ovaiav 152
empxia 123
ercapxcx; 146
ejciveiiacx; 189
ejucxnuoi
xolq anocxoXoic, 132
eiciaK07if| 149
e7iioKOTcfi<; d7copdA<co|iev 149
enioKOKoc, 225, 226, 313
eiuaKOTcoi 8, 133, 134, 146, 148,
2 4 8 , 315, 316 , 321
Ttpea f toxepo i 146, 315
mi udpxvpa 226
ejcixe^eiaGai 147
ejctxexaypevoi optaucn 147
ercupaveCa 70, 72in6nxT]q 306
epyov TipcoxoxoKov 301
epic; 160
evayyeXia 70, 72
evayyeXiov 104, 113
xolq Ttxcoxoiq 122
EvayyeXiGaadax
nxwxolq 105
evayyeXioQr] r\ noXiq 72, 105,
2 4 5
evayyeXia 105
evepyexai 117
evepYernq 117
eikoauoq 195
evXoyia 206, 207, 249
cuvouia 70, 64
evaePeia 64, 145, 204
evoePeiaq ouov SiSaypa
2 3 9jcepi x' euaepelaq 203
evaxdGeia 151, 153
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G R E E K V O C A B U L A R Y 3 6 5
evxdicxco<; 1 4 6
E K GeAjinctxoq Geov 1 4 8
evxc^ia 1 4 6 , 2 4 3 , 2 9 9
E\>xvxr\\ia 94, 16 0
evxapiaxfjaou 2 0 6
evxapiaxia 2 0 5 , 2 0 6
evepyeaicov 2 0 6
eiq evxapioxiav XT|A,IKOVXOV Geov
2 0 6
^ampoq
xcov 9e{cov eiicovcov
2 3 7 , 2 3 8
^Tvrfiuaxa 1 0 7tfyXoq 1 5 9 , 16 0
On 3 , 17 8
cofjc; evpexpia 7tdcrn<; 2 5 6
E K xov tpkov xr\q £co*k
1 7 8
fiyeuovia 1 5 2
f iyepoviKov 2 2
fiyeucov 8 2 , 2 8 2
Tiyovuevoq 1 1 7
HAIOC C A P A n i C 2 6 9
fiiiepoSpopoq 2 4 4 , 2 4 7
Gdvaxo<; 147
Ged 'Pcbpri 1 9 2 , 1 9 4 , 198
GeoSpouoi 2 4 7
GeoSpouoc; 2 4 4 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 7
GeoAoyot 1 9 9 , 2 3 4
GeoAxSyoc; 1 9 4 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 5 ,2 0 8 , 2 3 0
GeorcperceTq icaTSeq 3 2 1
0£orcpeaPt>XTi<; 2 4 4 , 2 4 6
GeocpdvxTK 2 3 0 , 2 3 6
0eocp6poi 2 3 7 , 2 3 8
Geoq>6po<; 2 3 0 , 2 3 6 - 2 3 8 , 2 4 1
6ecop(a 1 2 3
OXi^iq 7 9
G6pvpo<; 1 2 4
Gpovoq 99 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 4 ,
2 0 5 , 2 1 7
xov Geov 1 9 9 , 2 0 4
xovlaxava 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 , 18 5
Gvuidua
xfi copa xov Gvuaduaxog 8 8
Gvuiduaxa 197
Gvuuxaai 8 8
Gvuiaxripiov 8 9
GvaiaGvolav ox; KCXMAGXTIV 2 2 5
Geov Gvaia evpeGco 2 3 3
Ovonai
Gvaiaq xe rcapioxdvai xoiq Geoic;
2 4 3
Gvaiaaxripiov 2 1 6 , 2 3 2
GvaiaaxTjplov xovGvuiduaxoq
8 8
exoiuov 2 3 0 - 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 , 2 5 0
iepaxeveiv 8 8
iepoupopoi 2 3 0 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 7 , 2 3 8
ieped 2 0 2
xr\<; xcov Xe aoxcov Evae(3e(a<;
1 8 1
iepeia 2 6 2Lepevq 7 5 , 195
iepo(pdvxTj
uvoxTipicov 1 9 2
tepocpopoq 2 3 6
iepcbuaxa 2 4 1
i|idxia Aevm 1 8 6
iuaxiov
ev iuxxxioiq XevKoiq 1 8 7
1OV8CUK6<; 1 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 131
ior| Avoia 1 8 4
iaT|A,va{ov
icrn^vaiov rcape^ei 6 mxaoxcxGeiq
1 8 3
iaxv<; 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 , 2 4 9
KaGnpevoc; 2 0 2 , 2 1 5
raGiaxduevoi
e coxiKoC 1 9 5
KaGvuvovvxeq 2 3 4KavTicpopoq 2 3 6
Kaxe^ovaid^ovoiv 1 1 7
mxevGvvai 94 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 156
raxTixT |Gn<; AxSycov 1 3 8
KTipvypa 7 8
KTipv^ai 9 1
aix|iataoxoi<; dcpeaiv 1 0 5
KiGdpa
e'xovxe<; eicaoxoq KiGdpav
2 1 5
KiGapcp8cov KiGapi ovxcov evxai<;
KiGdpatq 1 9 9
Kiv8vvevouev eyKcxAeiaGai axdoecoq
1 2 0
K(V8VVO<; 147 , 154 , 2 4 8
Kivovvxa
axdaeiq 1 1 3
ldaxai
e i c i K e i u e v a c ; Kioxaq exovoaq iepd2 3 6
Kioxa(p6po<; 2 3 6
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366 I N D I C E S
icXdSoi
xou axavpov 2 1 3
KOivcov(a 7 7
Kopri Kooiio-u 3 0 5
KoauoKpdxopeq 2 9 1 - 2 9 4
Koaj ioKpdxcop 4 , 2 6 7 - 2 7 0 , 2 7 6 ,
2 8 9 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 8 , 3 0 6 , 3 2 9
KoauoKpdxopa Kx(aua xov
At|uio\)pyov 2 9 2
icoauoicpdxopa M(dpKov)
A\)(f|Xiov)... lejiaaxov 2 7 0
K p d x i a x o q 9 3 , 106 , 1 2 6
Kpdxoq 1 6 3 , 2 0 6 , 2 4 9
ev ppaxiovi avxov 1 5 6KVKkoq
eiaxTKeiaav Kt>ictao X O V Qpovov1 9 9
XaiKoq 1 4 7
A,eixoi)pynaavxe<; duiurcxcoq 1 4 9
taixovpyCa 1 4 7
A,evxeiuovoi)vxe<; 2 0 1
A,iPavo<; 9 5 , 1 9 7
XiPavcoxoq 1 9 7 , 2 0 2A,iKva<popo<; 2 3 6
teyoq 1 8 , 2 2 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 4 9 , 1 5 2 , 1 9 8 ,
2 8 2 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 6
d a a p K o < ; 3 0 1
euyvxcx; 2 8 1
evSidOexoq 1 5 2 , 2 7 2
evSidGexoq 2 7 2
rcpoeXBcov 3 0 2
7ipo7iTi8a Xoyoq 3 0 17tpo(popiKo<; 1 5 2
Xoycp, vm voouuevco duepiaxco
3 0 4
Mxpcooiq 9 2 , 9 4 , 9 9 , 1 0 2
Xvxviaev ueaco xcov A.DXVICOV 1 9 6
Mxvoi 1 9 5
pav{a 121
udvvaKCKpDupevov 1 8 0 - 1 8 2
uavxiicfi 2 1
u d p x y q 2 2 6
6 nioxoq u o v 18 1pexexovxeq
dpxiepaxeiaq 1uiapd 1 5 9uiapol 6
uiueiaGai 2 9 4| i iur |uaxa 2 2 3 , 2 3 9
u ( u T i a t q 2 3 5
uiur|xa{ 2 3 0
uiuTixriq 2 2 6 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 , 3 0 0
uiuovuevoq 2 3 5
uoixeCa 3 1 5
uovapxeia-Tila 2 5 3 , 3 0 8a d u a xedq, 5earcoiva, fiovapxe(a<;
3 0 2
uovapxia 2 5 3 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 0 ,
3 0 1 , 30 3 , 30 6 , 30 7 , 30 9 , 31 0 , 3 1 8
d K a x a a K e v c o q Kal cpuciKax;
cuvioxaxai uovapxia 5 5
uovapxiav eutov 3 0 8
avviaxdv 3 1 8
jcepi xe Geoa)uovapxicu; 3 0 8
vdo<; 1 2 0
vaocpopoi 2 3 0 , 2 3 8
vea
"Ioi<; 2 5 8
Ar|(XTixpa 2 0 3
veoc;
Aiovvoioq 2 3 9 , 3 1 1
vecoKopoq 1 2 0
xr\c, ueydA.Ti<; 'Apxeuiooq 1 6 8viicr, 6 4 , 7 1 , 7 2 , 9 9 , 1 2 3vor|x6<; 2 9 4
ev xcp voiixcp 2 7 5
vouoq 2 5 , 1 0 7
vovq 3, 2 7 6 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 5 , 2 9 1 ,
3 0 5 , 3 0 6
tyXov 1 7 8
TTJ<; ^(or\q 1 7 8
oiKexriq 3 2 2
o i K o v o u ( a 2 9 7
oiKovoufaq xdpiv 3 0 1
okouuevTi 6 7 , 9 8 , 1 1 3 , 1 2 4oi'voi 1 8 2 , 1 9 5
oi'voix; a7cev5ovai 2 2 7
oXiyapxia 5 5
oXedpoq 2 2 1
6uor|0eia
9eo\) 2 4 0
ouovoC 1 4 6
ouovoia 7 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 6 8 , 7 0 ,9 1 , 118 , 15 1, 15 3, 15 4, 156 , 157 ,
1 6 0 , 23 4 , 21 6 , 23 9 , 24 0 , 24 3 , 2 4 8
evouovo(a 2 1 6 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 0 ,
2 9 9
8ixa 7tdar|<; 7tapeicpdoeco<;
1 4 5 , 147'Ouovoia lePaaxfi 1 9 2
ovoua Kaivov 1 8 4 , 1 8 5
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3 6 8 I N D I C E S
Ttpoxouri
l a p d r c i S c x ; 241
r c p c o T O K o c G e S p C a i 215
TcpcoxoaxaTTiq
xfj<; xcov Na^copa icov a ipe a eo x ;114
r c u p c p o p c x ; 236
po8iapo<; 95
T c o u a fi r c a u p a o & e i a 206
o e ( 3 d C e a 0 a t 3, 9, 126
a e p d a u i o v
e i v a i y d u o v iepecoc; 320l e P a a x o i 181, 191, 203
aepaaxoAxSycx; 230
a e p a a x o c p d v n i ; 192, 196, 197, 199,
230 , 234, 236, 239, 250, 262
Geocpopoq 250
o e p a a x o c p o p o q 230, 236, 237, 239
a e P o u i v a i 107
o e p o u e v o i 129, 130
c r n u e i a 117
xov anooxohov 132
omuuxx
a i c d u p a x i 143
aocp(a 185, 206, 305, 306
aocpoi 285, 289
a7tov5ia6fjvai 232
0eq> 232
c x a a i d £ o u £ v 159
a x d a e i < ; 107
a x d o i q 110-114, 118, 119, 121,123, 128, 131, 145, 148, 152-154,
157, 159-161, 248
d v o a i o q 145
axecpavr |cpopf ioai 187
ev AxxprcpaTq eaGfiaiv
axecpavr icpope iv dnavxaq
238 , 243
axecpavTicpopot 179, 203, 204,
249
oxecpavTicpopoq 202, 204
oxecpavoi 193, 217, 201, 202
XpvooC 201, 202, 249
eaxeupevcov 5dcpvr|<; oxecpdvoiq
2 0 1 , 204
axecpdvovq xoiq i)uvco8oiq 195,
204 , 234
oxecpavoq
X p v a o u q 206
Ccofiq 179d^ io7c A.oKo\) Kve \ ) u a x i K o \ )
oxecpdvoi) 217, 234
ax e c pav c oaa i
Xpvaco oxecpdvco 204
e v e a u n o i v t a x u 7 t p a T < ;
eoxecpavcouevcuq 187, 238
axecpavcooovc iv 207
axoXf) 197
ax pc b an ; 195
a\)yxapfivai 246
a i ) v x a p T | aopevT |v auxcp 243
auyxcope iv 5
avyxcopf|oi<; 5, 6
a\)7xcopf|aeco<; d ^icoOfivai 5
<xoupot>>itov
d y a y e i v 8eo7tpe7tecxaxov 246a v u u \ ) G x a i 230, 235
(XUUCpCOVOl
ovxeq ev o u o v o i a 216
o v v e 5 p i o v 183
xcov drcoaxotaov 222
a \ ) V T |9eia 219, 228
<ruvr| p u o o x a i
xcp e7uaK6rccp 216
cxuvoSoi
ndvxeq 235, 238
GVOXOLGIC, 152
ovaxaaw . . . ecpaveporcovnaaq
152
a v a x r i p a 183
ocppayi8e<;
K a B d j i e p ev icripco ocppayi8e<;
284
a x T | u a
dvcopGcoaev 160ev eipriv iKcp oxr^axi 201
a x i a u a 119, 145
acocppoovvT} 159
acoxflp 71, 72, 91, 92, 97, 113,
180, 181, 159, 194
ueyiaxcp Zcoxfip i 189
acoxfip a x a p i a a u i v T | 105
xox> K oivo i) xcov dvOpamcov
yevoxx; 70
a c o x n p i a 71, 92, 97, 99, 102, 110,
112, 121, 123, 128, 156, 162, 206,
249
xr\<; xcov fiyeud vcov a cox ripiaq 89
acoxTipiav e£ exOpcov 92
acoxT|p (a<; eopxr|v x i v a x a v r n v
erciaxdjievoc; 123
acoxT|p iov 95
acocppcov 145
xanewoi 104
xa7ieivcoai<; 99
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GREEK VOCABULARY 369
xdyuoc 146, 162
ev xcp i6{cp xdyuaxi 147
xdfo 146,' 305
xfjc; xd ecoc; 7ipoxexu7tco|ievr|<; 94
xdpaxoq 120x&eioq moq 157, 245, 280, 323,
324xeAexai
xaiq dyicoxdxaiq dvapi^aoa
xeAexaiq 235
xejxevri 203
xeuevoq 120, 168, 169
xiuri 152, 205
xojcoqei<; xoTcov 218
ev xoTtcp dyico 81
XcopCou 'PcouocCcov 225
8co8eKdxcp xorcco . . . drco xcov
drcooxotaov 150
xpixcp xoTtcp 150
xpdrce^a 89
xurcoq 222-224, 226, 227, 230, 233,
237, 238, 242, 245, 250, 266
xfjq i)|itcov Geou 'Apxeua8o<;242
xou e7uxcop(o\) Geou 227, 260
eiqxurcov 222, 239
Geou 221, 225
mxpoq 218, 227, 238, 260
ouve8p(ou xcov drcoaxotaov
221xurcov opGiov 223
xurcoi 220, 222, 224, 226, 239,240 , 241, 260
xupavvoq
Eiciq atcovo<; \iovr\ 256
X\)XTI 71, 111, 122
uioq 72, 96, 99
Geou 152
Kaioapoq Geou uiou 71
uyieicx 72, 151, 153, 248
Ar|uoaia 70
uuvco8e(ov
ev xcp uuvcoSeCco 195
uuvcp8oi 194, 195, 198, 199, 204,
205 , 234, 249
'ApxefiiSi auveSpiov xcov ujavcoScov194
uuvcp86<; 199
xfi iepa uuvcoScov auvoSco xaipew' 199,' 234
\)7tojiovf| 59
\)7coxayr| 146, 162
urcoxdyexe
xcp ejciaKOTccp 221, 299
cpayeiv 178
ei5coA6Guxa 181, 185, 186
C K xou £uAou xfjq CO K 168,
213
(papudicoK; 179
(pGopd
riSiaxa dv Se^auevco cpGopdv
69, 95
cpGovo; 159, 160cpidAai 180, 193, 208, 249,
193
cpidAxxq xpucrd(; yeuouoaq
Guuiaudxcov 215
(pidtai 89
xou Guuou xou Geou 193
cpiAx)oe|$aaxo<; 203
cpiAoaocpoi 288
(piAoaocpo; 270, 289
(ptA,ooxopy(a 64(poiviKeq
ev xai<; xep^i 200
(pove(a 315
(ppoviuoi 159
(ppoupoi 320
(pt>ai<; 45, 49, 71, 278
(pcovf|
ev 9covfj jiia 216
xapi<; #
Xdptxoq jLiexexovxeq 320
Xeipoxovfiaat 246
5idicovov 244
Xeipoxovt|aavxe<; 133
XiA.(apxoi 146
Xop8a( 216
Xopo(daxepcov 145
Xop6<; 230, 233, 240
ev dydjcTi xop<k 233
Xpiaxocpopoi 230, 238
XP%aGeou Axxpovxeq, ev evoxi 216
\|/eu8o7cpo(pr|XTi<; 215
\|/f|(pioua 199, 234
xjnicpoc; 183-185
A.euKT| 180-182, 185vj/uxri 275-277, 294
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PLATES
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P l a t e 1 . A r a P a c i s A u g u s t i . D A I N e g . 5 3 . 3 0 7 .
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P l a t e 2 . A r a P a c i s : T e l l u s : c e l e b r a t i o n o f Pax i n n a t u r e a n d s o c i et y . D A I N e g . 8 6 . 1 4 4 8 .
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P l a t e 3 . A r a P a c i s : T e l l u s a n d h e r c h i l d r e n i n a f r u i t fu l e a r t h .
D A I N e g . 3 2 . 1 7 4 4 .
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P l a t e 4 . A r a P a c i s : N y m p h (Hard) o f s e a - r e a l m s e a t e d o n a t a m e d d r a g o n .
D A I N e g . 3 2 . 1 7 4 6 .
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P l a t e 5 . A r a P a c i s : C l o s e - u p o f T e l l u s ' ch i ld i n N a t u r e ' s s u p e r a b u n d a n c e .
D A I N e g . 8 6 . 1 4 5 8 .
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P l a t e 6 . A r a P a c i s : S a c r i f i c i a l S c e n e (Suovetaurilia). D A I N e g . 6 6 . 1 0 7 .
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P l a t e 7. A l t a r o f L a r e s : A u g u s t u s as augurwith lituus. DAI Neg . 7 5 . 2 9 3 .
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P l a t e 8. A l t a r of the L a r e s : Vicomagistri a t j o i n t s a c r i f i c e . DAI Neg. 6 0 . 1 4 7 2 .
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P l a t e 9. A l t a r o f L a r e s : A u g u s t u s h a n d s s t a t u e t t e s to ministri o f a compitum.
M u s . V a t i c . A r c h . F o t o g . N e g . N. A. 16.6.
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Pla te 10 . Ministri with statuet tes o f Lares a n d Genius Augusti. Mus. Vatic. Arch. Fo to g. Neg . N. X X X V . 5 . 9 .
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P l a t e 1 1 . A l t a r d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Lares o f A u g u s t u s .
M u s . C a p i t . A r c h . F o t o g . I n v . 8 5 5 / S .
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P l a t e 1 2 . A u g u s t u s p r e s e n t s s t a t u e o f M i n e r v a t o magistri o f w o o d w o r k e r s .
M u s . C a p i t . A r c h . F o t o g . I n v. 1 9 0 9 / S .
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P l a t e 1 3 . G e m m a A u g u s t e a . V i e n n a , K u n s t h i s t . M u s . I n v . I X . A . 7 9 .
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P l a t e 1 4 . P o m p e i : P r i e s t e s s with stola a n d patera.
N a p l e s , M u s . N a z . I n v . 6 0 4 1 .
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P l a t e 1 6 . H e a d o f A u g u s t u s with t h u n d e r b o l t a n d s t a r .
B M C ( T i b e r i u s ) 1 5 1 . c 2 1 6 . 2 0 ( P L 2 6 . 3 ) . ( O b v . )
P l a t e 1 7 . L i v i a a s p r i e s t e s s h o l d i n g patera a n d s c e p t r e .
B M C ( T i b e r i u s ) 1 5 1 x . 2 1 6 . 2 0 ( P L 2 6 . 3 ) . ( R e v . )
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P l a t e 1 8 . H e a d o f A u g u s t u s with s t a r .
B M C ( T i t u s ) 2 7 1 . c 2 1 9 . 8 6 ( P L 5 4 , 3 ) . ( O b v . )
P l a t e 1 9 . A l t a r t o Providentia.
B M C ( T i t u s ) 2 7 1 . c 2 1 9 . 8 6 ( P L 5 4 , 3 ) . ( R e v . )
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P l a t e 2 0 . D o m i t i a A u g u s t a .B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 5 . c l 9 4 . 5 6 ( P L 6 1 , 9 ) . ( O b v . )
P l a t e 2 1 . D o m i t i a ( P i e t a s ) with s c e p t r e , l e ft , e x t e n d i n g r i g h th a n d t o w a r d s h e r c h i l d .
B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 5 . c l 9 4 . 5 6 ( P L 6 1 , 9 ) . ( R e v . )
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P l a t e 2 2 . D o m i t i a A u g u s t a .B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 2 ( P L 6 1 , 6 ) . ( O b v . )
P l a t e 2 3 . D i v u s C a e s a r ( D o m i t i a n ' s s o n ) a s b a b y J u p i t e rs e a t e d o n a g l o b e c i r c l e d b y seven s t a r s .
B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 2 ( P L 6 1 , 6 ) . ( R e v . )
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P l a t e 2 6 . S a b i n a A u g u s t a .
B M C ( H a d r i a n ) 1 0 9 5 . C . 3 9 1 . 8 ( P L 7 5 , 7 ) . ( O b v . )
P l a t e 2 7 . C y b e l e , towered, d r a p e d a n d s e a t e d .
B M C ( H a d r i a n ) 1 0 9 5 . C . 3 9 1 . 8 ( P L 7 5 , 7 ) . ( R e v . )
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P l a t e 28. Fau sti na (I) Augu sta .
B M C (Anton inus P ius) 143 6.c 22 3 . 190 (PL 34 ,4 ) . (Obv. )
P l a t e 29. Cyb ele towered an d en th ro ne d with two lions.
B M C (Ant oni nus Pius) 14 36 .c 22 3. 190 (PL 34, 4) . (Rev.)
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P l a t e 3 0 . F a u s t i n a ( I I ) A u g u s t a .
B M C ( M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ) 9 3 4 . C . 2 2 5 . 1 ( P L 7 3 , 1 1 ) . ( O b v . )
P l a t e 3 1 . C y b e l e ( M a t e r M a g n a ) towered.
B M C ( M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ) 9 3 4 . C . 2 2 5 . 1 ( P L 7 3 , 1 1 ) . ( R e v . )
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P l a t e 3 2 . M a t r i D e u m S a l u t a r i : C y b e l e t o w e r e d a n d o n a
l i o n ' s b a c k .
B M C ( C o m m o d u s ) 6 8 0 ( P L 1 0 9 , 1 5 ) . ( R e v . )