The Importance and Benefits ofAlfalfa in the 21st Century

ExecutiveSummary

Will an advanced industrial societyvalue humble crop plants being grownadjacent to multi-million dollar officecomplexes or homes? Does the publicknow how important agriculture is totheir daily lives, providing not onlyfood but a wide variety of other benefitsas well? Or, when push comes toshove, will society simply dispensewith agriculture, allocating land andwater to other uses, without consider-ation of the long-term consequences?

These are important concerns ofgrowers as agriculture enters the 21stCentury. Farmers have become anincreasingly smaller component of thepopulation, and it is safe to say thatvery few in the general public have anin-depth appreciation of agriculture.

A public disconnected with agricul-ture is particularly a problem for alfalfa,which is two steps removed from thedinner plate, but nevertheless importantfor human nutrition.

There are about 23 million acres ofalfalfa in the US. Alfalfa plus other hayis the third crop in value in the US,behind only corn and soybeans.However, mention the word “alfalfa”,and most people would associate theword with the sprouts used on theirsalad (a minor use) or with the LittleRascals. Very few would recognize theimportant role alfalfa plays in their livesin the form of milk, cheese pizza, icecream, honey, leather, or wool sweaters.Fewer still would recognize the non-economic roles that alfalfa plays inmaintaining a healthy environment.

This effort to document the impor-tance of alfalfa to food productionsystems and environmental goalsoriginated with a small group of alfalfagrowers in California. While Californiais the nation’s leading producer ofalfalfa hay, the crop has come underincreased criticism in that state due toits use of water and pesticides. Duringthe 1990s, these growers met with anumber of critics of alfalfa to discussthese issues and try to understand their

points of view. It was apparent thatmany of the attributes of alfalfa werepoorly understood. Furthermore, therewere few publications that attemptedto document the benefits of agricultureto the environment.

In this publication, we present aseries of topics related to alfalfa’s rolein agriculture and the environment.The goal of this publication is to allowreaders to become more familiar withalfalfa’s importance as a crop, and itscontributions to broader social goals.

Providing Significant WildlifeHabitat. Alfalfa is the beginning of afood chain, and contributes valuablehabitat for hundreds of species ofherbivores and animals of prey. It hostsseveral endangered species, plus manyfamiliar ones. Those who love natureshould appreciate alfalfa’s support ofmany wildlife species.

Alfalfa as an Insectary. Alfalfa isa source of incredible insect diversity,which includes many valuable ‘benefi-cial’ insects. These, in turn help controlmany other types of insect and mitepests in alfalfa and other crops.

Efficiency in Water Use. While itis true that alfalfa uses a significantamount of water per year, alfalfa is arelatively efficient user of irrigationwater; it produces high tonnage ofdry matter for the water applied. Thisis due to its year-long growth habit,its high yield, and the fact that allthe above-ground portion of the plantis harvested. Alfalfa’s deep-rootsassure that a large proportion of thewater applied is used by the crop, notwasted. While there is room forimprovement in water use efficiency,alfalfa should not be considered to bea water waster.

Mitigating ContaminationProblems. Alfalfa has been used tomitigate several environmental prob-lems that are a consequence of ourindustrial society, including absorbingnitrates from groundwater, recyclingdairy or municipal wastes, and mitigat-ing industrial compounds that couldcontaminate groundwater.

Aesthetic Value and Open Space.While it is difficult to put a value onaesthetics, the open space and beautythat alfalfa provides a community aresignificant in their own right – andbesides, nothing can beat the fragranceof a newly-mown alfalfa field.

Often, in arguments between‘environmental interests’ and ‘agricul-tural interests’, the complexities andbenefits of a crop landscape are lost.Alfalfa makes many important contri-butions to broader societal goals relatedto the environment, and should beconsidered an important componentof sustainable agro-ecosystems forthe future.

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There are several key points:Alfalfa Has Broad Economic Value.

While alfalfa is often characterized asbeing of ‘low value’, its true economicimpact is much greater than just itsgross receipts. Alfalfa is the beginningof a complex food chain, and affectsmany industries from dairying to wooland beef production and horseracing.The many end-uses, such as cheese makingand pizza marketing are worth billionsof dollars more than the value of thecrop itself; but they begin with alfalfa.

Protecting the Soil. The deep-rooted characteristics of alfalfa andvigorous year-round canopy helpprotect the soil from becoming airborneand causing dusty conditions, or beingwashed into rivers as sediment.

Rotation/Nitrogen Benefits. Thebiological N

2 fixation by bacteria

growing on alfalfa roots helps saveenergy – no N fertilizers are needed! Inaddition, alfalfa leaves behind nitrogenand improves soil structure for the cropthat follows so farmers can apply lesschemical fertilizer.

Kuhn

Executive Summary ......................................................... 2

Table of Contents, Authors .............................................. 3

History and Importance of Alfalfa ................................. 4

How is Alfalfa Produced? ................................................ 6

Importance of Alfalfa to Soil Health .............................. 8

Alfalfa, Ice Cream in the Making ................................. 10

Importance of Alfalfa to Wildlife .................................. 11

How Wildlife Species Use Alfalfa .................................. 12

Alfalfa as an Insectary ................................................... 15

Aesthetic Value of Alfalfa .............................................. 17

Alfalfa Helps Solve Environmental Problems ............. 18

Alfalfa and Water Use ................................................... 20

Alfalfa and the Future ................................................... 23

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Authors:Dan Putnam (dhputnam@ucdavis.edu)

Forage SpecialistUniversity of Calfornia, Davis, CA

Michael RusselleSoil ScientistUSDA-ARS, St. Paul MN

Steve OrloffUC Farm AdvisorYreka, CA

Jim KuhnAlfalfa Grower and PhotographerEl Centro, CA

Lee FitzhughWildlife BiologistUniversity of California, Davis, CA

Larry GodfreyEntomologistUniversity of California, Davis, CA

Aaron KiessExecutive DirectorCAFA, Novato, CA

Rachael LongUC Farm AdvisorWoodland, CA

Published by:California Alfalfa and Forage Association36 Grande Vista, Novato, CA 94947.Phone: 415/892-0167For futher information about alfalfa,see: http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu and

http://www.mother.com/~cafa/

Copyright 2001.

Contents

Acknowledgements:Many thanks to those who gave careful reviews and other contributions:Tom Ellis, President, CAFA, Joe Rominger, Grower, Winters, CA, Larry Teuber, Professor,UC Davis, Bill Rains, Professor, UC Davis; Jess Dancer, Grower, Macdoel, CA; FordDenison, Professor, UC Davis, Bill Williams, Professor Emeritus, UC Davis; Eric Natwick,UC Farm Advisor, El Centro, CA; Juan Guerrero, UC Farm Advisor, El Centro, CA;Gerald Holmes, NC State; Lara Hartley, Journalist, Hinkley, CA; Mel Coehlo, San JoaquinValley Haygrowers Association; Herman S. Meister, UC Farm Advisor, El Centro; MikeSan Miguel, Ornithologist, Los Angeles; Andrew Engilis, Jr. Wildlife Biologist UC Davis

Cover photo: Pronghorn antelope in intermountain alfalfa in Butte Valley in Northern California(Steve Orloff, photos).Opposite page photo: Egret in alfalfaThis page: High desert alfalfa production near Willow Springs, California (Steve Orloff, photo).Back cover: Sheep graze in an alfalfa field in Imperial Valley, California, with Signal Mountain,Mexico in background (Gerald Holmes, photo).

A Long, Rich History

Remains of alfalfa more than 6,000years old have been found in Iran, andthe oldest writen reference for alfalfa isfrom Turkey in 1300 BC! Alfalfa has along association with many ancientcivilizations, and continues to contrib-ute to agriculture through present times.

Alfalfa was likely domesticated nearpresent-day Turkmenistan, Iran, Turkey,the Caucasus regions, and other countriesin Asia Minor. It was important to theearly Babylonian cultures, and to thePersians, Greeks, and Romans. BothAristotle and Aristophanes wrote aboutit. Alfalfa was reportedly brought intoGreece about 500 BC by invadingMedian armies to feed their chariotwarhorses. The Romans later acquiredalfalfa and became known for theirforage culture throughout the Mediter-ranean basin in the ancient world – foralfalfa was tied to military might.

In 126 BC, the Emperor of Chinadispatched an expedition to the NearEast to collect specimens of the highlyprized Persian horses, at which timealfalfa was brought to China. It contri-buted greatly to Chinese agriculture andis still widely grown there today.

The Romans introduced alfalfa intoEurope as early as the First CenturyAD. The Arab empires of the MiddleAges spread alfalfa throughout manyregions of Europe and North Africa, andespecially Spain. In many of thesecultures, alfalfa was associated with thehorse; the name ‘alfalfa’ comes fromArabic, Persian, and Kashmiri wordsmeaning ‘best horse fodder’ and ‘horsepower’. The Spanish and Portugueselater spread alfalfa to the New Worldduring the conquest of Mexico, Peru,and Chile.

Although there is ample evidencethat eastern US colonists, includingThomas Jefferson and George Washing-ton, grew alfalfa on a few acres, it wasnot widely adopted in the US until itsintroduction into western states in theearly 1850s. ‘Chilean clover’ (alfalfabrought from Chile), was introducedduring the gold rush of 1849-1850 andwas instantly adapted to the warm sun

The Most ImportantInvention in 2000 Years?

Hay... yes, hay! At least according to one scholar. In a recent review of themost important inventions of the past 2,000 years, physicist and nobelist FreemanDyson, Professor at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton Universitychose hay as the most important invention of the past 2000 years. Why? Allcivilizations have historically depended upon animals. In ancient times, animalhusbandry depended exclusively upon grazing. Civilization could exist only inwarm climates where horses and cattle could stay alive through the winter bygrazing. At some point in history, according to Dyson, some unknown geniusinvented hay, which was reaped and stored. Thus civilization moved north over theAlps. The assurance of a year-long feed supply enabled a reliable horse and animalculture. So, according to Dyson, hay gave birth to Vienna and Paris, to Londonand Berlin, and later to Moscow and New York. Hay, the most important inventionin 2000 years!

Alfalfa is one ofthe earliest cropsdomesticatedby man and has along and rich history.

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Hay Schooner circa 1890’s San Joaquin River Delta, California

Petaluma Hay Press. Petaluma,California, circa 1870’s.

“...it dungs the land”– Lucius Junius ModeratusColumella, Roman Writer,56 A.D.

“Gold could notalways be found withpick and shovel, itcould without fail befound by alfalfaroots.”

– Coburn, 1908 describingthe history of alfalfa duringthe California Gold Rush inthe 1850’s.

Alfalfa is considered the ‘Queen ofForages’ all over the world!

Growers admire alfalfa for its high yield, wide adaptation, diseaseresistance, and excellent feeding quality. Alfalfa makes a tremendouscontribution to world food production, a contribution that often goesunrecognized.

The United States grows about 23 million acres of alfalfa each year.Alfalfa is third in value behind only corn and soybeans. It is worthmore than $8 billion annuallynot including the value ofdairy products. The topalfalfa-producing states arein the West and Midwest:California, South Dakota,Wisconsin, Minnesota, Idaho,Nebraska, Iowa, Montana,Kansas, and Colorado.About 40% of the nation’salfalfa crop is grown in the11 western states fromColorado west. Alfalfa isnot commonly grown asmuch in the southern US,but can be grown there aswell on well-drained soils.

Alfalfa is usually closelyassociated with dairy produc-tion, which is the primaryuse of alfalfa. However,alfalfa is also used exten-sively as a horse feed, and forsheep, beef and other animals. Without alfalfa, many farms and rancheswould fail.

Alfalfa is one of the world’s most versatile crops. It is grown inenvironments ranging from burning hot deserts to cool high mountainvalleys, from the frozen continental climate of Minnesota, to the Mediter-ranean valleys of California. Alfalfa can grow on soils ranging from beachsands to heavy clays. It is grown as an intensive cash crop under irriga-tion, or as a lower-intensity rainfed pasture crop in forage mixes. Alfalfacan be grazed, fed fresh as green chop, baled, cubed, pelleted, or ensiled.Alfalfa is the key forage crop for dairy producers in the US and the world;it is no accident that the two top dairy states, California and Wisconsin, arealso leading states in alfalfa production.

But alfalfa is not as easily recognized on the dinner table as are majorgrain crops such as corn or wheat. This ‘Rodney Dangerfield’ of crops hasbeen a mainstay of US farms and ranches for more than a century, but itscontinued importance is often not recognized by the general public.

and rich soils of California. Horses,beef and milk cows were valuable, andeverything was animal powered! FromCalifornia, alfalfa spread eastward toNevada, Utah, Kansas, Nebraska andother states where it rapidly took hold.Within a few years, alfalfa was a keycrop in the expanding West of the 19thCentury. The names Alfalfa County,OK, Lucerne, CA, and Alfalfa, WA,are testaments to its importance inthose regions. In 1900, 98% of thealfalfa in the US was grown west ofthe Mississippi River. Cold-tolerantintroductions from Germany (‘Grimm’alfalfa) and plant breeding later allowedalfalfa to be adapted to the cold and wetconditions of the East. This enabled USacreage to expand 15-fold to 30 millionacres by 1950, mostly in the upperMidwest and Eastern states.

From its humble origins as a deep-rooted, drought resistant perenniallegume growing wild on the Steppesof Asia, alfalfa has spread throughoutAsia, Europe, Australia, NorthernAfrica, North and South America.Many farmers and cultures value itshigh productivity, wide adaptation,and life-sustaining nutritionalcharacteristics.

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Early growers marveled at the vigor ofalfalfa. Photo from Imperial Valley,California, 1903.

Importanceof Alfalfa

Alfalfa is produced ina wide variety ofways. Here are somecommon methods ofalfalfa production.

Stand Establishment. Alfalfa is aperennial – it is planted in the spring orfall and then harvested for many years.The seedbed is usually prepared finelyto cover the seed, but some growersseed alfalfa without tillage, directly intostubble. Alfalfa seed must be plantedclose to the soil surface since it is verysmall (1-2 mm). About 15-25 lbs ofseed per acre is planted using a graindrill, broadcast seeder, or airplane.Alfalfa is a relatively weak seedling andmust be protected from weeds. How-ever, after developing a ‘crown’ (top ofthe root), alfalfa is very vigorous, andcan re-grow many times after cutting.

Varieties. There are many varietiesof alfalfa. Some tolerate freezing –

these are grown in northern US statesand Canada. Other varieties continuegrowing during winter months – theseare grown in the southwestern states ofCalifornia and Arizona where growersharvest up to 12months of theyear! Alfalfabreeders havedeveloped manyvarieties ofalfalfa that arehighly resistantto diseases andinsect pests,thereby reducingthe need forpesticides.

Cutting Schedules. Alfalfa isharvested 3-4 times/year in most ofthe US, but up to 10-11 times/year inthe southwestern US. In many areas,growers harvest every 25-35 days,depending upon the weather. Mostalfalfa stands last 3-6 years beforeplanting another crop, but some

alfalfa stands have lasted more than25 years!

Crop Protection. Alfalfa hastremendous genetic resistance to manypests, a result of traditional plantbreeding. Consequently, alfalfa doesnot need a large amount of pesticideseach year compared with other crops.However, there is a large benefit fromcontrolling insect and weed pests ofalfalfa in new and established alfalfastands using Integrated Pest Manage-ment techniques. Key insect pestsinclude alfalfa weevil, leafhoppers,alfalfa caterpillar, armyworms, andmany types of aphids. Weeds can be amajor problem, especially during standestablishment. Weeds can severelyreduce the nutritional quality of alfalfa,but a vigorous alfalfa stand is highlyresistant to weed infestation.

Method of Harvest. Alfalfa istypically harvested with a ‘swather’,which cuts the crop and places it inwindrow strips 3-5 feet wide. These areallowed to dry, using natural solarenergy. Windrows are sometimes rakedor ‘tedded’ (fluffed) to speed drying.Then, balers are used to gather theforage into a hay bale, which can rangefrom small (50 lb) to very large (1 ton).Alfalfa also can be made into silage orhaylage by harvesting the forage whenit is moist and placing it into a silowhere it ferments for preservation. Itcan also be grazed by sheep or cattle or

made into cubes orpellets.

Irrigation. Irriga-tion is not widely usedin humid Midwesternor Eastern growingregions. In westernstates, irrigation isusually a prerequisitefor alfalfa production,and alfalfa yields arehighly responsive toirrigation. Alfalfa is

usually irrigated 1-3 times betweencuttings, depending upon time of year,location, and soil type. Alfalfa wateruse varies greatly between regions,ranging from 2 acre feet per year to 6-7acre feet per year.

Rotation. After alfalfa standsdecline, growers generally plow up

How is AlfalfaProduced?

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How is AlfalfaProduced?

Swathing alfalfa in NorthernCalifornia

Raking alfalfa.

Orloff

Orloff

America’s family farms are oftenrich in history. Many of today’sgrowers are descendants of earlypioneers and ranchers who were amongthe first to experiment with alfalfa inAmerica. Brad Harlan of FresnoCounty, CA is a fourth-generationfarmer who grows alfalfa on land hisfamily first purchased in 1874.

Harlan’s great grandfather GeorgeHarlan was a wagon master who leftMichigan in 1845 and met up with theDonner Party at Fort Bridger, a territorythat would later become Wyoming. TheDonner Party is a well-chronicled partof California history; their fate wassealed by a fierce winter storm thatburied them deep in snow in the Sierras.Fortunately for Brad, George Harlancrossed the Sierras before the DonnerParty’s ill-fated trek, and their familyeventually settled in “less crowdedterritory” – California’s Great CentralValley.

Today, Brad and his wife, Blair,continue the tradition established bypioneer George Harlan. Mechanizationand other advances have dramaticallychanged agriculture. While Harlan’s

grandfather harvested and stacked hayby hand, today harvesting is completelymechanized. From seed to baled hay, itis not touched by human hands. But,one thing that hasn’t changed are longhours and hard work. Harlan and his

family grow about 200 acres of alfalfaannually – without hired help. Duringthe growing season, a typical workdaystarts before sunup and extends wellinto the night.

Harlan is conscious of the need togrow high quality alfalfa for Californiadairies – a task that requires topmanagement. He averages seven to

Fourth Generation FarmerCarries on the Family Tradition

eight cuttings per season and cuts asmall amount of hay at a time, usuallyin the afternoon. He bales at night orearly in the morning “to hit the dewjust right.” Like many western alfalfagrowers, he waits for ‘the wiley dew,’ to

soften the high protein leavesand prevent their loss duringthe baling process.

Harlan is keenly aware ofthe important role high-qualityalfalfa plays in milk productionand maintaining herd health.An animal science major at CalPoly San Luis Obispo, he laterearned an MS in ruminantnutrition at Kansas State beforereturning to the family farm in1981. He calls the farm his“first love and a great place to

raise children.” Their daughters, Triciaand Breanne, are active in 4-H.

Like all alfalfa growers, Harlan isat the mercy of weather, pests, andmarket forces that are beyond hiscontrol. But despite the long hours andchallenges, he’s happy to carry on afamily tradition that dates back to the19th century.

alfalfa to plant corn, wheat, or othercrops, such as tomatoes. Alfalfa doesnot leave residues that require burning.Alfalfa benefits a subsequent crop byproviding residual nitrogen (frombiological N fixation) and by providingbetter ‘tilth’ or crumbliness of the soil.

Quality. There is a wide range ofalfalfa quality, from supreme to very

poor. Hay growers all over the worldwant to “make hay while the sunshines,” since hay quality decreaseswhen hay is rained on. Pure alfalfa isusually higher quality than weedyalfalfa. Alfalfa harvested beforebloom produces the highest qualityhay which low in fiber and high inprotein. If alfalfa is cut late (while inbloom), its feeding quality is lower.Hay quality is important economically– it is estimated that more than $300million of California’s $1 billion alfalfacrop value is determined by qualityfactors.

Uses. After harvest, alfalfa may befed on-farm to livestock, or sold on themarket. In western states, a large percentageof the alfalfa is sold on the market,whereas in other regions, most is usedon-farm. Pure alfalfa of high quality is

in high demand by the dairy industry,but all types of hay are used by dairies,horses, beef, and sheep operations.Other uses have been explored, includ-ing export, manufacturing of feeds,extraction of compounds, and use ofalfalfa as an energy crop. As one of thetop three crops in the US, many farmsand ranches would fail without alfalfa.

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Brad and Blair Harlan on their ranch

Baling hay using large baler “Harrow-beds” are used to pick up andstack small bales in western states.

Orloff

Orloff

Kiess

Sustaining the Soil forFuture Generations

that enable alfalfa to improve andprotect the soil. These are primarilyrelated to its deep and vigorous peren-nial root system, protective canopy ofleaves, and its capability to ‘fix’atmospheric nitrogen.

Alfalfa Prevents Erosion. Althoughmuch of the current concern about theenvironmental effects of agriculture isfocused on pesticides, soil erosion hasalways been a significant environmentalhazard of agriculture. Soil erosion is apermanent loss of productive potential,since the most fertile soil layers erode,only to pollute streams and lakes withsediment. Alfalfa protects the soil fromerosion in several key ways: by reduc-ing the amount of cultivation, byholding the soil in place throughextensive rooting, by providing avigorous above-ground canopy, andby improving ‘tilth’ and waterpenetration.

Reduced Cultivation. While manycrops must be cultivated several times

per year to remove weeds, little soildisturbance occurs in alfalfa fields afterthe crop is established. Most alfalfafields are never tilled for 3-6 years afterplanting! This greatly reduces thechances of wind and water erosion, andlessens the negative effects of dust onhuman health.

Very Deep Roots. Alfalfa’s roots gomuch deeper than do most crops. Thisdeep rooting pattern is highly beneficialto soils. Alfalfa roots are commonly9 - 16 feet (3 - 5 meters) and mayextend much deeper. The deep,vigorous alfalfa root system holds thesoil in place and creates many channelsin the soil that encourage water infiltra-tion, biological activity in the root zone,and improved nutrient cycling. Wateruse efficiency may be improved insubsequent crops.

Vigorous Canopy. A canopy ofalfalfa quickly covers the soil, protect-ing the soil from wind or water erosion.Unlike row crops, alfalfa covers mostparts of the soil, slowing water dropletsbefore they have a chance to loosen anderode the soil.

Reduced Runoff. The amount ofsoil or water that runs off alfalfa fieldsis a small fraction of the runoff frombare soil or from many other types ofcropland. This helps prevent pesticideand sediment movement to naturalwaterways.

Weed Suppression. Alfalfa fullfillsa very important role in crop rotationsby suppressing weeds that are commonin annual crops. The dense vigorousalfalfa canopy shades these weeds andfrequent cutting prevents weed seedproduction. This could reduce pesticideuse in subsequent crops.

Low Pesticide Use. Alfalfa some-times requires herbicides and insecti-cides for optimum crop production, butthe intensity of pesticide use in alfalfais typically far lower than many othercrops, particularly the ‘higher value’crops. There are millions of acres ofalfalfa in the US that receive nopesticides at all. This lowers the overallrisk of crop production to the environ-ment.

Alfalfa ‘Rhizosphere’. Alfalfa rootsproduce an excellent environment forgrowth of microorganisms immediately

Alfalfa is highlybeneficial to soilhealth and croppingsystems.

This simple statement of truth hasbeen known by agriculturalists forthousands of years. Ancient Roman,Greek, and Persian agriculturalistsunderstood the value of alfalfa inbenefiting soil tilth and soil fertility.However, many in today’s public areunaware of this major contribution ofalfalfa to our environment.

Our soil is worth protecting: thisthin, fragile layer sustains all terrestriallife! Millions of tons are lost perma-nently each year due to wind and watererosion, overgrazing, poor agriculturalpractices, and to urbanization. Alfalfacan aid in protecting the soil from loss,and actually improves the soil’s abilityto sustain food production.

There are a number of key attributes

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Sustaining the Soil forFuture Generations

Alfalfa planted in orchardsfor soil conservation, soilfertility, and extra incomenear Orland, CA.

Putnam

Alfalfa exhibits substantial below-ground growth and biologicalactivity. Measurements of alfalfaroots to 15 feet or deeper arecommon. The N

2 fixation and

rhizosphere activity of alfalfa is ofgreat benefit, conserving soilfertility and energy resources.(Illust. U. of MN Coop. Ext.)

surrounding the root (the rhizosphere).This flurry of biological activity is dueto natural chemical exudates from roots,but also to the nitrogen and carbon indead and dying roots and root nodules.Microorganism populations are usually10 to 100 times higher next to the rootthan in the bulk soil. The alfalfa‘rhizosphere’ is very important environ-mentally and is beneficial to the soil.

Improved Soil Tilth. Organic acidsproduced in the rhizosphere improvethe structure of the soil surroundingalfalfa roots. Soil particles aggregate,creating pore space for air and watermovement. The soil becomes ‘crumbly’leaving many ‘channels’ – ideal forplant growth and water infiltration.Farmers the world over recognize thebeneficial effect of alfalfa on the soiland the following crop. As Romanwriter Columella wrote in 56 AD ofalfalfa, “it dungs the land.” This refersto not only the residual N from alfalfa,but also to soil tilth.

Nitrogen Fixation. One of the keyvalues of alfalfa is its ability to ‘fix’nitrogen gas (N

2) from the air so that N

is available for plant growth. AvailableN is very limited in the Earth’s crustand is frequently deficient in plants.Nitrogen is a basic building block forplant proteins, and for human proteinnutrition. While cereal crops requiremillions of tons of N fertilizers peryear, alfalfa requires essentially no Nfertilizers for optimum growth. Esti-mates for N

2 fixation in alfalfa range

from 120 to 540 lbs of N per acre peryear!

N2 fixation is accomplished by

symbiotic association with the bacteriaSinorhizobium meliloti, which lives innodules in alfalfa roots. The US alfalfacrop fixes an estimated 2 – 2.5 milliontons of N each year, which is used forprotein production and plant growth.Dinitrogen fixation by alfalfa hasseveral important environmentalbenefits, which are not broadly recog-nized:Reduced energy needs for foodproduction. First, alfalfa produces highquantities of protein with no added Nfertilizers. This has an environmentalbenefit in resource conservation andenergy use. For example, in 2000,

California produced 7.1 million tons ofalfalfa or approximately 1.4 milliontons of protein from alfalfa on 1 millionacres. To produce the same amount ofprotein per acre would require 4.6million acres of corn (assuming averageUS corn yields and 8% protein in thegrain). Using a very conservativeaverage figure of 100 lbs N/acre as thefertilizer requirement for corn, thisprotein would require 230,000 tons of N

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(or about 280,000 tons of anhydrousammonia) as fertilizer. Nitrogenfertilizer manufacturing is heavilydependent upon fossil fuel, especiallynatural gas. About 33.5 million BTUsfrom natural gas are required to produce1 ton of anhydrous ammonia. There-fore, over 9 trillion BTUs of energywould be required to produce theprotein from California’s alfalfa cropeach year. This does not considerthe application and transportation,energy costs, and inefficiency in plantuptake of fertilizer.Alfalfa provides N to subsequentcrops. In addition to lessening theenvironmental costs of protein produc-tion from the crop itself, alfalfa contrib-utes significant N to subsequent crops(e.g. wheat, corn). In most farm statesthe “N credit” for alfalfa ranges from40-190 lbs N per acre. This is essen-tially free ‘fertilizer’ that can be utilizedby the following crop. The exactamount available will depend uponalfalfa stand, soil type, and how muchtop growth is plowed down.

In the US, assuming that about 20%,or 4.8 million acres of alfalfa arerotated to another crop each year (aconservative estimate), and using aconservative N credit of 50 lbs/acre tothe subsequent crop, this amounts to120,000 tons of N, or 146,000 tons ofanhydrous ammonia equivalent poten-tially saved each year. This is worthover 4 trillion BTUs of fossil fuelenergy from natural gas, in addition tothe amounts directly from alfalfadetailed above. The N

2 fixation of

alfalfa is of tremendous environmentalbenefit to the United States each year!

Alfalfa – Part of SustainableCropping Systems. Alfalfa performs ahumble, unsung, yet vitally importantrole in cropping systems due to thesecharacteristics. Some growers wouldcontinue to grow alfalfa solely for itsrotational value and benefits to subse-quent crops, even if the economicreturns were marginal. Alfalfa’s N

2

fixation, deep roots, protection andenhancement of the soil, relatively lowpesticide load, and contributions tosubsequent crops make it a highlyvalued component of sustainableagricultural systems.

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AlfalfaCorn

What do you make of this hay?

Alfalfa ice cream??!Isn’t that somethingthat cows eat?

Exactly. While we don’t consumealfalfa directly (other than alfalfasprouts), alfalfa contributes to a widerange of nutritious foods that we enjoyevery day. Would a person eating ataco, pizza, or cheeseburger, or pouringmilk on their cereal recognize that thecheese, sour cream, milk, or meatoriginated with alfalfa? Probably not.But these foods begin with alfalfa.

The most important use of alfalfa isthe dairy industry. Alfalfa is consideredthe premier forage for dairy cows. Thusa large component of the milk,yogurt, cheese, cream, dried milk,and ice cream should be attributedto the contribution of alfalfa todairy rations. Dairy cows in theearly 21st Century are capable ofproducing about 60% more milkper cow than in 1970, and thesecows need high quality feed.Thus, alfalfa is very often thefeed of choice. Alfalfa cantruly be considered ‘icecream in the making’due to its importanceto the dairyindustry.

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Alfalfa – Ice Creamin the Making!Alfalfa – Ice Creamin the Making!

Yet alfalfa’s contribution to humanhealth and well-being doesn’t stopthere. Alfalfa contributes significantlyto beef and sheep production, andrecreational horses. That wool sweaterhanging in your closet may havereceived a contribution from alfalfasomewhere down the line. The use ofrecreational horses has grown sharplyover the past 20 years – we likely havemore horses now than at any time inAmerica’s past! Unusual animals, suchas elephants in zoos, also thrive onalfalfa.

Honey is an important product ofalfalfa. Since alfalfa seed growers needcross-pollination for good seed produc-tion, bees are a common sight in seedfields. The nectar makes highly prized,clear honey. Approximately one-thirdof the honey in the US is estimated to

come from alfalfafields, much of itfrom FresnoCounty,California.

So next timeyou have acheeseburger,pizza, or icecream cone –think of alfalfa!

Orloff

Milk Advisory Board

While it is true thatcrop productionrepresents asignificant changefrom naturally-occurring landscapes,it’s not true thatwildlife are theautomatic losers inthis exchange.

In fact, many species of wildlifethrive within and alongside agriculture.Wildlife benefits from crops like riceand wheat, which provide grain forfood. However, wildlife particularlybenefits from alfalfa. Alfalfa providessignificant habitat due to its nestingcover, abundant insects, perennialgrowth pattern, and feeding opportuni-ties. In fact, there are hundreds of

species that prefer alfalfa to other, evennatural, landscapes.

What are the characteristics thatmake alfalfa such a good habitat for somany species?

Perenniality. Alfalfa fields representa stable, relatively undisturbed areawhere plant growth continues through-out the year, unlike other sites that are

either disturbed, or exhibit onlyseasonal growth.

High Feeding Value. The highpalatability of alfalfa, which makes itsuch a good dairy feed, also makes itdesirable to many herbivores, includingmany species of insects, rodents andgrazing animals.

Cover. Alfalfa canopies provide an

Alfalfa – The Beginning of a Food Chain!While most people see an alfalfa field as simply a uniform horizontal

green mass, of benefit only to the farmer, an alfalfa field is teeming withmany forms of life that enrich us all. To many species of wildlife, alfalfafields provide an oasis of green in landscapes of tilled fields or dry brush.Alfalfa is a ‘primary producer’ that supports many types of insects andvertebrate herbivores, such as gophers that inhabit the root zone. In turn,songbirds, migratory birds, birds of prey, hunting mammals, snakes, andlizards feed upon the herbivores. Deer, antelope, and elk commonly feed inalfalfa fields, especially in times of drought. Foxes can be seen huntingrabbits and gophers, which feed on alfalfa fields. Many raptor species,including Swainson’s Hawk and bald eagles, can be found hunting in alfalfafields. Alfalfa is the beginning of a food chain that supports not onlymillions of farm animals and human beings, but many forms of wildlife thatare important to the Earth’s ecosystems.

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Wildlife and Alfalfa...A Natural Partnership

Wildlife and Alfalfa...

Female Northern Harrier Hawk inan alfalfa field near El Centro, CA

Kuhn

Alfalfa EnrichesWildlife Habitat...

effective cover for many species forfeeding, sleeping, nesting, or escapingpredators.

Below-Ground Diversity. There isconsiderable below-ground biologicalactivity in alfalfa fields, including earthworms, insects, and other organisms.Gophers and other rodents frequentlymake their homes under alfalfa fields.

Insect Diversity. There is a widerange of insects, both herbivores andpredators, that are present in largepopulations in alfalfa fields.

Frequent Irrigations. The presenceof irrigation water in alfalfa fieldsduring hot periods is important towildlife species as well as to thecrop. In some environments, alfalfairrigations are a welcome respite forthirsty animals. Irrigation also flushesinsects and rodents to the surface,which are food sources for birds,snakes, and raptors, such as eaglesand hawks. Irrigation and a closed

canopy creates a humid microclimatedesirable for insects and bird eggs.

Open Spaces for Hunting.Raptors are frequently found soaringabove alfalfa fields, or awaiting preyfrom nearby posts. Some growers haveplanted trees, provided raptor poles, orbuilt owl boxes to encourage raptorhabitat in an otherwise horizontallandscape. Around the field marginsanimals can easily find trees, shrubs andweeds in which to nest, coupled withaccess to a plentiful supply of waternearby.

Of all the animals that use alfalfa(not including insects or reptiles), 10%use it extensively for breeding andreproduction, 24% find it highlysuitable for cover, and 57% use it forfeeding.

Alfalfa – the Beginning of a FoodChain. The alfalfa wildlife food chainbegins with alfalfa itself – a high quality,palatable crop to foragers. Next there

Species Use of AlfalfaGreat Blue Heron C••• F•••Green Heron F•••Black-crowned Night heron C•• F•••Snowy Egret C•• F••Great Egret C••• F•••Cattle Egret C••• F•••White-Faced Ibis C• F•••Fulvous whistling duck C•• F•••Tundra Swan C••• F•••Greater White Fronted Goose C••• F•••Ross’ Goose C••• F•••Snow Goose C••• F•••Canada Goose R• C••• F•••Mallard R••• C••• F•••Northern Pintail R••• C••• F•••Cinnamon Teal R•• C•• F••Blue-winged Teal C• F••Green-winged Teal C• F••Gadwall R•• C•• F•Northern Shoveler R• C•American Widgeon R• C• F••Turkey Vulture F••White Tailed Kite F•••Northern Harrier R••• C••• F•••Red-Shouldered Hawk F•••Swainson’s Hawk F•••Red-tailed Hawk R• C• F••Ferruginous Hawk F•••Rough-Legged Hawk F••Golden Eagle F•••American Kestrel C••• F••Merlin C•• F•••Peregrine Falcon C• F••Prairie Falcon C• F•••Ring-Necked Pheasant R••• C••• F•••Wild Turkey F••

HOW WILDLIFE SPECIESUSE ALFALFA

This listing of many forms of wildlifefound in alfalfa fields was obtained byconsidering the 675 regularly-occurringresident and migratory terrestrial wildlife(amphibians, birds, mammals andreptiles) that live in California. Of these,182 species, or 27% were considered tobe frequent, moderate, or occasional usersof alfalfa, either in the crop itself, alongthe margins of the fields, or in the plowedor seeded fields during cultivation andstand establishment, or during harvest orirrigation events. The suitability of alfalfafor a species for Reproduction (R), Cover(C), or Feeding (F) is designated, alongwith the degree of suitability (•••=High, ••= Moderate, or •= Low). Acertain species may use alfalfa only atcertain stages of field management, cropgrowth, or stage of the wildlife. Thesedesignations were developed by L.Fitzhugh (Wildlife Biologist, UC Davis),based upon the California WildlifeHabitat Relationships model, version 7.0,and modified through literature reviewand consultation with other experiencedwildlife biologists and ornithologists.

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Deer using alfalfa for forageGreat Blue Heron in alfalfa

Burrowing Owl in alfalfa

Orloff

Kuhn

Kuhn

...and WildlifeEnriches Us All!are the smallest, and most abundantcreatures – the insects, of which thereare hundreds of species. Each succes-sive re-growth of alfalfa creates anenvironment that teems with insect life!Depending on these insects for feed area large number of species, includingsongbirds, swallows, bats, and manytypes of waterfowl and migratory birds.Feeding directly on the alfalfa aremammals such as gophers, mice, andrabbits. Larger herbivorous mammals,such as deer, antelope, and elk, frequentalfalfa fields, especially during dry orcold seasons. Hawks, eagles, migratorybirds, coyotes, and mountain lions feedon the birds and rodents that feed on thealfalfa. Finally scavengers such ascoyotes and vultures feed on the carrionto complete the food chain.

Although alfalfa makes an excellenthabitat for many species, its maindisadvantage is frequent mowing.Farmers have been active in aiding

California Quail R•• C•• F•••American Coot F•••Sandhill Crane R••• C••• F•••Black-bellied Plover C••• F•••Mountain Plover C••• F•••Killdeer R••• C••• F•••Black-necked Stilt C• F••American Avocet R• C•• F•••Willet C•• F•Whimbrel C••• F•••Long-billed Curlew R••• C••• F•••Marbled Godwit C•• F••Western Sandpiper C••• F•••Spotted Sandpiper F••Least Sandpiper C••• F•••Dunlin R• C•Long-billed Dowicher C••• F•••Common Snipe C•• F••Wilson’s Phalarope R• C••• F•••Ring-billed Gull C••• F•••California Gull C••• F•••Herring Gull C•• F••Yellow-Footed Gull C• F••Greater Yellowlegs C• F••Lesser Yellowlegs C• F••Gull-billed Tern F•••Black Tern C• F•••Rock Dove F••Wite-winged Dove F••Mourning Dove F••Inca Dove R• C•• F••Common Ground Dove C•• F••Greater Roadrunner C••• F••Barn Owl C••• F•••Western Screech Owl F•••Great Horned Owl F•••Northern Pygmy Owl F•••Burrowing Owl R••• C••• F•••Long Eared Owl F•••Short Eared Owl R• C••• F•••Lesser Nighthawk F•••Common Nighthawk F•••Northern Flicker F•••Western Wood Pewee F••Black Phoebe C•• F••Say’s Phoebe C•• F••Vermillion Flycatcher C• F•••Ash-throated Flycatcher F••Western Kingbird F•••Horned Lark C•• F•••Purple Martin F•••Tree Swallow F•••Violet-green Swallow F•••Northern Rough-winged Swallow F•••Bank Swallow F•••Cliff Swallow R•• C•• F•••Barn Swallow R•• C•• F•••Scrub Jay F••Black-billed Magpie F•••Yellow-billed Magpie F•••American Crow F•••Common Raven F•••Western Bluebird F••Mountain Bluebird C••• F•••American Robin F••Northern Mockingbird F••American Pipit C••• F•••Northern Shrike C•• F•••Loggerhead Shrike C•• F••European Starling F•••Marsh Wren C•• F••Ruby-Crowned Kinglet F•••Wilson's Warbler F••Yellow Warbler F••Yellow-rumped Warbler F••Blue Grosbeak C•• F•••Vesper Sparrow R• C•• F••Lark Sparrow R•• C•• F••Lincoln's Sparrow C•• F••Savannah Sparrow R•• C•• F••

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efforts to design bird-flushing mecha-nisms for swathers to reduce the impactof mowing on nesting birds, and incollecting and incubating eggs. Othershave chosen to leave strips for habitat atcertain times of the year.

Statistics support the importance ofalfalfa to wildlife habitat. In a surveyof the 675 wild animals and birds thatoccur regularly in California, 27 percentuse alfalfa, according to wildlifebiologists.

Although alfalfa farming is aneconomic enterprise, many farmerstruly appreciate the wildlife on theirfarms and ranches. Most farmers areconscious of the need to preserve theland to maintain the viability of the soiland field environment. Several farmersand farming organizations are activelypursuing ways to invite more wildlifeonto their land, ultimately resulting ina more wildlife-friendly method offarming.

White Faced Ibis feeding during irrigation in alfalfaKuhn

Harris’ Sparrow C•• F••White-Crowned Sparrow C• F••Golden-Crowned Sparrow C•• F••White Throated Sparrow C•• F••Brewer’s Sparrow C•• F••Dark-eyed Junco C•• F••Red-winged Blackbird F•••Tricolored Blackbird F•••Western Meadowlark R••• C••• F•••Yellow-headed Blackbird F••Brewer’s Blackbird R• C•• F•••Great-tailed Grackle F••Bronzed Cowbird F•••Brown-headed Cowbird F•••House Finch C•• F•••Pine Siskin F••Lesser Goldfinch C•• F••Lawrence’s Goldfinch F••American Goldfinch F••House Sparrow C••• F•••

Virginia Opossum R• C• F••Broad-footed Mole R•• C•• F••Townsend’s Mole R•• C•• F••California Myotis F••Big Brown Bat F••Yuma Myotis Bat F••Silver-haired Bat F••Western Mostitt Bat F•••Pallid Bat F•••Mexican Freetailed Bat F•••Western Red Bat F••Desert Cottontail R•• C•• F•••Brush Rabbit R•• C•• F•••White-tailed Jackrabbit C• F•••Black-tailed Jackrabbit R•• C•• F•••Townsend’s Ground Squirrel R• C•• F•••Belding’s Ground Squirrel R• C•• F•••California Ground Squirrel R• C•• F•••Botta’s Pocket Gopher R••• C••• F•••Northern Pocket Gopher R••• C••• F•••Western Pocket Gopher R••• C••• F•••Mountain Pocket Gopher R••• C••• F•••Western Harvest Mouse R•• C••• F•••Deer Mouse R• C•• F••Hispid Cotton Rat R••• C••• F•••Arizona Cotton Rat R••• C••• F•••Montane Vole R•• C•• F••Creeping Vole R• C•• F•••Townsend’s Vole R• C•• F•••California Vole R•• C•• F•••Long-Tailed Vole R•• C•• F•••Black Rat R•• C•• F••Norway Rat R•• C•• F••House Mouse R• C• F••Coyote R• C• F•••Feral Dog R• C•• F•••Red Fox R• C•• F•••Kit Fox C•• F•••Gray Fox C• F•••Ringtail C• F••Racoon C• F••Long-tailed Weasel R• C• F••American Badger R• C• F••Striped Skunk C• F•••Bobcat F••Feral Cat R• C•• F••Elk F•••Mule Deer C• F•••Feral Pig C• F•••Pronghorn R• C••• F•••Feral Horse C• F•••Feral Ass C• F•••

Western Toad R••• C•• F••Western Fence Lizard R•• C•• F••Racer Snake R• C• F•Gopher Snake R••• C••• F•••Common Kingsnake R•• C•• F••Common Garter Snake R•• C•• F••Checkered Garter Snake R••• C••• F•••

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While alfalfa provides a great habitatfor wildlife ‘as is’, some farm familiesare taking extra steps to help it along.Jeff and Sharon Mancebo of Dos Palos,California, and their son Dustin aredoing just that, taking a leading role inhelping to ensure the diversity of wildbirds on their ranch.

Young Dustinstarted taking aninterest in raisingwild birds at the ageof fourteen.Dustin’s grandfatherinstructed him in thevalue of abundantbird populations,which historicallythrived in rice fieldsand alfalfa fieldsin their county. Dustin decided to lenda helping hand and began rearing birdsthat are released around the familyfarm. Three years later, he was rearingand releasing more than 300 birds eachyear.

Dustin started with day-old chicksbought from a hatchery in Fresno, butthen began collecting and incubatingeggs from the field. He has sinceinvested a good deal of time and about$4,000 of his own money to hatch andraise birds, mainly pheasants, quail,chukar, and some wild turkeys that arelater released. When birds abandon

nests or fall victim to predators, theMancebos recover the eggs and Dustinputs them in an incubator.

“It’s a seven-day a week job” saysDustin. Luckily, he gets lots of supportfrom his father, Jeff. The corners ofalfalfa fields are maintained without

harvesting toprovide cover,food, and habitatfor birds. Whilealfalfa is thepreferred habitat,Jeff notes thatsugarbeets alsoattract the birds.He has plantedsafflower orsorghum in the

corner of sugarbeet fields to provideadditional food for birds.

Many of their Dos Palos neighborshave reported greater sightings ofpheasants and other birds after Dustinstarted his project. In 2001, Dustin wonhonors from FFA for his wildlife work.He is looking for other bird species toraise and hopes to someday start afull-fledged hatchery business.

Like the Mancebos, many farmfamilies are at the forefront of environ-mental stewardship. The opportunityfor a close relationship to wildlife isan important reason for remaining onthe farm.

Farm Families HelpNurture Wildlife

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Continued from previous page

Jeff Mancebo and his son Dustin.

Ring-necked Pheasantnear an alfalfa field.

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Kiess

Alfalfa – an Incredible

InsectaryA fieldside view of an alfalfa field

may show little apparent activity –simply a mass of green. But look alittle closer – alfalfa teems with insectlife! The diversity of insects in alfalfafields have been described as ‘incred-ible’ by researchers – it is a greatresource for insect diversity.

Researchers from California haveidentified over 1,000 arthropod species(insects, spiders, mites, and otherrelatives) that inhabit alfalfa fields. Asmall percentage (less than 1%) of thesearthropods inflict damage to alfalfa andcause concern to alfalfa growers.Several of these insects function aspredators and parasites. From a cropproduction standpoint, these areconsidered beneficial organisms.

However, most of the arthropods inthe alfalfa system are neither beneficialnor detrimental; their populationssimply reside in alfalfa fields. Thoughnot highly visible, they add to overallbiodiversity of the landscape.

Why is alfalfa such a desirablehabitat for many insect species? Alfalfahas unique attributes. The dense foliageof alfalfa during much of the year,retention of moisture, and high avail-ability of food resources meet the major

requirements of these organisms.Annual cropping systems are too

short-term to function well for insectbiodiversity. Other perennial cropssuch as orchards and vineyards fulfillthe stability requirement, but they oftenhave barren soil. Barren soil is neededfor orchard production during portionsof the year but does not favor insectsurvival. In addition, natural areas suchas the foothill vegetation may notadequately maintain moisture for someorganisms.

Properly managed alfalfa fields canaid in the management of crop pests inother cropping systems. This wasrecognized some 40 years ago and isbecoming an increasingly importanttool in Integrated Pest Management(IPM) systems. These types of naturalcontrol measures may reduce thereliance on insecticides and benefitbirds, mamals and reptiles.

Alfalfa fields are known asinsectaries because of the high numberof beneficial insects residing withinthem. California farmers utilize alfalfaas a pest management tool in severalways including:

1) planting strips of alfalfa within

A Honeyof a Crop!Alfalfa is the primary honey crop inthe US, accounting for about one-third of the annual production.Honey is produced during the seedproduction process. Bees arerequired for cross pollination.

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Alfalfa is host to a wide diversityof arthropods including manybeneficial ones that keep damag-ing insect pests in check andprevent damage to cropsand neighboring vegetation.Pictured top to bottom: Parasiticwasp stinging an aphid; Lady-bird beetle; Big-Eyed Bug;immature Lacewing larvaconsuming an aphid.

Continued on next page

UCIPM

Photos UCIPM

BENEFICIAL INSECTS

Going Batty in AlfalfaBats are one of the

most under-appreci-ated wild species thatuse alfalfa. Some batspecies use alfalfafields extensively forfeeding, but bats alsomay play a role incontrolling insectpests. Their preferredobjects of prey aremoths, includingimportant yield-

reducing pests such as cutworms orarmyworms (moths in larval form).Bats also “chase” insects away withtheir echolocation calls – this effectcan be seen up to 130 feet away. Acolony of several hundred bats canconsume millions of insect pests eachgrowing season. A number of growershave installed bat houses on their farmsto attract bats to aid in insect pestcontrol.

Barn Owls and AlfalfaBarn owls feed almost exclusively

on rodents. They use alfalfa signifi-cantly for feeding when their nests arelocated near alfalfa fields. Growers liketo see barn owls on their farms sincerodents can significantly harm alfalfafields if populations go unchecked.During the spring and summer, barnowls eat mostly gophers, then switch tovoles and mice during winter. A pair ofnesting barn owls will eat an average ofalmost one gopher per day. Barn owlsare limited by the availability of nestingcavities and readily use artificial nestboxes, so some growers have builtnesting boxes on their ranches. Barnowls exhibit a low degree of territorial-ity, so several houses may be concen-trated in a small area, such as arounda barn.

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Continued from previous page

other crops, such as cotton, to aid inmanaging cotton pests such as plantbugs and spider mites,

2) managing alfalfa cuttingcycles to maintain growth andhabitat for insect predators andparasites,

3) leaving a few strips ofunharvested alfalfa within fields atthe time of cutting to allow forinsect survival.

Conserving these populations ofhelpful insects and allowing them tomove into fields of vegetables,cotton, and other crops savesgrowers money and helps to protectthe environment. Further researchis underway to better understandand define the role of alfalfa ininsect pest management.

Some of the beneficial insectsfound in alfalfa – pictured top tobottom: Minute Pirate Bug;Parasitic Wasp parasitizing larvaof an insect pest; Flower Fly.

Photos UCIPM

BCI

BCI

Gill

Pallid bat captures a grasshopperin an alfalfa field

Aesthetic ValueWeeds, Field Crops, or Strip Malls...Which Provides the Most Aesthetic Value?

The Value of Open Space

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A Northern Harrier sails over anewly-cut alfalfa field, searching for anunlucky gopher or mouse. Swallowsbank and dive after an insect breakfast.The tips of a jackrabbit’s ears are justvisible, as the guest hopes to steal asmall portion of the ranchers’ harvest.Sheep graze, giving the appearance ofwidely-spaced cotton balls set amongstthe deep green carpet of forage. Aflock of migratory Sandhill Craneslands in an alfalfa field for a rest and tobrowse for a meal. A few bees buzzabove the alfalfa plants searching forthe purple flowers and the nectar theycontain. The fragrance of newly-mowedhay lingers over the field as the morn-ing dew dissipates. The day begins onan alfalfa ranch.

This somewhat flowery descriptionillustrates some of the ‘non-economic’values of alfalfa in our ever-urbanizingworld. While it is true that aestheticvalue is highly subjective, many farmersand rural residents can attest to thepleasures of neighboring alfalfa fields.The fields are pleasant landscapes thatprovide open spaces. They can createan oasis-like atmosphere – a lush greencolor and rich aroma that is home for

many accompanying wildlife residentsand guests. Although there are some-times conflicts at the rural-urbaninterface, the aesthetic values ofagriculture, particularly alfalfa, shouldbe considered as a part of the ‘value’ of

a cropland to our society. Lush greenalfalfa fields or concrete office build-ings, parking lots, weedy lots, stripmalls, crowded highways – which land-scapes enrich our lives through theiraesthetic value? You be the judge.

Kuhn

Kuhn

Gulls feeding in alfalfa

Swainson's Hawk is a migratoryspecies threatened in California,that travels from South to NorthAmerica and frequently uses alfalfa.Wildlife biologists have observedthat Swainson's Hawk highly prefersalfalfa fields to many other types oflandscapes.

Alfalfa -

It is not widely known that alfalfaplays an important role in preventing oralleviating several important environ-mental problems facing the UnitedStates. Alfalfa has a very importantrole to play in the ‘phytoremediation’ ofenvironmental problems, due to its deeproots and its effective absorption ofwater and chemical compounds fromdepth. The following are some ex-amples:

Preventing Nitrate Leaching.Alfalfa, more than most other cropspecies, has the ability to interceptnitrates from the soil. Nitrates areconsidered by EPA to be a major watercontamination problem in the US.Sources of nitrate may be fertilizers,manures, industrial spills, or naturalsources. Nitrate (NO

3) is highly

soluble, and moves with rainwater orirrigation water, and can contaminategroundwater, wells, streams, or estuar-ies. Nitrates can cause health problemsin humans and animals, and adverselyaffect ecosystems. These problems maybe prevented or alleviated using alfalfa.

Alfalfa’s ability to ‘scrounge’ nitrateis partially due to its ability to extractwater. Alfalfa recovers most of thewater in the root zone, and since mostof the nitrate is dissolved in the soilwater, the plant intercepts it. Secondly,alfalfa has an outstanding ability toabsorb nitrate from the soil solution.Recent field research on a sandy soil inMinnesota showed that alfalfa reducedthe nitrate concentration of waterflowing through the root zone from 25

to less than 1 part per million (ppm)nitrate-nitrogen, and from 50 to lessthan 5 ppm. If concentrations in thesoil are kept low by alfalfa, even largelosses of water from the root zone willnot contaminate groundwater aquifers.

Deep Roots. A third key aspect ofalfalfa’s value in preventing contamina-tion problems is deep-rootedness. In1917, researchers reported that alfalfaroots were plentiful in the upper 6 feetof soil and penetrated to the water tableat 15 feet on a sandy loam soil in theImperial Valley of California. Morerecent soil coring and isotope labelingexperiments confirm the activity ofalfalfa roots deep in the soil. This deepvigorous root system prevents nitratesor other compounds from leaching.Most annual plants, like corn, are activein only a shallow portion of the rootzone (see page 9), and their rootsystems require several months toreestablish each year.

Protecting Estuaries & SurfaceWater. Reducing losses of nitrate in tile

drainage water is extremely importantfor protection of surface water qualityand the health of estuaries. In tile-drained fields in Minnesota, both alfalfaand a grass/alfalfa mixture kept annualnitrate-N losses in tile drainage to lessthan 5 lb/acre, while losses undercontinuous corn or corn/soybeanrotations averaged over 40 lb/acre (seefigure).

Mitigating Accidental ChemicalSpills. Because of alfalfa’s high proteinyield per acre, it is a valuable crop forcleaning up sites with too muchavailable N. Alfalfa was used atderailment sites in both North Dakotaand California to remove excess spillednitrate from the soil and groundwater.At the ND spill site, total N removal inalfalfa over 3 years was 870 lb/acre,whereas corn and wheat removed only330 lb/acre.

Managing Water Tables. Alfalfa’shigh water absorption and deep rootsalso make it a valuable crop to managewater tables. In Australia, the federal

Helping to SolveEnvironmental Problems

➤ Nitrate Contamination

➤ Chemical Spills

➤ Organic Contaminants in Soil

➤ Water Contaminants

➤ Particulates in Air (PM10

)

➤ Recycling Wastes

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Alfalfa -

Nitrate loss through tiledrains from alfalfaacreage is typically asmall fraction of thatlost from a corn orsoybean croppingsystem. This is a functionof both water uptakeand efficient nitrateabsorption, as well aslack of any N fertilizerapplications on alfalfacompared with corn-based systems (MN data-Randall et al., 1997).

research agency recommends usingalfalfa in rotations with annual crops tohelp reduce water table levels. Alfalfais also commonly used in the Deltaregion and Imperial Valley of Califor-nia, as well as in locations in the USNorthern Great Plains to draw downhigh water tables and to limit salineseeps. The specific hydrologic andchemical conditions at each site willdetermine whether alfalfa can be usedfor this purpose.

Removing Carcinogens from theSoil. The ‘rhizosphere’ of soil andorganic compounds surrounding theroot is very important environmentally.There is good evidence that the organ-isms around alfalfa roots can efficientlydegrade petroleum products andcarcinogenic polynuclear aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs). At one site, astandard alfalfa cultivar reduced PAHconcentration by over 70%. Geneticengineering may improve this capability.

Uptake of Contaminants. If heavymetals are a problem in soils, alfalfamay be able to absorb them, and –depending upon the concentration in theforage – the harvested forage can thenbe fed or incinerated. Alfalfa has beenused to mitigate the ‘Chromium 6’water contamination problem of ‘ErinBrockovitch’ movie fame (see box).Alfalfa has been used to mitigateperchlorate contamination in water, aresult of the manufacture of rocket fuel.

Researchers have also begun todevelop alfalfa that can absorb andbreakdown atrazine, a widely usedherbicide sometimes found contaminat-ing well water. A team of researchershave found a Pseudomonas bacteriumthat decomposes atrazine to harmlessbyproducts. After moving the bacteria’snaturally occurring gene into alfalfa,they developed a plant that takes up 3times as much atrazine as normalalfalfa. They hope this alfalfa can playa role in preventing and cleaning upwater contamination.

Recycling Organic Wastes. A widerange of organic waste products canbe recycled using alfalfa. Many ofthese ‘waste’ products are, in fact,fertilizers, if used properly. Alfalfa iscommonly used in many locations torecycle dairy manures. In other areas,

alfalfa is used for municipal wasterecycling. Although careful monitoringof heavy metals and biological com-pounds may be necessary, alfalfa canbe used for the effective recycling ofmany different types of organicwastes.

Lowering Particulates in Air.Dust is a common hazard of farmingand industry. Health professionalsare concerned with PM

10 particles since

they are smaller than 10 microns andcan lodge in the human lung, causinghealth problems. The federal EPA hasdeveloped guidelines to limit PM

10

particles in air. Alfalfa contributesgreatly to limiting particulates releasedinto the air. Alfalfa releases only asmall fraction of the particulates thatare released from other agriculturaland non-agricultural activities. Fur-thermore, the vigorous canopy preventsmovement of dust out of fields due to

Many people may have seen themovie, Erin Brockovich, starringJulia Roberts. This movie docu-ments an actual legal case inHinkley, CA, about the presence ingroundwater of Chromium-6 orhexavalent Chromium, a byproductof a number of industrial processes.Erin Brockovich led a fight on thebehalf of local residents, whoclaimed that their health was affectedby water containing this element.Chromium is a naturally occurringelement in rocks and minerals, andsmall amounts of Chromium-6 areproduced during manufacturingprocesses. Chromium-6 is consid-ered a carcinogen when inhaled.

What is currently being used toreduce the concentration of Chro-mium-6 in the groundwater at the‘Erin Brockovich’ site in Hinkley?Alfalfa. The crop is sprinkler

Wayne Soppeland, alfalfa grower inHinkley, CA, inspects alfalfa hay.He irrigates alfalfa with watercontaining Chromium-6. Theirrigation process alters the poten-tial toxicity of the water, and the haycan be fed safely to farm animals.

What do Alfalfa and ErinBrockovich have in common?Answer: They have both sought to address a soil waterproblem in San Bernardino County, California.

– 19 –

windstorms, and traps fugitive dustfrom other areas.

CO2 Sequestration. As a perennial

crop, alfalfa fixes significant quantitiesof CO

2 through photosynthesis. A

portion of this carbon is retained in thethick root structure and in the rhizo-sphere surrounding the root. An alfalfacrop helps to temporarily retain carbon,both in the plant biomass and the soilrhizosphere, potentially lessening theeffects of global warming. An alfalfafield naturally exchanges the CO

2 with

oxygen, which freshens the surroundingatmosphere.

Summary. Alfalfa has a number ofcharacteristics that make it a primecandidate for mitigation of environmen-tal contamination problems. Thisincludes deep rootedness, an activerhizosphere, and its ability to absorbwater, nitrates, and other compoundsfrom the soil.

irrigated, which will allow the smallquantites of Chromium-6 to be ab-sorbed in the plant and safely beremoved.

Hartley

The Water Story

– 20 –

Why Alfalfa is Targeted. It isfrequently claimed, particularly bythose from urban environments, thatirrigating alfalfa is a poor use of ourlimited water supplies. Some havepushed the argument further to say thatalfalfa is a “water waster.” At the heartof this discussion are several conceptsthat are more complex than it wouldfirst appear. In this section, we examinethese concepts.

Some of the criticism related towater and alfalfa originates from a lackof knowledge about the multiple usesand importance of alfalfa to our dailylives. Alfalfa is a less-recognizablecrop, and thus easily dismissed.However, as described in previoussections, alfalfa is a very importantbasic food crop, greatly affecting theviability of dairy, beef, and sheepproduction – and through these animals,alfalfa is transformed into many of thefamiliar daily food items that are sovital to our lives.

Water Use and Economic Return.The primary criticism of alfalfa focuseson its water use and economic return.That is: alfalfa is thought to produce arelatively small economic return for theamount of water used. For example,one publication claimed that: “78% ofwater applied produces only 40% ofCalifornia crop revenue” (the key cropsin question are alfalfa, cotton, pasture,and rice). They go on to recommendsubstitution of ‘higher value’ crops forthese crops and water pricing policiesthat would encourage this shift (Califor-nia Water 2020, Pacific Institute, 1995).

There is little doubt that a shift incropping patterns is already occurringto a large degree in many irrigatedregions – farmers are attracted by thepotential returns of ‘higher value’ crops,and most believe that this trend willcontinue, partly driven by higher watercosts. However, there are perspectivesthat should be carefully consideredbefore we decide to encourage this

trend. But first, let us examine the factsabout alfalfa water use and water useefficiency.

Alfalfa Water Use. The fact thatalfalfa is a major water user in manywestern agricultural regions is undeni-able. In California, more water isapplied to alfalfa than to any othersingle crop in most years. Irrigationwater applications to alfalfa range from24 to over 100 inches per year, depend-ing primarily on the region where it isgrown (DWR estimates). In California,a total of 4 to 5 million acre feet ofwater are applied to alfalfa each year,depending upon alfalfa acreage thatyear, weather patterns, and method ofestimation. However, alfalfa’s highwater consumption does not mean thatirrigating alfalfa is necessarily a pooruse of water or that alfalfa is a waterwaster.

Acreage – a Primary Determinantof Water Use. The first reason foralfalfa’s high water use in California

The Water StoryOrloff

– 21 –

and other western states is simply dueto acreage. There are approximatelyone million acres of alfalfa in Califor-nia, currently the largest acreage fieldcrop. Alfalfa ranks first, second or thirdin crop acreage in nearly all of the 11western states (from Colorado west),and therefore is a major player whenconsidering total agricultural water use.

Length of Season. A secondimportant reason for alfalfa’s largewater use is the length of the growingseason. Some crops grow for a muchlonger time period than others. Alfalfa,as an herbaceous perennial, may startgrowing in February or March eachyear and continue through October. Inthe Imperial Valley of California, alfalfagrowth rarely stops – the crop growsfrom January through December! It isimportant to realize that most crops atfull canopy use water at a fairly similarrate; it is primarily the length of thegrowing season that varies.

Lettuce, another important crop inCalifornia, uses far less water thanalfalfa (from 18 inches in the Salinasarea to up to 40 inches in the ImperialValley). However, the crop is typicallygrown from 70 to 130 days, a very shorttime compared with alfalfa! With somecrops like lettuce it may be possible to“double crop” (grow two crops in asingle year) or even “triple crop” in

some locations. Therefore, a moreaccurate comparison would be tocompare alfalfa water use to totalseasonal water use for the combinationof crops that are grown in a single year.When considered in this light, alfalfa isnot such a heavy water user, and in factmay use less water than some combina-tions of annual crops.

Water Use Efficiency. The totalamount of water applied to a crop tellsonly part of the story. The ability of thecrop to use water to produce yield ismore important than its total water use.Water-use efficiency (WUE) is a relativeterm that refers to the quantity of waterrequired to produce a unit of crop yield.In the accompanying table, we comparethe WUE of several crops grown in theSacramento Valley of California.

Alfalfa is one of the highest in water-use efficiency in production ofharvestable dry matter per unit ofapplied water among the crops com-monly grown in irrigated regions. Thisis primarily due to several factors.1) High yield – alfalfa produces high

biomass yield per unit of land areacompared to most other crops,therefore applications of waterproduce high dry matter returns.

2) High harvest index – the entireabove-ground plant of alfalfa isharvested, whereas only the fruit,

seeds, or portions of most other fieldor horticultural crops are harvested.

3) Alfalfa is a perennial – yearly standestablishment, as is required withannual crops, is avoided. Typically,substantial water is applied togerminate and establish an annualcrop – more than is actually used bynewly-established plants.

4) Deep roots – Alfalfa is able torecover most of the water applied tothe soil, wasting little water drainedbelow the root zone.Alfalfa also is relatively efficient in

the production of food products fromirrigation water. In one study, Loomisand Walinga (1992) found that, whenconsidering the efficiency of waterconversion into food products (food,energy, or protein), alfalfa comparedquite favorably with several other crops.

Water Use Efficiency – A complexissue. While the above discussiondemonstrates alfalfa to be among ourmore efficient users of water in terms ofeconomic yield and food production,this is only one dimension of efficiency.What about nutritional value andeconomic returns? A pound of arti-chokes, for example, is qualitatively(and economically) different than apound of strawberries, lettuce, wheat,cotton, or alfalfa. Each of these cropshas a unique role in supplying food or

Comparison of Water Use Efficiencies of Several CropsGrown in the Sacramento Valley of CaliforniaCrop Duration1 Applied Water2 Biomass Yield3 Harvest Index4 Crop Economic Yield3 WUEb6 WUEh7

(season) (inches) lb/acre (% ) (lb/acre) (lbs/a inch) (lbs/a inch)

Alfalfa Mar-Oct 42 12,833 100 12,833 306 306

Corn Grain Apr-Aug 35 19,194 50 9,597 548 274

Wheat Dec-Jun 19 10,055 45 4,525 529 238Sugarbeet Oct-Jun 43 18,529 43 8,005* 431 186

Rice May-Oct 71 16,900 45 7,774 238 109

Dry Bean May-Aug 28 4,382 40 1,753 156 63Almonds Mar-Oct 37 - - 1,134 - 31

1. Normal growth duration for these crops. 2. Median of a range of estimated applied water (irrigation water required to produce acrop) for Sacramento Valley, CA, values from California Water Plan Update, DWR, 1994. 3. Biomass yields are based upon economicyields and HI. Economic yields are a 5-year (1996-2000) mean from Agric. Commissioners Reports for 9 counties in the SacramentoValley. *Sugarbeet yields are expressed as sucrose, based upon 15% sucrose in the root. 4. Harvest Index estimates are from publishedsources and by discussions with Cooperative Extension Specialists. Harvest Index = Percentage of plant used for economic harvest(above-ground except for sugarbeet). WUEb is the Applied Water-Use-Efficiency of biomass production (total above ground plant,except sugarbeet where roots are included). WUEh is the Applied Water-Use Efficiency of the harvested economic yield.

– 22 –

fiber, and is important in their ownright. Some crops provide widely-usedfood staples that are the basis for oureveryday diet (wheat and corn),whereas others are specialty crops thatenrich and balance human diets (e.g.strawberries). Some are clearly highervalue crops (such as almonds) on apound-for-pound basis, whereas othercrops appear to be lower value, but havebroad influence throughout the foodsystem (e.g. alfalfa). This type of‘apples and oranges’ comparison isfraught with difficulty, since there areso many qualitative differences betweenfood products (for example, sugarbeetis many times more efficient in produc-ing food energy – sugar – per unit waterthan most crops, but it produces littleprotein, vitamins, or other types ofnutritional value).

Economic return per unit water isalso a complex issue (see side bar).Economic return must be evaluatedwithin the whole-farm system, consid-ering risk (a characteristic of high-return crops), and broader economicimpact (a characteristic of so-called‘low value’ crops such as alfalfa) of theuse of water. A crop choice basedsolely on economic return per unitapplied water is often inadequate whenconsidering the entire farm and agricul-tural system.

How can Water Use Efficiency beFurther Improved? Alfalfa growersand the industry as a whole have donemuch to maximize irrigation efficiencyand conserve water over the past 50years. However, there is still room forimprovement. Here are several keyideas for improving water use efficiencyof alfalfa in the future:

Improved Uniformity. With moreuniform water application less watercan be applied while still avoidingunder-irrigating large portions of thefield. Advancements in surface irriga-tion include increased accuracy in soilleveling (computer technology and laseruse), improved field design, andgrowing alfalfa on raised beds toimprove water movement. Somegrowers are experimenting with burieddrip systems. Sprinkler irrigationadvancements include improved nozzle

Continued from previous page

A common refrain, when consid-ering a future of short water supplies,is to recommend that growers switchfrom lower-value crops to crops thatreturn a higher dollar amount per unitwater. Some believe that water policyshould encourage this trend.

Historically, this has been a trendin California. Almonds, for example,have a relatively high return whencompared with field crops. As aresult, almonds and other orchardcrops have expanded greatly inacreage over the past 30 years, nowtotaling more than 2 million acres.

No one would argue the value ofsuch crops – which benefit thegrower through improved opportuni-ties, and benefit society through amore varied and complete diet.However, to recommend that growersshift their cropping patterns entirelyto the ‘higher value’ specialty cropsmay be short-sighted. The marketsfor such products are usually narrow,and they are easily overproduced –this is particularly a problem withpermanent crops where crop rotationis difficult. Many specialty cropsalso entail higher risk – both in termsof crop loss and price. Though theprofits from crops such as alfalfa arerarely spectacular, its markets aredependable. It is usually at leastmoderately profitable and it providesa stable income throughout much ofthe year. Agronomic crops likealfalfa are the ‘bread and butter’crops that sustain farming systems.

From a nutritional standpoint, theso called ‘lower value’ crops, such aswheat, rice and alfalfa are often thework-horses of food production,providing basic nutrition for mil-

lions, whereas many specialty cropsoccupy an important, but moreperipheral role. While most peopleenjoy strawberries and almonds asadditions to their diet, they rely onthe important daily staples of rice,wheat, meat or milk products (fromalfalfa). Some specialty crops mayenjoy high returns, but may be lessefficient in water-use in terms ofyield (consider the almond examplein the accompanying table, page 21).It should also be noted that higher-value specialty crops often evokegreater pesticide use and soilerosion, placing pressure on theenvironment. Some of the ‘lower-value’ crops such as alfalfa, pasture,and rice have significant wildlifehabitat value, provide significantbenefit to soil conservation, andprovide rotational benefits forproduction of the ‘higher value’crops.

All of these considerationsindicate the complexities of thisissue. While it is undoubtedlyimportant to maximize economicreturns per unit applied water foreach crop, and for farming systemsin general, it is not clear thatencouraging growers to chooseonly those crops with the highesteconomic returns per unit water isthe best strategy. Most farmerscannot depend entirely upon high-value, high-risk crops. Just as inchoosing investment opportunities, amix of higher-value, higher-riskenterprises, and lower-risk, lower-value enterprises in a biologicallydiverse cropping system may bebetter for both growers and thepublic alike.

Just Switch tothe High-ValueCrops, Right?

– 23 –

Alfalfa has a long and rich history,and is currently a key crop in manyof the agricultural regions of the world.But what does the future hold for alfalfa?

There are a number of excitingareas that indicate that alfalfa has abright future in terms of utilization.Research will change the plant itself– how it is produced and how it isutilized. Agricultural engineers andscientists continue to improveharvesting and irrigation techniques,improving efficiency of water andland use. Plant breeders are develop-ing new alfalfa strains that are evenhigher yielding and more nutritiousfor livestock. They are developingalfalfa plants that tolerate wheeltraffic and grazing pressure, plantsthat tolerate high salinity so that itcan be grown on salt-affected soils,and plants that tolerate ammonium-Nso that they can endure wastewateror manure applications. Varietieswith improved root systems forextracting water and absorbingnutrients or contaminants are beingdeveloped. Research has investigatedthe use of alfalfa stem fibers toproduce filters that remove heavymetals in urban runoff. Lactic acidcan be produced from alfalfa fiber tomake biodegradable plastics. Alfalfastems have been used as a fuel forelectricity generation. Scientistscontinue to investigate the applica-tion of alfalfa in bioremediation ofcontaminated sites. Further progress

is possible through biotechnology,which has already been used to developherbicide-resistance in alfalfa andimproved digestibility of alfalfa fibers.The production of pharmaceuticalsextracted from alfalfa leaves is beinginvestigated. Unique traits, such asglandular-hairs, may improve alfalfa’salready substantial resistance to insectpests. There are tremendous possibili-ties to develop innovative uses for thisdiverse and versatile crop.

Alfalfa is likely to remain important,or even increase in importance, in thefuture due to its prominence in dairyrations, and the increasing value ofdairy production and other animalenterprises to the world agriculturaleconomy. Alfalfa is an integral compo-nent of a complex food chain andtherefore is likely to remain a viablecrop – it is less easily imported thangrain or specialty crops, which areunder tremendous pressure frominternational markets.

Alfalfa should be considered a keycomponent of sustainable agriculturalsystems for the future because of itshigh yield, quality and pest resistance,and it’s value for soil conservation, N

2

fixation, energy savings, crop rotation,aesthetics, and wildlife habitat. Alfalfafaces tremendous challenges due tourbanization and resource limitations.However, alfalfa, the “Queen ofForages” is likely to occupy a promi-nent place in the future of agriculturalsystems.

Alfalfa -What About the Future?Alfalfa -

design and sprinkler technology, includ-ing site-specific application technology.

Improved Monitoring and Sched-uling. Better monitoring and schedulingtechnologies may enable growers toirrigate in a more timely fashion andmore precisely match the crop’s needs,avoiding over- or under-irrigation.

Summer Dry-Down. Some growersand researchers have experimented withwithdrawing water during the hotsummer months to save water, and thenbegin watering again in the fall.Although further research is needed onthis technique, it has the potential ofsignificantly improving WUE, sinceefficiency is higher during the coolperiods of the year.

Tailwater Management-Recirculat-ing systems. To ensure a surface-irrigated field is irrigated evenly, morewater must be applied than infiltratesinto the field. Hence, water runs off thelower end of the field (referred to astailwater). Systems have been devel-oped to better manage this tailwater andre-circulate it for re-use on the same orother fields.

Higher Yields. Although notimmediately obvious, higher yieldsusually lead to greater efficiency ofwater use. Alfalfa yields in Californiaare double those of the 1920s, and areexpected to increase further throughbreakthroughs in plant breeding andimproved crop management. Withhigher yields, less water is required toproduce each unit of yield.

Conclusions. While alfalfa inirrigated regions uses a considerableamount of water in total, its water use isquite comparable to that of other cropswhen the acreage of the crop and lengthof the season are considered. Alfalfa isamong the more efficient crop users ofwater in terms of yield produced perunit of applied water. Greater efficien-cies in alfalfa water use may occurthrough improvements in irrigationmanagement and increased yield.Although it is sometimes classified as a‘low-value’ crop in irrigated systems,alfalfa produces significant value in amore complex way through linkageswith animal agriculture, and produces atremendous quantity of vital foodstuffsthat are important to our daily lives.

Orloff

Inset photos: Kuhn

Great-tailed Grackle Snow Geese Black-necked Stilt

Sandhill Cranes Gopher Snake

Holmes

Long-billed Curlew