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The Indus River Basin as an Emergent Garden
James L. Wescoat Jr., Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, MIT – LUMS Indus Conference – 29 January 2017
Problem Statement
• Late-20th c. concepts of Indus water management:
– “Indus Waters”
– “Great Indus food machine”
– “Indus Basin Irrigation System” (IBIS)
– “Integrated Water Resources Management” (IWRM)
– “Water-energy-food nexus”
– “Political economies & political ecologies”
• Something seems to be missing …
• The Indus River Basin as a Garden?
Paper Outline
GARDEN CONCEPTS
1. Mughal gardens -----------------
2. Colonial gardens -----------------
3. Late 20th c. garden research --& conservation
4. 21st c. “gardens” ---------------
WATER CONCEPTS
Mughal waterworks & subahs
Colonial irrigation landscapes
Indus Basin development, modeling & management
21st c. Indus River basin regionalism & placemaking
Scales of Garden Ideology in Mughal Culture
Mughal garden sites and spatial metaphors Babur laying out the Bagh-i wafa near Jalalabad
“My Garden is Hindustan!” (Ebba Koch, 2007)
Revenue Survey of the Mughal Empire, ~1595 CE
Map: Shireen Moosvi
Political Economy of Mughal CultivationSources: Irfan Habib, Agrarian System of Mughal India (1999); Shireen Moosvi, Economy of
the Mughal Empire, c. 1595 (1987); Panniker et al. (2002); and related essays.
1. Agricultural production: 2/3 of GNP from agriculture (higher yields in 1600 than 1872). Mainly well irrigation.
3. Population: 145 million (~22 million urban)
2. Land revenue: tax = 50% of gross production; (~30% needed for food, leaving a margin of ~20%).
4. Local claims to agricultural surplus: zamindari; rich peasants; farm labourers & intra-family transfers.•
Mughal Watercourse & Landscape Maps
Mughal map of the Indus & its Tributaries Painted map of irrigation canal landscape
Sultanate &Mughal Canalson the Plains
Sultanate canals
Mughal canals [Ali Mardan Khan and others].
Well & floodplain farming.
After Habib, 1982
Gardens & Rivers in Mughal Poetic Manuscripts
“It’s a Day for the Garden” -- Mahesh “A Sinner’s Plea before God” -- Sadi
Part 2. Intersections between Colonial Gardens & Canal Irrigation
“Hindoostan divided into Soubahs according to the Ayeen Ackbaree,” R. Wilkinson, 1815
Irrigated Gardens & Landscapes of the Indus
Alexander Burnes, Memoir on the Indus, 1830s Sketch map of canals 1850s
Agri-Horticultural Society of the Punjab
• On Tree Planting in the Punjab – proposed tree & shrub plantings along canals and roads.
• Agriculture in the Punjab – some references to irrigation and gardens in district reports.
• Horticulture in the Punjab – more references to gardens in district reports.
• Wool and Silk manufactures – high-value products
• On Plant Introductions – collection & testing.
Part III: Indus River, Indus Basin, Indus River Basin, Indus Waters
1960
Brief references to gardens in the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960
National Basin Modeling: Water, Climate, Energy & Food Security Planning
WB Indus Basin Model Agroclimatic Zones & Canal Commands
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Irri
ga
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Are
a (
Wh
ea
t) [
10
00
he
cta
res
]
Pu
nja
b C
an
al D
ivers
ion
s (
Rab
i) [
MA
F]
CanalDiversions (MAF)
Estimated Pumpage Irrigated Area
Decreasing surface water supplies have led to increased ground water pumping Increased energy input for irrigated agriculture.
Further Developments: Water-Energy-Food NexusBridging the Water Supply Gap with Pumped Water
Electric Pumps (2008-09) Diesel Pumps (2008-09)
1 Dot = 100 Pumps
Return to Groundwater & Conjunctive Water Management
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Tho
usa
nd
To
nn
es
Food Crops Cash Crops Edible Oilseeds Vegetables Fruits Pulses
Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakisan
Food in the Water-Energy-Agriculture Nexus
y = 1414.4e0.0456x
R² = 0.9545
y = 2036e0.0278x
R² = 0.9322
0
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Th
ou
san
d t
on
nes
Edible Oilseeds Vegetables Fruits Pulses Expon. (Vegetables) Expon. (Fruits)
And Horticulture: Fruits and vegetables show
exponential growth in production in Punjab
Particularly, with precision land leveling, watercourse lining, drip irrigation, grading & marketing.
Future work: Integrated systems dynamics modeling of water, energy, crop production, nutrition & equity
Something still seems to be missing …
Part IV. Synthesis and Prospect: Selected Qualities of Gardens & Gardening Relevant for the Indus
– Care (riʻāyat) for land, plants, animals & people
– Dignity (waqr) of cultivation and (cultivators
– Balance (mizan) & harmony
– Gratitude (shukr) & patience
– Good works (khairat) & sharing
– Beauty (bahar), order, diversity & composition in a garden
– Signs (ayat) in this world
IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as an Emergent Garden
SRI – System of Rice Intensification – substitution of labor & care
Meeting Plant Water Requirements w/o WasteETlandscape = ETreference * Kcspecies * Kcdensity * Kcmicroclimate
Irrigation Losses and Gains: IE: Assume 50% irrigation efficiency for a “new mali”RH: Assume 80% rainwater harvesting efficiency
Sheesh Mahal Water Requirement Example:Irrigation depth = [(2000mm * 0.5 * 1.0 * 0.75)-310mm]/0.5 = 880 mm/yrIrrigation volume = (0.88 m * 400 m2)-42m3 = 310 m3/yr
IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as an Emergent Garden
Paraphrasing Dr. Abubakr Muhammad: Imagine how a gardener meticulously takes care of plants. Such attention to detail on a vast,
basin-wide scale is possible with water informatics and related water technologies … values, policies, and politics.